Introduction…

Introduction

Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts; although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ, in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them, that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of the countries in which they respectively flourished; so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor contradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply given, and as briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the Straits of Gades[798], where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured forth into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side, Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies between them[799]; the boundaries being the rivers Tanais[800] and Nile. The Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen miles in length and five[801] in breadth, measured from the village of Mellaria[802] in Spain to the Album Promontorium[803] or White Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles, and where greatest, ten; from so small a mouth as this does so immense an expanse of water open upon us! Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals, white with foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot the threshold of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla[804] in Africa, and Calpe[805] in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of Hercules[806]. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission, and so changed the face of nature.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE FIRST SET FORTH IN A GENERAL WAY.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without reason[807], considered it, not as a third part only of the earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and, in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays, among which there are four Gulfs that are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of Spain; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as Locri and the Promontory of Bruttium[808].

CHAP. 2.—OF SPAIN GENERALLY.

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the Farther Spain or Bætica[809]; next to which, beginning at the frontier town of Urgi[810], is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian[811] Spain, extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces, Lusitania[812] and Bætica, the former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being divided from it by the river Ana[813].

The source of this river is in the district of Laminium[814], in the Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes, and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely disappears under ground[815], and after frequently disappearing and again coming to light, finally discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the Pyrenees, running downwards along the sides of that chain, and, stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean[816], is separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius[817], the chains of the Oretani[818] and the Carpetani[819], and that of the Astures[820].

CHAP. 3.—OF BÆTICA.

Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle, excels all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades[821], of Corduba[822], of Astigi[823], and of Hispalis[824]. The total number of its towns is 175; of these nine are colonies[825], and eight municipal towns[826]; twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old Latin rights[827]; six are free towns[828], three federate[829], and 120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following, beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-shore; the town of Onoba, surnamed Æstuaria[830]; the rivers Luxia and Urium[831], flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the Marian[832] Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of Corum[833], with its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall have occasion to speak among the islands[834]. Next comes the Promontory of Juno[835], and the port of Bæsippo[836]; the towns of Bœlo[837] and Mellaria[838], at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic; Carteia[839], called by the Greeks Tartessos[840]; and the mountain of Calpe.

Along the coast of the inland sea[841] is the town of Barbesula[842] with its river; also Salduba[843]; the town of Suel[844]; and then Malaca[845], with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this comes Mænoba[846], with its river; then Sexifirmum[847], surnamed Julium; Selambina[848]; Abdera[849]; and Murci[850], which is at the boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing the Atlantic, is the country of the Bastuli[851] and the Turditani. M. Varro informs us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Celts, and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain; that the name “Lusitania” is derived from the games (lusus) of Father Bacchus, or the fury (lyssa[852]) of his frantic attendants, and that Pan[853] was the governor of the whole of it. But the traditions respecting Hercules[854] and Pyrene, as well as Saturn, I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.

The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the town of Mentisa[855], in the province of Tarraco, but in the Tugiensian Forest[856]; and near it rises the river Tader[857], which waters the territory of Carthage[858]. At Ilorcum[859] it turns away from the Funeral Pile[860] of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its source it is but small, though during its course it receives many other streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their renown. It first enters Bætica in Ossigitania[861], and glides gently, with a smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.

Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places inland are Segida[862], also surnamed Augurina; Julia[863], called Fidentia; Urgao[864] or Alba, Ebora[865] or Cerealis, Iliberri[866] or Liberini, Ilipula[867] or Laus, Artigi[868] or Julienses, Vesci[869] or Faventia, Singili[870], Attegua[871], Arialdunum, Agla Minor[872], Bæbro[873], Castra Vinaria[874], Cisimbrium[875], Hippo Nova or New Hippo[876], Ilurco[877], Osca[878], Escua[879], Sucubo[880], Nuditanum, Old Tuati[881]; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction[882] of Corduba. In the neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi[883], also surnamed Laconicum, Iliturgi[884] or Forum Julium, Ipasturgi[885] or Triumphale, Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, Obulco[886], which is also called Pontificense.

Next to these comes Epora[887], a federate town, Sacili[888] Martialium, and Onoba[889]. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman colony, surnamed Patricia[890]; here the Bætis first becomes navigable. There are also the towns of Carbula and Detunda[891], and the river Singulis[892], which falls into the Bætis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti, Arua[893], Canama[894], Evia, Ilipa[895], surnamed Illa, and Italica[896]. On the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis[897] named Romuliensis, and, on the opposite side[898], the town of Osset[899], surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Julî Genius[900], Orippo, Caura[901], Siarum, and the river Menoba[902], which enters the Bætis on its right bank. Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the towns of Nebrissa[903], surnamed Veneria, and of Colobona[904]. The colonies are, Asta[905], which is also called Regia, and, more inland, that of Asido[906], surnamed Cæsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi[907], surnamed Augusta Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are Tucci, surnamed Augusta Gemella[908], Itucci called Virtus Julia[909], Attubi or Claritas Julia[910], Urso[911] or Genua Urbanorum; and among them in former times Munda[912], which was taken with the son of Pompey. The free towns are Old Astigi[913] and Ostippo[914]; the tributary towns are Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, Obulcula[915], and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast, near where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no great distance, the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi[916].

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas, beyond the districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is divided into two parts and the same number of nations; the Celtici[917], who border upon Lusitania, in the jurisdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the verge[918] of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns, which in Bætica are distinguished by the following epithets[919], which have been given to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia[920], Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia[921], Segida that of Restituta Julia[922], and Contributa[923] that of Julia. What is now Curiga was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia[924] was Laconimurgis, the present Fortunales were the Tereses[925], and the Emanici were the Callenses[926]. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of Acinippo[927], Arunda[928], Aruci[929], Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Sæpone, and Serippo.

The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which are by no means inconsiderable; Arsa[930], Mellaria[931], Mirobriga[932], and Sisapo[933], in the district of Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman citizens; and Læpia, Ulia[934], Carisa[935] surnamed Aurelia, Urgia[936] or Castrum Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro, Belippo[937], Barbesula, Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, Saguntia[938], and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be 475 miles[939], and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its boundaries extended to Carthage[940], a circumstance which has often caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the result either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea has been long making encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores have advanced; while the course of rivers in this place has become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then, besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place, and some at another, and so proceed in different directions; and hence the result is, that no two accounts agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of Castulo[941], on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci, which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth, measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject, when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world, could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus? For it was that emperor who completed the Portico[942] which had been begun by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—OF NEARER SPAIN.

The ancient form of the Nearer Spain, like that of many other provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the Great, upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified that 877 towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain, had been reduced to subjection by him. The whole province is now divided into seven jurisdictions, those of Carthage[943], of Tarraco, of Cæsar Augusta[944], of Clunia[945], of Asturica[946], of Lucus[947], and of the Bracari[948]. To these are to be added the islands, which will be described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent on others; besides which the province contains 179 towns. Of these, twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights of Roman citizens, eighteen with the old Latian rights, one confederate, and 135 tributary.

The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bastuli; after whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow, as we go inland, there are the Mentesani, the Oretani, and the Carpetani on the Tagus, and next to them the Vaccæi, the Vectones, and the Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest to the coast are Urci, and Barea[949] included in Bætica, the district of Mavitania, next to it Deitania, and then Contestania, and the colony of Carthago Nova; from the Promontory of which, known as the Promontorium Saturni[950], to the city of Cæsarea[951] in Mauritania, the passage is a distance of 187 miles. The remaining objects worthy of mention on the coast are the river Tader[952], and the free colony of Ilici[953], whence the Ilicitanian Gulf[954] derives its name; to this colony the Icositani are subordinate.

We next have Lucentum[955], holding Latian rights; Dianium[956], a tributary town; the river Sucro[957], and in former times a town of the same name, forming the frontier of Contestania. Next is the district of Edetania, with the delightful expanse of a lake[958] before it, and extending backward to Celtiberia. Valentia[959], a colony, is situate three miles from the sea, after which comes the river Turium[960], and Saguntum[961] at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens famous for its fidelity, the river Uduba[962], and the district of the Ilergaones[963]. The Iberus[964], a river enriched by its commerce, takes its rise in the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town of Juliobriga[965], and flows a distance of 450 miles; 260 of which, from the town of Varia[966] namely, it is available for the purposes of navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been given by the Greeks to the whole of Spain.

Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river Subi[967], and the colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as Carthage[968] was by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Ilergetes, the town of Subur[969], and the river Rubricatum[970], beyond which begin the Laletani and the Indigetes[971]. Behind these, in the order in which they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the Pyrenees, are the Ausetani[972], the Lacetani[973], and along the Pyrenees, the Cerretani[974], next to whom are the Vascones[975]. On the coast is the colony of Barcino[976], surnamed Faventia; Bætulo[977] and Iluro[978], towns with Roman citizens; the river Larnum[979], Blandæ[980], the river Alba[981]; Emporiæ[982], a city consisting of two parts, one peopled by the original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants of the Phocæans; and the river Ticher[983]. From this to the Venus Pyrenæa[984], on the other side of the Promontory, is a distance of forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have been already mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of Tarraco: of these the most famous are—holding the rights of Roman citizens, the Dertusani[985] and the Bisgargitani; enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the Cerretani, both Julian and Augustan, the Edetani[986], the Gerundenses[987], the Gessorienses[988], and the Teari[989], also called Julienses. Among the tributaries are the Aquicaldenses[990], the Onenses, and the Bæculonenses[991].

Cæsar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus, on the site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in the district of Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations. Of these there are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the Bellitani[992], the Celsenses[993], a former colony, the Calagurritani[994], surnamed the Nassici, the Ilerdenses[995], of the nation of the Surdaones, near whom is the river Sicoris, the Oscenses[996] in the district of Vescitania, and the Turiasonenses[997]. Of those enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins, there are the Cascantenses[998], the Ergavicenses[999], the Graccuritani[1000], the Leonicenses[1001], and the Osicerdenses; of federate states, there are the Tarragenses[1002]; and of tributaries, the Arcobrigenses[1003], the Andologenses[1004], the Aracelitani[1005], the Bursaonenses[1006], the Calagurritani[1007], who are also surnamed the Fibularenses, the Complutenses[1008], the Carenses[1009], the Cincenses[1010], the Cortonenses, the Damanitani[1011], the Larnenses[1012], the Lursenses[1013], the Lumberitani[1014], the Lacetani, the Lubienses, the Pompelonenses[1015], and the Segienses.

Sixty-five different nations resort to Carthage[1016], besides the inhabitants of the islands. Of the Accitanian[1017] colony, there are the Gemellenses, and the town of Libisosona[1018], surnamed Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted Italian[1019] rights. Of the colony of Salaria[1020], there are the people of the following towns, enjoying the rights of ancient Latium: the Castulonenses, also called the Cæsari Venales, the Sætabitani[1021] or Augustani, and the Valerienses[1022]. The best known among the tributaries are the Alabanenses[1023], the Bastitani[1024], the Consaburrenses[1025], the Dianenses[1026], the Egelestani[1027], the Ilorcitani[1028], the Laminitani, the Mentesani[1029], both those called Oritani and those called Bastuli, and the Oretani who are surnamed Germani[1030], the people of Segobriga[1031] the capital of Celtiberia, those of Toletum[1032] the capital of Carpetania, situate on the river Tagus, and after them the Viatienses and the Virgilienses[1033].

To the jurisdiction of Clunia[1034] the Varduli contribute fourteen nations, of whom we need only particularize the Albanenses[1035], the Turmodigi[1036], consisting of four tribes, among which are the Segisamonenses[1037] and the Segisamaiulienses. To the same jurisdiction belong the Carietes[1038] and the Vennenses with five states, among which are the Velienses. Thither too resort the Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among whom the Numantini[1039] were especially famous. Also, among the eighteen states of the Vaccæi, there are the Intercatienses[1040], the Pallantini[1041], the Lacobrigenses, and the Caucenses[1042]. But among the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabri, Juliobriga[1043] is the only place worthy of mention; and of the ten states of the Autrigones, Tritium and Virovesca[1044]. The river Areva[1045] gives its name to the Arevaci; of whom there are six towns, Segontia[1046] and Uxama[1047], names which are frequently given to other places, as also Segovia[1048] and Nova Augusta, Termes[1049], and Clunia itself, the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and the Cantabri.

Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astures, who are divided into the Augustani[1050] and the Transmontani, with the magnificent city of Asturica. Among these we have the Cigurri[1051], the Pæsici, the Lancienses[1052], and the Zoëlæ[1053]. The total number of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons.

The jurisdiction of Lucus[1054] embraces, besides the Celtici and the Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known and with barbarous names. The number however of the free population amounts to nearly 166,000.

In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides the Bracari[1055] themselves, we may mention, without wearying the reader, the Bibali, the Cœlerni, the Gallæci, the Hequæsi, the Limici, and the Querquerni.

The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the frontier of Castulo, is 607[1056] miles, and a little more if we follow the line of the coast; while its breadth, from Tarraco to the shore of Olarson[1057], is 307[1058] miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually expands until it touches the Farther Spain, and thereby acquires a width more than double[1059].

Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in mines[1060] of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold; in the Nearer Spain there is also found lapis specularis[1061]; in Bætica there is cinnabar. There are also quarries of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus, while still harassed by the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the Latian rights on the whole of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains divide Spain from Gaul, their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—OF THE PROVINCE OF GALLIA NARBONENSIS.

That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland sea[1062] is called the province of [Gallia] Narbonensis[1063], having formerly borne the name of Braccata[1064]. It is divided from Italy by the river Varus[1065], and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul, on the north, it is separated by the mountains Cebenna[1066] and Jura[1067]. In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province. On the coast we have the district of the Sordones[1068], and more inland that of the Consuarani[1069]. The rivers are the Tecum and the Vernodubrum[1070]. The towns are Illiberis[1071], the scanty remains of what was formerly a great city, and Ruscino[1072], a town with Latian rights. We then come to the river Atax[1073], which flows from the Pyrenees, and passes through the Rubrensian Lake[1074], the town of Narbo Martius, a colony of the tenth legion, twelve miles distant from the sea, and the rivers Arauris[1075] and Liria[1076]. The towns are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the numerous lakes[1077] which skirt the sea-shore. We have Agatha[1078], formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of the Volcæ Tectosages[1079]; and there is the spot where Rhoda[1080], a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes its name of Rhodanus[1081]; a stream by far the most fertilizing of any in either of the Gallias. Descending from the Alps and rushing through lake Lemanus[1082], it carries along with it the sluggish Arar[1083], as well as the torrents of the Isara and the Druentia[1084], no less rapid than itself. Its two smaller mouths are called Libica[1085], one being the Spanish, and the other the Metapinian mouth; the third and largest is called the Massiliotic[1086]. There are some authors who state that there was formerly a town called Heraclea[1087] at the mouth of the Rhodanus or Rhone.

Beyond this are the Canals[1088] leading out of the Rhone, a famous work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his name; the Lake of Mastramela[1089], the town of Maritima[1090] of the Avatici, and, above this, the Stony Plains[1091], memorable for the battles of Hercules; the district of the Anatilii[1092], and more inland, that of the Desuviates[1093] and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is that of the Tricorii[1094], and inland, there are the Tricolli[1095], the Vocontii[1096], and the Segovellauni, and, after them, the Allobroges[1097].

On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocæan[1098] Greeks, and a federate[1099] city; we then have the Promontory of Zao[1100], the port of Citharista[1101], and the district of the Camatullici[1102]; then the Suelteri[1103], and above them the Verrucini[1104]. Again, on the coast, we find Athenopolis[1105], belonging to the Massilians, Forum Julii[1106] Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis and Classica, the river Argenteus[1107], which flows through it, the district of the Oxubii[1108] and that of the Ligauni[1109]; above whom are the Suetri[1110], the Quariates[1111] and the Adunicates[1112]. On the coast we have Antipolis[1113], a town with Latian rights, the district of the Deciates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from Mount Cema, one of the Alps.

The colonies in the interior are Arelate Sextanorum[1114], Beterræ Septimanorum[1115], and Arausio[1116] Secundanorum; Valentia[1117] in the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna[1118] in that of the Allobroges. The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquæ Sextiæ[1119] in the territory of the Saluvii, Avenio[1120] in that of the Cavari, Apta Julia[1121] in that of the Volgientes, Alebece[1122] in that of the Reii Apollinares, Alba[1123] in that of the Helvi, and Augusta[1124] in that of the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aeria[1125], the Bormanni[1126], the Comaci, Cabellio[1127], Carcasum[1128] in the territory of the Volcæ Tectosages, Cessero[1129], Carpentoracte[1130] in the territory of the Memini, the Cenicenses[1131], the Cambolectri[1132], surnamed the Atlantici, Forum[1133] Voconi, Glanum Livi[1134], the Lutevani[1135], also called the Foroneronienses[1136], Nemausum[1137] in the territory of the Arecomici, Piscenæ[1138], the Ruteni[1139], the Sanagenses[1140], the Tolosani[1141] in the territory of the Tectosages on the confines of Aquitania, the Tasconi[1142], the Tarusconienses[1143], the Umbranici[1144], Vasio[1145] and Lucus Augusti[1146], the two capitals of the federate state of the Vocontii. There are also nineteen towns of less note, as well as twenty-four belonging to the people of Nemausum. To this list[1147] the Emperor Galba added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the Avantici[1148] and the Bodiontici, to whom belongs the town of Dinia[1149]. According to Agrippa the length of the province of Gallia Narbonensis is 370 miles, and its breadth 248[1150].

CHAP. 6. (5.)—OF ITALY.

Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligures[1151], after whom we have Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of the Tiber are situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world, sixteen miles distant from the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volsci and of Campania, and the districts of Picenum, of Lucania, and of Bruttium, where Italy extends the farthest in a southerly direction, and projects into the [two] seas with the chain of the Alps[1152], which there forms pretty nearly the shape of a crescent. Leaving Bruttium we come to the coast of [Magna] Græcia, then the Salentini, the Pediculi, the Apuli, the Peligni, the Frentani, the Marrucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the Picentes, the Galli, the Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Carni, the Iapydes, the Histri, and the Liburni.

I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of ingratitude and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly and in so cursory a manner the land which is at once the foster-child[1153] and the parent of all lands; chosen by the providence of the Gods to render even heaven itself more glorious[1154], to unite the scattered empires of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men’s manners, to unite the discordant and uncouth dialects of so many different nations by the powerful ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to become, in short, the mother-country of all nations of the Earth.

But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the number of celebrated places (what man living could enumerate them all?), and so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject, that I feel myself quite at a loss. The city of Rome alone, which forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous, how large a work would it require for an appropriate description! And then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself! so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature formed it she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in a single spot—how am I to do justice to it? And then the climate, with its eternal freshness and so replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather so enchanting, the fields so fertile, the hill sides so sunny, the thickets so free from every danger, the groves so cool and shady, the forests with a vegetation so varying and so luxuriant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the fruitfulness of its grain, its vines, and its olives so transcendent; its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-ending succession, its numerous rivers and springs which refresh it with their waters on every side, its seas so many in number, its havens and the bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the commerce of all the world, and as it were eagerly stretching forth into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding as it were the endeavours of mortals!

For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its men, and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and force of arms. The very Greeks themselves, a race fond in the extreme of expatiating on their own praises, have amply given judgment in its favour, when they named but a small part of it ‘Magna Græcia[1155].’ But we must be content to do on this occasion as we have done in our description of the heavens; we must only touch upon some of these points, and take notice of but a few of its stars. I only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus hastening on for the purpose of giving a general description of everything that is known to exist throughout the whole earth.

I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles in shape an oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad; towards the top it inclines to the left[1156], while it terminates in the form of an Amazonian buckler[1157], in which the spot at the central projection is the place called Cocinthos, while it sends forth two horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays, Leucopetra on the right and Lacinium on the left. It extends in length 1020 miles, if we measure from the foot of the Alps at Prætoria Augusta, through the city of Rome and Capua to the town of Rhegium, which is situate on the shoulder of the Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it were. The distance would be much greater if measured to Lacinium, but in that case the line, being drawn obliquely, would incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable; being 410 miles between the two seas, the Lower and the Upper[1158], and the rivers Varus and Arsia[1159]: at about the middle, and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river Aternus[1160] flows into the Adriatic sea, to the mouth of the Tiber, the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from Castrum-novum on the Adriatic sea to Alsium[1161] on the Tuscan; but in no place does it exceed 200 miles in breadth. The circuit of the whole, from the Varus to the Arsia, is 3059 miles[1162].

As to its distance from the countries that surround it—Istria and Liburnia are, in some places[1163], 100 miles from it, and Epirus and Illyricum 50; Africa is less than 200, as we are informed by M. Varro; Sardinia[1164] is 120, Sicily 1-1/2, Corsica less than 80, and Issa[1165] 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts of the heavens, or, to speak with more minute exactness, between the sixth[1166] hour and the first hour of the winter solstice.

We will now describe its extent and its different cities; in doing which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall follow the arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus, and adopt the division which he made of the whole of Italy into eleven districts; taking them, however, according to their order on the sea-line, as in so hurried a detail it would not be possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition with the others in its vicinity. And for the same reason, in describing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration. Nor is it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin; for, not to speak of others, the Ingaunian Ligurians have had lands granted to them as many as thirty different times.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE NINTH[1167] REGION OF ITALY.

To begin then with the river Varus; we have the town of Nicæa[1168], founded by the Massilians, the river Paulo[1169], the Alps and the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various names[1170], but more especially the Capillati[1171], Cemenelio[1172], a town of the state of the Vediantii, the port of Hercules Monæcus[1173], and the Ligurian coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond the Alps are the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the Oxubii[1174]; on this side of the Alps, the Veneni[1175], and the Vagienni, who are derived from the Caturiges[1176], the Statielli[1177], the Bimbelli[1178], the Magelli, the Euburiates, the Casmonates[1179], the Veleiates[1180], and the peoples whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining coast. The river Rutuba[1181], the town of Albium Intemelium[1182], the river Merula[1183], the town of Albium Ingaunum[1184], the port of Vadum Sabatiorum[1185], the river Porcifera[1186], the town of Genua, the river Feritor[1187], the Portus Delphini[1188], Tigullia[1189], Tegesta[1190] of the Tigullii, and the river Macra[1191], which is the boundary of Liguria.

Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, the chain of which extends unbroken from the Alps[1192] to the Sicilian sea. On the other side of the Apennines, towards the Padus[1193], the richest river of Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble towns; Libarna[1194], the colony of Dertona[1195], Iria[1196], Barderate[1197], Industria[1198], Pollentia[1199], Carrea surnamed Potentia[1200], Foro Fulvî or Valentinum[1201], Augusta[1202] of the Vagienni, Alba Pompeia[1203], Asta[1204], and Aquæ Statiellorum[1205]. This is the ninth region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of Liguria extends 211 miles[1206], between the rivers Varus and Macra.

CHAP. 8.—THE SEVENTH REGION OF ITALY.

Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria, a district which begins at the river Macra, and has often changed its name. At an early period the Umbri were expelled from it by the Pelasgi; and these again by the Lydians, who from a king of theirs[1207] were named Tyrrheni, but afterwards, from the rites observed in their sacrifices, were called, in the Greek language[1208], Tusci. The first town in Etruria is Luna[1209], with a noble harbour, then the colony of Luca[1210], at some distance from the sea, and nearer to it again the colony of Pisæ[1211], between the rivers Auser[1212] and Arnus[1213], which owes its origin to Pelops and the Pisans[1214], or else to the Teutani, a people of Greece. Next is Vada[1215] Volaterrana, then the river Cecinna[1216], and Populonium[1217] formerly belonging to the Etrurians, the only town they had on this coast. Next to these is the river Prile[1218], then the Umbro[1219], which is navigable, and where the district of Umbria begins, the port of Telamon[1220], Cosa[1221] of the Volcientes, founded by the Roman people, Graviscæ[1222], Castrum novum[1223], Pyrgi[1224], the river Cæretanus[1225], and Cære[1226] itself, four miles inland, called Agylla by the Pelasgi who founded it, Alsium[1227], Fregenæ[1228], and the river Tiber, 284[1229] miles from the Macra.

In the interior we have the colonies of Falisci[1230], founded by the Argives, according to the account of Cato[1231], and surnamed Falisci Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniæ[1232], Rusellana, the Senienses[1233], and Sutrina[1234]. The remaining peoples are the Arretini[1235] Veteres, the Arretini Fidentes, the Arretini Julienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses, surnamed Taurini[1236], the Blerani[1237], the Cortonenses[1238], the Capenates[1239], the Clusini Novi, the Clusini Veteres[1240], the Florentini[1241], situate on the stream of the Arnus, Fæsulæ[1242], Ferentinum[1243], Fescennia[1244], Hortanum[1245], Herbanum[1246], Nepeta[1247], Novem Pagi[1248], the Claudian præfecture of Foroclodium[1249], Pistorium[1250], Perusia[1251], the Suanenses, the Saturnini, formerly called the Aurinini, the Subertani[1252], the Statones[1253], the Tarquinienses[1254], the Tuscanienses[1255], the Vetulonienses[1256], the Veientani[1257], the Vesentini[1258], the Volaterrani[1259], the Volcentini[1260], surnamed Etrusci, and the Volsinienses[1261]. In the same district the territories of Crustumerium[1262] and Caletra[1263] retain the names of the ancient towns.

CHAP. 9.—THE FIRST REGION OF ITALY[1264]; THE TIBER; ROME.

The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and previously Albula[1265], flows down from nearly the central part of the chain of the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini. It is at first small, and only navigable by means of sluices, in which the water is dammed up and then discharged, in the same manner as the Timia[1266] and the Glanis, which flow into it; for which purpose it is found necessary to collect the water for nine days, unless there should happen to be a fall of rain. And even then, the Tiber, by reason of its rugged and uneven channel, is really more suitable for navigation by rafts than by vessels, for any great distance. It winds along for a course of 150 miles, passing not far from Tifernum[1267], Perusia, and Ocriculum[1268], and dividing Etruria from the Umbri[1269] and the Sabini[1270], and then, at a distance of less than sixteen miles from the city, separating the territory of Veii from that of Crustuminum, and afterwards that of the Fidenates and of Latium from Vaticanum.

Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber is swollen by two and forty streams, particularly the Nar[1271] and the Anio, which last is also navigable and shuts in Latium at the back; it is also increased by the numerous aqueducts and springs which are conveyed to the City. Here it becomes navigable by vessels of any burden which may come up from the Italian sea; a most tranquil dispenser of the produce of all parts of the earth, and peopled and embellished along its banks with more villas than nearly all the other rivers of the world taken together. And yet there is no river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks shut in on either side; but still, no resistance does it offer, although its waters frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part is more liable to be swollen than that which runs through the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber is rather to be looked upon[1272] as pregnant with prophetic warnings to us, and in its increase to be considered more as a promoter of religion than a source of devastation.

Latium[1273] has preserved its original limits, from the Tiber to Circeii[1274], a distance of fifty miles: so slender at the beginning were the roots from which this our Empire sprang. Its inhabitants have been often changed, and different nations have peopled it at different times, the Aborigines, the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi, the Aurunci, the Rutuli, and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci, and the Ausones whence the name of Latium came to be extended as far as the river Liris[1275].

We will begin with Ostia[1276], a colony founded by a king of Rome, the town of Laurentum[1277], the grove of Jupiter Indiges[1278], the river Numicius[1279], and Ardea[1280], founded by Danaë, the mother of Perseus. Next come the former site of Aphrodisium[1281], the colony of Antium[1282], the river and island called Astura[1283], the river Nymphæus[1284], the Clostra Romana[1285], and Circeii[1286], formerly an island, and, if we are to believe Homer, surrounded by the open sea, though now by an extensive plain. The circumstances which we are enabled to publish on this subject for the information of the world are very remarkable. Theophrastus, the first foreigner who treated of the affairs of Rome with any degree of accuracy (for Theopompus, before whose time no Greek writer had made mention of us, only stated the fact that the city had been taken by the Gauls, and Clitarchus, the next after him, only spoke of the embassy that was sent by the Romans to Alexander)—Theophrastus, I say, following something more than mere rumour, has given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being eighty stadia, in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of Nicodorus at Athens[1287], being the 440th year of our city. Whatever land therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the circumference of about ten miles, has been added to Italy since the year previously mentioned.

Another wonderful circumstance too.—Near Circeii are the Pomptine Marshes[1288], formerly the site, according to Mucianus, who was thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities. Next to this comes the river Ufens[1289], upon which is the town of Terracina[1290], called, in the language of the Volsci, Anxur; the spot too where Amyclæ[1291] stood, a town destroyed by serpents. Next is the site of the Grotto[1292], Lake Fundanus[1293], the port of Caieta[1294], and then the town of Formiæ[1295], formerly called Hormiæ, the ancient seat of the Læstrygones[1296], it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood the town of Pyræ; and we then come to the colony of Minturnæ[1297], which still exists, and is divided[1298] by the river Liris, also called the Glanis. The town of Sinuessa[1299] is the last in the portion which has been added to Latium; it is said by some that it used to be called Sinope.

At this spot begins that blessed country Campania[1300], and in this vale first take their rise those hills clad with vines, the juice of whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world; the happy spot where, as the ancients used to say, father Liber and Ceres are ever striving for the mastery. Hence the fields of Setia[1301] and of Cæcubum[1302] extend afar, and, next to them those of Falernum[1303] and of Calinum[1304]. As soon as we have passed these, the hills of Massica[1305], of Gaurus[1306], and of Surrentum rise to our view. Next, the level plains of Laborium[1307] are spread out far and wide, where every care is bestowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which the most delicate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm springs[1308], while the seas are distinguished beyond all others for the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish. In no country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite flavour. This territory, a battle-ground as it were for the gratification of every luxurious pleasure of man, has been held successively by the Osci, the Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, and the Campani.

On the coast we first meet with the river Savo[1309], the town of Volturnum with a river[1310] of the same name, the town of Liternum[1311], Cumæ[1312], a Chalcidian colony, Misenum[1313], the port of Baiæ[1314], Bauli[1315], the Lucrine Lake[1316], and Lake Avernus, near which there stood formerly a town[1317] of the Cimmerians. We then come to Puteoli[1318], formerly called the colony of Dicæarchia, then the Phlegræan[1319] Plains, and the Marsh of Acherusia[1320] in the vicinity of Cumæ.

Again, on the coast we have Neapolis[1321], also a colony of the Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there of one of the Sirens, Herculaneum[1322], Pompeii[1323], from which Mount Vesuvius may be seen at no great distance, and which is watered by the river Sarnus[1324]; the territory of Nuceria, and, at the distance of nine miles from the sea, the town of that name[1325], and then Surrentum[1326], with the Promontory of Minerva[1327], formerly the abode of the Sirens. The distance thence by sea to Circeii is seventy-eight miles. This region, beginning at the Tiber, is looked upon as the first of Italy according to the division of Augustus.

Inland there are the following colonies:—Capua[1328], so called from its champaign country, Aquinum[1329], Suessa[1330], Venafrum[1331], Sora[1332], Teanum surnamed Sidicinum[1333], Nola[1334]; and the towns of Abelia[1335], Aricia[1336], Alba Longa[1337], the Acerrani[1338], the Allifani[1339], the Atinates[1340], the Aletrinates[1341], the Anagnini[1342], the Atellani[1343], the Affilani[1344], the Arpinates[1345], the Auximates[1346], the Abellani[1347], the Alfaterni (both those who take their names from the Latin, the Hernican and the Labicanian territory), Bovillæ[1348], Calatia[1349], Casinum[1350], Calenum[1351], Capitulum[1352] of the Hernici, the Cereatini[1353], surnamed Mariani, the Corani[1354], descended from the Trojan Dardanus, the Cubulterini, the Castrimœnienses[1355], the Cingulani[1356], the Fabienses[1357] on the Alban Mount, the Foropopulienses[1358] of the Falernian district, the Frusinates[1359], the Ferentinates[1360], the Freginates[1361], the old Frabaterni[1362], the new Frabaterni, the Ficolenses[1363], the Fregellani[1364], Forum Appî[1365], the Forentani[1366], the Gabini[1367], the Interamnates Succasini[1368], also surnamed Lirinates, the Ilionenses Lavinii[1369], the Norbani[1370], the Nomentani[1371], the Prænestini[1372] (whose city was formerly called Stephané), the Privernates[1373], the Setini[1374], the Signini[1375], the Suessulani[1376], the Telesini[1377], the Trebulani, surnamed Balinienses[1378], the Trebani[1379], the Tusculani[1380], the Verulani[1381], the Veliterni[1382], the Ulubrenses[1383], the Urbinates[1384], and, last and greater than all, Rome herself, whose other name[1385] the hallowed mysteries of the sacred rites forbid us to mention without being guilty of the greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried in secresy with the strictest fidelity and in respectful and salutary silence, Valerius Soranus dared to divulge it, but soon did he pay the penalty[1386] of his rashness.

It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose, if I here make mention of one peculiar institution of our forefathers which bears especial reference to the inculcation of silence on religious matters. The goddess Angerona[1387], to whom sacrifice is offered on the twelfth day before the calends of January [21st December], is represented in her statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed fillet.

Romulus left the city of Rome, if we are to believe those who state the very greatest number, having three[1388] gates and no more. When the Vespasians were emperors[1389] and censors, in the year from its building 826, the circumference of the walls which surrounded it was thirteen miles and two-fifths. Surrounding as it does the Seven Hills, the city is divided into fourteen districts, with 265 cross-roads[1390] under the guardianship of the Lares. If a straight line is drawn from the mile-column[1391] placed at the entrance of the Forum, to each of the gates, which are at present thirty-seven in number (taking care to count only once the twelve double gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which no longer exist), the result will be [taking them altogether], a straight line of twenty miles and 765 paces[1392]. But if we draw a straight line from the same mile-column to the very last of the houses, including therein the Prætorian encampment, and follow throughout the line of all the streets, the result will then be something more than seventy miles. Add to these calculations the height of the houses, and then a person may form a fair idea of this city, and will certainly be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout the whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the eastern side it is bounded by the agger of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack from the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified either with lofty walls or steep and precipitous hills[1393], but so it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all bounds, have now united many other cities to it[1394].

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly in the first region the following famous towns of Latium: Satricum[1395], Pometia[1396], Scaptia, Politorium[1397], Tellene, Tifata, Cænina[1398], Ficana[1399], Crustumerium, Ameriola[1400], Medullum[1401], Corniculum[1402], Saturnia[1403], on the site of the present city of Rome, Antipolis[1404], now Janiculum, forming part of Rome, Antemnæ[1405], Camerium[1406], Collatia[1407], Amitinum[1408], Norbe, Sulmo[1409], and, with these, those Alban nations[1410] who used to take part in the sacrifices[1411] upon the Alban Mount, the Albani, the Æsulani[1412], the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bubetani[1413], the Bolani[1414], the Cusuetani, the Coriolani[1415], the Fidenates[1416], the Foretii, the Hortenses[1417], the Latinienses, the Longulani[1418], the Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucumenses, the Munienses, the Numinienses, the Olliculani, the Octulani, the Pedani[1419], the Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the Sicani, the Sisolenses, the Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vimitellarii, the Velienses, the Venetulani, and the Vitellenses. Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of ancient Latium have passed away without leaving any traces of their existence.

In the Campanian territory there was also the town of Stabiæ[1420], until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L. Cato, when, on the day before the calends of May [30th of April], it was destroyed in the Social War by L. Sulla the legatus, and all that now stands on its site is a single farmhouse. Here also Taurania has ceased to exist, and the remains of Casilinum[1421] are fast going to ruin. Besides these, we learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took Apiolæ[1422], a town of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first foundations of the Capitol. From Surrentum[1423] to the river Silarus[1424], the former territory of Picentia[1425] extends for a distance of thirty miles. This belonged to the Etruscans, and was remarkable for the temple of the Argive Juno, founded by Jason[1426]. In it was Picentia, a town[1427] of the territory of Salernum[1428].

CHAP. 10.—THE THIRD REGION OF ITALY.

At the Silarus begins the third region of Italy, consisting of the territory of Lucania and Bruttium; here too there have been no few changes of the population. These districts have been possessed by tbe Pelasgi, the Œnotrii, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, and more especially by people who emigrated from Greece[1429], and, last of all, by the Leucani, a people sprung from the Samnites, who took possession under the command of Lucius. We find here the town of Pæstum[1430], which received from the Greeks the name of Posidonia, the Gulf of Pæstum[1431], the town of Elea, now known as Velia[1432], and the Promontory of Palinurum[1433], a point at which the land falls inwards and forms a bay[1434], the distance across which to the pillar[1435] of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum comes the river Melpes[1436], then the town of Buxentum[1437], called in [Magna] Græcia Pyxus, and the river Laus; there was formerly a town[1438] also of the same name.

At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come to the town of Blanda[1439], the river Batum[1440], Parthenius, a port of the Phocians, the bay of Vibo[1441], the place[1442] where Clampetia formerly stood, the town of Temsa[1443], called Temese by the Greeks, and Terina founded by the people of Crotona[1444], with the extensive Gulf of Terina; more inland, the town of Consentia[1445]. Situate upon a peninsula[1446] is the river Acheron[1447], from which the people of Acherontia derive the name of their town; then Hippo, now called Vibo Valentia, the Port of Hercules[1448], the river Metaurus[1449], the town of Tauroentum[1450], the Port of Orestes, and Medma[1451]. Next, the town of Scyllæum[1452], the river Cratæis[1453], the mother of Scylla it is said; then the Pillar of Rhegium, the Straits of Sicily, and the two promontories which face each other, Cænys[1454] on the Italian, and Pelorus[1455] on the Sicilian side, the distance between them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of twelve miles and a half, we come to Rhegium[1456], after which begins Sila[1457], a forest of the Apennines, and then the promontory of Leucopetra[1458], at a distance of fifteen miles; after which come the Locri[1459], who take their surname from the promontory of Zephyrium[1460], being distant from the river Silarus 303 miles.

At this spot ends the first[1461] great Gulf of Europe; the seas in which bear the following names:—That from which it takes its rise is called the Atlantic, by some the Great Atlantic, the entrance of which is, by the Greeks, called Porthmos, by us the Straits of Gades. After its entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it is called the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the Iberian or Balearic[1462] Sea. Where it faces the province of Gallia Narbonensis it has the name of the Gallic, and after that, of the Ligurian, Sea. From Liguria to the island of Sicily, it is called the Tuscan Sea, the same which is called by some of the Greeks the Notian[1463], by others the Tyrrhenian, while many of our people call it the Lower Sea. Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the Salentini, it is styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes however gives to the whole expanse that lies between the inlet of the ocean and the island of Sardinia, the name of the Sardoan Sea; thence to Sicily, the Tyrrhenian; thence to Crete, the Sicilian; and beyond that island, the Cretan Sea.

CHAP. 11.—SIXTY-FOUR ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ARE THE BALEARES.

The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are the two to which the Greeks have given the name of Pityussæ[1464], from the pine-tree[1465], which they produce. These islands now bear the name of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They are separated by a narrow strait[1466] of the sea, and are forty-six[1467] miles in extent. They are distant from Dianium[1468] 700 stadia, Dianium being by land the same distance[1469] from New Carthage. At the same distance[1470] from the Pityussæ, lie, in the open sea, the two Baleares, and, over against the river Sucro[1471], Colubraria[1472]. The Baleares[1473], so formidable in war with their slingers[1474], have received from the Greeks the name of Gymnasiæ.

The larger island is 100[1475] miles in length, and 475 in circumference. It has the following towns; Palma[1476] and Pollentia[1477], enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, Cinium[1478] and Tucis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is no longer in existence. At thirty miles’ distance is the smaller island, 40 miles in length, and 150[1479] in circumference; it contains the states of Jamnon[1480], Sanisera, and Magon[1481].

In the open sea, at twelve miles’ distance from the larger island, is Capraria[1482] with its treacherous coast, so notorious for its numerous shipwrecks; and, opposite to the city of Palma, are the islands known as the Mænariæ[1483], Tiquadra[1484], and Little Hannibalis[1485].

The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents, while that of Colubraria produces them; hence the latter spot is dangerous to all persons who have not brought with them some of the earth of Ebusus. The Greeks have given it the name of Ophiusa[1486]. Ebusus too produces no[1487] rabbits to destroy the harvests of the Baleares. There are also about twenty other small islands in this sea, which is full of shoals. Off the coast of Gaul, at the mouth of the Rhodanus, there is Metina[1488], and near it the island which is known as Blascon[1489], with the three Stœchades, so called by their neighbours the Massilians[1490], on account of the regular order in which they are placed; their respective names are Prote[1491], Mese[1492], also called Pomponiana, and Hypæa[1493]. After these come Sturium[1494], Phœnice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to Antipolis[1495], Lerina[1496], where there is a remembrance of a town called Vergoanum having once existed.

CHAP. 12. (6.)—CORSICA.

In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica, by the Greeks called Cyrnos, extending, from north to south 150 miles, and for the most part 50 miles in breadth, its circumference being 325. It is 62 miles distant from the Vada Volaterrana[1497]. It contains thirty-two states, and two colonies, that of Mariana[1498], founded by C. Marius, and that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On this side of it is Oglasa[1499], and, at a distance of less than sixty miles from Corsica, Planaria[1500], so called from its appearance, being nearly level with the sea, and consequently treacherous to mariners.

We next have Urgo[1501], a larger island, and Capraria, which the Greeks have called Ægilion[1502]; then Igilium[1503] and Dianium[1504], which they have also called Artemisia, both of them opposite the coast of Cosa; also Barpana[1505], Mænaria, Columbaria, and Venaria. We then come to Ilva[1506] with its iron mines, an island 100 miles in circumference, 10 miles distant from Populonium, and called Æthalia by the Greeks: from it the island of Planasia[1507] is distant 28 miles. After these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber, and off the coast of Antium, we come to Astura[1508], then Palmaria and Sinonia, and, opposite to Formiæ, Pontiæ. In the Gulf of Puteoli are Pandateria[1509], and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of Æneas, but because it has been poured forth[1510] or detached from Ænaria[1511], an island which received its name from having been the anchorage of the fleet of Æneas, though called by Homer Inarime[1512]; it is also called Pithecusa, not, as many have fancied, on account of the multitudes of apes found there, but from its extensive manufactories of pottery. Between Pausilipum[1513] and Neapolis lies the island of Megaris[1514], and then, at a distance of eight miles from Surrentum, Capreæ[1515], famous for the castle of the emperor Tiberius: it is eleven miles in circumference.

CHAP. 13.—SARDINIA.

Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it lies upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate somewhat less[1516] than eight miles from the nearest point of Corsica, and the Straits between them are even still more reduced by the small islands there situate, called the Cuniculariæ[1517], as also those of Phintonis[1518] and Fossæ, from which last the Straits themselves have obtained the name of Taphros[1519].

(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of 188 miles, on the west 175, on the south 77, and on the north 125, being 565 miles in circumference. Its promontory of Caralis[1520] is distant from Africa 200, and from Gades 1400 miles. Off the promontory of Gordis[1521] it has two islands called the Isles of Hercules[1522], off that of Sulcis, the island of Enosis[1523], and off that of Caralis, Ficaria[1524]. Some writers place Beleris not far from it, as also Callodis, and the island known as Heras Lutra[1525].

The most celebrated peoples of this island are the Ilienses[1526], the Balari, and the Corsi; and among its eighteen towns, there are those of the Sulcitani[1527], the Valentini[1528], the Neapolitani[1529], the Bosenses[1530], the Caralitani[1531], who enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and the Norenses[1532]. There is also one colony which is called Ad Turrim Libysonis[1533]. Timæus has called this island Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape to the sole of a shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of Ichnusa[1534], from its resemblance to the print of a footstep. Opposite to the Gulf of Pæstum is Leucasia[1535], so called from a Siren who is buried there; opposite to Velia are Pontia and Isacia, both known by one name, that of Œnotrides, a proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the Œnotrians. Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called Ithacesiæ[1536], from the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.

CHAP. 14. (8.)—SICILY.

But more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from its triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 618[1537] miles in circumference. In former times it was a continuation of the territory of Bruttium, but, in consequence of the overflowing of the sea, became severed from it; thus forming a strait of 15 miles in length, and a mile and a half in width in the vicinity of the Pillar of Rhegium. It was from this circumstance of the land being severed asunder that the Greeks gave the name of Rhegium[1538] to the town situate on the Italian shore.

In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also Charybdis[1539], a whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of this triangle, the promontory, which, as we have already[1540] mentioned, is called Pelorus, faces Scylla and juts out towards Italy, while Pachynum[1541] extends in the direction of Greece, Peloponnesus being at a distance from it of 440 miles, and Lilybæum[1542], towards Africa, being distant 180 miles from the promontory of Mercury[1543], and from that of Caralis in Sardinia 190. These promontories and sides are situate at the following distances from each other: by land it is 186 miles from Pelorus to Pachynum, from Pachynum to Lilybæum 200, and from Lilybæum to Pelorus 170[1544].

In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities or states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we have the town of Messana[1545], whose inhabitants are also called Mamertini and enjoy the rights of Roman citizens; the promontory of Drepanum[1546], the colony of Tauromenium[1547], formerly called Naxos, the river Asines[1548], and Mount Ætna, wondrous for the flames which it emits by night. Its crater is twenty stadia in circumference, and from it red-hot cinders are thrown as far as Tauromenium and Catina, the noise being heard even at Maroneum[1549] and the Gemellian Hills. We then come to the three rocks of the Cyclopes[1550], the Port of Ulysses[1551], the colony of Catina[1552], and the rivers Symæthus[1553] and Terias; while more inland lie the Læstrygonian Plains.

To these rivers succeed the towns of Leontinum[1554] and Megaris, the river Pantagies[1555], the colony of Syracuse[1556], with the fountain of Arethusa[1557], (the people in the Syracusan territory drink too of the fountains of Temenitis[1558], Archidemia, Magæa, Cyane, and Milichie,) the port of Naustathmus[1559], the river Elorus, and the promontory of Pachynum. This side[1560] of Sicily begins with the river Hirminius[1561], then follow the town of Camarina[1562], the river Gelas[1563], and the town of Agragas[1564], which our people have named Agrigentum. We next come to the colony of Thermæ[1565], the rivers Achates[1566], Mazara, and Hypsa; the town of Selinus[1567], and then the Promontory of Lilybæum, which is succeeded by Drepana[1568], Mount Eryx[1569], the towns of Panhormus[1570], Solus[1571] and Himera[1572], with a river of the same name, Cephalœdis[1573], Aluntium[1574], Agathyrnum, the colony of Tyndaris[1575], the town of Mylæ[1576], and then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.

In the interior there are the following towns enjoying Latin privileges, those of the Centuripini[1577], the Netini[1578], and the Segestani[1579]; tributary towns are those of the Assorini[1580], the Ætnenses[1581], the Agyrini[1582], the Acestæi, the Acrenses[1583], the Bidini[1584], the Cetarini[1585], the Cacyrini[1586], the Drepanitani, the Ergetini[1587], the Echetlienses[1588], the Erycini[1589], the Entellini[1590], the Enini[1591], the Enguini[1592], the Gelani[1593], the Galatini[1594], the Halesini[1595], the Hennenses, the Hyblenses[1596], the Herbitenses[1597], the Herbessenses[1598], the Herbulenses, the Halicyenses[1599], the Hadranitani[1600], the Imacarenses, the Ipanenses, the Ietenses[1601], the Mytistratini[1602], the Magellini, the Murgentini[1603], the Mutycenses[1604], the Menanini[1605], the Naxii[1606], the Noæi[1607], the Petrini[1608], the Paropini[1609], the Phthinthienses[1610], the Semellitani, the Scherini, the Selinuntii[1611], the Symæthii, the Talarienses, the Tissinenses[1612], the Triocalini[1613], the Tyracinenses, and the Zanclæi[1614], a Messenian colony on the Straits of Sicily. Towards Africa, its islands are Gaulos[1615], Melita, 87 miles from Camerina, and 113 from Lilybæum, Cosyra[1616], Hieronnesos[1617], Cæne[1618], Galata[1619], Lopadusa, Æthusa, written by some Ægusa, Bucinna[1620], Osteodes[1621], distant from Soluntum 75 miles, and, opposite to Paropus, Ustica.

On this side of Sicily, facing the river Metaurus, at a distance of nearly 25[1622] miles from Italy, are the seven[1623] islands called the Æolian, as also the Liparæan islands; by the Greeks they are called the Hephæstiades, and by our writers the Vulcanian[1624] Isles; they are called “Æolian” because in the Trojan times Æolus was king there.

(9.) Lipara[1625], with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former king who succeeded[1626] Æolus, it having been previously called Melogonis or Meligunis. It is 25 miles[1627] distant from Italy, and in circumference a little less. Between this island and Sicily we find another, the name of which was formerly Therasia, but now called Hiera, because it is sacred to Vulcan[1628]: it contains a hill which at night vomits forth flames. The third island is Strongyle[1629], lying one mile[1630] to the east of Lipara, over which Æolus reigned as well; it differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its flames. From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some of the inhabitants are able to predict three days beforehand what winds are about to blow; hence arose the notion that the winds are governed by Æolus. The fourth of these islands is Didyme[1631], smaller than Lipara, the fifth Ericusa, the sixth Phœnicusa, left to be a pasture-ground for the cattle of the neighbouring islands, and the last and smallest Euonymos. Thus much as to the first great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 15. (10.)—MAGNA GRÆCIA, BEGINNING AT LOCRI.

At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna Græcia, whose coast falls back in three bays[1632] formed by the Ausonian sea, so called from the Ausones, who were the first inhabitants of the country. According to Varro it is 86 miles in extent; but most writers have made it only 75. Along this coast there are rivers innumerable, but we shall mention those only that are worthy of remark. After leaving Locri we come to the Sagra[1633], and the ruins of the town of Caulon, Mystiæ[1634], Consilinum Castrum[1635], Cocinthum[1636], in the opinion of some, the longest headland of Italy, and then the Gulf of Scylacium[1637], and Scylacium[1638] itself, which was called by the Athenians, when they founded it, Scylletium. This part of Italy is nearly a peninsula, in consequence of the Gulf of Terinæum[1639] running up into it on the other side; in it there is a harbour called Castra Hannibalis[1640]: in no part is Italy narrower than here, it being but twenty miles across. For this reason the Elder Dionysius entertained the idea of severing[1641] this portion from the main-land of Italy at this spot, and adding it to Sicily. The navigable rivers in this district are the Carcines[1642], the Crotalus, the Semirus, the Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior is the town of Petilia[1643], and there are besides, Mount Clibanus[1644], the promontory of Lacinium, in front of which lies the island of Dioscoron[1645], ten miles from the main-land, and another called the Isle of Calypso, which Homer is supposed to refer to under the name of Ogygia; as also the islands of Tiris, Eranusa, and Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the promontory of Lacinium[1646] is seventy miles from Caulon.

(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second Gulf of Europe, the bend of which forms an arc of great depth, and terminates at Acroceraunium, a promontory of Epirus, from which it is distant[1647] seventy-five miles. We first come to the town of Croton[1648], and then the river Neæthus[1649], and the town of Thurii[1650], situate between the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon the latter of which there was once a city[1651] of the same name. In a similar manner Heraclia[1652], sometimes called Siris, lies between the river of that name and the Aciris. We next come to the rivers Acalandrus and Casuentum[1653], and the town of Metapontum[1654], with which the third region of Italy terminates. In the interior of Bruttium, the Aprustani[1655] are the only people; but in Lucania we find the Atinates, the Bantini, the Eburini[1656], the Grumentini, the Potentini, the Sontini[1657], the Sirini, the Tergilani, the Ursentini, and the Volcentani[1658], whom the Numestrani join. Besides these, we learn from Cato[1659] that Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and Theopompus informs us that there was formerly a city of the Lucani called Pandosia[1660], at which Alexander, the king of Epirus, died.

CHAP. 16.—THE SECOND REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, extending a distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum, which receives its name from a town of the Laconians so called, situate at the bottom of the Gulf, to which was annexed the maritime colony which had previously settled there. Tarentum[1661] is distant from the promontory of Lacinium 136 miles, and throws out the territory of Calabria opposite to it in the form of a peninsula. The Greeks called this territory Messapia, from their leader[1662]; before which it was called Peucetia, from Peucetius[1663], the brother of Œnotrius, and was comprised in the territory of Salentinum. Between the two promontories[1664] there is a distance of 100 miles. The breadth across the peninsula from Tarentum[1665] to Brundusium by land is 35 miles, considerably less if measured from the port of Sasina[1666]. The towns inland from Tarentum are Varia[1667] surnamed Apulia, Messapia, and Aletium[1668]; on the coast, Senum, and Callipolis[1669], now known as Anxa, 75 miles from Tarentum. Thence, at a distance of 32 miles, is the Promontory of Acra Iapygia[1670], at which point Italy projects the greatest distance into the sea. At a distance of 19 miles from this point is the town of Basta[1671], and then Hydruntum[1672], the spot at which the Ionian is separated from the Adriatic sea, and from which the distance across to Greece is the shortest. The town of the Apolloniates[1673] lies opposite to it, and the breadth of the arm of the sea which runs between is not more than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was the first who entertained the notion of uniting these two points and making a passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across, and after him M. Varro[1674], when commanding the fleet of Pompey in the war against the Pirates. Other cares however prevented either of them from accomplishing this design. Passing Hydruntum, we come to the deserted site of Soletum[1675], then Fratuertium, the Portus Tarentinus, the haven of Miltopa, Lupia[1676], Balesium[1677], Cælia[1678], and then Brundusium[1679], fifty miles from Hydruntum. This last place is one of the most famous ports of Italy, and, although more distant, affords by far the safest passage across to Greece, the place of disembarkation being Dyrrachium, a city of Illyria; the distance across is 225 miles.

Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the Pediculi[1680]; nine youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became the parents of sixteen nations. The towns of the Pediculi are Rudiæ[1681], Egnatia[1682], and Barium[1683]; their rivers are the Iapyx (so called from the son of Dædalus, who was king there, and who gave it the name of Iapygia), the Pactius[1684], and the Aufidus, which rises in the Hirpinian mountains and flows past Canusium[1685].

At this point begins Apulia, surnamed the Daunian, from the Daunii, who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-law of Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of Salapia[1686], famous for Hannibal’s amour with a courtezan, Sipontum[1687], Uria, the river Cerbalus[1688], forming the boundary of the Daunii, the port of Agasus[1689], and the Promontory of Mount Garganus[1690], distant from the Promontory of Salentinum or Iapygia 234 miles. Making the circuit of Garganus, we come to the port of Garna[1691], the Lake Pantanus[1692], the river Frento, the mouth of which forms a harbour, Teanum of the Apuli[1693], and Larinum, Cliternia[1694], and the river Tifernus, at which the district of the Frentani[1695] begins. Thus there were three different nations of the Apulians, [the Daunii,] the Teani, so called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and the Lucani, who were subdued by Calchas[1696], and whose country is now possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already mentioned, there are, of the Daunii, the colonies of Luceria[1697] and Venusia[1698], the towns of Canusium[1699] and Arpi, formerly called Argos Hippium[1700] and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes destroyed the nations of the Monadi and the Dardi, and the two cities of Apina and Trica[1701], whose names have passed into a by-word and a proverb.

Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second region one colony of the Hirpini, Beneventum[1702], so called by an exchange of a more auspicious name for its old one of Maleventum; also the Æculani[1703], the Aquilonii[1704], the Abellinates surnamed Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the Ligures, both those called the Corneliani and Bebiani, the Vescellani, the Æclani, the Aletrini, the Abellinates[1705] surnamed Marsi, the Atrani, the Æcani[1706], the Alfellani[1707], the Atinates[1708], the Arpani, the Borcani, the Collatini, the Corinenses, the Cannenses[1709], rendered famous by the defeat of the Romans, the Dirini, the Forentani[1710], the Genusini[1711], the Herdonienses, the Hyrini[1712], the Larinates surnamed Frentani[1713], the Merinates[1714] of Garganus, the Mateolani, the Netini[1715], the Rubustini[1716], the Silvini[1717], the Strapellini[1718], the Turmentini, the Vibinates[1719], the Venusini, and the Ulurtini. In the interior of Calabria there are the Ægetini, the Apamestini[1720], the Argentini, the Butuntinenses[1721], the Deciani, the Grumbestini, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the Sturnini[1722], and the Tutini: there are also the following Salentine nations; the Aletini[1723], the Basterbini[1724], the Neretini, the Uxentini, and the Veretini[1725].

CHAP. 17. (12.)—THE FOURTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the fourth region, which includes the most valiant probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the coast, in the territory of the Frentani[1726], after the river Tifernus, we find the river Trinium[1727], with a good harbour at its mouth, the towns of Histonium[1728], Buca[1729], and Ortona, and the river Aternus[1730]. In the interior are the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Higher and Lower Carentini[1731], and the Lanuenses; in the territory of the Marrucini, the Teatini[1732]; in that of the Peligni, the Corfinienses[1733], the Superæquani[1734], and the Sulmonenses[1735]; in that of the Marsi, the Anxantini[1736], the Atinates[1737], the Fucentes[1738], the Lucenses[1739], and the Marruvini[1740]; in that of the Albenses, the town of Alba on Lake Fucinus; in that of the Æquiculani, the Cliternini[1741], and the Carseolani[1742]; in that of the Vestini, the Angulani[1743], the Pinnenses, and the Peltuinates, adjoining to whom are the Aufinates[1744] Cismontani; in that of the Samnites, who have been called Sabelli[1745], and whom the Greeks have called Saunitæ, the colony of old Bovianum[1746], and that of the Undecumani, the Aufidenates[1747], the Esernini[1748], the Fagifulani, the Ficolenses[1749], the Sæpinates[1750], and the Tereventinates; in that of the Sabini, the Amiternini[1751], the Curenses[1752], Forum Decî[1753], Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the Interamnates[1754], the Nursini[1755], the Nomentani[1756], the Reatini[1757], the Trebulani, both those called Mutusci[1758] and those called Suffenates[1759], the Tiburtes, and the Tarinates.

In these districts, the Comini[1760], the Tadiates, the Cædici, and the Alfaterni, tribes of the Æquiculi, have disappeared. From Gellianus we learn that Archippe[1761], a town of the Marsi, built by Marsyas, a chieftain of the Lydians, has been swallowed up by Lake Fucinus, and Valerianus informs us that the town of the Viticini in Picenum was destroyed by the Romans. The Sabini (called, according to some writers, from their attention to religious[1762] observances and the worship of the gods, Sevini) dwell on the dew-clad hills in the vicinity of the Lakes of the Velinus[1763]. The Nar, with its sulphureous waters, exhausts these lakes, and, descending from Mount Fiscellus[1764], unites with them near the groves of Vacuna[1765] and Reate, and then directs its course towards the Tiber, into which it discharges itself. Again, in another direction, the Anio[1766], taking its rise in the mountain of the Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of three lakes remarkable for their picturesque beauty, and to which Sublaqueum[1767] is indebted for its name. In the territory of Reate is the Lake of Cutiliæ[1768], in which there is a floating island, and which, according to M. Varro, is the navel or central point of Italy. Below the Sabine territory lies that of Latium, on one side Picenum, and behind it Umbria, while the range of the Apennines flanks it on either side.

CHAP. 18. (13.)—THE FIFTH REGION OF ITALY.

The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for the denseness of its population; 360,000 Picentines took the oaths of fidelity to the Roman people. They are descended from the Sabines, who had made a vow to celebrate a holy spring[1769]. Their territory commenced at the river Aternus[1770], where the present district and colony of Adria[1771] is, at a distance of six miles from the sea. Here we find the river Vomanus, the territories of Prætutia and Palma[1772], Castrum Novum[1773], the river Batinus; Truentum[1774], with its river of the same name, which place is the only remnant of the Liburni[1775] in Italy; the river Albula[1776]; Tervium, at which the Prætutian district ends, and that of Picenum begins; the town of Cupra[1777], Castellum Firmanorum[1778], and above it the colony of Asculum[1779], the most illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is the town of Novana[1780]. Upon the coast we have Cluana[1781], Potentia, Numana, founded by the Siculi, and Ancona[1782], a colony founded by the same people on the Promontory of Cumerus, forming an elbow of the coast, where it begins to bend inwards, and distant from Garganus 183 miles. In the interior are the Auximates[1783], the Beregrani[1784], the Cingulani, the Cuprenses surnamed Montani[1785], the Falarienses[1786], the Pausulani, the Planinenses, the Ricinenses, the Septempedani[1787], the Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs Salvia[1788].

CHAP. 19. (14.)—THE SIXTH REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes Umbria and the Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum. At Ancona begins the coast of that part of Gaul known as Gallia Togata[1789]. The Siculi and the Liburni possessed the greater part of this district, and more particularly the territories of Palma, of Prætutia, and of Adria. These were expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians, and these in their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought to have been the most ancient race in Italy, it being supposed that they were called “Ombrii” by the Greeks, from the fact of their having survived the rains[1790] which had inundated the earth. We read that 300 of their towns were conquered by the Tusci; at the present day we find on their coast the river Æsis[1791], Senogallia[1792], the river Metaurus, the colonies of Fanum Fortunæ[1793] and Pisaurum[1794], with a river of the same name; and, in the interior, those of Hispellum[1795] and Tuder.

Besides the above, there are the Amerini[1796], the Attidiates[1797], the Asisinates[1798], the Arnates[1799], the Æsinates[1800], the Camertes[1801], the Casuentillani, the Carsulani[1802], the Dolates surnamed Salentini, the Fulginiates[1803], the Foroflaminienses[1804], the Forojulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the Forosempronienses[1805], the Iguvini[1806], the Interamnates surnamed Nartes, the Mevanates[1807], the Mevanionenses, the Matilicates[1808], the Narnienses[1809], whose town used formerly to be called Nequinum; the Nucerini[1810], both those surnamed Favonienses and those called Camellani; the Ocriculani[1811], the Ostrani[1812], the Pitulani, both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others called Mergentini; the Plestini[1813], the Sentinates[1814], the Sarsinates[1815], the Spoletini[1816], the Suasini[1817], the Sestinates[1818], the Suillates[1819], the Tadinates[1820], the Trebiates[1821], the Tuficani[1822], the Tifernates[1823] surnamed Tiberini, and the others called Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urbinates, both those surnamed Metaurenses[1824] and the others called Hortenses, the Vettonenses[1825], the Vindinates, and the Viventani. In this district there exist no longer the Feliginates who possessed Clusiolum above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their towns of Acerræ[1826], surnamed Vafriæ, and Turocelum, also called Vettiolum; as also the Solinates, the Curiates, the Fallienates, and the Apiennates. The Arienates also have disappeared with the town of Crinovolum, as well as the Usidicani, the Plangenses, the Pæsinates, and the Cælestini. Cato writes that Ameria above-mentioned was founded 964 years before the war with Perseus.

CHAP. 20. (15.)—THE EIGHTH REGION OF ITALY; THE PADUS.

The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus, and the Apennines. Upon the coast we have the river Crustumium[1827], and the colony of Ariminum[1828], with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa. Next comes the river Rubico[1829], once the boundary of Italy, and after it the Sapis[1830], the Vitis, and the Anemo, and then, Ravenna, a town of the Sabines[1831], with the river Bedesis, 105 miles from Ancona; and, not far from the sea, Butrium[1832], a town of the Umbri. In the interior there are the colonies of Bononia[1833], formerly called Felsina, when it was the chief place of Etruria[1834], Brixillum[1835], Mutina[1836], Parma[1837], and Placentia[1838]. There are also the towns of Cæsena[1839], Claterna, Forum Clodî[1840], Forum Livî, Forum Popilî, Forum Truentinorum[1841], Forum Cornelî, Forum Licinî, the Faventini[1842], the Fidentini[1843], the Otesini, the Padinates[1844], the Regienses[1845], who take their name from Lepidus, the Solonates[1846], the Saltus Galliani[1847], surnamed Aquinates, the Tannetani[1848], the Veliates[1849], who were anciently surnamed Regiates, and the Urbanates[1850]. In this district the Boii[1851] have disappeared, of whom there were 112 tribes according to Cato; as also the Senones, who captured Rome.

(16.) The Padus[1852] descends from the bosom of Mount Vesulus, one of the most elevated points of the chain of the Alps, in the territories of the Ligurian Vagienni[1853], and rises at its source in a manner that well merits an inspection by the curious; after which it hides itself in a subterranean channel until it rises again in the country of the Forovibienses. It is inferior in fame to none whatever among the rivers, being known to the Greeks as the Eridanus and famous as the scene of the punishment of Phaëton[1854]. At the rising of the Dog-star it is swollen by the melted snows; but, though it proves more furious in its course to the adjoining fields than to the vessels that are upon it, still it takes care to carry away no portion of its banks, and when it recedes, renders them additionally fertile. Its length from its source is 300 miles, to which we must add eighty-eight for its sinuosities; and it receives from the Apennines and Alps not only several navigable rivers, but immense lakes as well, which discharge themselves into its waters, thus conveying altogether as many as thirty streams into the Adriatic Sea.

Of these the best known are the following—flowing from the range of the Apennines, the Jactus, the Tanarus[1855], the Trebia which passes Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the Gabellus, the Scultenna, and the Rhenus: from the chain of the Alps, the Stura[1856], the Orgus, the two Duriæ, the Sessites, the Ticinus, the Lambrus, the Addua, the Ollius, and the Mincius. There is no river known to receive a larger increase than this in so short a space; so much so indeed that it is impelled onwards by this vast body of water, and, invading the land[1857], forms deep channels in its course: hence it is that, although a portion of its stream is drawn off by rivers and canals between Ravenna and Altinum, for a space of 120 miles, still, at the spot where it discharges the vast body of its waters, it is said to form seven seas.

By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna, at which place it is called the Padusa[1858], having formerly borne the name of Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot forms the extensive port known as that of Vatrenus, where Claudius Cæsar[1859], on his triumph over the Britons, entered the Adriatic in a vessel that deserved rather the name of a vast palace than a ship. This mouth, which was formerly called by some the Eridanian, has been by others styled the Spinetic mouth, from the city of Spina, a very powerful place which formerly stood in the vicinity, if we may form a conclusion from the amount of its treasure deposited at Delphi; it was founded by Diomedes. At this spot the river Vatrenus[1860], which flows from the territory of Forum Cornelî, swells the waters of the Padus.

The next mouth to this is that of Caprasia[1861], then that of Sagis, and then Volane, formerly called Olane; all of which are situate upon the Flavian Canal[1862], which the Tuscans formerly made from Sagis, thus drawing the impetuous stream of the river across into the marshes of the Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas; and upon which is the noble port of Atria[1863], a city of the Tuscans, from which place the sea was formerly called the Atriatic, though now the Adriatic.

We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbonaria, and the Fosses of Philistina[1864], by some called Tartarus[1865], all of which originate in the overflow of the waters in the Philistinian Canal, swollen by the streams of the Atesis, descending from the Tridentine Alps, and of the Togisonus[1866], flowing from the territory of the Patavini. A portion of them also forms the adjoining port of Brundulum[1867], in the same manner as Edron[1868] is formed by the two rivers Meduacus and the Clodian Canal. With the waters of these streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference, not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat ashamed to have to borrow from the Greeks any statement in reference to Italy; Metrodorus of Scepsos, however, informs us that this river has obtained its name of Padus from the fact, that about its source there are great numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic language are called “padi.” In the tongue of the Ligurians this river is called “Bodincus,” which signifies “the bottomless.” This derivation is in some measure supported by the fact that near this river there is the town of Industria[1869], of which the ancient name was Bodincomagum, and where the river begins to be of greater depth than in other parts.

CHAP. 21. (17.)—THE ELEVENTH REGION OF ITALY; ITALIA TRANSPADANA.

From the river Padus the eleventh region receives its name of Transpadana; to which, situate as it is wholly in the interior, the river, by its bounteous channel, conveys the gifts of all the seas. The towns are Vibî Forum[1870] and Segusio; and, at the foot of the Alps, the colony of Augusta Taurinorum[1871], at which place the Padus becomes navigable, and which was founded by the ancient race of the Ligurians, and of Augusta Prætoria[1872] of the Salassi, near the two passes of the Alps, the Grecian[1873] and the Penine (by the latter it is said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the Grecian, Hercules)—the town of Eporedia[1874], the foundation of which by the Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books; the Gauls call tamers of horses by the name of “Eporediæ”—Vercellæ[1875], the town of the Libici, derived its origin from the Salluvii, and Novaria[1876], founded by the Vertacomacori, is at the present day a district of the Vocontii, and not, as Cato supposes, of the Ligurians; of whom two nations, called the Lævi and the Marici, founded Ticinum[1877], not far from the Padus, as the Boii, descended from the Transalpine nations, have founded Laus Pompeia[1878] and the Insubres Mediolanum[1879].

From Cato we also learn that Comum, Bergomum[1880], and Licinîforum[1881], and some other peoples in the vicinity, originated with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as to the origin of that nation. Cornelius Alexander however informs us that they came from Greece, interpreting their name as meaning “those who live upon the mountains[1882].” In this district, Parra has disappeared, a town of the Orobii, from whom, according to Cato, the people of Bergomum are descended; its site even yet shows that it was situate in a position more elevated than fruitful[1883]. The Caturiges have also perished, an exiled race of the Insubres, as also Spina previously mentioned; Melpum too, a place distinguished for its opulence, which, as we are informed by Cornelius Nepos, was destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the Senones, on the very day on which Camillus took Veii.

CHAP. 22. (18.)—THE TENTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the Adriatic Sea. In this district are Venetia[1884], the river Silis[1885], rising in the Tarvisanian[1886] mountains, the town of Altinum[1887], the river Liquentia rising in the mountains of Opitergium[1888], and a port with the same name, the colony of Concordia[1889]; the rivers and harbours of Romatinum[1890], the greater and less Tiliaventum[1891], the Anaxum[1892], into which the Varamus flows, the Alsa[1893], and the Natiso with the Turrus, which flow past the colony of Aquileia[1894] at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea. This is the country of the Carni[1895], and adjoining to it is that of the Iapydes, the river Timavus[1896], the fortress of Pucinum[1897], famous for its wines, the Gulf of Tergeste[1898], and the colony of that name, thirty-three miles from Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies the river Formio[1899], 189 miles distant from Ravenna, the ancient boundary[1900] of enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That this region takes its name from the river Ister which flows from the Danube, also called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite the mouth of the Padus, and that the sea which lies between them is rendered fresh by their waters running from opposite directions, has been erroneously asserted by many, and among them by Nepos even, who dwelt upon the banks of the Padus. For it is the fact that no river which runs from the Danube discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have been misled, I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came down some river into the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste; but what river that was is now unknown. The most careful writers say that the ship was carried across the Alps on men’s shoulders, having passed along the Ister, then along the Savus, and so from Nauportus[1901], which place, lying between Æmona[1902] and the Alps, from that circumstance derives its name.

CHAP. 23. (19.)—ISTRIA, ITS PEOPLE AND LOCALITY.

Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers have stated its length to be forty miles, and its circumference 125; and the same as to Liburnia which adjoins it, and the Flanatic Gulf[1903], while others make it 225[1904]; others again make the circumference of Liburnia 180 miles. Some persons too extend Iapydia, at the back of Istria, as far as the Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles, thus making Liburnia but 150 miles. Tuditanus[1905], who subdued the Istri, had this inscription on his statue which was erected there: “From Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia.”

The towns of Istria with the rights of Roman citizens are Ægida[1906], Parentium, and the colony of Pola[1907], now Pietas Julia, formerly founded by the Colchians, and distant from Tergeste 100 miles: after which we come to the town of Nesactium[1908], and the river Arsia, now[1909] the boundary of Italy. The distance across from Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In the interior of the tenth region are the colonies of Cremona, Brixia in the territory of the Cenomanni[1910], Ateste[1911] belonging to the Veneti, and the towns of Acelum[1912], Patavium[1913], Opitergium, Belunum[1914], and Vicetia; with Mantua[1915], the only city of the Tuscans now left beyond the Padus. Cato informs us that the Veneti are descendants of the Trojans[1916], and that the Cenomanni[1917] dwelt among the Volcæ in the vicinity of Massilia. There are also the towns of the Fertini[1918], the Tridentini[1919], and the Beruenses, belonging to the Rhæti, Verona[1920], belonging to the Rhæti and the Euganei, and Julienses[1921] to the Carni. We then have the following peoples, whom there is no necessity to particularize with any degree of exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the Flamonienses[1922] with those surnamed Vanienses, and the others called Culici, the Forojulienses[1923] surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani, the Nedinates[1924], the Quarqueni[1925], the Taurisani[1926], the Togienses, and the Varvari. In this district there have disappeared—upon the coast—Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsatium, Atina and Cælina belonging to the Veneti, Segeste and Ocra to the Carni, and Noreia to the Taurisci. L. Piso also informs us that although the senate disapproved of his so doing, M. Claudius Marcellus[1927] razed to the ground a tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.

In this region also and the eleventh there are some celebrated lakes[1928], and several rivers that either take their rise in them or else are fed by their waters, in those cases in which they again emerge from them. These are the Addua[1929], fed by the Lake Larius, the Ticinus by Lake Verbannus, the Mincius by Lake Benacus, the Ollius by Lake Sebinnus, and the Lambrus by Lake Eupilis—all of them flowing into the Padus.

Cælius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper Sea to the Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Timagenes shortens by twenty-two. Cornelius Nepos assigns to them a breadth of 100 miles, and T. Livius of 3000 stadia; but then in different places. For in some localities they exceed 100 miles; where they divide Germany, for instance, from Italy; while in other parts they do not reach seventy, being thus narrowed by the providential dispensation of nature as it were. The breadth of Italy, taken from the river Var at the foot of these mountains, and passing along by the Vada[1930] Sabatia, the Taurini, Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola, and Arsia, is 745 miles.

CHAP. 24. (20.)—THE ALPS, AND THE ALPINE NATIONS.

Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more remarkable, between Pola and the district of Tergeste, are the Secusses, the Subocrini, the Catali, the Menocaleni, and near the Carni the people formerly called the Taurisci, but now the Norici. Adjoining to these are the Rhæti and the Vindelici, who are all divided into a multitude of states. It is supposed that the Rhæti are the descendants of the Tuscans, who were expelled by the Gauls and migrated hither under the command of their chief, whose name was Rhætus. Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we have the Euganean[1931] nations enjoying Latin rights, and of whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are the Triumpilini, a people who were sold[1932] with their territory; and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town. The same author also considers the Lepontii[1933] and the Salassi to be of Tauriscan origin, but most other writers, giving a Greek[1934] interpretation to their name, consider the Lepontii to have been those of the followers of Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their limbs being frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of opinion that the inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are descended from a portion of the Greeks of his army, and that the Euganeans, being sprung from an origin so illustrious, thence took their name[1935]. The head of these are the Stœni[1936]. The Vennonenses[1937] and the Sarunetes[1938], peoples of the Rhæti, dwell about the sources of the river Rhenus, while the tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi, dwell in the vicinity of the sources of the Rhodanus, in the same district of the Alps. There are also other native tribes here, who have received Latin rights, such as the Octodurenses[1939], and their neighbours the Centrones[1940], the Cottian[1941] states, the Ligurian Vagienni, descended from the Caturiges[1942], as also those called Montani[1943]; besides numerous nations of the Capillati[1944], on the confines of the Ligurian Sea.

It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the inscription now to be seen upon the trophy[1945] erected on the Alps, which is to the following effect:—“TO THE EMPEROR CÆSAR—THE SON[1946] OF CÆSAR NOW DEIFIED, AUGUSTUS, PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, AND EMPEROR FOURTEEN YEARS, IN THE SEVENTEENTH[1947] YEAR OF HIS HOLDING THE TRIBUNITIAL AUTHORITY, THE SENATE AND THE ROMAN PEOPLE, IN REMEMBRANCE THAT UNDER HIS COMMAND AND AUSPICES ALL THE ALPINE NATIONS WHICH EXTENDED FROM THE UPPER SEA TO THE LOWER WERE REDUCED TO SUBJECTION BY THE ROMAN PEOPLE—THE ALPINE NATIONS SO SUBDUED WERE: THE TRIUMPILINI, THE CAMUNI, THE VENOSTES[1948], THE VENNONENSES, THE ISARCI, THE BREUNI, THE GENAUNES[1949], THE FOCUNATES, FOUR NATIONS OF THE VINDELICI, THE CONSUANETES, THE RUCINATES, THE LICATES[1950], THE CATENATES, THE AMBISONTES, THE RUGUSCI, THE SUANETES[1951], THE CALUCONES, THE BRIXENTES, THE LEPONTII, THE UBERI, THE NANTUATES, THE SEDUNI, THE VARAGRI, THE SALASSI, THE ACITAVONES, THE MEDULLI, THE UCENI[1952], THE CATURIGES, THE BRIGIANI, THE SOGIONTII, THE BRODIONTII, THE NEMALONI, THE EDENATES[1953], THE ESUBIANI, THE VEAMINI, THE GALLITÆ, THE TRIULATTI, THE ECDINI, THE VERGUNNI, THE EGUITURI[1954], THE NEMENTURI, THE ORATELLI, THE NERUSI, THE VELAUNI, AND THE SUETRI.”

The twelve states of the Cottiani[1955] were not included in the list, as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which had been placed by the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the nations, such the cities of her peoples; to which we may add, that this is that same Italy, which, when L. Æmilius Paulus[1956] and C. Attilius Regulus were Consuls, on hearing of the rising in Gaul, unaided, and without any foreign assistance whatever, without the help even of that portion which lies beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 horse and 700,000 foot. In abundance of metals of every kind Italy yields to no land whatever; but all search for them has been prohibited by an ancient decree of the Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy shall be exempted[1957] from such treatment.

CHAP. 25. (21.)—LIBURNIA AND ILLYRICUM.

The nation of the Liburni adjoins the river Arsia[1958], and extends as far as the river Titus. The Mentores, the Hymani[1959], the Encheleæ, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus calls the Peucetiæ, formerly formed part of it; but now the whole in general are comprised under the one name of Illyricum. But few of the names of these nations are worthy of mention, or indeed very easy of pronunciation. To the jurisdiction of Scardona[1960] resort the Iapydes and fourteen cities of the Liburni, of which it may not prove tedious if I mention the Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the Burnistæ, and the Olbonenses. Belonging to the same jurisdiction there are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights, the Alutæ[1961], the Flanates[1962], from whom the Gulf takes its name, the Lopsi, and the Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from tribute; and upon the islands, the Fertinates and the Curictæ[1963].

Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesactium, Alvona[1964], Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium, Argyruntum, Corinium[1965], Ænona, the city of Pasinum, and the river Tedanius, at which Iapydia terminates. The islands of this Gulf, with their towns, besides those above mentioned, are Absyrtium[1966], Arba[1967], Crexa, Gissa, and Portunata. Again, on the mainland there is the colony of Iadera[1968], distant from Pola 160 miles; then, at a distance of thirty miles, the island of Colentum[1969], and of eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.

CHAP. 26. (22.)—DALMATIA.

Scardona, situate upon the river[1970], at a distance of twelve miles from the sea, forms the boundary of Liburnia and the beginning of Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient country of the Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the Promontory of Diomedes[1971], or, as others call it, the peninsula of Hyllis, 100 miles[1972] in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a place with the rights of Roman citizens, and celebrated for its marble, Sicum, a place to which Claudius, the emperor lately deified, sent a colony of his veterans, and Salona[1973], a colony, situate 112 miles from Iadera. To this place resort for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed according to their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dalmatæ, forming 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the Mazæi 269, and the Sardiates 52. In this region are Burnum[1974], Andetrium[1975], and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by the battles of the Roman people. To the same jurisdiction also belong the Issæi[1976], the Colentini, the Separi, and the Epetini, nations inhabiting the islands. After these come the fortresses of Peguntium[1977] and of Rataneum, with the colony of Narona[1978], the seat of the third jurisdiction, distant from Salona eighty-two miles, and situate upon a river of the same name, at a distance of twenty miles from the sea. M. Varro states that eighty-nine states used to resort thither, but now nearly the only ones that are known are the Cerauni[1979] with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with 17, the Dæsitiates with 103, the Docleatæ with 33, the Deretini with 14, the Deremistæ with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with 44, the Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with 72, the Siculotæ with 24, and the Vardæi, once the scourges of Italy, with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to these, this district was possessed by the Ozuæi, the Partheni, the Hemasini, the Arthitæ, and the Armistæ. The colony of Epidaurum[1980] is distant from the river Naron 100 miles. After Epidaurum come the following towns, with the rights of Roman citizens:—Rhizinium[1981], Acruvium[1982], Butua, Olcinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been founded by the Colchians; the river Drilo[1983], and, upon it, Scodra[1984], a town with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a distance of eighteen miles from the sea; besides in former times many Greek towns and once powerful states, of which all remembrance is fast fading away. For in this region there were formerly the Labeatæ, the Enderini[1985], the Sasæi, the Grabæi[1986], properly called Illyrii, the Taulantii[1987], and the Pyræi. The Promontory of Nymphæum on the sea-coast still retains its name[1988]; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.

(23.) At Lissum begins the province of Macedonia[1989], the nations of the Parthini[1990], and behind them the Dassaretæ[1991]. The mountains of Candavia[1992] are seventy-eight miles from Dyrrhachium. On the coast lies Denda, a town with the rights of Roman citizens, the colony of Epidamnum[1993], which, on account of its inauspicious name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium, the river Aöus[1994], by some called Æas, and Apollonia[1995], formerly a colony of the Corinthians, at a distance of four miles from the sea, in the vicinity of which the celebrated Nymphæum[1996] is inhabited by the barbarous Amantes[1997] and Buliones. Upon the coast too is the town of Oricum[1998], founded by the Colchians. At this spot begins Epirus, with the Acroceraunian[1999] mountains, by which we have previously mentioned[2000] this Gulf of Europe as bounded. Oricum is distant from the Promontory of Salentinum in Italy eighty[2001] miles.

CHAP. 27. (24.)—THE NORICI.

In the rear of the Carni and the Iapydes, along the course of the great river Ister[2002], the Rhæti touch upon the Norici[2003]: their towns are Virunum[2004], Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum[2005], Vianiomina[2006], Claudia[2007], and Flavium Solvense[2008]. Adjoining to the Norici is Lake Peiso[2009], and the deserts of the Boii[2010]; they are however now inhabited by the people of Sabaria[2011], a colony of the now deified emperor Claudius, and the town of Scarabantia Julia[2012].

CHAP. 28. (25.)—PANNONIA.

Next to them comes acorn-bearing Pannonia[2013], along which the chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs through the middle of Illyricum from north to south, forms a gentle slope on the right hand and the left. The portion which looks towards the Adriatic Sea is called Dalmatia and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia stretches away towards the north, and has the Danube for its extreme boundary. In it are the colonies of Æmona[2014] and Siscia. The following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for commerce, flow into the Danube; the Draus[2015], which rushes from Noricum with great impetuosity, and the Savus[2016], which flows with a more gentle current from the Carnic Alps, there being a space between them of 120 miles. The Draus runs through the Serretes, the Serrapilli[2017], the Iasi, and the Andizetes; the Savus through the Colapiani[2018] and the Breuci; these are the principal peoples. Besides them there are the Arivates, the Azali, the Amantini, the Belgites, the Catari, the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the Hercuniates[2019], the Latovici, the Oseriates, the Varciani, and, in front of Mount Claudius, the Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In the Savus there is the island of Metubarris[2020], the greatest of all the islands formed by rivers. Besides the above, there are these other rivers worthy of mention:—the Colapis[2021], which flows into the Savus near Siscia, where, dividing its channel, it forms the island which is called Segestica[2022]; and the river Bacuntius[2023], which flows into the Savus at the town of Sirmium, where we find the state of the Sirmienses and the Amantini. Forty-five miles thence is Taurunum[2024], where the Savus flows into the Danube; above which spot the Valdanus[2025] and the Urpanus, themselves far from ignoble rivers, join that stream.

CHAP. 29. (26.)—MŒSIA.

Joining up to Pannonia is the province called Mœsia[2026], which runs, with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine. It commences at the confluence[2027] previously mentioned. In it are the Dardani, the Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the Mœsi, the Thracians, and the Scythians who border on the Euxine. The more famous among its rivers are the Margis[2028], which rises in the territory of the Dardani, the Pingus, the Timachus, the Œscus which rises in Mount Rhodope, and, rising in Mount Hæmus, the Utus[2029], the Asamus, and the Ieterus.

The breadth of Illyricum[2030] at its widest part is 325 miles, and its length from the river Arsia to the river Drinius 530; from the Drinius to the Promontory of Acroceraunia Agrippa states to be 175 miles, and he says that the entire circuit of the Italian and Illyrian Gulf is 1700 miles. In this Gulf, according to the limits which we have drawn, are two seas, the Ionian[2031] in the first part, and the Adriatic, which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.

CHAP. 30.—ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA AND THE ADRIATIC.

In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of notice beyond those which we have already mentioned, and only a few in the Ionian; those, for instance, upon the Calabrian coast, opposite Brundusium, by the projection of which a harbour is formed; and, over against the Apulian coast, Diomedia[2032], remarkable for the monument of Diomedes, and another island called by the same name, but by some Teutria.

The coast of Illyricum is clustered with more than 1000 islands, the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous creeks and æstuaries running with their narrow channels between portions of the land. The more famous are those before the mouths of the Timavus, with warm springs[2033] that rise with the tides of the sea, the island of Cissa near the territory of the Istri, and the Pullaria[2034] and Absyrtides[2035], so called by the Greeks from the circumstance of Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some islands near them have been called the Electrides[2036], upon which amber, which they call “electrum,” was said to be found; a most assured instance however of that untruthfulness[2037] which is generally ascribed to the Greeks, seeing that it has never yet been ascertained which of the islands were meant by them under that name. Opposite to the Iader is Lissa, and other islands whose names have been already mentioned[2038]. Opposite to the Liburni are some islands called the Crateæ, and no smaller number styled Liburnicæ and Celadussæ[2039]. Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and Brattia[2040], famous for its goats, Issa with the rights of Roman citizens, and Pharia with a town. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Issa is Corcyra[2041], surnamed Melæna, with a town founded by the Cnidians; between which and Illyricum is Melite[2042], from which, as we learn from Callimachus, a certain kind of little dogs were called Melitæi; fifteen miles from it we find the seven Elaphites[2043]. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance of twelve miles from Oricum, is Sasonis[2044], notorious from having been a harbour of pirates.

* * * * *

SUMMARY.—The towns and nations mentioned are in number * * * *[2045]. The rivers of note are in number * * * *. The mountains of note are in number * * * *. The islands are in number * * * *. The towns or nations which have disappeared are in number * * * *. The facts, statements, and observations are in number 326.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Turannius Gracilis[2046], Cornelius Nepos[2047], T. Livius[2048], Cato the Censor[2049], M. Agrippa[2050], M. Varro[2051], the Emperor Augustus[2052] now deified, Varro Atacinus[2053], Antias[2054], Hyginus[2055], L. Vetus[2056], Pomponius Mela[2057], Curio[2058] the Elder, Cælius[2059], Arruntius[2060], Sebosus[2061], Licinius Mucianus[2062], Fabricius Tuscus[2063], L. Ateius[2064], Capito[2065], Verrius Flaccus[2066], L. Piso[2067], Gellianus[2068], and Valerianus[2069].

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Artemidorus[2070], Alexander Polyhistor[2071], Thucydides[2072], Theophrastus[2073], Isidorus[2074], Theopompus[2075], Metrodorus of Scepsis[2076], Callicrates[2077], Xenophon of Lampsacus[2078], Diodorus of Syracuse[2079], Nymphodorus[2080], Calliphanes[2081], and Timagenes[2082].

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Book IV

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia[2083], and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other sea[2084], the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon it.

Epirus[2085], generally so called, begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom Chaonia[2086] receives its name, then the Thesproti[2087], and then the Antigonenses[2088]. We then come to the place where Aornos[2089] stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the Cestrini[2090], the Perrhæbi[2091], in whose country Mount Pindus is situate, the Cassiopæi[2092], the Dryopes[2093], the Sellæ[2094], the Hellopes[2095], the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount Tomarus[2096], so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously[2097] mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra[2098], situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal Waters[2099]; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria[2100], the Thyamis[2101], a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum[2102], and the Ambracian Gulf[2103], so famed in history; which, with an inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows into it[2104] after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the Arachthus[2105], rivers of the Molossi; the city of Anactoria[2106], and the place where Pandosia[2107] stood.

CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.

The towns of Acarnania[2108], the ancient name of which was Curetis, are Heraclia[2109], Echinus[2110], and, on the coast, Actium, a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis[2111]. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of Leucate[2112], and then the Gulf and the peninsula of Leucadia[2113], which last was formerly called Neritis[2114]. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos[2115], and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly called Neritus[2116]. We next come to Alyzia[2117], Stratos[2118], and Argos[2119], surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians: the river Acheloüs[2120] flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of Artemita[2121] to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream.

CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.

The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes[2122], the Tymphæi[2123], the Ephyri[2124], the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi[2125], the Dolopes[2126], the Maraces, and the Atraces[2127], in whose territory rises the river Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon[2128] is a city of Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near the banks of the river Evenus[2129]. We then come to Macynia[2130], and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis[2131] and Taphiassus. On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium[2132], off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less[2133] than one mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called Rhion[2134]. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are Naupactus[2135] and Pylene[2136]; and, more inland, Pleuron and Halicyrna[2137]. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, Crania[2138] in Ambracia, Aracynthus[2139] in Acarnania, and Acanthon[2140], Panætolium[2141], and Macynium[2142], in Ætolia.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.

Next to Ætolia are the Locri[2143], surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe[2144], the port[2145] of Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa[2146]. In the interior are the towns of Argyna, Eupalia[2147], Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha[2148], and the port of Chalæon[2149], seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of Delphi[2150], at the foot of Mount Parnassus[2151], and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of Castalia[2152], and the river Cephisus[2153] which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of Lilæa[2154]. Besides these, there is the town of Crissa[2155] and that of Anticyra[2156], with the Bulenses[2157]; as also Naulochum[2158], Pyrrha, Amphissa[2159], exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, Tritea[2160], Ambrysus[2161], and Drymæa[2162], which district has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ[2163] and Thebes[2164], surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon[2165]. The third town of Bœotia on this sea is that of Pagæ[2166], from which point the Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia[2167] and Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides[2168], and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas[2169] only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are known as the Corinthian[2170] and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of Lecheæ[2171], on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King Demetrius[2172], Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius[2173], and Domitius Nero[2174], have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen by the result[2175] in every one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name of Ephyre[2176], situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,” and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony of Patræ[2177] is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously[2178] stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.

The province called Achaia[2179] begins at the Isthmus; from the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos[2180]. The first place there is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which is Olyros[2181], a fortress of the people of Pellene[2182]; then the former towns of Helice and Bura[2183], and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, Sicyon[2184] namely, Ægira[2185], Ægium, and Erineos[2186]. In the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ[2187]; then come the port of Panormus[2188], and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles; and then the place where Pheræ[2189] stood. Of the nine mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of Olenum[2190], the colony of Dyme[2191], the places where Buprasium[2192] and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of Araxus[2193], the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five miles’ distance from Cyllene[2194]. There is also the fortress of Phlius[2195]; the district around which was called by Homer Aræthyrea[2196], and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei, with the city of Elis[2197] in the interior, and, at a distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoning[2198]. Here too once stood the town of Pisa[2199], the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promontory of Ichthys[2200]. The river Alpheus is navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon[2201] and Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of Platanodes[2202]. All these localities lie to the west.

CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.

Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of Cyparissa[2203] on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles in length. Then, the towns of Pylos[2204] and Methone[2205], the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas[2206], the Asinæan Gulf, which takes its name from the town of Asine[2207], and the Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of Tænarum[2208]. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus[2209] also. In the interior are Messene[2210], Ithome, Œchalia, Arene[2211], Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion[2212], and Zancle[2213], all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being thirty.

CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.

At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns are, Tænarum[2214], Amyclæ[2215], Pheræ[2216], and Leuctra[2217]; and, in the interior, Sparta[2218], Theramne[2219], and the spots where Cardamyle[2220], Pitane[2221], and Anthea formerly stood; the former site of Thyrea[2222], and Gerania[2223]. Here is also Mount Taygetus[2224], the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes[2225], the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum[2226], so called from the town of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of Malea[2227].

CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.

The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum[2228], is called the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns upon it are, Bœa[2229], Epidaurus[2230], surnamed Limera, Zarax[2231], and the port of Cyphanta[2232]. The rivers are the Inachus[2233] and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed Hippium[2234], situate beyond the place called Lerna[2235], and at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is Mycenæ[2236], and the place where, it is said, Tiryns[2237] stood; the site, too, of Mantinea[2238]. The mountains are, Artemius, Apesantus[2239], Asterion[2240], Parparus, and some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of Niobe[2241], Amymone, and Psamathe.

From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We find here the towns of Hermione[2242], Trœzen[2243], Coryphasium[2244], and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,” sometimes “Dipsian”[2245] Argos. Then comes the port of Schœnites[2246], and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaks[2247], from which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of Æsculapius[2248], the Promontory of Spiræum[2249], the port of Anthedus[2250], Bucephalus[2251], and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of Neptune[2252], famous for the games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.; which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast of Attica.

CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote from the sea on every side, was originally called Drymodes[2253], and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis[2254], Mantinea[2255], Stymphalus[2256], Tegea[2257], Antigonea[2258], Orchomenus[2259], Pheneum[2260], Palantium[2261] (from which the Palatium[2262] at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis[2263], Gortyna[2264], Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia[2265], Thelpusa[2266], Melænæ[2267], Heræa[2268], Pylæ[2269], Pallene, Agræ, Epium, Cynæthæ[2270], Lepreon of Arcadia[2271], Parthenium[2272], Alea, Methydrium[2273], Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium[2274], and Cleonæ[2275]; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea, commonly known as Bembinadia[2276].

The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë[2277], with a town of the same name, Cyllene[2278], Lycæus[2279], upon which is the temple of Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus[2280], Artemisius[2281], Parthenius[2282], Lampeus[2283], and Nonacris[2284], besides eight others of no note. The rivers are the Ladon[2285], which rises in the marshes of Pheneus[2286], and the Erymanthus[2287], which springs from a mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the Aliphiræi[2288], the Abeatæ[2289], the Pyrgenses[2290], the Paroreatæ[2291], the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei[2292], the Thriasii[2293], and the Tritienses[2294]. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the whole of Achaia[2295]. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the town of Ægium[2296] on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already mentioned[2297]. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently called Acte[2298]. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the colony of Megara[2299], lying on the opposite side to Pagæ[2300].

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well as the people of Ægosthena[2301], belong to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos[2302], the towns of Sidus[2303] and Cremmyon[2304], the Scironian Rocks[2305], six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis[2306]. Œnoë[2307] and Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and Phalerum[2308] are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall[2309] five miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needs[2310] not a word more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia[2311], Larine, Callirrhoë Enneacrunos[2312], and the mountains of Brilessus[2313], Ægialeus, Icarius, Hymettus[2314], Lycabettus[2315], and the place where Ilissus[2316] stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus is the Promontory of Sunium[2317]. There is also the Promontory of Thoricos[2318]; Potamos[2319], Steria[2320], and Brauron[2321], once towns, the borough of Rhamnus[2322], the place where Marathon[2323] stood, the Thriasian[2324] plain, the town of Melite[2325], and Oropus[2326] upon the confines of Bœotia.

CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.

In this country are Anthedon[2327], Onchestus[2328], the free town of Thespiæ[2329], Lebadea[2330], and then Thebes[2331], surnamed Bœotian[2332], which does not yield the palm to Athens even in celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also belong the forest of Cithæron[2333], and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene[2334], Aganippe, and Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are Eleutheræ[2335], Haliartus[2336], Platææ[2337], Pheræ, Aspledon[2338], Hyle[2339], Thisbe[2340], Erythræ[2341], Glissas[2342], and Copæ[2343]; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa[2344]; as also Medeon, Phlygone, Acræphia[2345], Coronea[2346], and Chæronea[2347]. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea[2348], Heleon, Scolos, Schœnos[2349], Peteon[2350], Hyriæ[2351], Mycalesos[2352], Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra[2353], the people of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus[2354], a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa, Aulis[2355], so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii[2356], formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are Opus[2357]; from which the Opuntian Gulf[2358] takes its name, and Cynos. Daphnus[2359] is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea[2360], and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated[2361], Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, Cnemisæ[2362] and Hyampolisæ[2363]. Again, upon the coast of the Locrians, are Larymna[2364], and Thronium[2365], near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion, Alope[2366], and Scarphia[2367]; and then the gulf which receives the name of the Maliac[2368] from the people who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara[2369].

CHAP. 13.—DORIS.

Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios[2370], Erineon[2371], Boion[2372], Pindus, and Cytinum[2373]. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.

CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.

Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born Hellen[2374], from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus[2375], at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass of Thermopylæ[2376], Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of Trachin[2377]. Here too is Mount Callidromus[2378], and the celebrated towns of Hellas[2379], Halos[2380], Lamia[2381], Phthia[2382], and Arne[2383].

CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan[2384], and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax[2385], and Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ[2386], at the back of which is Pieria[2387], extending to Macedonia, Larisa[2388], Gomphi[2389], Thebes[2390] of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa[2391], which was afterwards called Demetrias[2392], the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar name[2393], Crannon[2394], and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius[2395], Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most famous are Cercetii, Olympus[2396], Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion[2397] towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the Apidanus[2398], the Phœnix[2399], the Enipeus[2400], the Onochonus[2401], and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis[2402]. The river Peneus[2403] too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a jugerum[2404] and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says[2405]; and then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams.

CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra[2406]. Its towns are Iolcos[2407], Hormenium, Pyrrha[2408], Methone[2409], and Olizon[2410]. The Promontory of Sepias[2411] is here situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea[2412] and Spalathra[2413], the Promontory of Æantium[2414], the towns of Melibœa[2415], Rhizus, and Erymnæ[2416]; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of Homolium[2417], Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna[2418], Thaumacie[2419], Gyrton[2420], Crannon[2421], Acharne[2422], Dotion[2423], Melitæa, Phylace[2424], and Potniæ[2425]. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287.

CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two kings[2426] and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known by the name of Emathia[2427]. Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the Dardani[2428]. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi[2429]. Its towns are Ægiæ[2430], at which place its kings were usually buried, Beræa[2431], and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that name, Æginium[2432]. Upon the coast are Heraclea[2433], the river Apilas[2434], the towns of Pydna[2435] and Aloros[2436], and the river Haliacmon[2437]. In the interior are the Aloritæ[2438], the Vallæi[2439], the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ[2440], the Tyrissæi, the colony of Pella[2441], and Stobi[2442], a town with the rights of Roman citizens. Next comes Antigonea[2443], Europus[2444] upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, Ichnæ[2445], and the river Axius; along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres[2446], and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the nations of Pæonia[2447], the Paroræi[2448], the Eordenses[2449], the Almopii[2450], the Pelagones, and the Mygdones[2451].

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the Arethusii[2452], the Antiochienses[2453], the Idomenenses[2454], the Doberi[2455], the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the Morylli, the Garesci[2456], the Lyncestæ[2457], the Othryonei[2458], and the Amantini[2459] and Orestæ[2460], both of them free peoples; the colonies of Bullis[2461] and Dium[2462], the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi, a free people, Heraclea Sintica[2463], the Tymphæi[2464], and the Toronæi.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of Chalastra[2465], and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica[2466], a free city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles[2467],) and then Thermæ[2468]. Upon the Gulf[2469] of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna[2470], Derra, Scione[2471], the Promontory of Canastræum[2472], and the towns of Pallene[2473] and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of Nyssos[2474], Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly Potidæa[2475] on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus[2476], Olophyxus[2477], and the Gulf of Mecyberna[2478]; the towns of Miscella, Ampelos[2479], Torone[2480], Singos[2481], and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount Athos[2482] from the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-five[2483] miles; its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the town of Acroathon[2484]: the present towns are Uranopolis[2485], Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ[2486], and Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of Macrobii[2487]. The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come Acanthus[2488], Stagira[2489], Sithone[2490], Heraclea[2491], and the country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea, Apollonia[2492] and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have Posidium[2493], and the bay with the town of Cermorus, Amphipolis[2494], a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then come to the river Strymon[2495] which takes its rise in Mount Hæmus[2496] and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which once extended[2497] her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father Liber[2498] and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-two[2499] cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of two[2500] individuals!

CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies[2501], and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ above[2502] mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi[2503], with various names, as far as the river Mestus[2504], which winds around the foot of Mount Pangæum[2505], passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi[2506], the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the Odrysæ[2507] gives birth to the Hebrus[2508], its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the Edoni[2509]. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called Poneropolis[2510], afterwards Philippopolis[2511] from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, Trimontium[2512]. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel six[2513] miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi[2514], the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi Sarmatæ[2515], also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet Orpheus[2516], dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the Propontis[2517] on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia[2518], Œsyma[2519], Neapolis[2520] and Datos. In the interior is the colony of Philippi[2521], distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also Scotussa[2522], the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Mestus[2523], Mount Pangæus, Heraclea[2524], Olynthos[2525], Abdera[2526], a free city, the people of the Bistones[2527] and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horses[2528] of Diomedes. At the present day we find here Dicæa[2529], Ismaron[2530], the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and Maronea[2531], formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount Serrium[2532] and Zone[2533], and then the place called Doriscus[2534], capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the Hebrus[2535], the Port of Stentor, and the free town of Ænos[2536], with the tomb there of Polydorus[2537], the region formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos[2538], or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas[2539] receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela[2540], Bisanthe[2541], and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus[2542], which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast[2543] of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis[2544], namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi[2545], and Callatis[2546], formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis[2547], formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania[2548], where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus[2549], a city of the Milesians, the river Panysus[2550], and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum[2551]. At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria[2552], and Anchialum[2553], where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia[2554] occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias[2555], Halmydessos[2556], Develton[2557], with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus[2558]. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes[2559], and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras[2560], upon which is the town of Byzantium[2561], a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras[2562], or Athyras, and the towns of Selymbria[2563] and Perinthus[2564], which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya[2565], a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus[2566]; the district called Cænica[2567], and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river Erginus[2568]; here formerly stood the town of Ganos[2569]; and Lysimachia[2570] in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus[2571], similar in name to the other[2572], and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia[2573] on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape[2574] which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with Lysimachia[2575], which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa[2576], on the banks of the river Ægos[2577]; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two[2578] miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have already[2579] stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis[2580] and Sestos[2581] in Europe, and Lampsacus[2582] and Abydos[2583] in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia[2584], lying opposite to Sigeum[2585]; upon one side of it stands the Cynossema[2586] (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval station[2587] of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine[2588] of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos[2589], Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already[2590] mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of Æx[2591] from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan[2592], being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus[2593] in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of Corcyra[2594], with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called Cassiope[2595], and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos[2596], lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxos[2597] in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not far[2598] from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum[2599], a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna[2600] we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called Teleboïdes[2601], as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and Prinoessa[2602]; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the Echinades[2603], consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia[2604] and Zacynthus[2605], both of them free, Ithaca[2606], Dulichium[2607], Same[2608], and Crocyle[2609]. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melæna[2610], lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others[2611]. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of Elatus[2612]. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus[2613]; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus[2614], a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris[2615] and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two Strophades[2616], by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies Letoia[2617], before Pylos the three Sphagiæ[2618], and before Messene the Œnussæ[2619], as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides[2620], and in that of Laconia Theganusa[2621], Cothon, and Cythera[2622], with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of Malea[2623], thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa[2624], Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione[2625], Tiparenus, Aperopia[2626], Colonis[2627], and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria[2628], at a distance of half a mile, Plateis[2629], Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos[2630], and Pityonesos[2631], six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina[2632], a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum[2633], lie Eleusa[2634], Adendros[2635], the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila[2636] lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

CHAP. 20.—CRETE.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides[2637]; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of Macaron[2638] from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium[2639], facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criumetopon[2640], in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa[2641], Cisamon[2642], Pergamum, Cydonia[2643], Minoium[2644], Apteron[2645], Pantomatrium, Amphimalla[2646], Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, Matium[2647], Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna[2648], Lebena[2649], and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna[2650], Phæstum, Cnossus[2651], Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium[2652], Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ[2653], Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus[2654], Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus[2655]. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus[2656], the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos[2657], at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called Mylæ[2658]. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce[2659], and the two islands known as Budroæ[2660]. Opposite to Matium lies Dia[2661]; opposite to the promontory of Itanum[2662], Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos[2663]. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the Lichades[2664], consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis[2665]; before it, Psyttalia[2666]; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene[2667]. At the same distance from this last is Ceos[2668], which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and Carthæa[2669]; Coresus[2670] and Pœëessa[2671] have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women’s dresses.

CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.

Eubœa[2672] itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a bridge[2673]. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of Geræstus[2674], which looks towards Attica, and that of Caphareus[2675], which faces the Hellespont; on the north it has that of Cenæum[2676]. In no part does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 miles[2677]. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, Cerinthos[2678], Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos[2679], Ocha, and Œchalia; at present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis[2680] (opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus[2681], Eretria[2682], Carystus[2683], Oritanum, and Artemisium[2684]. Here are also the Fountain of Arethusa[2685], the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris[2686], as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called Abantias[2687], and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis.

CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.

Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan[2688] Sea, are numerous other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos and the Ægila[2689]. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstance[2690] they derive their name. The first of them is the one called Andros[2691] with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos[2692], with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some writers call it Ophiussa[2693]. The other islands are, Myconos[2694], with the mountain of Dimastus[2695], distant from Delos fifteen[2696] miles; Siphnus[2697], formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles in circumference; Seriphus[2698], twelve miles in circuit; Prepesinthus[2699]; Cythnos[2700]; and then, by far the most famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, Delos[2701] itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. Varro[2702]; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearance[2703] on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia[2704], Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount Cynthus[2705] here raises his head.

Next to this island is Rhene[2706], which Anticlides calls by the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros[2707], which the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but Mucianus 160; Oliaros[2708]; and Paros[2709], with a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its marble[2710]; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos[2711], with a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was formerly called Strongyle[2712], then Dia, and then Dionysias[2713], in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards; others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis[2714]. It is seventy-five[2715] miles in circumference—half as large again as Paros.

CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the rest that follow are the Sporades[2716]. These are, Helene[2717], Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros[2718], which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in length[2719], with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and Ichthyoëssa[2720]. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 112-1/2 miles.

After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island of Scyros[2721], and that of Ios[2722], eighteen miles distant from Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara[2723], with a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos[2724], noted for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa[2725], Patmos[2726], thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiæ[2727], Lebinthus[2728], Leros[2729], Cinara[2730]; Sicinus[2731], formerly called Œnoë[2732]; Hieracia, also called Onus; Casos[2733], likewise called Astrabe; Cimolus[2734], or Echinussa; and Melos[2735], with a city of that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circular[2736] in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called Amorgos[2737], Polyægos[2738], Phyle, and Thera[2739], known as Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later period, the island of Therasia[2740] was torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, Ascania[2741], Anaphe[2742], Hippuris, and Astypalæa[2743], a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia[2744], Calymna[2745], in which is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is Carpathum[2746], which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to Rhodes[2747], in the direction of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirty[2748]. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called Petaliæ[2749]; and, at its outlet, Atalante[2750]. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.

The Gulf of Pagasa[2751] has in front of it Euthia[2752], Cicynethus[2753], Scyros, previously mentioned[2754], and the very furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and Scandila[2755]; the Gulf of Thermæ[2756], Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands; Peparethus[2757], formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus[2758], at a distance of fifteen, and Imbros[2759], with a city of the same name, at a distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two[2760] miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos[2761], being distant from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina[2762]; into the market-place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice. The island of Thasos[2763], constituting a free state, is six miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria. Abdera[2764], on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-two[2765]. The island of Samothrace[2766], a free state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-two[2767] miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eight[2768] from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce[2769], ten miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos[2770], and beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus[2771], not far from Cœlos, a port[2772] of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and Polendos[2773].

CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends at the entrance of the Mæotis[2774]. But in order that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far as Priapus[2775], a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the Propontis[2776], the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus[2777], being only half-a-mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly Axenus[2778]. As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bow[2779]. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian[2780] Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus[2781], a town of the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum[2782], by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole of which added together, makes 1337[2783] miles. Agrippa makes the distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence to Panticapæum, 635.

Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the Riphæan Mountains[2784], and forms the extreme boundary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as far as Istropolis, have been already[2785] mentioned in our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount Abnoba[2786], opposite to Rauricum[2787], a town of Gaul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six[2788] vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of Peuce[2789], close to which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake[2790] takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma[2791]; the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma[2792]; the fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon[2793], with its island called Conopon-Diabasis[2794]; after which come the Boreon-Stoma[2795] and the Psilon-Stoma[2796]. These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be fresh.

CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot the Getæ[2797], by the Romans called Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii[2798] or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ[2799]; and then, after them, the Alani[2800] and the Rhoxalani. The higher[2801] parts again, between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest[2802], as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum[2803], and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges[2804], who inhabit the level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river Pathissus[2805], inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving the river Marus[2806], whether it is that or the Duria[2807], that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of Vannius[2808], the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite sides[2809]. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the deserts[2810] of Sarmatia. The name “Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly all the rest of the world.

CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos[2811], Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river Tyra[2812], which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island[2813] situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their name from the river Axiaces[2814], and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the river Rhodes[2815], the Sagarian Gulf[2816], and the port of Ordesos[2817]. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river Borysthenes[2818], with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a town[2819] in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of Achilles[2820], famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos[2821]: the length of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the Siraci[2822] occupy all this tract of country.

At this spot begins a well-wooded district[2823], which has given to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ[2824]. Beyond them is the river Panticapes[2825], which separates the Nomades[2826] and the Georgi, and after it the Acesinus[2827]. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes below Olbia[2828]. Others, who are more correct, say that it is the Hypanis[2829]: so great is the mistake made by those who have placed it[2830] in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf[2831], until there is only an intervening space[2832] of five miles between it and the Lake Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land, and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we find the river Pacyris[2833], the towns of Navarum and Carcine[2834], and behind it Lake Buges[2835], which discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocks[2836] from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers Buges[2837], Gerrus[2838], and Hypacaris[2839], which approach it from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica[2840] begins, which was once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Characeni[2841], the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian Satarchæ[2842]. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Taphræ[2843], situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea Chersonesus[2844], to which its freedom has been granted[2845] by the Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of Parthenium[2846], the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the Symboli[2847], and the Promontory of Criumetopon[2848], opposite to Carambis[2849], a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number of harbours and lakes of the Tauri[2850]. The town of Theodosia[2851] is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia. Panticapæum[2852], a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the Strait, as we have previously[2853] stated, two miles and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus[2854] is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium[2855], Myrmecium, and, in the interior[2856] of it, the island of Alopece. From the spot called Taphræ[2857], at the extremity of the isthmus, to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the Auchetæ[2858], in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the Geloni[2859], the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the Agathyrsi[2860] with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ and the Essedones[2861]. Along the coast, as far as the river Tanais[2862], are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come to the Riphæan[2863] mountains, and the region known by the name of Pterophoros[2864], because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the Hyperborei[2865], a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many marvellous stories[2866]. At this spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinox[2867] to autumn. On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the Attacori[2868], who greatly resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhere[2869] but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authors[2870] are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful.

CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we have already made mention of them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanæan[2871] islands, by some called the Symplegades[2872], and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single island[2873] of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline[2874] Apollo. Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already mentioned[2875]. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea[2876] previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and Macaron[2877]. Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all the interior[2878] seas take their rise in this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.

We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions[2879] of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at Gades. In this direction a great number of islands[2880] are said to exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia[2881], and said to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the Septentrional[2882] or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the “Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cronian[2883] Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’ sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called Baltia[2884], which by Pytheas is called Basilia[2885]. Some islands[2886] called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the Ingævones[2887], the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is an immense mountain called Sevo[2888], not less than those of the Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the ‘Codanian,’ is filled with islands; the most famous among which is Scandinavia[2889], of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it is generally supposed that the island of Eningia[2890] is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the Venedi[2891], the Sciri, and the Hirri[2892], and that there is a gulf there known by the name of Cylipenus[2893], at the mouth of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris[2894]. Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have been made known by the Roman arms[2895]: the most famous of which is Burcana[2896], called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance borne[2897] by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those also called Glæsaria[2898] by our soldiers, from their amber; but by the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania.

CHAP. 28.—GERMANY.

The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis[2899], a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 686[2900] miles, and the breadth 148[2901]. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa.

There are five German races; the Vandili[2902], parts of whom are the Burgundiones[2903], the Varini[2904], the Carini[2905], and the Gutones[2906]: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the Cimbri[2907], the Teutoni[2908], and the tribes of the Chauci[2909]. The Istævones[2910], who join up to the Rhine, and to whom the Cimbri[2911] belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi[2912], the Hermunduri[2913], the Chatti[2914], and the Cherusci[2915]: the fifth race is that of the Peucini[2916], who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the Guttalus[2917], the Vistillus or Vistula, the Albis[2918], the Visurgis[2919], the Amisius[2920], the Rhine, and the Mosa[2921]. In the interior is the long extent of the Hercynian[2922] range, which in grandeur is inferior to none.

CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.

In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous island[2923] of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other islands of the Frisii[2924], the Chauci, the Frisiabones[2925], the Sturii[2926], and the Marsacii, which lie between Helium[2927] and Flevum[2928]. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own name.

CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA.

Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated in the records of Greece[2929] and of our own country. It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was Albion[2930]; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of “Britanniæ.” This island is distant from Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the Morini[2931], at the spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the Caledonian[2932] forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across being the shortest from the territory of the Silures[2933], a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there are the Orcades[2934], forty in number, and situate within a short distance of each other, the seven islands called Acmodæ[2935], the Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the islands of Mona[2936], Monapia[2937], Ricina[2938], Vectis[2939], Limnus[2940], and Andros[2941]. Below it are the islands called Samnis and Axantos[2942], and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those known as the Glæsariæ[2943], but which the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing electrum or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is Thule[2944], in which, as we have previously stated[2945], there is no night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island called Mictis[2946] is within six days’ sail of Britannia, in which white lead[2947] is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in boats of osier[2948], covered with sewed hides. There are writers also who make mention of some other islands, Scandia[2949] namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for Thule. At one day’s sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some is called the Cronian Sea.

CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA.

The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of Comata[2950], is divided into three races of people, which are more especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the Sequana[2951] it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana to the Garumna[2952] it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis[2953]; and from the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian Gaul, formerly called Aremorica[2954]. Agrippa makes the entire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna and Jura, excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420 miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond[2955] are inhabited by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after whom come the Menapii[2956], the Morini[2957], the Oromarsaci[2958], who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as Gesoriacum[2959], the Britanni[2960], the Ambiani[2961], the Bellovaci[2962], the Hassi[2963], and, more in the interior, the Catoslugi[2964], the Atrebates[2965], the Nervii[2966], a free people, the Veromandui[2967], the Suæuconi[2968], the Suessiones[2969], a free people, the Ulmanetes[2970], a free people, the Tungri[2971], the Sunuci[2972], the Frisiabones[2973], the Betasi[2974], the Leuci[2975], a free people, the Treveri[2976], who were formerly free, and the Lingones[2977], a federal state, the federal Remi[2978], the Mediomatrici[2979], the Sequani[2980], the Raurici[2981], and the Helvetii[2982]. The Roman colonies are Equestris[2983] and Rauriaca[2984]. The nations of Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the Nemetes[2985], the Triboci[2986], and the Vangiones[2987]; nearer again[2988], the Ubii[2989], the Colony[2990] of Agrippina, the Cugerni[2991], the Batavi[2992], and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine.

CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS.

That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis[2993] contains the Lexovii[2994], the Vellocasses[2995], the Galeti[2996], the Veneti[2997], the Abrincatui[2998], the Ossismi[2999], and the celebrated river Ligeris[3000], as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into the ocean at the extremity[3001] of the territory of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 625[3002] miles, and its breadth at the neck 125[3003]. Beyond this are the Nannetes[3004], and in the interior are the Ædui[3005], a federal people, the Carnuti[3006], a federal people, the Boii[3007], the Senones[3008], the Aulerci, both those surnamed Eburovices[3009] and those called Cenomanni[3010], the Meldi[3011], a free people, the Parisii[3012], the Tricasses[3013], the Andecavi[3014], the Viducasses[3015], the Bodiocasses[3016], the Venelli[3017], the Cariosvelites[3018], the Diablinti[3019], the Rhedones[3020], the Turones[3021], the Atesui[3022], and the Secusiani[3023], a free people, in whose territory is the colony of Lugdunum[3024].

CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA.

In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri[3025], the Anagnutes[3026], the Pictones[3027], the Santoni[3028], a free people, the Bituriges[3029], surnamed Vivisci, the Aquitani[3030], from whom the province derives its name, the Sediboviates[3031], the Convenæ[3032], who together form one town, the Begerri[3033], the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani[3034], the Cocosates Sexsignani[3035], the Venami[3036], the Onobrisates[3037], the Belendi[3038], and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these are the Monesi[3039], the Oscidates[3040] a mountain race, the Sibyllates[3041], the Camponi[3042], the Bercorcates[3043], the Pindedunni[3044], the Lassunni[3045], the Vellates[3046], the Tornates[3047], the Consoranni[3048], the Ausci[3049], the Elusates[3050], the Sottiates[3051], the Oscidates Campestres[3052], the Succasses[3053], the Tarusates[3054], the Basabocates[3055], the Vassei[3056], the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Agessinates[3057]. Joining up to the Pictones are the Bituriges[3058], a free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the Lemovices[3059], the Arverni[3060], a free people, and the Gabales[3061].

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the Ruteni[3062], the Cadurci[3063], the Nitiobriges[3064], and the Petrocori[3065], separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine, the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the Veneti, which bear the name of “Veneticæ[3066],” as also in the Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus[3067].

CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN.

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself[3068] in its other parts, as we have previously mentioned[3069], seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west[3070], divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones[3071], Olarso[3072], the towns of the Varduli[3073], the Morosgi[3074], Menosca[3075], Vesperies[3076], and the Port of Amanus[3077], where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the Cantabri[3078], the river Sauga[3079], and the Port of Victoria of the Juliobrigenses[3080], from which place the sources of the Iberus[3081] are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium[3082], the Orgenomesci[3083], a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca[3084] their port, the country of the Astures[3085], the town of Noega[3086], and on a peninsula[3087], the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus[3088], after passing the river Navilubio[3089], the Cibarci[3090], the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ[3091], the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florius[3092] and Nelo, the Celtici[3093], surnamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici[3094], in whose peninsula[3095] are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated[3096] to Augustus; the Capori[3097], the town of Noela[3098], the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the Cileni[3099]: of the islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata[3100] and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the Bracari[3101], we have the Heleni[3102], the Gravii[3103], and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ[3104], the famous city of Abobrica[3105], the river Minius[3106], four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi[3107], and Augusta[3108], a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river Limia[3109], and the river Durius[3110], one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the Pelendones[3111], passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and white[3112].

CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA.

After passing the Durius, Lusitania[3113] begins. We here have the ancient Turduli[3114], the Pæsuri, the river Vaga[3115], the town of Talabrica, the town and river[3116] of Æminium, the towns of Conimbrica[3117], Collippo[3118], and Eburobritium[3119]. A promontory[3120] then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called Artabrum[3121], by others the Great Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the city[3122] near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side[3123] of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that never[3124] was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river Æminius[3125] is distant 200 miles, which others[3126] suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the Munda[3127] lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sands[3128]. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory[3129], projecting from nearly the very middle of the front[3130] of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentioned[3131] Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the Vettones[3132]. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory[3133] are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo[3134], famous for its mares, which conceive[3135] from the west wind; Salacia[3136], which is surnamed the Imperial City; Merobrica[3137]; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of Cuneus[3138], and the towns of Ossonoba[3139], Balsa[3140], and Myrtili[3141].

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita[3142], situate on the river Anas, Metallinum[3143], Pax[3144], and Norba[3145], surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra Servilia[3146] and Castra Cæcilia[3147] resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of Scalabis[3148], which also has the name of Præsidium Julium[3149]. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia[3150], is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are Ebora[3151], which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia[3152], and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already[3153] alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses[3154], the Ammienses[3155], the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the Caperenses[3156], the Caurenses[3157], the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the Concordienses[3158], the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lancienses[3159], the Mirobrigenses, surnamed[3160] Celtici, the Medubrigenses[3161], surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses[3162] or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme[3163] promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600.

CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called Cassiterides[3164], in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the Promontory[3165] of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands[3166]. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet[3167] distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens[3168], and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus Aphrodisias[3169], and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa[3170], from its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos[3171]; the Carthaginians Gadir[3172], that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that name[3173].

CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE.

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previously[3174] stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini[3175], the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the Legions[3176] in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

* * * * *

SUMMARY.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

* * * * *

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Cato the Censor[3177], M. Varro[3178], M. Agrippa[3179], the late Emperor Augustus[3180], Varro Atacinus[3181], Cornelius Nepos[3182], Hyginus[3183], L. Vetus[3184], Mela Pomponius[3185], Licinius Mucianus[3186], Fabricius Tuscus[3187], Ateius Capito[3188], Ateius the Philologist[3189].

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Polybius[3190], Hecatæus[3191], Hellanicus[3192], Damastes[3193], Eudoxus[3194], Dicæarchus[3195], Timosthenes[3196], Eratosthenes[3197], Ephorus[3198], Crates the Grammarian[3199], Serapion[3200] of Antioch, Callimachus[3201], Artemidorus[3202], Apollodorus[3203], Agathocles[3204], Eumachus[3205], Timæus the Sicilian[3206], Myrsilus[3207], Alexander Polyhistor[3208], Thucydides[3209], Dosiades[3210], Anaximander[3211], Philistides Mallotes[3212], Dionysius[3213], Aristides[3214], Callidemus[3215], Menæchmus[3216], Aglaosthenes[3217], Anticlides[3218], Heraclides[3219], Philemon[3220], Xenophon[3221], Pytheas[3222], Isidorus[3223], Philonides[3224], Xenagoras[3225], Astynomus[3226], Staphylus[3227], Aristocritus[3228], Metrodorus[3229], Cleobulus[3230], Posidonius[3231].

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