VI. WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO

VI. WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO

TERRITORIAL ASPECTS--TWO MAIN DIVISIONS; WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL MEXICO, AND WILD TRIBES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO--THE CORAS AND OTHERS IN JALISCO--DESCENDANTS OF THE AZTECS--THE OTOMÍS AND MAZAHUAS ADJACENT TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO--THE PAMES--THE TARASCOS AND MATLALTZINCAS OF MICHOACAN--THE HUAZTECS AND TOTONACS OF VERA CRUZ AND TAMAULIPAS--THE CHONTALES, CHINANTECS, MAZATECS, CUICATECS, CHATINOS, MIZTECS, ZAPOTECS, MIJES, HUAVES, CHIAPANECS, ZOQUES, LACANDONES, CHOLES, MAMES, TZOTZILES, TZENDALES, CHOCHONES, AND OTHERS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.

The term WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, which I employ to distinguish this from the other groupal divisions of the Native Races of the Pacific States needs some explanation. The territory embraced under this title extends from latitude 23° north, to the eighteenth parallel on the Atlantic, and the fifteenth on the Pacific; that is to the Central American line, including Yucatan and excluding Guatemala. At the time of the conquest, a large portion of this region as well as part of Central America was occupied by those nations that we call civilized, which are fully described in the second volume of this work. These several precincts of civilization may be likened to suns, shining brightly at their respective centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness with greater or less intensity according to distance and circumstances. The bloody conquest achieved, these suns were dimmed, their light went out; part of this civilization merged into that of the conquerors, and part fell back into the more distant darkness. Later many of the advanced aboriginals became more and more identified with the Spaniards; the other natives soon came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified, spread over the seat of their nation's former grandeur, obliterating many of the traces of their peoples' former high advancement;--so that very shortly after the Spaniards became masters of the land, any description of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples of higher culture. And thus I find it, and thus must treat the subject, going over the whole territory almost as if there had been no civilization at all.

For variety and striking contrasts the climate and scenery of central and southern Mexico is surpassed by no region of equal extent in the world. It is here that the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either ocean, the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the tierra fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most definite forms. The interior table-lands have an average elevation above the sea of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet. The geological formation is on a Titanic scale; huge rocks of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes, intersected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting unparalleled scenes of grandeur. Prominent among the surrounding mountains tower the snow-clad crests of Orizaba and Popocatepetl,--volcanic piles whose slumbering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest. The plateau is variegated with many lakes; the soil, almost everywhere fertile, is overspread with a multitudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of evergreen, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak stand conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no mark behind; or it may be said that spring, satisfied with its abode, there takes up its perpetual rest; the temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine by day, while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy nowhere excelled. The limits of the tierra templada it is impossible to define, as the term is used in a somewhat arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different altitudes. On the lowlands along the coast known as the tierra caliente, the features of nature are changed; vegetation assumes a more luxuriant aspect; palms, parasitical plants and trees of a tropical character, take the place of the evergreens of a colder clime; the climate is not salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. On the Atlantic side furious storms, called 'northers,' spring up with a suddenness and violence unexampled in other places, often causing much destruction to both life and property.

[Sidenote: TRIBES OF CENTRAL MEXICO.]

For the purpose of description, I separate the Wild Tribes of Mexico in two parts,--the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico, and the Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico. The first of these divisions extends from 23° north latitude to the northern boundary of the state of Oajaca, or rather to an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary and running from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, that is to say from Vera Cruz to Acapulco.

To enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes within this territory, to separate the uncivilized from the civilized, the mythical from the real, is not possible. I have therefore deferred to the end of this chapter such authorities as I have on the subject, where they will be found ranged in proper order under the head of Tribal Boundaries. Of the tribes that are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was found among the Aztecs and other cultivated nations, I will only mention the people denominated Chichimecs, under which general name were designated a multitude of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the valley of Mexico, all of which were prominently dependent on the result of the chase for their subsistence; the ancient Otomís who mostly occupied the mountains which inclose the valley of Mexico; and the Pames in Querétaro. South of Mexico were numerous other nations who were more or less intermixed with those more civilized. Finally, I shall describe those people who, since they came in contact with the whites, have retrograded in such a degree, that their manners and customs can only be given in connection with those of the Wild Tribes, and which comprise a large proportion of all the present aborigines of Mexico.[897]

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL FEATURES IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The natives of the valley of Mexico are represented by some authorities as tall, by others as of short stature; but from what I gather we may conclude that on the whole they are over rather than under the middle height, well made and robust. In Vera Cruz they are somewhat shorter, say from four feet six inches to five feet at most, and clumsily made, having their knees further apart than Europeans and walking with their toes turned in; the women are shorter than the men and become fully developed at a very early age. In Jalisco both sexes are tall; they are also well built, and among the women are found many forms of such perfection that they might well serve as models for sculpture. Throughout the table-lands, the men are muscular and well proportioned. Their skin is very thick and conceals the action of the muscles; they are out-kneed, turn their toes well in, and their carriage is anything but graceful.[898] Various opinions have been advanced by competent persons in regard to the features of the natives of Mexico. Baron Von Humboldt describes them as resembling the aborigines of Canada, Peru, Florida, and Brazil; having elongated eyes, the corners turned towards the temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet expression about the mouth, forming a strong contrast with their otherwise gloomy and severe aspect. Rossi says that their eyes are oval, and that their physiognomy resembles that of the Asiatics. According to Prescott, they bear a strong resemblance to the Egyptians, and Viollet le Duc asserts that the Malay type predominates. They have generally a very narrow forehead, an oval face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and rather flat. The general expression of the countenance is melancholy, and exhibits a strange combination of moroseness and gentleness. Although some very handsome women are to be found among them, the majority of the race, both men and women, are ugly, and in old age, which with the women begins early, their faces are much wrinkled and their features quite harsh. They have acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains unimpaired to a very advanced age. Long, straight, black, thick, and glossy hair is common to all; their beard is thin, and most of them, especially in the capital and its vicinity, have a small moustache; but very few, if any, have hair on their legs, thighs, or arms. It is very seldom that a gray-haired native is found. All the people referred to, are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which may be judged of by the heavy burdens they carry on their backs. The inhabitants of the table-lands are of various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a red copper color. In the Sierras some have a bluish tint as if dyed with indigo. The natives of the tierras calientes are of a darker complexion, inclining to black. There are some called Indios Pintos, whose cuticle is of a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked with dark copper-colored spots.[899]

[Sidenote: MEXICAN COSTUMES.]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN MICHOACAN.]

In the valley of Mexico the natives wear the ichapilli, or a sort of shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue striped cotton, which reaches to the knees and is gathered round the waist with a belt. This is frequently the only garment worn by the aborigines of the Mexican valley. In lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head, they now use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which is about nine inches in width; or they bind round the head a colored handkerchief. Most of the men and women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for their feet, use the cacles, or huaraches, (sandals) made of tanned leather and tied with thongs to the ankles. The dress of the women has undergone even less change than that of the men, since the time of the Spanish conquest. Many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen cloth, bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers the purpose of a petticoat; it is woven in stripes of dark colors or embellished with figures. The ichapilli is white, with figures worked on the breast, and is longer than that worn by the men. In Puebla the women wear very narrow petticoats and elegant quichemels covering the breast and back and embroidered all over with silk and worsted. In the state of Vera Cruz and other parts of the tierra caliente the men's apparel consists of a short white cotton jacket or a dark-colored woolen tunic, with broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a sash, and short blue or white breeches open at the sides near the knee; these are a Spanish innovation, but they continue to wear the square short cloak, tilma or tilmatli, with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the breast. Sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of goat or deer skin are worn over the cotton ones, and also a jacket of the same material. The women wear a coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often worked about the neck in bright colored worsted, to suit the wearer's fancy; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round the waist, very full below, and a blue or brown rebozo is used as a wrapper for the shoulders. Sometimes a muffler is used for the head and face.[900] They bestow great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange in two long braids that fall from the back of the head, neatly painted and interwoven with worsted of lively colors, and the ends tied at the waist-band or joined behind; others bind the braids tightly round the head, and occasionally add some wild flowers.[901] In the tierra fria, a thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the centre through which passes the head protects the wearer during the day from the cold and rain, and serves at night for a covering and often for the bed itself. This garment has in some places taken the place of the tilmatli. Children are kept in a nude state until they are eight or ten years old, and infants are enveloped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs exposed. The Huicholas of Jalisco have a peculiar dress; the men wear a short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric, tightened at the waist with a girdle hanging down in front and behind, and very short breeches of poorly dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower edges of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. Married men and women wear straw hats with high pointed crowns and broad turned-up rims; near the top is a narrow and handsomely woven band of many colors, with long tassels. Their long bushy hair is secured tightly round the crown of the head with a bright woolen ribbon. Many of the men do up the hair in queues with worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the waist.[902] De Laet, describing the natives of Jalisco early in the seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made of cotton and maguey tied on the right or left shoulder, and small pebbles or shells strung together as necklaces. Mota Padilla, in his history of New Galicia, says that the Chichimecs at Xalostitlan, in 1530, went naked. The inhabitants of Alzatlan about that time adorned themselves with feathers. In Zacualco, the common dress of the women about the same period, particularly widows, was the huipil, made of fine cotton cloth, generally black. The natives of the province of Pánuco, for many years after the Spanish Conquest, continued to go naked; they pulled out the beard, perforated the nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp point, bored holes in them and dyed them black. The slayer of a human being used to hang a piece of the skin and hair of the slain at the waist, considering such things as very valuable ornaments. Their hair they dyed in various colors, and wore it in different forms. Their women adorned themselves profusely, and braided their hair with feathers. Sahagun, speaking of the Matlaltzincas, says that their apparel was of cloth made from the maguey; referring to the Tlahuicas, he mentions among their faults that they used to go overdressed; and of the Macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women as well as the young ones paint themselves with a varnish called tecocavitl, or with some colored stuff, and wear feathers about their arms and legs. The Tlascaltecs in 1568 wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various fine colors. The inhabitants of Cholula, according to Cortés, dressed better than the Tlascaltecs; the better class wearing over their other clothes a garment resembling the Moorish cloak, yet somewhat different, as that of Cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the cut, and the fringe, there was much resemblance to the cloak worn in Africa. Old Spanish writers tell us that the natives of Michoacan made much use of feathers for wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and heads. At their later religious festivals, both sexes appear in white, the men with shirt and trowsers, having a band placed slantingly across the breast and back, tied to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendent scarlet feathers, similar to those used by the ancient Aztec warriors. The man is also adorned with a quantity of showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of which is placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third invariably on his forehead. At his back he carries a quiver, and in his hand a bow, adorned with bright colored artificial flowers, or it may be the Aztec axe, so painted and varnished as to resemble flint. At the present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears a necklace of coral or rows of red beads. The unmarried women of Chilpanzinco used to daub their faces with a pounded yellow flower. In Durango, the natives were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with clay of various colors, and paint reptiles and other animals thereon.[903]

The dwellings of the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico vary with climate and locality. In the lowlands, sheds consisting of a few poles stuck in the ground, the spaces between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. In the colder highlands they built somewhat more substantial houses of trunks of trees, tied together with creeping plants, the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of split boards kept in place with stones. In treeless parts, houses were constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks and stones, and the interior walls covered with mats; the best houses were only one story high, and the humbler habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. The entire house constituted but one room, where all the family lived, sleeping on the bare ground. A few stones placed in the middle of the floor, served as a fireplace where food was cooked. In Vera Cruz there is a separate small hut for cooking purposes. The wild nomadic Chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated in secluded valleys, and the Pames contented themselves with the shade afforded by the forest-trees.[904]

[Sidenote: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE.]

Corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits and vegetables constitute the chief subsistence of the people, and in those districts where the banana flourishes, it ranks as an important article of food. The natives of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas gather large quantities of the pitahaya, by means of an osier basket attached to a long pole; round the brim are arranged several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit, which then drops into the basket. From the blossoms and buds they make a ragout, and also grind the seeds for bread. From the sea and rivers they obtain a plentiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from childhood a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to be injurious to their physical development. It has been stated that in former days they used human flesh as food.

The Otomís and tribes of Jalisco cultivated but little grain, and consumed that little before it ripened, trusting for a further supply of food to the natural productions of the soil and to game, such as rabbits, deer, moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other reptiles. Corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the powder, and baked the mixture on the fire. From the lakes in the valley of Mexico they gathered flies' eggs, deposited there in large quantities by a species of flies called by the Mexicans axayacatl, that is to say, 'water-face,' and by MM. Meneville and Virlet d'Aoust corixa femorata and notonecta unifasciata. The eggs being pounded, were moulded into lumps and sold in the market-place; they were esteemed a special delicacy, and were eaten fried. These people are also accused by some authors of having eaten human flesh.[905]

Other tribes, inhabiting the valley of Mexico, Puebla, Michoacan, and Querétaro, show a greater inclination to cultivate the soil, and live almost wholly on the products of their own industry. They plant corn by making a hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into which the seed is dropped and covered up. Honey is plentiful, and when a tree is found where bees are at work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off the branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short time they remove the clay, and the bees continue their operations in their new locality, as if they had not been disturbed.[906]

Gemelli Careri thus describes a novel method of catching ducks: "Others contrive to deceive ducks, as shy as they are; for when they have us'd 'em to be frequently among calabashes left floating on the lake for that purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so that putting their heads in them, they can see out of them, and then going up to the neck in the water, they go among the ducks and draw 'em down by the feet." For making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it in water, to which a little lime is added, and allowing it to soak all night, or it is put to simmer over a slow fire; the husk is then easily separated and the corn mashed or ground on the metate. From this paste the tortilla is formed by patting it between the hands into a very thin cake, which is cooked on an earthern pan placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten with boiled beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. The ground corn is also mixed with water and strained through a sieve; of this liquor they make a gruel, to which is added a little cacao or sugar. The sediment which remains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are a combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which ingredients are covered with the corn paste, and the whole enveloped in corn or plantain leaves and boiled or baked. The Mexicans are very moderate eaters, but have an insatiable passion for strong liquors.[907]

Laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward in our observations; among the Mexicans, the poorer classes especially are filthy in their persons, and have a disgusting appearance, which increases with the infirmities of age. Many of them indulge freely in the use of a steam-bath called temazcalli, similar to the Russian vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of cleansing their persons.[908]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND SHIELDS.]

All these tribes use bows and arrows; the latter carried in a quiver slung at the back, a few spare ones being stuck in the belt for immediate use. A heavy club is secured to the arm by a thong, and wielded with terrible effect at close quarters. In battle, the principal warriors are armed with spears and shields. Another weapon much in use is the sling, from which they cast stones to a great distance and with considerable accuracy. The natives of the valley of Mexico kill birds with small pellets blown through a hollow tube.[909]

The clubs, which are from three to four feet in length, are made of a species of heavy wood, some having a round knob at the end similar to a mace, others broad and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian, fastened on either side. Acosta states that with these weapons they could cut off the head of a horse at one stroke. Spears and arrows are pointed with flint or obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a piece of hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. Their quivers are made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal or shark-skin. Shields are ingeniously constructed of small canes so woven together with thread that they can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. When wanted for use they are loosed, and when opened out they cover the greater part of the body.[910]

[Sidenote: WAR AND TREATMENT OF CAPTIVES.]

Aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare was the normal state of these people. The so-called Chichimecs attacked all who entered their domain, whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. War once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors to secure by alliance as many of their neighbors as possible; to which end ambassadors are despatched to the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each bearing in his hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of the stranger chief. Arriving at the village, the messenger seeks out the chief and lays the arrow at his feet; if the proposal of his master be accepted by the stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the messenger departs. The ambassadors having returned with their report, preparations are at once made for the reception of the allies, a feast is prepared, large quantities of game and intoxicating drink are made ready, and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed before them. Then follow eating and drinking, concluding with drunken orgies; this finished, a council is held, and the assault planned, care being taken to secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for the slingers. A regular organization of forces is observed and every effort made to outflank or surround the enemy. Archers and slingers march to an attack in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors armed with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear; the assault is commenced by the former, accompanied with furious shouts and yells. During the period of their wars against the Spaniards, they often expended much time and labor in the fortification of heights by means of tree-trunks, and large rocks, which were so arranged, one on top of another, that at a given signal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assailants. The chiefs of the Tepecanos and contiguous tribes carried no weapons during the action, but had rods with which they chastised those who exhibited symptoms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks.[911] The slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and prisoners were treated with the utmost barbarity, ending invariably in the death of the unfortunates; often were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody trophy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. The heads of the slain were placed on poles and paraded through their villages in token of victory, the inhabitants meanwhile dancing round them. Young children were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks of their conquerors; and in order to brutalize their youthful minds and eradicate all feelings of affection toward their own kindred, the youthful captives were given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered parents. The Chichimecs carried with them a bone, on which, when they killed an enemy, they marked a notch, as a record of the number each had slain. Mota Padilla states that when Nuño de Guzman arrived in the valley of Coynan, in Jalisco, the chiefs came out to meet him, and, as a sign of peace and obedience, dropped on one knee; upon being raised up by the Spaniards, they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and quails, in token of respect.[912]

As the wants of the people are few and simple, so is the inventory of their implements and household furniture. Every family is supplied with the indispensable metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen inches, smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a slanting position; with this is used a long stone roller, called the metlapilli, for rubbing down the maize, and a large earthen pan, called the comalli, on which to bake the tortillas. Their bottles, bowls, and cups are made from gourds, often prettily painted, and kept hanging round the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, ornamented with black figures on a dull red ground, are used for cooking, a block of wood serves for a stool and table, and lastly a few petates (Aztec, petlatl, 'palm-leaf mat'), are laid upon the ground for beds. These comprise the whole effects of a native's house. For agricultural purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp stakes for planting corn. Their products are carried home or to market in large wicker-work frames, often five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from split palm-leaves.[913]

In the State of Jalisco, the natives are celebrated for the manufacture of blankets and woolen mantas; in other parts of the country they continue to weave cotton stuffs in the same manner as before the conquest, all on very primitive hand-looms. The common designs are in blue or red and white stripes, but they are sometimes neatly worked with figures, the juice from the murex or purple shell supplying the vermilion color for the patterns. The inhabitants of Tonala exhibit much taste and excellence in the production of pottery, making a great variety of toys, masks, figures, and ornaments, besides the vessels for household use. In the vicinity of Santa Cruz, the fibres of the aloe, crushed upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of ropes, nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing down the body after a bath. Palm-leaf mats and dressed skins also figure largely among the articles of native industry.[914]

In Vera Cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk of a mahogany or cedar tree, which are capable of holding several persons, and are worked with single paddles.[915]

[Sidenote: TRADE AND ARTS.]

A considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats, dressed skins, and manufactures of the aloe-fibre; also fruit, feathers, vegetables, and fish. All such wares are packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown upon their backs, are carried long distances to the several markets. In the province of Vera Cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other herbs are important articles of native commerce, and all the interior tribes place a high value on salt, for which they readily exchange their products.[916]

The natives display much patience and skill in ornamental work, especially carvings in stone, and in painting; although the figures, their gods bearing witness, are all of grotesque shapes and appearance. With nothing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious figures, of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal, clay, and bone. They are fond of music, and readily imitate any strain they hear. From time immemorial they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons of the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwellings and shops. The art of working in gold and silver is well known to the natives of Jalisco, who execute well-shaped specimens of cups and vases, beautifully engraved and ornamented.[917]

The wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed with, the Civilized Nations of Central Mexico, as far as I can learn, do not appear to have had any systematic tribal government; at least, none of the old historians have given any account of such. Some of the tribes attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom they pay a certain tribute from the produce of their labor or hunting expeditions, while others live without any government or laws whatsoever, and only elect a chief on going to war.[918]

[Sidenote: MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.]

Marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are seldom found single after they attain fourteen or fifteen years. Gomara, however, says that women in the district of Tamaulipas are not married till they reach the age of forty. The Otomís marry young, and if, when arrived at the age of puberty, a young girl has not found a mate, her parents or guardians select one for her, so that none shall remain single. Among the Guachichiles, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on trial for an indefinite period; if, afterwards, both parties are satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage is performed; should it happen, however, that the man be not pleased, he returns the girl to her parents, which proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of her obtaining another suitor. The Chichimecs cannot marry without the consent of parents; if a young man violates this law and takes a girl without first obtaining the parental sanction, even with the intention of marrying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient times, the offender was shot with arrows. When one of this people marries, if the girl proves not to be a virgin, the marriage is null, and the girl is returned to her parents. When a young man desires to marry, his parents make a visit to those of the intended bride, and leave with them a bouquet of flowers bound with red wool; the bride's parents then send round to the houses of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic herb, which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride's father's on the next night. The meeting is inaugurated by smoking; then they chew mariguana, during which time all preliminaries of the marriage are settled. The following day the resolutions of the conclave are made known to the young man and woman, and if the decision is favorable, the latter sends her husband a few presents, and from that time the parties consider themselves married, and the friends give themselves up to feasting and dancing.[919]

A plurality of wives was found among all the inhabitants of this region at the time of the Spanish conquest, the first wife taking precedence of those who came after her. Many had concubines who, it may be said, ranked third in the family circle. The missionary Fathers, however, soon put an end to the custom of more than one wife, whenever they had the power to do so. Herrera says that the Chichimecs indulged in one wife only, but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any slight cause, and of taking another. The women are kept under subjection by their husbands, and not only have all the indoor work to do, such as cooking, spinning, and mat-making, but they are also required to carry heavy burdens home from the market, and bring all the wood and water for household use. Infants are carried on the mother's back, wrapped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. Among the Chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she places her child in a wicker basket, and there leaves it, usually suspending it from the branch of a tree. A child is suckled by the mother until another comes on and crowds it out. Mühlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of seven or eight years of age demanding suck and receiving it from his mother. A woman near her time of confinement, retires to a dark corner of the house, attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and pretends to call the baby from afar. This midwife, however, does not in any way assist at the birth, but as soon as the child is born she goes out, meanwhile covering her face with her hands, so that she may not see. Having walked once round the house, she opens her eyes, and the name of the first object she sees is chosen as the name of the child. Among the Otomís, a young woman about to become a mother is the victim of much unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious practices; loaded with certain amulets and charms, she must carefully avoid meeting certain individuals and animals whose look might produce evil effects--a black dog especially must be avoided. The song of a mocking-bird near the house is held to be a happy omen. At certain hours the mother was to drink water which had been collected in the mountains, and previously presented to the gods; the phases of the moon were carefully watched. She was obliged to undergo an examination from the old crone who attended her, and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. Sometimes, amidst her pains, the ancient attendant obliged her charge to jump about, and take powerful medicines, which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery. If the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in his arms and painted on its breast an axe or some implement of husbandry, on its forehead a feather, and on the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it the protection of the gods. If the child proved to be a female, the same ceremony was observed, with the exception that an old woman officiated, and the figure of a flower was traced over the region of the heart, while on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was pictured, and on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating the several duties of after life. According to the Apostólicos Afanes, the Coras call the child after one of its uncles or aunts. In twelve months' time a feast is prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and child, together with the uncle or aunt, placed in the middle of the circle of relatives. Upon these occasions much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is placed in the child's mouth. As soon as the child's teeth are all cut, a similar meeting takes place, and the child is then given its first meal; and again, at the age of twelve, the ancients come together, when the youth is first given wine to drink. As a rule, young people show great respect and affection for their parents; all their earnings being at once handed over to them.[920]

In early times, immorality and prostitution existed among these nations to an unparalleled extent. Gomara says that in the province of Tamaulipas there were public brothels, where men enacted the part of women, and where every night were assembled as many as a thousand, more or less, of these worse than beastly beings, according to the size of the village. It is certain that incest and every species of fornication was commonly practiced, especially in the districts of Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Querétaro.[921]

[Sidenote: CHILDREN AND AMUSEMENTS.]

Their amusements are stamped with the general melancholy of their character. Dancing, accompanied with music and singing, is their favorite pastime, but it is seldom indulged in without the accompanying vice of intoxication. When the Totonacs join in their national dances, they attach a kind of rattle called aiacachtli to a band round the head, that produces a peculiar sound during the performance. Among some tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances. They make various kinds of drinks and intoxicating liquors. One is made from the fruit of the nopal or prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed; the juice is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire or in the sun, where in about an hour it ferments. Another drink, called chicha, is made from raw sugar-cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and passed through a pressing-machine. Their principal and national drink is pulque, made from the agave americana, and is thus prepared: When the plant is about to bloom, the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole in the center, which is covered with the outer leaves. Every twenty-four hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the cavity fills with the sap from the plant, which is taken out and fermented by the addition of some already-fermented pulque, and the process is continued until the plant ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor obtained is at first of a thick white color, and is at all times very intoxicating.[922]

[Sidenote: MAKING AN ALLIANCE.]

Father Joseph Arlegui, in his Chrónica de la Provincia de Zacatecas, which province then comprised a much larger extent of territory than the present state of Zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere else mentioned. It is employed when one nation wishes to form a close connection, friendship, alliance, family or blood relationship, so to say (tratan de hacerse parientes), with another nation; and the process is as follows: From the tribe with which the alliance is desired, a man is seized, and a feast or drunken carousal commenced. Meanwhile the victim destined to form the connecting link between the two bands, and whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept without food for twenty-four hours. Into him is then poured of their execrable beverages until he is filled, and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all the people may have access to him. Having warmed well his body, and rubbed his ears, each aspirant to the new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped instrument, made of deer's bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of the prostrate wretch, each in turn forcing his sharpened bone through some new place, which causes the blood to spurt afresh with every incision. With the blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint themselves, and the ceremony is done. On the spot where the relative of a Cora is killed in a fight, a piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and kept as a remembrance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer, or one of the males of his family. When meeting each other on a journey, they make use of many complimentary salutations, and a kind of freemasonry appears to exist among them. Major Brantz Mayer mentions a tribe at Cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man arriving at their village, immediately seize and place him under guard for the night in a large hut; he and his animals are carefully provided for until the following day, when he is despatched from the village under an escort, to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of the settlement. The custom, at the present day, of hiding money in the ground is universal; nothing would induce a native to entrust his savings with another. The inhabitants of Querétaro spend much of their time basking in the sun, and if the sun does not yield sufficient warmth, they scoop out a hole in the ground, burn in it branches and leaves of the maguey, and when properly heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover themselves with a mat or the loose earth.[923]

The Mexicans are not subject to many diseases. Small-pox, brought into the country at the time of the conquest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are those which cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former are aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages. Yellow fever, or black vomit, very rarely attacks the aborigines. The measles is a prevalent disease. Death is likewise the result of severe wounds, fractures, or bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat them. The Huastecs of Vera Cruz suffer from certain worms that breed in their lips, and highly esteem salt for the curative properties they believe it to possess against this disorder. At the village of Comalá, in the state of Colima, a considerable number of the children are born deaf and dumb, idiots, or deformed; besides which, when they reach a mature age, if we may believe the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less developed on them, notwithstanding Humboldt's assertion that the aborigines never suffer from this disorder. There is another disease, cutaneous in its character, which is quite prevalent in many parts of the country, and is supposed to be contracted under the influence of a warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may be described as follows: Without pain the skin assumes a variety of colors, the spots produced being white, red, brownish, or blue. The Pintos, as south-western coast-dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder, experience no physical pain, except when they go into a cold climate; then they feel twitchings in the places where the skin has changed color. The disease is declared to be contagious: and from all accounts no remedy for it has been as yet discovered. Formerly, an epidemic called the matlalzahuatl visited the country at long intervals and caused terrible havoc. All the Spanish writers who speak of it call it the peste, and suppose it to be the same scourge that destroyed nearly the whole population of the Toltec empire in the eleventh century. Others believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow fever. The disease, whatever it is, made its appearance in 1545, 1576, and 1736, since which date I find no mention of it, destroying each time an immense number of people; but upon no occasion did it attack the pure whites or the mestizos. Its greatest havoc was in the interior, on the central plateau, and in the coldest and most arid regions, the lowlands of the coast being nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects.[924]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

When small-pox was first introduced, the natives resorted to bathing as a cure, and a very large number succumbed to the disease. An old Spanish author, writing in 1580, states that the natives of the kingdom of New Spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal herbs; that they seldom resorted to bleeding or compound purgatives, for they had many simple cathartic herbs. They were in the habit of making pills with the India-rubber gum mixed with other substances, which they swallowed, and rubbed themselves withal, to increase their agility and suppleness of body. Cold water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked with fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to abandon the practice. The temazcalli or sweat-bath, is also very much used for cases of severe illness. The bath-house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is built and heated not unlike a European bake-oven. When up to the required temperature the fire is taken out, and water thrown in; the patient is then thrust into it naked, feet foremost and head near the aperture, and laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. The hole that affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches square. When sufficiently steamed, and the body well beaten with rushes, a cold water bath and a brisk rubbing complete the operation.[925]

In Michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of a plant called cozolmecatl or olcacaran applied to a sore part of the body will foretell the result of the disorder; for if the leaves adhere to the spot, it is a sure sign that the sufferer will get well, but if they fall off, the contrary will happen. When prostrated with disease, the nearest relatives and friends surround the patient's couch and hold a confab upon the nature of his ailment and the application of the remedy. Old sorceresses and charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations and meltings of saltpetre abound; and by some jugglery, out of the crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant, a horrible worm, or some other object, which, as they allege, is the cause of the disorder. As the disease progresses, the friends of the sufferer severally recommend and apply, according to the judgment each may have formed of the matter, oil of scorpions or of worms, water supposed to produce miraculous effects on fevers, or like applications, and these empirical remedies, most of which are entirely useless, and others extremely barbarous, are applied together without weight or measure.[926]

[Sidenote: BURIAL AND CHARACTER.]

In common with other peoples, it is usual with these nations to place several kinds of edibles in the grave with the deceased. Among the Coras, when one died, the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if a man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her distaff, etc., and in this manner the body was buried in a cave previously selected by the deceased. All his worldly goods were placed at the door of his former house, so that he might come and take them without crossing the threshold, as they believed the dead returned to see about property. If the deceased had cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear he might come for the cattle he formerly owned. Five days after death a hired wizard essayed to conjure away the shade of the departed property-holder. These spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead man's house, and shook zapote-branches in the corners, till they pretended to have found the fancied shadow, which they hurled headlong to its final resting-place. Upon the second of November most of the natives of the Mexican valley bring offerings to their dead relatives and friends, consisting of edibles, live animals, and flowers, which are laid on or about the graves. The anniversary or commemoration of the dead among the ancient Aztecs occurred almost upon the same day.[927]

The thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aboriginals of central Mexico are most enigmatical in their character. Their peculiar cast of features, their natural reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make it extremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the face what their real thoughts are. The general characteristics of this people may be summed up as follows: peaceable, gentle and submissive to their superiors, grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking exhibitions and noisy revelry; improvident but charitable, sincerely pious, but wallowing in ignorance and superstitions; quick of perception, and possessed of great facility for acquiring knowledge, especially of the arts, very imitative, but with little originality, unambitious, unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of life. Irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature, but it seems to lie dormant until awakened by intoxication or some powerful impulse, when the innate cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierceness. Courage and cowardice are so blended in their character that it is no easy matter to determine which is the predominant trait. A fact worthy of notice is that upon many occasions they have proved themselves capable of facing danger with the greatest resolution, and yet they will tremble at the angry frown of a white man. Laziness, and a marked inclination to cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities attributed to them; but there is abundant evidence to show, that although naturally averse to industry, they work hard from morning till night, in mining, agriculture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient way accomplish no little labor. Murder and highway robbery are crimes not generally committed by the pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything but food to appease his hunger or that of his family. A Mexican author says, the Indian cuts down a tree to pick its fruit, destroys an oak of ten years growth for a week's firewood; in other words, he produces little, consumes little, and destroys much. Another Mexican writer affirms that the Indian is active, industrious, handy in agricultural labor, a diligent servant, a trusty postman, humble, hospitable to his guests, and shows a sincere gratitude to his benefactors.[928]

[Sidenote: CHARACTER IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The Pames, Otomís, Pintos, and other nations north of the Mexican valley were, at the time of the conquest, a barbarous people, fierce and warlike, covetous even of trifles and fond of display. The Michoacaques or Tarascos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the conquest showed themselves exceedingly hostile to the whites, whom they attacked, plundered, and frequently murdered, when traveling through their country. In 1751 they were already quiet, and gave evidences of being intelligent and devoted to work. The men in the vicinity of the city of Vera Cruz are careless, lazy, and fickle; much given to gambling and drunkenness; but the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely industrious. The natives of Jalapa, judging by their countenance, are less intelligent, and lack the sweetness of character that distinguishes the inhabitants of the higher plateau; they are, however, peaceable and inoffensive. The wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful, dull, irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder, and murder. Such are the characteristics attributed to them under the name of Chichimecs by old Spanish authors and others. Indeed, the only creditable traits they were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage and an independent spirit. Of the nations of Jalisco, both ancient and modern writers bear testimony to their bravery. They are also sagacious and somewhat industrious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not), and not easily kept under restraint. Those who dwell on Lake Chapala are quiet and mild, devoted to agricultural pursuits. They indeed proved themselves high-spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. The Coras were hardy and warlike, averse to any intercourse with the whites and to the Christian religion, but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the heavy blows of the Spanish soldiers, they were brought under subjection, and became tractable.[929]

[Sidenote: THE NATIONS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.]

The SOUTHERN MEXICANS, under which name I group the people inhabiting the present states of Oajaca, Guerrero, Chiapas, the southern portion of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Yucatan, constitute the second and last division of this chapter. Much of this territory is situated within the tierras calientes, or hot lands, wherein every variety of tropical vegetation abounds in luxuriant profusion. The heat, especially along the coast, to the unacclimated is most oppressive. The great chain of the cordillera in its transit across the Tehuantepec isthmus, approaches nearer to the Pacific seaboard than to the Atlantic, and dropping from the elevated table-land of central Mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks into cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and west direction. Upon the northern side of the isthmus are plains of considerable extent, of rich alluvial soil, through which several rivers, after draining the mountain districts, discharge into the Mexican gulf. These streams, in their course through the table-lands, are bordered by rich lands of greater or lesser extent. On the southern side, nature puts on a bolder aspect and a narrower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers, which discharge the drainage of the southern slope into the Pacific Ocean, and into the lagoons that border the ocean. One of the most important features of Yucatan is the absence of any important river. The coast, which is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid appearance, and is little broken except on the north-west, where it is indented by the laguna de Terminos, and on the eastern side by the bays of Ascension, Espíritu Santo, and Chetumel. The central part of the Yucatan peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of barren aspect. A short distance from the coast the general appearance of the country improves, being well-wooded, and containing many fertile tracts.

Many of the nations occupying this region at the time of the conquest may be called cultivated, or at least, progressive, and consequently belong to the civilized nations described in the second volume of this work; others falling back into a state of wildness after the central civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely difficult to draw any line separating civilization from savagism. Nevertheless we will examine them as best we may; and if it be found that what we learn of them refers more to the present time than has been the case with nations hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious.

The Zapotecs, who were in former times a very powerful nation, still occupy a great portion of Oajaca, surrounded by the ruins of their ancient palaces and cities. The whole western part of the state is taken up by the Miztecs. Tributary to the above before the conquest, were the Mijes and other smaller tribes now residing in the mountain districts in the centre of the isthmus. The Huaves, who are said to have come by sea from the south, and to have landed near the present city of Tehuantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the lagoons on the south-western coast of Oajaca. In the province of Goazacoalco, and in Tabasco, are the Ahualulcos, and Chontales, who occupy a large portion of the latter state. South of them in Chiapas are the Choles, Tzendales, Zotziles, Alames, and Quelenes, and in the extreme south-eastern end of the same state, and extending into Central America, some tribes of the Lacandones are located. The extensive peninsula of Yucatan, the ancient name of which was Mayapan, formed the independent and powerful kingdom of the Mayas, who held undisputed possession of the country until, after a heroic resistance, they were finally compelled to yield to the superior discipline and weapons of the Spanish invaders.[930]

[Sidenote: PHYSIQUE IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

The Zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong; the features of the men are of a peculiar cast and not pleasing; the women, however, are delicately formed, and graceful with handsome features. Another tribe of the same nation, the Zapotecs of Tehuantepec, are rather under the medium height, with a pleasing oval face and present a fine personal appearance. Not a few of them have light-colored hair, and a somewhat fair complexion. Their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and the constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their habits of intoxication. The females have regular and handsome features, and though of small stature and bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and seductive. Dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined eye-brows, luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play havoc with the men. Those of Acayucan village are particularly noted for their beauty. But not all are thus; instance the Chatinos who are remarkably ugly. The natives of Oajaca are generally large and well-formed; those of Sierra are of a light-yellow complexion, and their women are tolerably white with mild features. Some branches of the Miztecs and Mazatecs carry upon their shoulders very large loads. Father Burgoa writing of the Miztecs, of Yangüistlan, in the year 1541, speaks of their beautiful complexion and fine forms. The Mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is repulsive. The Zoques are very much like the Mijes, their features are as prominent and unprepossessing; but they are probably more athletic. The Chontales are tall and very robust. In the village of Tequisistlan, Oajaca, shortly after the Spanish conquest, they were all reported as of a gigantic stature. The Huaves present a different appearance from any of the other natives of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. They are generally well-made, and of strong constitutions. The natives of Tabasco who dwell in the country bordering on the river of that name, are of medium height, and with well-developed limbs. Both men and women have round flat faces, low foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips, small but quite full mouths, white teeth, and tawny complexions. The Ahualulcos are rather under the middle height, but of great physical strength. They have a low narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full lips, white teeth, small beard, and coarse hair. Their features are aquiline, and the expression of their countenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with sternness. They strongly resemble the descendants of the Aztecs of Mexico. The women are more delicately made, and some beautiful ones are seen among them. They move quickly and with much natural grace.[931]

The descendants of the Mayas are of medium size, with good limbs, large faces and mouth, the upper lip slightly arched, and a marked tendency to stoutness; the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair black and glossy, which rarely turns gray; complexion of a copper color, and in some instances yellowish. Naturally strong, the Maya or Yucatec can carry heavy loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard labor without showing signs of fatigue. An old Spanish writer mentions that they were generally bow-legged, and many of them squint-eyed. The same author says they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a beard, and were long-lived. The women are plump, and generally speaking not ugly.[932]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

Very scanty was the dress of the dwellers on Tehuantepec isthmus. In Oajaca and Chiapas, the men wore a piece of deer or other skin fastened round the waist, and hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons of maguey-fibre. Montanus in describing the Mijes says they were quite naked, but that some wore round the waist a white deer-skin dressed with human hearts. The Lacandones, when going to war, wore on their shoulders the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. The Quelenes wrapped round their head a colored cloth, in the manner of a turban, or garland of flowers. At present, the usual dress of the Zapotecs is a pair of wide Mexican drawers, and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat, made of felt or straw--yet the Huaves and many of the poorer class, still wear nothing but a breech-cloth. The costume of the women is simple, and not without elegance. That of the Miztecs, Zapotecs, and others dwelling in the city of Tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton,--sometimes of wool--that reaches nearly to the ankles, prettily and often elaborately worked in various designs and colors. The upper part of the body is covered with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the huipil, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold or silk threads. On the head is a white cotton covering, made like a narrow sack or sleeve, which is drawn on and hangs down over the back. In Tabasco, the dress of the men differs little from that of the people of Tehuantepec; the Tabascan women wear a cotton petticoat or a few yards of calico wrapped round the waist, and reaching below the knees. Over the petticoat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving the bosom and neck exposed. Children and boys go naked; indeed, whenever clothing to any extent is found in this region, we may be sure that the foreign trader is at the bottom of it.[933]

Both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in the middle, and either permit it to hang in loose tresses over the shoulders, or, binding it with gay colored ribbons, loop it up on the back of the head, where it is fastened with a large comb. On festive occasions they interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with it a species of shining beetle, called cucullo, which emits a phosphorescent light, and produces a very pretty effect. Among the Zoques who reside at San Miguel and Santa María Chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the head, a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to themselves. Feather tufts and skins of green birds were formerly much used for ornaments; they had also necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and amber beads. Nose and ears were pierced, and pieces of stone or amber or gold rings or a bit of carved wood inserted. Montanus describes a kind of snake called ibobaca, which he says the inhabitants of Chiapas wore round the neck.[934] They also painted and stained the face. When Fernandez de Córdova explored the northern coast of Yucatan, he found the people clad in cotton garments, and at the present day this forms the principal material from which their clothing is made. Men now wear a cotton shirt or blouse, usually without sleeves, and wide drawers; round the waist is tied a white or colored sash; for protection from the sun, a straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of colored calico, and their sandals are made from deer-skin. Instead of drawers, they used to wear a broad cotton band passed round the loins, the ends of which were arranged to hang one in front and the other behind; a cloak or mantle of cotton called zugen was thrown over the shoulders. Colonel Galindo mentions that they used the bark of the India-rubber tree for making garments, and Cogolludo says that when the Spaniards arrived at Aké, in the year 1527, the army of natives were in a state of nudity, with only their privy parts covered, and the whole body besmeared with clay of different colors. The women display considerable taste in the style of their garments; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles, and prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress with sleeves down to the elbow; the skirt is open at the sides, and does not fall as low as the petticoat, so that the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom of the dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round the neck it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in Tehuantepec; the huipil (Aztec, vipilli) is also worn. In country places women wear the petticoat alone, using the overskirt or huipil only on special occasions. When out of doors, they cover the head and part of the face with a piece of cotton cloth.[935] All permit the hair to attain to its full length; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head, leaving a short end to hang down behind, while that of the women hangs in dark masses over their shoulders, or is neatly bound up behind and decorated with flowers or feathers. Herrera states that it was customary to scorch the faces of young children to prevent the growth of their beards, and the men allowed the hair to grow down over the eyebrows, making their heads and foreheads flat on purpose. They pierced nose and ears, ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits of amber, and wore collars and bracelets of gold. Some among them filed their teeth. They painted the face and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves from the waist upward with a variety of designs and figures. When going to battle paint was much used, in order to render their appearance more formidable; men tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber with their pigments, which, when rubbed over the body, emitted a perfume.[936]

[Sidenote: ZAPOTEC BUILDINGS.]

The better class of Zapotecs of the present day build their houses in a substantial manner of adobes; the common people construct a more simple dwelling with branches arranged in a double row, and the space between filled in with earth; they also make them of wattled cane-work plastered with clay. Such dwellings are cool and proof against the frequent earthquakes that occur in their territory. Roofs are thatched with palmetto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows in the walls. The interior is divided into several compartments, according to size and necessity.[937] The Mijes thatch their houses with bundles of coarse straw. The Chinantecs, Chochos, and Chontales originally built no houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where they dwelt, or they located themselves in ravines and rocky parts, living in caverns or holes under the rocks; the Tzendales of Chiapas had many towns and painted their houses; the Ahualulcos lived together in communities, and had commodious, well-built houses of interwoven cane, plastered on the inside with mud, the roof thatched with palmetto.[938]

[Sidenote: PREPARATION OF FOOD.]

From the earliest times of which we have any record, the natives of Oajaca and the isthmus of Tehuantepec cultivated corn and vegetables, and likewise followed the chase; those who dwelt on the borders of the sea or lakes applied themselves to fishing. The Zapotecs now raise wheat, and build mills. It is asserted by an old Spanish chronicler that this nation exceeded all others in eating and drinking. As early as 1690, they gathered crops of maguey, maize, Spanish peas, chile, potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry. Of late they cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other tropical productions, as also do the inhabitants of Tehuantepec. Primitive agriculture has undergone but little alteration; deer are caught by means of traps and nets. The Miztecs, Mijes, and Cuicatecs have from the earliest times been cultivators of the soil. The Mijes make a coarse or impure sugar from sugar-cane; their corn-fields are often many miles distant from their dwellings. The Huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders of the lagoons on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, live mostly on the proceeds of their fisheries, although they raise a small supply of grain and fruit. Their fishing is almost exclusively done with sweep-nets in shallow waters, and during one month of the year they catch large schools of shrimps in traps. The Zoques produce the small quantity of corn that they need, some achote, many very fine oranges, and tobacco. They are fond of iguanas and their eggs, and of parrots, killing the latter with stones. The Chontales of Tabasco and Tehuantepec use maize and cocoa as food. They eat flesh only upon great religious festivals, marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond of fish. In olden times they were cannibals, and Antonio de Herrera, the chief chronicler of the Indies, accused also the natives of Chiapas of being eaters of human flesh. Since the conquest the natives have lived mostly on corn and other vegetable productions, cultivated by themselves. A large portion of the Mayas and of the other aborigines of Yucatan are to-day engaged in the cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic animals as they need for themselves. They are very simple and frugal in their eating.[939] All the natives of this section of the Mexican republic grind their maize in the same manner; after first soaking it in lye or in lime and water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone, being wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste. With this they make their tortillas and other compounds, both to eat and drink. To make tortillas the maize paste is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of the hands and cooked upon a flat clay pan. The totoposte is a smaller cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. The difference between them is in the manner of preparation; the totopostes are cooked one side only and laid near the fire which makes them crisp, and require to be moistened in order to render them eatable. Tamales are a favorite dish and are made of pork, game, or poultry. The meat is cut up in small pieces and washed; a small quantity of the maize paste seasoned with cinnamon, saffron, cloves, pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red coloring matter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a thick gruel, it is removed, mixed with the meat, some more lard and salt added, and the mass kneaded for a few moments. It is then divided into small portions, which are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. The tamales thus prepared are covered with a banana-leaf or corn-husk and placed in a pot or pan over which large leaves are laid. They are allowed to boil from one hour and a half to two hours. The posole is a nourishing drink made of sour maize paste mixed with water; sometimes they add a little honey to it. They also prepare a drink by parching corn and grinding it to powder on the metate, and mixing it with water and a little achote. This last drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys.[940]

The natives of Tehuantepec and especially those who reside in the Goazacoalco district are neat and clean in regard to their personal habits. They observe the custom of bathing daily. In their ablutions they make use of a plant called chintule the root of which they mix with water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aromatic odor. The same plant is used when they wash their clothes, the scent from which remains on them for some time. A pleasing feature in the appearance of these people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton dresses and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair.

The other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as those of Chiapas are not so clean in their persons, and as a consequence are much infested with vermin which the women have a disgusting habit of eating when picked from the heads of their children. The Mayas make frequent use of cold water, but this practice appears to be more for pleasure than for cleansing purposes, as neither in their persons nor in their dwellings do they present an appearance of cleanliness.[941]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

The weapons of the Southern Mexicans were in most respects similar to those used by the Central Mexicans, namely, bows and arrows, macanas, and lances, the latter of great length and very strong. In Tabasco they carried turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the sun; they also had flint stones for lances and arrow-points, but sometimes weapon-points were made from strong thorns and fish-bones. The hard wooden sword of the Maya was a heavy and formidable weapon, and required the use of both hands to wield it; the edge was grooved for the purpose of inserting the sharp flint with which it was armed. Slings were commonly used by all these nations. In addition to shields the Mayas had for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton called escaupiles, which covered the body down to the lower part of the thigh, and were considered impervious to arrows. The flint knife of former days has now been replaced by the machete which serves the purpose of both cutlass and chopping-knife, and without it no native ever goes into the woods.[942]

When the Spaniards first arrived at Tabasco, they encountered a people well-skilled in the art of war, with a fair knowledge of military tactics, who defended their country with much bravery; their towns and villages were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and strong towers and forts were built on such places as presented the most favorable position for resisting attacks. To their forts they retired when invaded by a superior force, and from the walls they hurled large rocks with damaging effect against their foes. Cortés found erected on the bank of the Tabasco River, in front of one of their towns, a strong wooden stockade, with loopholes through which to discharge arrows; and subsequently, during his march through their country, they frequently set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his troops. When advancing to battle they maintained a regular formation, and they are described as having met Francisco Montejo in good order, drawn up in three columns, the centre under the command of their chief, accompanied by their chief priest. The combatants rushed forward to the attack with loud shouts, cheered on by the blowing of horns and beating of small drums called tunkules. Prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed to their gods.[943]

The furniture of their houses is of the plainest description, and limited to their absolute wants. Their tables or benches are made of a few rough boards, and a mat called petate, spread on the floor, serves for a bed, while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering; some few have small cane bedsteads. The natives of Tabasco and Yucatan more commonly have a network hamaca or hammock, suspended from two posts or trees. Their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made of earthenware, and gourds. The universal machete carried by man and boy serves many purposes, such as chopping firewood, killing animals, eating, and building houses. Burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make used by the Zapotecs for catching game; in the knots of the net were fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other wild beasts of prey, and at intervals were fastened a certain number of small stones; the object of such construction being probably to wound or disable the animal when caught.[944]

[Sidenote: OAJACAN MANUFACTURES.]

The Zapotecs, Miztecs, Mayas, and others, since the conquest, have long been justly celebrated for the manufacture of cotton stuffs, a fact that is all the more surprising when we consider the very imperfect implements they possessed with which to perform the work. Burgoa speaks of the excellence and rich quality of their manufactures in cotton, silk, and gold thread, in 1670, and Thomas Gage, writing about the same time, says "it is rare to see what works those Indian women will make in silk, such as might serve for patterns and samplers to many Schoolmistresses in England." All the spinning and weaving is done by the women; the cotton clothes they make are often interwoven with beautiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes with gold and silk thread. A species of the agave americana is extensively cultivated through the country, from the fibres of which the natives spin a very strong thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints. The materials they have for dyeing are so good that the colors never fade. The Zapotecs have also an intimate knowledge of the process of tanning skins, which they use for several domestic purposes.[945]

Notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast, and although their country is in many parts intersected by rivers and lagoons, they have a surprisingly slight knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with which to venture into deep water. The inhabitants of Tabasco, the Yucatan coast, and Cozumel island possess some canoes made from the single trunk of a mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen sails and paddles. The Huaves and others are in complete ignorance of the management of any description of boats.[946]

The Zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread and superior hammocks, in which they have quite a trade. In the neighborhood of Santa María they grow excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the neighboring towns. The Zapotecs have, many of them, a considerable commerce in fruits, vegetables, and seeds. In the city of Tehuantepec the business of buying and selling is conducted exclusively by women in the market-place. The Ahualulcos are chiefly employed in cutting planks and beams, with which they supply many places on this isthmus; they also trade to some extent in seeds and cotton cloths. Different kinds of earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by the natives of Chiapas, and by them exchanged for salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments. The Mayas have an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize and poultry, they transport to several places along the coast. Mr Stephens describes a small community of the Maya nation, numbering about a hundred men with their families, living at a place called Schawill, who hold and work their lands in common. The products of the soil are shared equally by all, and the food for the whole settlement is prepared at one hut. Each family contributes its quota of provisions, which, when cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several dwellings. Many of the natives of Tabasco earn a livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees are captured wild in the woods, and domesticated. The Huaves breed cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat, are prepared and exported by them and other tribes on the isthmus of Tehuantepec. At the present day cochineal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and forms an important article of commerce among the inhabitants. A rather remarkable propensity to the possession of large numbers of mules is peculiar to the Mijes; such property in no way benefits them, as they make no use of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem to prefer carrying the loads on their own backs.[947]

[Sidenote: ZAPOTEC GOVERNMENT.]

Formerly the Zapotecs were governed by a king, under whom were caciques or governors who ruled over certain districts. Their rank and power descended by inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the king, from whom they held their authority in fief. At the time of the conquest the most powerful among them was the Lord of Cuicatlan; for the service of his household, ten servants were furnished daily, and he was treated with the greatest respect and homage. In later years a cacique was elected annually by the people, and under him officers were appointed for the different villages. Once a week these sub-officers assembled to consult with and receive instructions from the cacique on matters relating to the laws and regulations of their districts. In the towns of the Miztecs a municipal form of government was established. Certain officials, elected annually, appointed the work which was to be done by the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers from the tops of the highest houses called the inhabitants to their allotted tasks. It was also the duty of the town-criers to inflict the punishment imposed on all who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform their share of work. A somewhat similar system appears to have prevailed in Chiapas, where the people lived under a species of republican government.[948] The Mayas were at one time governed by a king who reigned supreme over the whole of Yucatan. Internal dissensions and wars, however, caused their country to be divided up into several provinces, which were ruled over by lords or petty kings, who held complete sway, each in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and recognizing no authority outside of their own jurisdiction. These lords appointed captains of towns, who had to perform their duties subject to their lord's approval. Disputes arising, the captains named umpires to determine differences, whose decisions were final. These people had also a code of criminal laws, and when capital punishment was ordered, public executioners carried the sentence into effect. The crime of adultery in the man was punishable by death, but the injured party could claim the right to have the adulterer delivered to him, and he could kill or pardon him at pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman. The rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man to death.[949]

[Sidenote: SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE.]

Slavery existed among the tribes of Goazacoalco and Tabasco. Doña Marina was one of twenty female slaves who were presented to Cortés by the cacique of the latter place; and when her mother, who lived in the province of Goazacoalco, gave her away to some traveling merchants, she, to conceal the act, pretended that the corpse of one of her slaves who died at that time was that of her own daughter.[950]

[Sidenote: WEDDINGS AND FATHERS-IN-LAW.]

Among the Zapotecs and other nations who inhabit the isthmus of Tehuantepec, marriages are contracted at a very early age; it happens not unfrequently that a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or twelve. Polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection, and frugality characterize the marital relations. Certain superstitious ceremonies formerly attended the birth of children, which, to a modified extent, exist at the present day. When a woman was about to be confined, the relatives assembled in the hut, and commenced to draw on the floor figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed. This operation continued till the moment of birth, and the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the child's tona or second self. When the child grew old enough, he procured the animal that represented him and took care of it, as it was believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur simultaneously. Soon after the child was born, the parents, accompanied by friends and relatives, carried it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the water to extend their protection to the child; in like manner they afterwards prayed for the favor of the animals of the land. It is a noticeable trait, much to the credit of the parents, that their children render to them as well as to all aged people the greatest respect and obedience. That the women are strictly moral cannot be asserted. Voluptuous, with minds untrained, and their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of chastity among these women; yet few cases of conjugal infidelity occur, and chastity is highly esteemed. Illegitimate children are not common, partly the result, perhaps, of early marriages.[951] Among the Quelenes, when a contract of marriage was made, the friends and relatives collected at the assembly-house common to every village. The bride and bridegroom were then introduced by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique and priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty. The bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had connection with the bride or with other women, and she, on her part, made a full confession of all her shortcomings; this ended, the parents produced the presents, which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which they proceeded to array them; they were then lifted up and placed upon the shoulders of two old men and women, who carried them to their future home, where they laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left them securely married.[952] Among the Mayas early marriage was a duty imposed by the Spanish Fathers, and if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen had not chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or fortune and obliged them to marry. The usual presents were dresses; and a banquet was prepared, of which all present partook. During the feast the parents of the parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the priest, who then blessed the company and the ceremony ended. Previous to the wedding-day the parents fasted during three days. The young man built a house in front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived with his wife during the first years of his servitude, for he was obliged to work for his father-in-law four or five years. If he failed to perform faithful service, his father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to another. Widowers were exempt from this servitude, and could choose whom they pleased for a wife without the interference of relatives. It was forbidden a man to marry a woman of the same name as his father. They married but one wife, though the lords were permitted to make concubines of their slaves. Mr Stephens, in his description of the inhabitants of the village of Schawill, says: "Every member must marry within the rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had ever occurred. They said it was impossible; it could not happen. They were in the habit of going to the villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in love with some village Indian, they said it might happen; there was no law against it; but none could marry out of the rancho. This was a thing so little apprehended, that the punishment for it was not defined in their penal code; but being questioned, after some consultations, they said that the offender, whether man or woman would be expelled. We remarked that in their small community constant intermarriages must make them all relatives, which they said was the case since the reduction of their numbers by the cholera. They were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was allowable for kinsfolk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers and sisters."

In divisions of property women could not inherit; in default of direct male heirs the estate went to the brothers or nearest male relatives. When the heir was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed guardian, until the days of his minority should have passed, when the property was delivered up to him. The Southern Mexicans were particular to keep a strict chronology of their lineage. Young children underwent a kind of baptismal ceremony. The Mayas believed that ablution washed away all evil; and previous to the ceremony the parents fasted three days, and they were particular to select for it what they considered a lucky day. The age at which the rite was performed was between three and twelve years, and no one could marry until he had been baptized. Habits of industry as well as respect for parents and aged people was strongly impressed upon the minds of the children.[953]

The Southern Mexicans are fond of singing and dancing, though there is not much variety either in their melancholy music or monotonous dances. Their favorite instrument is the marimba, composed of pieces of hard wood of different lengths stretched across a hollowed-out canoe-shaped case. The pieces of wood or keys are played upon with two short sticks, one held in each hand. The sound produced is soft and pleasing, and not unlike that of a piano. Another instrument is the tunkul or drum, made of a hollow log with sheep-skin stretched over the end; it is struck with the fingers of the right hand, the performer holding it under his left arm. Their movements during their dances are slow and graceful. The men are addicted to intoxication at their feasts, the liquor in common use among them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit made from the sugar-cane. Many of the natives have a small still in their houses.[954]

[Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN OAJACA.]

The Zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in their common salutations, calling each other brother, and to the descendants of their ancient caciques or lords the utmost reverence is paid. It is related by a Mexican writer that in a village not distant from the city of Oajaca, whenever an aged man, the son of one of their ancient lords was seen by the natives out walking, with a majesty that well became his fine form, position, and age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him daade (father), and remained uncovered until he was lost to sight. They are a theocratic people, much addicted to their ancient religious belief and customs. Those who live in the vicinity of Mitla entertain a peculiar superstition; they will run to the farthest villages and pick up even the smallest stones that formed a part of the mosaic work of that famous ruin, believing that such stones will in their hands turn into gold. Some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers a buried or hidden treasure has no right to appropriate to his own use any portion of it, and that if he does, death will strike him down within the year, in punishment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the person who hid or buried the treasure. One of the first priests that lived among the Zapotecs says that after they had entered the pale of the church, they still clung to their old religious practices, and made offerings of aromatic gums, and living animals; and that when the occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating priest drew blood from the under part of his tongue, and from the back part of his ears, with which he sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and used at the sacrifices. To warm themselves, the Chochos, or Chuchones, of Oajaca used, in cold weather, towards the evening, to burn logs and dry leaves close to the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old and young, males and females, rushed in naked and closed the entrance. The natives of Goazacoalco and other places practiced some of the Jewish rites, including a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed to have derived from their forefathers; hence have arisen innumerable analogies to prove the Jewish origin of these peoples. The Huaves still preserve ancient customs at their feasts. It is a remarkable fact that although nearly all these people are fishermen, very few of them can swim. The Mijes have a habit of speaking in very loud tones; this is attributed by some to their haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in the most rugged portion of the mountains. When bound upon a journey, if they have no other load to carry, they fill their tonates, or nets, with stones. This is generally done by them on the return home from the market-place of Tehuantepec. These loads rest upon their backs, and hang by a band from their foreheads. In ancient times, when they were in search of a new country to settle in, they subjected the places they had devastated to the fire proof. This was done by putting a firebrand over night into a hole, and if it was found extinguished in the morning, they considered that the Sun desired his children (that is themselves) to continue their journey. They are much given, even at the present time, to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices in their churches, if permitted, of birds as offerings to the false gods they worshiped before their partial conversion to Christianity. The natives attribute eclipses of the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their satellite, and to prevent the catastrophe make a frightful uproar, employing therefor everything they can get hold of.[955]

[Sidenote: DISEASES AND MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

The diseases most prevalent among the Southern Mexicans are fevers, measles, and severe colds. All these people possess an excellent knowledge of medicinal herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and sickness. They still practice some of their mysterious ceremonies, and are inclined to attribute all complaints to the evil influence of bewitchments. Father Baeza, in the Registro Yucateco, says they consulted a crystal or transparent stone called zalzun, by which they pretended to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. When suffering with fever or other disorders, the disease is often much aggravated and death caused by injudicious bathing in the rivers. In ancient times tobacco was much used as a specific against pains arising from colds, rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it soothed the nerves and acted as a narcotic. They also practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or fish-bone. The Zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at the same time invoking the assistance of the gods.[956]

When a death occurs the body is wrapped in a cotton cloth, leaving the head and face uncovered, and in this condition is placed in a grave. Very few of the ancient funeral usages remain at the present day, though some traces of superstitious ceremonies may still be observed among them; such as placing food in the grave, or at different spots in its immediate vicinity. Sometimes a funeral is conducted with a certain degree of pomp, and the corpse carried to its last resting-place followed by horn-blowers, and tunkul-drummers. As in the case of the central Mexicans, a memorial day is observed, when much respect is shown for the memory of the dead, at which times fruits, bread, and cakes are placed upon the graves.[957]

[Sidenote: CHARACTER OF SOUTHERN MEXICANS.]

The character of the inhabitants of the Tehuantepec isthmus and Yucatan is at the present day one of docility and mildness. With a few exceptions they are kind-hearted, confiding, and generous, and some few of them evince a high degree of intelligence, although the majority are ignorant, superstitious, of loose morality as we esteem it, yet apparently unconscious of wrong. Cayetano Moro says they are far superior to the average American Indian. The Zapotecs are a bold and independent people, exhibit many intellectual qualities, and are of an impatient disposition, though cheerful, gentle, and inoffensive; they make good soldiers; they are fanatical and superstitious like their neighbors. The women are full of vivacity, of temperate and industrious habits, their manners are characterized by shyness rather than modesty, and they are full of intrigue. To this nation the Mijes present a complete contrast; of all the tribes who inhabit the isthmus, they are the most brutal, degraded, and idolatrous; they are grossly stupid, yet stubborn and ferocious. The Chontales and Choles are barbarous, fierce, and quarrelsome, and greatly addicted to witchcraft. The Cajonos and Nexitzas, of Oajaca, are of a covetous and malicious nature, dishonest in their dealings, and much inclined to thieving. The Zoques are more rational in their behavior; although they are ignorant and intemperate in their habits, they are naturally kind and obliging, as well as patient and enduring. The Huaves are deficient in intelligence, arrogant and inhospitable to strangers, and of a reticent and perverse disposition. The Miztecs are grave and steady; they exhibit many traits of ingenuity, are industrious, hospitable, and affable in their manners, and retain an ardent love for liberty.[958] The Mayas exhibit many distinguished characteristics. Although of limited intelligence, and more governed by their senses than their reason, their good qualities predominate. Formerly they were fierce and warlike, but these characteristics have given place to timidity, and they now appear patient, generous, and humane; they are frugal and satisfied with little, being remarkably free from avarice. Herrera describes them as fierce and warlike, much given to drunkenness and other sins, but generous and hospitable. Doctor Young, in his History of Mexico, says: "They are not so intelligent or energetic, though far more virtuous and humane than their brethren of the north." The women are industrious, have pleasing manners, and are inclined to shyness. To sum it all up, I may say that the besetting vice of these nations is intemperance, but the habit of drinking to excess is found to be much more common among the mountain tribes than among the inhabitants of the lowlands. Quarrels among themselves seldom occur, and there is abundant evidence to show that many of them possess excellent natural qualifications both for common labor, and artistic industry; and that there is no cause to prevent their becoming, under favorable circumstances, useful citizens.[959]

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

Under the name WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, I include all the people inhabiting the Mexican Territory from ocean to ocean, between latitude 23° north and the Central American boundary line south, including Yucatan and Tehuantepec. The southernmost point of this division touches the fifteenth degree of north latitude. A subdivision of this group is made and the parts are called the Central Mexicans, and the Southern Mexicans, respectively. In the former I include the nations north of an imaginary line, drawn from the port of Acapulco, on the Pacific coast, to Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, and in the latter all those south of this line.

Going to the fountain-head of Mexican history, I find mentioned certain names, of which it is now impossible to determine whether they are different names applied to the same people or different peoples, or whether they are mythical and apply to no really existing nations. Still less is it possible to give these strange names any definite location; instance the Toltecs and the Chichimecs, and indeed almost all early designations, very common names used to denote very uncommon people. Sahagun is the only one of the oldest writers who mentions the name of Toltecs, which in later years was used by Ixtlilxochitl and Boturini, and after them bandied about more freely by modern writers. After the conquest, the name Chichimecs was applied to all uncivilized and unsettled people north of the valley of Mexico, extending to the farthest discovered region. Of still other nations nothing further can be said than that they occupied the cities to which their name was applied; such were the Mexicans, or Aztecs, the Tlascaltecs, the Cholultecs, and many others. Some general remarks respecting the location of the principal civilized nations, will be found in vol. ii., chap. ii., of this work; and all obtainable details concerning the many tribes that cannot be definitely located here are given in volume v.

[Sidenote: OLMECS AND XICALANCAS.]

The Quinames or Giants are mentioned as the first inhabitants of Mexico. 'Los Quinametin, gigantes que vivian en esta rinconada, que se dice ahora Nueva España.' Ixtlilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., p. 322; Id., Hist. Chichimeca, in Id., p. 205. 'Los que hasta ahora se sabe, aver morado estas Estendidas, y Ampliadisimas Tierras, y Regiones, de la Nueva España, fueron vnas Gentes mui crecidas de Cuerpo, que llamaron despues otros, Qainametin.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 34. 'Les Quinamés, la plus ancienne des races connues de ces contrées, étaient encore en possession de quelques localités de peu d'importance près des villes de Huitzilapan, de Cuetlaxcohuapan et de Totomihuacan.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. i., p. 196. 'Sa domination s'étendait sur les provinces intérieures du Mexique et du Guatémala, et, à l'époque du débarquement des Olmèques et des Xicalancas, les histoires nous la montrent encore en possession du plateau aztèque et des contrées voisines du fleuve Tabasco.' Id., in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1858, tom. clviii., p. 258. 'Vivian hácia las riberas del rio Atoyac, entre la ciudad de Tlaxcala y la de la Puebla de los Angeles.' Veytia, Hist. Ant. Mej., tom. i., pp. 28, 143-4.

The Olmecs and Xicalancas were 'los que poseian este Nuevo Mundo, en esta tercera edad.' Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chichimeca, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., p. 205. 'Olmecas, Vixtoti, y Mixtecas. Estos tales así llamados, están ácia el nacimiento del sol, y llámanles tambien tenime, porque hablan lengua bárbara, y dicen que son Tultecas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 136. 'Estos poblaron, donde aora està Edificada, y Poblada la Ciudad de los Angeles, y en Totomihuacan.... Los Xicalancas, fueron tambien Poblando, ácia Cuathazualco (que es ácia la Costa del Norte) y adelante en la misma Costa, está oi dia vn Pueblo, que se dice Xicalanco.... Otro Pueblo ai del mismo Nombre, en la Provincia de Maxcaltzinco, cerca del Puerto de la Vera-Cruz, que parece averlo tambien Poblado los Xicalancas.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 32. 'Atravesando los Puertos del Bolcan, y Sierra-Nevada, y otros rodeandolos por la parte de el Mediodia, hasta que venieron à salir à vn Lugar, que de presente se llama Tochmilco. De alli, pasaron á Atlixco, Calpan, y Huexotzinco, hasta llegar al parage, y Tierras de la Provincia de Tlaxcallan; y haciendo asiento en el principio, y entrada de la dicha Tierra, hicieron su Fundacion en el Pueblo, que aora se llama Nuestra Señora de la Natividad (y en Lengua Mexicana Yancuictlalpan.) De alli, pasaron à otro Poblado, el referido, llamado Huapalcalco, junto à vna Hermita, que llaman de Santa Cruz, al qual llaman los Naturales, Texoloc, Mizco, y Xiloxuchitla, donde aora es la Hermita de San Vicente, y el Cerro de la Xochitecatl, y Tenayacac, donde estàn otras dos Hermitas, à poco trecho vna de otra, que las llaman de San Miguél, y de San Francisco, enmedio de las quales, pasa el Rio, que viene de la Sierra Nevada de Huexotzinco. Y aqui en este Sitio, hicieron los Hulmecas, su Principal asiento, y Poblaçon.' Id., p. 257; Mendieta, Hist. Ecles., pp. 145-6; Motolinia, Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom. i., p. 7. 'Vlmecatlh poblo tambien muchos lugares en aquella parte, a do agora esta la ciudad de los Angeles. Y nombro los Totomiuacan, Vicilapan, Cuetlaxcoapan, y otros assi. Xicalancatlh anduuo mas tierra, llego a la mar del norte, y en la costa hizo muchos pueblos. Pero a los dos mas principales llamo de su mesmo nombre. El vn Xicalanco esta en la prouincia de Maxcalcinco, que es cerca de la Vera Cruz, y el otro Xicalanco esta cerca de Tauasco.' Gomara, Conq. Mex., fol. 299. 'Hácia Atlisco y Itzucan los xicalancas: y en el territorio de la Puebla, Chollolan y Tlaxcallan los ulmecas, cuya primitiva y principal poblacion dicen haber sido la ciudad de Chollolan.' Veytia, Hist. Ant. Mej., tom. i., p. 153; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. i., pp. 110-11, 196; Id., Popol Vuh, introd., p. xxx.; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 119; Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. iii., p. 374.

The Coras constitute the north-westernmost nation of the CENTRAL MEXICANS, inhabiting the district of 'Nayarit ó reino de Nuevo Toledo.... Al Oeste tiene los pueblos de la antigua provincia de Acaponeta; al Este los de Colotlan, y al Sur quieren algunos que se extienda hasta las orillas del rio Grande ó Tololotlan ... el Nayarit se extiende entre los 21° 20´ y 23° de lat., y entre los 5° y 6° de long. occidental de México.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 279. 'En la Sierra del Nayarit.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 71. 'Los indios que viven en el centro de la sierra, llamados muutzizti.... Los llamados teakuaeitzizti viven en las faldas de la sierra que mira al Poniente ... los coras que viven á la orilla del rio Nayarit ó de Jesus María, conocidos por Ateakari.' Id., p. 83.

The Tecoxines 'tenian su principal asiento en el valle de Cactlan ... y se extendian à la Magdalena, Analco, Hoxtotipaquillo y barrancas de Mochitiltic.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 279.

The Cocotlanes were at the missions of 'Apozolco y en Comatlan.' Id., p. 280.

The Maraveres reside in Tlajomulco. Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. ii., p. 242.

The Thorames and Tzayaquecas dwell near the town of Zentipac. 'Dos leguas apartado del mar, la nacion Thorama ... diez leguas de Zentipac habia otros Indios de Nacion Tzayaqueca.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 62. 'La gran poblacion y Valle de Tzenticpac, cuyo pueblo principal está situado punto á la mar del Sur, dos leguas antes á orillas del rio grande, y que la gente de esta provincia era de la nacion Totorame.' Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 197.

The Corarus 'habitaban ... hacia la parte del Norte, diez leguas del dicho pueblo de Tzenticpac.' Ib.

The Guicholas 'are settled in the village of San Sebastian, which lies eighteen leagues to the westward of Bolaños.' Lyon's Journal, vol. i., p. 322; Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1828, tom. xl., p. 239. 'En Santa Catarina, S. Sebastian, S. Andres Coamiat, Soledad y Tezompan, pertenecientes á Colotlan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 282.

The Coronados 'son los del pueblo de Tuito al Sur del valle de Banderas.' Id., p. 278.

The Tiaxomultecs 'habitaban en Tlajomulco.' 'Estos tecuexes ... llaman à los indios cocas de toda la provincia de Tonalan, que no eran de su lengua, tlaxomultecas.' Id., p. 278.

The Cocas and Tecuexes 'eran los de la provincia de Tonalan.... Los tecuexes pasaban del otro lado de Tololotlan hasta ocupar parte de Zacatecas, derramándose por los pueblos de Tecpatitlan, Teocaltiche, Mitic, Jalostotitlan, Mesticatan, Yagualica, Tlacotlan, Teocaltitlan, Ixtlahuacan, Cuautla, Ocotic y Acatic.' Id., pp. 278-9.

The Mazapiles are 'al N. E. de la zacateca.' Hervas, in Id., p. 11.

The Cazcanes 'habitan hasta la comarca de Zacatecas.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. xiii.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 281. 'Ocupaba el terreno desde el rio Grande, confinando con los tecuexes y los tepecanos.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 284, 49.

The Mecos live in the pueblo Soledad de las Canoas, in the State of Querétaro. Alcedo, Dicc., tom. iv., p. 567.

The Pames inhabit the state of Querétaro, 'treinta leguas distante de la expresada Ciudad de Querétaro, y se estiende á cien leguas de largo, y treinta de ancho, en cuyas breñas vivian los Indios de la Nacion Pame.' Paiou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 23. 'En la mision de Cerro Prieto del Estado de México, se extiende principalmente por los pueblos de San Luis Potosí, y tambien se le encuentra en Querétaro y en Guanajuato.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 48, 256, 262, 264. 'En San Luis de la Paz, territorio de la Sierra Gorda ... en la ciudad del Maiz, Departamento de San Luis Potosí ... en la Purísima Concepcion de Arnedo, en la Sierra Gorda.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 265.

[Sidenote: THE OTOMÍS.]

The Otomís are one of the most widely dispersed nations of Mexico. 'Todo lo alto de las montañas, ó la mayor parte, á la redonda de México, están llenas de ellos. La cabeza de su señorío creo que es Xilotepec, que es una gran provincia, y las provincias de Tollan y Otompa casi todas son de ellos, sin contar que en lo bueno de la Nueva España hay muchas poblaciones de estos Otomíes, de los quales proceden los Chichimecas.' Motolinia, Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom. i., p. 9. The above is copied by Torquemada, in his Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 32. 'Estos Teochichimecas son los que aora se llaman Otomies.... Tlaixpan, es de los que hablan esta Lengua Otomi.' Id., p. 261. 'La grandisima Provincia, ò Reino de los Otomies, que coge à Tepexic, Tula, Xilotepec, Cabeça de este Reyno, Chiapa, Xiquipilco, Atocpan, y Queretaro, en cuio medio de estos Pueblos referidos, ai otro inumerables, porque lo eran sus Gentes.' Id., p. 287. 'Xilotepeque provincia Otomiis habitata.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 234. 'La Provincia degli Otomiti cominciava nella parte settentrionale della Valle Messicana, e si continuava per quelle montagne verso tramontana sino a novanta miglia dalla Capitale. Sopra tutti i luoghi abitati, che v'erano ben molti, s'innalzava l'antica e celebre Città di Tollan [oggidì Tula] e quella di Xilotepec.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 31. In ancient times they 'occuparono un tratto di terra di più di trecento miglia dalle montagne d'Izmiquilpan verso Maestro, confinando verso Levante, e verso Ponente con altre Nazioni parimente selvaggie.' Later: 'fondarono nel paese d'Anahuac, ed anche nella stessa Valle di Messico infiniti luoghi; la maggior parte d'essi, e spezialmente i più grandi, come quelli di Xilotopec e di Huitzapan nelle vicinanze del paese, che innanzi occupavano: altri sparsi fra i Matlatzinchi, ed i Tlascallesi, ed in altre Provincie del Regno.' Id., p. 148. 'Los indios de este pais (Querétaro) eran por la mayor parte otomites.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. ii., p. 163; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 77. 'Sous le nom d'Othomis, on comprenait généralement les restes des nations primitives, répandus dans les hautes vallées qui bornent l'Anahuac à l'occident.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 56. 'Les traditions les plus anciennes du Mexique nous montrent les Othomis en possession des montagnes et de la vallée d'Anahuac, ainsi que des vastes contrées qui s'étendent au delà, dans le Michoacan, jusqu'aux frontières de Xalizco et de Tonalàn; ils étaient également les maîtres du plateau de Tlaxcallan.' Id., tom. i., p. 160. 'Ils occupaient la plus grande partie de la vallée d'Anahuac, avec ses contours jusqu'aux environs de Cholullan, ainsi que les provinces que s'étendent au nord entre la Michoacan et Tuilantzinco.' Id., p. 196. 'Otompan, aujourd'hui Otumba, fut leur capitale.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. xxx., cx. Querétaro 'fue siempre domicilio de los esforzados Othomites.... Tienen poblado todo lo alto de las Montañas, que circundan á Mexico, siendo cabecera de toda la Provincia Othomí Xilotepec, que la hacen numerosa los Pueblos de Tepexic, Tula, Huichiapan, Xiquilpo, Atocpan, el Mexquital, S. Juan del Rio, y Queretaro.' Espinosa, Chrón. Apostólica, pp. 1-2. The Otomí language 'se le encuentra derramado por el Estado de México, entra en San Luis Potosí, abraza todo Querétaro y la mayor parte de Guanajuato, limitándose al O. por los pueblos de los tarascos; reaparece confundido con el tepehua cerca del totonaco, y salpicado aquí y allá se tropieza con él en Puebla y en Veracruz.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 17, 216-7, 240, 255-6, 261-4, 272. 'En todo el Estado de Querétaro y en una parte de los de San Luis, Guanajuato, Michoacan, México, Puebla, Veracruz y Tlaxcala.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 117. Concurrent authorities: Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 138; Delaporte, Reisen, tom. x., p. 323; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 345; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 477; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 36, 188, 196-7; Klemm, Cultur-Geschichte, tom. v., p. 193; Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 2; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, tom. iv., p. 513. 'Habitait les bords du golfe du Mexique, depuis la province de Panuco jusqu'au Nueces.' Domenech, Jour., p. 16.

The Mazahuas 'furono tempo fa parte della Nazione Otomita.... I principali luoghi da loro abitati erano sulle montagne occidentali della Valle Messicana, e componevano la Provincia di Mazahuacan, appartenente alla Corona di Tacuba.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., pp. 149-50; copied in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 83. 'Mazahua, Mazahui, Matzahua, Matlazahua Mozahui, en Mexico y en Michoacan. En tiempos del imperio azteca esta tribu pertenecia al reino de Tlacopan; sus pueblos marcaban los límites entre su señorío y Michoacan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 256. 'Parece que solo quedan algunos restos de la nacion mazahua en el distrito Ixtlahuaca, perteneciente al Departamento de México.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 193. 'Au nord ils étendaient leurs villages jusqu'à peu de distance de l'ancien Tollan.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 56.

The Huastecs, Huaxtecs, Guastecs, or Cuextecas inhabit portions of the states of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas. 'A los mismos llamaban Panteca ó Panoteca, que quiere decir hombres del lugar pasadero, los cuales fueron así llamados, y son los que viven en la provincia de Panuco, que propiamente se llaman Pantlan, ó Panotlan.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 132. 'El Huaxtecapan se extendió de Veracruz á San Luis Potosí, y corria á lo largo de la costa del Golfo, hácia el Norte, prolongándose probablemente muy adentro de Tamaulipas, por lugares en donde ahora no se encuentra ni vestigio suyo.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 206, 19. 'Cuando llegaron los españoles, el lugar que ocupaban era la frontera Norte del reino de Texcoco, y parte de la del mexicano.... Hoy se conoce su pais con el nombre de la Huaxteca: comprende la parte Norte del Estado de Veracruz y una fraccion lindante del de San Luis, confinando, al Oriente, con el Golfo de México, desde la barra de Tuxpan hasta Tampico.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 5. Further mention in Chaves, Rapport, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., série ii., tom. v., p. 298; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 46; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 226; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 35-6; Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 316; Villa-Señor, Theatro, tom. i., p. 122.

[Sidenote: TOTONACS AND NAHUATLACS.]

The Totonacs occupy the country east of the valley of Mexico down to the sea-coast, and particularly the state of Veracruz and a portion of Puebla. 'Estos Totonaques estan poblados á la parte del norte, y se dice ser guastemas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 131-4. 'Totonachi. Questa grande Provincia, ch'era per quella parte l'ultima dell' imperio, si stendeva per ben centocinquanta miglia, cominciando dalla frontiera di Zacatlan ... e terminando nel Golfo Messicano. Oltre alla capitale Mizquihuacan, quindici miglia a Levante da Zacatlan, v'era la bella Città di Cempoallan sulla costa del Golfo.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 34. 'Raccontavano dunque, que essendosi eglino da principio per qualche tempo stabiliti su le rive del lago tezcucano, quindi si portarono a popolare quelle montagne, che da loro presero il nome di Totonacapan.' Id., tom. iv., p. 51. 'En Puebla y en Veracruz. Los totonacos ocupan la parte Norte del Departamento, formando un solo grupo con sus vecinos de Veracruz; terminan sobre la costa del golfo, en toda la zona que se extiende entre los rios de Chachalacas y de Cazones ó S. Márcos.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 214, 216. 'Están estendidos, y derramados por las Sierras, que le caen, al Norte, à esta Ciudad de Mexico.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 278; Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 223. 'In the districts of Zacatlan, State of Puebla, and in the State of Vera Cruz.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 190; Villa-Señor, Theatro, tom. i., p. 312; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 208; Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4.

The Meztitlanecs inhabited the region north of Tezcuco, between the Sierra Madre and the territory occupied by the Huastecs. 'Al Norte de Tetzcoco existia el señorío independiente de Meztitlan, que hoy corresponde al Estado de México.... Obedecian á Meztitlan, cabecera principal, las provincias de Molango, Malila, Tlanchinolticpac, Ilamatlan, Atlihuetzian, Suchicoatlan, Tianguiztengo, Guazalingo, Yagualica. El señorío, pues, se extendia por toda la sierra, hasta el limite con los huaxtecos: en Yahualica estaba la guarnicion contra ellos, por ser la frontera, comenzando desde allí las llanuras de Huaxtecapan. Xelitla era el punto mas avanzado al Oeste y confinaba con los bárbaros chichimecas: el término al Sur era Zacualtipan y al Norte tenia á los chichimecas.' Chavez, Relacion de Meztitlan, quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 246.

The Nahuatlacs 'se diuiden en siete linajes.... Los primeros fueron los Suchimilcos, que quiere dezir, gente de sementeras de flores. Estos poblaron a la orilla de la gran laguna de Mexico hazia el Mediodia, y fundaron vna ciudad de su nombre, y otros muchos lugares. Mucho despues llegaron los del segundo linage llamados Chalcas, que significa gente de las bocas, y tambien fundaron otra ciudad de su nombre, partiendo terminos con los Suchimílcos. Los terceros fueron los Tepanecas, que quiere dezir, gente de la Puente. Y tambien poblaron en la orilla de la laguna al Occidente.... La cabeça de su provincia la llamaron Azcapuzàlco.... Tras estos vinieron, los que poblaron a Tezcùco, que son los de Cùlhua, que quiere dezir, gente corua.... Y assi quedò la laguna cercada de estas quatro naciones, poblando estos al Oriente, y los Tepanècas al Norte.... Despues llegaron los Tlatluìcas, que significa gente de la sierra.... Y como hallaron ocupados todos los llanos en contorno de la laguna hasta las sierras, passaron de la otra parte de la sierra.... Y a la cabeça de su prouincia llamaron Quahunahuàc ... que corrompidamente nuestro vulgo llama Quernauaca, y aquella prouincia es, la que oy se dize el Marquesado. Los de la sexta generacion, que son los Tlascaltècas, que quiere dezir gente de pan, passaron la serrania hazia el Oriente atrauessando la sierra neuada, donde està el famoso bolcan entre Mexico y la ciudad de los Angeles ... la cabeça de su prouincia llamaron de su nombre Tlascàla.... La septima cueua, o linage, que es la nacion Mexicana, la qual como las otras, salio de las prouincias de Aztlan, y Teuculhuàcan.' Acosta, Hist. de las Ynd., pp. 454-8. Repeated in Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. x. Also in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., pp. 151-2, and in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 85; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 91-2.

The Acolhuas inhabited the kingdom of Acolhuacan. 'Su capital era Tetzcoco, á la orilla del lago de su nombre.... La extension del reino era: desde el mar del N. á la del Sur, con todo lo que se comprende á la banda del Poniente hasta el puerto de la Veracruz, salvo la cuidad de Tlachcala y Huexotzinco.' Pomar, Relacion de Texcoco, quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 240-2. 'Juan B. Pomar fija los límites del reino con toda la exageracion que puede infundir el orgullo de raza. Por nuestra parte, hemos leido con cuidado las relaciones que á la monarquía corresponden, y hemos estudiado en el plano los lugares á que se refieren, y ni de las unas ní de los otros llegamos á sacar jamas que los reyes de Aculhuacan mandaran sobre las tribus avecindadas en la costa del Pacífico, no ya á la misma altura de México, sino aun á menores latitudes.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 242-4. See further: Motolinia, Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom. i., p. 11; Ixtlilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., p. 341.

The Ocuiltecs 'viven en el distrito de Toluca, en tierras y terminos suyos.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 130.

The Macaoaquez 'viven en una comarca de Toluca, y están poblados en el pueblo de Xocotitlan. Ib.

The Tarascos dwell chiefly in the state of Michoacan. 'La provincia de estos, es la madre de los pescados, que es Michoacan: llámase tambien Quaochpanme.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 137. Repeated in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 148. Their territory is bounded: 'Au nord-est, le royaume de Tonalan et le territoire maritime de Colima eu sont séparés par le rio Pantla et le fleuve Coahuayana, auquel s'unit cette rivière, dix lieues avant d'aller tomber dans la mer Pacifique, dont le rivage continue ensuite à borner le Michoacan, au sud-ouest, jusqu'à Zacatollan. Là les courbes capricieuses du Mexcala lui constituent d'autres limites, à l'est et au sud, puis, à l'est encore, les riches provinces de Cohuixco et de Matlatzinco.... Plus au nord, c'étaient les Mazahuas, dont les fertiles vallées, ainsi que celles des Matlatzincas, s'étendent dans les régions les plus froides de la Cordillère; enfin le cour majestueux du Tololotlan et les rives pittoresques du lac Chapala formaient une barrière naturelle entre les Tarasques et les nombreuses populations othomies et chichimèques des états de Guanaxuato et de Queretaro.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., pp. 53, 56. 'El tarasco se habla en el Estado de Michoacan, exceptuando la parte Sur-Oeste que linda con el Pacífico donde se habla el mexicano, una pequeña parte al Nor-Este, donde se acostumbra el othomí ó el mazahua, y otra parte donde se usa el matlatzinca. Tambien se habla en el Estado de Guanajuato, en la parte que linda con Michoacan y Guadalajara, limitada al Oriente por una línea que puede comenzar en Acámbaro, seguir á Irapuato y terminar en San Felipe, es decir, en los límites con San Luis Potosí.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 271. 'En Michoacan, Guerrero, Guanajuato y Jalisco.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 58, 238, 264, 271-2, 281. Concurrent authorities: Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 182; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 460; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 675

[Sidenote: MATLALTZINCAS AND TLAPANECS.]

The Matlaltzincas, Pirindas, or Tolucas inhabited the valley of Toluca, situated between the valley of Mexico and Michoacan. 'La Provincia dei Matlatzinchi comprendeva, oltre la valle di Tolocan, tutto quello spazio, che v'è infino a Tlaximaloyan (oggi Taximaroa) frontiera del regno di Michuacan.... Nelle montagne circonvicine v'erano gli stati di Xalatlauhco, di Tzompahuacan, e di Malinalco; in non molta lontananza verso Levante dalla valle quello d'Ocuillan, e verso Ponente quelli di Tozantla, e di Zoltepec.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., pp. 31-2, 150. 'Antiguamente en el valle de Toluca; pero hoy solo se usa en Charo, lugar perteneciente al Estado de Michoacan.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 499. 'In the district of that name, sixty miles south-west of Mexico.' Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., tom. i., p. 4. Also in Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 56.

The Chumbias inhabit the pueblos Ciutla, Axalo, Ihuitlan, Vitalata, Guaguayutla and Coyuquilla in the State of Guerrero. Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 227.

The Tlapanecs, Coviscas, Yopes, Yopis, Jopes, Yopimes, Tenimes, Pinomes, Chinquimes, Chochontes, Pinotl-Chochons, Chochos, Chuchones, Popolocas, Tecos, Tecoxines, or Popolucas are one and the same people, who by different writers are described under one or the other of these names. 'Estos Coviscas y Tlapanecas, son unos ... y están poblados en Tepecuacuilco y Tlachmalacac, y en la provincia de Chilapan.' 'Estos Yopimes y Tlapanecas, son de los de la comarca de Yopitzinco, llámenles Yopes ... son los que llaman propiamente tenimes, pinome, chinquime, chochonti.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 135; quoted also in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 235-6, 217, 196. 'La provincia de los Yopes lindaba al Oeste con los Cuitlateques, al Sur con el Pacífico, al Este con los Mixtecos y al Norte con los Cohuixcas: la division por esta parte la representaria una linea de Este à Oeste, al Sur de Xocolmani y de Amatlan, y comprendiera à los actuales tlapanecos.' Montufar, in Id., pp. 235-6. 'Confinava colla costa dei Cohuixchi quella dei Jopi, e con questa quella dei Mixtechi, conosciuta ai nostri tempi col nome di Xicayan.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 34; Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4. 'Tecamachalco era su poblacion principal, y se derramaban al Sur hasta tocar con los mixtecos. Durante el siglo XVI se encontraban aún popolocos en Tlacotepec y en San Salvador (unidos con los otomíes), pueblo sujeto á Quecholac.... Por la parte de Tehuacan, el límite de esta tribu se hallaba en Coxcatlan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 217-18. The Chochos dwell in sixteen pueblos in the department of Huajuapan in the state of Oajaca. Id., p. 196.

The Cohuixcas dwelt in the province of the same name, which 'confinava a Settentrione coi Matlatzinchi, e coi Tlahuichi, a Ponente coi Cuitlatechi, a Levante coi Jopi e coi Mixtechi, ed a Mezzogiornio si stendeva infino al Mar Pacifico per quella parte, dove presentemente vi sono il porto e la Città d'Acapulco.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 32. 'La provincia comenzaba en Zacualpa, límite con los matlaltzincas, y que, por último, los confines de esa porcion antigua del imperio Mexicano, eran al Norte los matlaltzinques; los tlahuiques, al Este los mixtecos y los tlapanecos, al Sur los yopes, y al Oeste los cuitlateques.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 227-32. Their country lies 'between Tesitzlan and Chilapan.' Ker's Travels, p. 233.

The Cuitlatecs inhabit the country between the Cohuixcas and the Pacific Coast. 'I Cuitlatechi abitavano un paese, che si stendeva più di dugento miglia da Maestro a Scirocco dal regno di Michuacan infino al mar Pacifico. La loro capitale era la grande e popolosa città di Mexcaltepec sulla costa, della quale appena sussistono le rovine.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 32. 'En Ajuchitlan, San Cristóbal y Poliutla en la municipalidad de Ajuchitlan, distrito del mismo nombre, y en Atoyac, distrito y municipalidad de Tecpan. La provincia de los cuitlateques ó cuitlatecos, sujeta en lo antiguo á los emperadores de México, quedaba comprendida entre las de Zacatula y de los cohuixques.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 233-4.

Proceeding southward, among the SOUTHERN MEXICANS, we first encounter the Miztecs, whose province, Miztecapan, was in the present states of Oajaca and Guerrero. 'La Mixtecapan, o sia Provincia dei Mixtechi si stendeva da Acatlan, luogo lontano cento venti miglia dalla corte verso Scirocco, infino al Mar Pacifico, e conteneva più Città e villaggi ben popolati, e di considerabile commercio.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 32. 'Le Mixtecapan comprenait les régions occidentales de l'état d'Oaxaca, depuis la frontière septentrionale d'Acatlan, qui le séparait des principautés des Tlahuicas et de Mazatlan, jusque sur le rivage de l'océan Pacifique. Elles se divisaient en haute et basse Mixtèque, l'une et l'autre également fertiles, la première resserrèe entre les montagnes qui lui donnaient son nom; la seconde, occupant les riches territoires des bords de la mer, ayant pour capitale la ville de Tututepec (à l'embouchure du rio Verde).' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 4. 'Les Mixtèques donnaient eux-mêmes à leur pays le nom de Gnudzavui-Gnuhu, Terre de pluie, pour le haute Mixtèque, et Gnuundaa, Côte de la mer, à la basse.' Id., pp. 5-6. 'En la antigua provincia de este nombre, situada sobre la costa del mar Pacifico, que comprende actualmente, hácia el Norte, una fraccion del Estado de Puebla; hácia el Este, una del de Oajaca, y al Oeste, parte del Estado de Guerrero. Divídese la Mixteca en alta y baja, estando la primera en la serranía, y la segunda en las llanuras contiguas á la costa.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 37. 'Westlich der Zapotécos, bei San Francisco Huizo im Norden und bei Santa Cruz Miztepéc im Süden des grossen Thales von Oajáca beginnen die Mistéken, welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des Staats einnehmen, und südlich bis an die Küste des Austral-Oceans bei Jamiltepéc und Tututepéc hinabreichen.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 142, 187, 192-6, 198-9, 201-2. Also in Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163.

[Sidenote: ZAPOTECS AND MIJES.]

The Zapotecs occupy the large valley of Oajaca. 'Fue la Zapotecapan Señora, y tan apoderada de las demas de su Orizonte, que ambiciosos sus Reyes, rompieron los terminos de su mando, y se entraron ferozes, y valientes, por Chontales, Mijes, y tierras maritimas de ambos mares del Sur, y del Norte ... y venciendo, hasta Señorear los fertiles llanos de Teguantepeque, y corriendo hasta Xoconusco.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 196, tom. ii., fol. 362. 'Hasta Tepeiac, Techamachalco, Quecholac y Teohuacan, que por aquí dicen que hicieron sus poblaciones los zapotecas.' Veytia, Hist. Ant. Mej., tom. i., p. 153. 'A Levante de' Mixtechi erano i Zapotechi, cosí chiamati dalla loro capitale Teotzapotlan. Nel loro distretto era la Valle di Huaxyacac, dagli Spagnuoli detta Oaxaca o Guaxaca.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 32. 'En una parte del Estado de Oajaca, limitada al Sur por el Pacífico, exceptuando una pequeña fraccion de terreno ocupada por los chontales.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 319. See also: Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 177-87; Murguía y Galardi, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, tom. vii., pp. 245-6. 'The Zapotecs constitute the greater part of the population of the southern division of the Isthmus (of Tehuantepec).' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 226. 'Inhabit the Pacific plains and the elevated table-lands from Tarifa to Petapa.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, pp. 125, 133-4; Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 59; Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338, 470. 'Zapotécos, welche die Mitte des Staates, das grosse Thal von Oajáca bewohnen, sich im Osten über die Gebirge von Huixázo, Iztlán und Tanétze und die Thäler Los Cajónos ausbreiten, und im Süden, im Partido Quíechápa (Depart. Tehuantepéc) mit den Mijes, im Partido von Pochútla (Depart. Ejútla) aber mit den Chontáles, Nachbaren jener, gränzen.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 141, 170, 173-6, 183-6, 189, 191, 199, 212-13; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 162. 'Les Zapotèques appelaient leur pays Lachea.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 38; Macgregor's Progress of America, p. 848.

The Mijes dwell in the mountains of southern Oajaca and in a small portion of Tehuantepec. 'Antérieurement à la ruine de l'empire toltèque ... les Mijes occupaient tout le territoire de l'isthme de Tehuantepec, d'une mer à l'autre.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, pp. 138-9. 'Toute cette région, comprenant, à l'est, les cimes de la Sierra de Macuilapa que domine le village actuel de Zanatepec et les montagnes qui s'étendent, du côté opposé, vers Lachixila, baignées par la rivière de Tehuantepec, au sud, et, au nord, par celle de la Villa-Alta, jusqu'aux savanes, oú roulent les affluents de l'Alvarado et du Guazacoalco, appartenait à la même nation des Mixi ou Mijes ... les Mijes vaincus demeurèrent soumis dès lors aux rois de la Mixtèque et du Zapotecapan, à l'exception d'un petit nombre qui, jusqu'à l'époque espagnole, continuérent dans leur résistance dans les cantons austères qui environnent le Cempoaltepec. Ce qui reste de cette nation sur l'isthme de Tehuantepec est disséminé actuellement en divers villages de la montagne. Entre les plus importants est celui de Guichicovi que j'avais laissé à ma droite en venant de la plaine de Xochiapa au Barrio.' Id., pp. 105-7. 'Les Mixi avaient possédé anciennement la plus grande partie des royaumes de Tehuantepec, de Soconusco et du Zapotecapan; peut-être même les rivages de Tututepec leur devaient-ils leur première civilisation.' Id., Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., pp. 34-5. 'En algunos lugares del Departamento de Oajaca como Juquila, Quezaltepec y Atilan.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 173. 'Les Indiens mijes habitent une contrée montagneuse, au sud-ouest du Goatzacoalco et au nord-ouest de Tehuantepec.... De la chaîne des monts Mijes descend la rivière de Sarrabia, qui traverse la belle plaine de Boca-del-Monte.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 49. 'The Mijes, once a powerful tribe, inhabit the mountains to the west, in the central division of the Isthmus, and are now confined to the town of San Juan Guichicovi.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 224; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 225; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 547. 'The Mijes constituted formerly a powerful nation, and they still occupy the land from the Sierra, north of Tehuantepec, to the district of Chiapas. In the Isthmus they only inhabit the village of Guichicovi, and a small portion of the Sierra, which is never visited.' Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 60. Also Macgregor's Progress of America, p. 849; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 176-7.

The Huaves, Huavi, Huabi, Huabes, Guavi, Wabi, etc., live on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 'Les Wabi avaient été, dans les siècles passés, possesseurs de la province de Tehuantepec.... Ils avaient été les maîtres du riche territoire de Soconusco (autrefois Xoconochco ... espèce de nopal), et avaient étendu leurs conquêtes jusqu'au sein même des montagnes, où ils avaient fondé ou accru la ville de Xalapa la Grande (Xalapa-del-Marques).' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 3. 'The Huaves are in all little more than three thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called San Mateo, Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 59. 'Scattered over the sandy peninsulas formed by the lakes and the Pacific. At present they occupy the four villages of San Mateo, Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 227. 'San Francisco Istaltepec is the last village, inhabited by the descendants of a tribe called Huaves.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 546. 'Habitent les villages du bord de la mer au sud de Guichicovi.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 467. Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 141. 'Se extienden en Tehuantepec, desde las playas del Pacífico hasta la cordillera interior.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 173-6.

The Beni-Xonos 'composaient une province nombreuse, occupant en partie les routes qui conduisaient au Mexique et aux montagnes des Mixi.... Leur ville principale, depuis la conquête, s'appelait San-Francisco, à 15 l. N. O. de la cité d'Oaxaca.' 'Habitant sur les confins des Mixi et des Zapotêques.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., pp. 42-3. 'Les Beni-Xono sont appelés aussi Nexicha et Cajones.' Ib.

The Mazatecs live in the state of Oajaca, near the Puebla boundary. 'A Tramontana dei Mixtechi v'era la Provincia di Mazatlan, e a Tramontana, e a Levante dei Zapotechi quella di Chinantla colle loro capitali dello stesso nome, onde furono i loro abitanti Mazatechi e Chinantechi appellati.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 33. 'In den Partidos Teutitlán und Teutíla, Departement Teutitlán del Camíno.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 141, 206, 210. 'En el Departamento de Teotitlan, formando una pequeña fraccion en el límite con el Estado de Veracruz.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 188.

[Sidenote: TRIBES OF OAJACA AND CHIAPAS.]

The Cuicatecs dwell 'en una pequeña fraccion del Departamento de Oajaca.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 259. 'In den Partidos Teutitlán und Teutíla, Departement Teutitlán del Camíno.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 141; repeated in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 188-9; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163.

The Pabucos live in the 'pueblo de Elotepec, Departamento del Centro.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 197; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 187.

The Soltecs are in the pueblo de Sola. Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 197.

The Pintos are a people inhabiting small portions of Guerrero and Tehuantepec. 'A l'ouest, sur le versant des Cordillères, une grande partie de la côte baignée par le Pacifique, habitée par les Indiens Pintos.' Kératry, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1866, p. 453. 'On trouve déjà dans la plaine de Tehuantepec quelques échantillons de cette race toute particulière au Mexique, appelée pinto, qui appartient principalement à l'état de Guerrero.' Charnay, Ruines Américaines, p. 502.

The Chiapanecs inhabit the interior of the state of Chiapas. 'Dans l'intérieur des provinces bordant les rives du Chiapan, à sa sortie des gouffres d'où il s'élance, en descendant du plateau de Zacatlan.' (Guatemalan name for Chiapas,) and they extended over the whole province, later on. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. ii., p. 87. 'À l'ouest de ce plateau, entre les Zotziles ou Quélènes du sud et les Zoqui du nord, habitaient les Chiapanèques.' Id., Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 157, 199. Also in Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 39. 'En Acala, distrito del Centro, y en la villa de Chiapa y en Suchiapa, distrito del Oeste.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 172. 'Le principali Città dei Chiapanechi erano Teochiapan, (chiamata dagli Spagnuoli Chiapa de Indios), Tochtla, Chamolla, e Tzinacantla.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. i., p. 33.

The Tzendales are in Chiapas. 'De l'Etat de Chiapas.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, p. 364. 'The province called Zeldales lyeth behind this of the Zoques, from the North Sea within the continent, running up towards Chiapa and reaches in some parts near to the borders of Comitlan, north-westward.' Gage's New Survey, p. 236. Also in Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 193; Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 235; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 169; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325.

The Zotziles inhabit a small district in Chiapas. 'La ciudad de Tzinacantlan, que en mexicano significa "lugar de murciélagos," fué la capital de los quelenes, y despues de los tzotziles quienes la llamaban Zotzilhá, que significa lo mismo; de zotzil, murciélago.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 245. Tzinacantan (Quiche Zotzilha) 'doit avoir été le berceau de la nation zotzil, l'une des nombreuses populations du Chiapas.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. ii., p. 88.

The Chatinos live in the 'Departamentos del Centro y de Jamiltepee.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 189; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 196-9.

The Chinantecs, or Tenez, are in the 'Departamento de Teotitlan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 187; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 214. 'In the partidos of Quiechapa, Jalalog, and Chuapan.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 40.

The Ahualulcos inhabit San Francisco de Ocuapa which 'es la Cabeza de Partido de los Indios Ahualulcos.' Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. iii., p. 366.

The Quelenes occupied a district in Chiapas near the Guatemala boundary line. 'La nation des Quelènes, dont la capitale était Comitan, occupait la frontière guatémalienne.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 4. 'Au temps de la conquête, la ville principale des Quelènes était Copanahuaztlan.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., p. 157. 'Établies entre le haut plateau de Ghovel ou de Ciudad-Real et les montagnes de Soconusco au midi.' Ib.; and Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 271.

The Zoques are scattered over portions of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oajaca, and Tehuantepec. 'Se encuentran derramados en Chiapas, Tabasco y Oaxaca; tienen al Norte el mexicano y el chontal, al Este el tzendal, el tzotzil y el chiapaneco, al Sur el mexicano, y al Oeste el huave, el zapoteco y el mixe.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 170. 'Occupy the mountain towns of Santa Maria and San Miguel, and number altogether about two thousand souls.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126. 'Les Zotziles et les Zoqui, confinant, au sud-est, avec les Mixi montagnards, au nord avec les Nonohualcas, et les Xicalancas, qui habitaient les territoires fertiles de Tabasco.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., tom. iii., p. 5. 'Quorum præcipuum Tecpatlan.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325. 'The Soques, who came originally from Chiapas, inhabit in the Isthmus only the villages of San Miguel and Santa María Chimalapa.' Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 60. 'La mayor de ellas está situada á tres leguas de Tacotalpa, aguas arriba del rio de la Sierra. Ocupa un pequeño valle causado por el descenso de varios cerros y colinas que la circuyen.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., pp. 236-8; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 181-2; Macgregor's Progress of America, pp. 849-50. 'The Zoques inhabit the mountainous region to the east, from the valley of the Chiapa on the south, to the Rio del Corte on the north. Originally occupying a small province lying on the confines of Tabasco, they were subjugated by the expedition to Chiapas under Luis Marin. At present they are confined to the villages of San Miguel and Santa Maria Chimalapa.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 225. 'Near the Arroyo de Otates, on the road from Tarifa to Santa Maria, stands a new settlement, composed of a few shanties, inhabited by Zoques, which is called Tierra Blanca.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 546.

The Choles, Manches, and Mopanes are scattered through small portions of Chiapas and Vera Paz in Guatemala. '23 leagues from Cahbón, in the midst of inaccessible mountains and morasses, dwell the Chóls and Manchés.' Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 94-5. Residen en la 'Provincia del Manché.' Alcedo, Dicc., tom. iii., p. 452. Also in Boyle's Ride, vol. i., preface, p. 14; Dunlop's Cent. Amer., p. 196; Gavarrete, in Panamá Star and Herald, Dec. 19, 1867. 'Los Choles forman una tribu establecida desde tiempos remotos en Guatemala; dividos en dos fracciones ... la una se encuentra al Este de Chiapas, y la otra muy retirada en la Verapaz.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 167. 'Tenia por el Sur la Provincia del Chòl: Por la Parte del Oriente, y de el Norte, de igual modo, las Naciones de los Itzaex Petenes: Y por el Poniente, las de los Lacandones, y Xoquinoès.' Villagutierre, Hist. Conq. Itza, pp. 278-9. 'The nation of the Chol Indians is settled in a country about 25 or 30 leagues distant from Cahabon, the last village in Verapaz, and far removed from the Manchés.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 275.

[Sidenote: MAYAS AND ITZAS.]

The Mayas inhabit the peninsula of Yucatan. 'Avant la conquête des Espagnols, les Mayas occupaient toute la presque'île d'Yucatan, y compris les districts de Peten, le Honduras anglais, et la partie orientale de Tabasco.... La seule portion de pure race restant de cette grande nation, se réduit à quelques tribus èparses, habitant principalement les bords des rivières Usumasinta, San Pedro et Pacaitun; la totalitè de leur territoire fait, politiquement parlant, partie du Peten.' Galindo, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1834, tom. lxiii., pp. 148-9, and in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., tom. iii., p. 59. 'En todo el Estado de Yucatan, Isla del Cármen, pueblo de Montecristo en Tabasco, y del Palenque en Chiapas.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 3; Crowe's Cent. America, pp. 46-7; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 453; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 208; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 142-3.

The Itzas occupy a like-named district in the centre of Yucatan. 'Los que poblaron a Chicheniza, se llaman los Yzaes.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. 'Tienen por la parte del Mediodia, la Provincia de la Vera-Paz, y Reyno de Guatimala; por el Norte, las Provincias de Yucatán; por la parte del Oriente, el Mar; por la de el Occidente, la Provincia de Chiapa; y al Sueste, la Tierra, y Provincia de Honduras.' Villagutierre, Hist. Conq. Itza, p. 489.

FOOTNOTES:

[897] Otomí;--'Otho en la misma lengua othomí quiere decir nada, y mi, quieto, ó sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la palabra, significa nada-quieto, cuya idea pudiéramos expresar diciendo peregrino ó errante.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. i., p. 118. Chichimecs;--'Los demas Indios les llamaban Chichimecos (que hoy lo mismo es chichi que perros altaneros) por la ninguna residencia.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 44. Speaking of Chichimecs, 'debaxo deste nombre estan muchas naciones con dierencias de lenguas como son Pamies, Capuzes, Samues, Zancas, Maiolias, Guamares, Guachichiles, y otros, todos diferentes aunque semejantes en las costumbres.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xiv. For further etymology of tribes, see Buschmann, Ortsnamen.Return to passage

[898] 'Hanno d'altezza più di cinque piedi parigini.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. iv., p. 161. 'De pequeña estatura [cuatro piés seis pulgadas, á cinco piés cuando mas.]' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 229. In Yalisco 'casi en todo este reyno, son grandes, y hermosas.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 271. 'Son de estatura alta, bien hechos y fornidos.' Ulloa, Noticias Americanas, p. 308; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 182; Burkart, Mexico, tom. i., p. 49; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 560; Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 236.Return to passage

[899] 'In complexion, feature, hair and eyes, I could trace a very great resemblance between these Indians and the Esquimaux.' Lyon's Journal, vol. i., p. 296, see also vol. ii., pp. 199, 239. 'Son de la frente ancha, y las cabezas chatas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., pp. 133, 129. See further, Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 511; Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 200; Almaraz, Memoria, p. 79; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., pp. 82, 86; Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 280; Viollet-Le-Duc., in Charnay, Ruines Américaines, p. 102; Poinsett's Notes on Mex., pp. 107-8; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1833, tom. lix., pp. 73-4; Fossey, Mexique, p. 391; Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., p. 320; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 352; Bonnycastle's Span. Am., vol. i., pp. 49-50; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 455; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 38-40; Bullock's Mexico, vol. i., pp. 184, 192; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, pp. 142, 167, 291.Return to passage

[900] In Mexico in 1698 the costume was a 'short doublet and wide breeches. On their shoulders they wear a cloak of several colours, which they call Tilma.... The women all wear the Guaipil, (which is like a sack) under the Cobixa, which is a fine white cotton cloth; to which they add another upon their back.... Their coats are narrow with figures of lions, birds, and other creatures, adorning them with curious ducks' feathers, which they call Xilotepec.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 491. Dress of a native girl of Mexico, 'enaguas blanquísimas, el quisquemel que graciosamente cubre su pecho y espalda ... dos largas trenzas color de ébano caen á los lados del cuello.' Prieto, Viajes, pp. 454, 190-1, 430-1. 'Leur costume varie selon le terrain et le climat.' Löwenstern, Mexique, pp. 176, 339.Return to passage

[901] See Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. ii., pp. 346-8.Return to passage

[902] 'Usan de una especie de gran paño cuadrado, que tiene en el centro una abertura por donde pasa la cabeza.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 229.Return to passage

[903] 'Yuan muy galanes, y empenachados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. i. 'Señores ó principales, traían en el labio un bezote de chalchivite ó esmeralda, ó de caracol, ó de oro, ó de cobre.... Las mugeres cuando niñas, tambien se rapaban la cabeza, y cuando ya mosas dejaban criar los cabellos ... cuando alguna era ya muger hecha y habia parido, tocabase el cabello. Tambien traían sarcillos ó orejeras, y se pintaban los pechos y los brazos, con una labor que quedaba de azul muy fino, pintada en la misma carne cortándola con una navajuela.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 123-5, 133-4. 'En el Pueblo de Juito salieron muchos Yndios de paz con escapularios blancos al pecho, cortado el cabello en modo de cerquillo como Religiosos, todos con unas cruces en las manos que eran de carrizos, y un Yndio que parecia el principal ó cacique con un vestuario de Tunica talan.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 73, also, pp. 21, 44, 46, 63, 107, 150. For further description of dress and ornaments see Nebel, Viaje, plates, nos. xxvi., xxxi., xxxvi., xli., xlvi.; Thompson's Recollections Mexico, p. 29; Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 250, 252, 281; Lafond, Voyages, tom. i., p. 211; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., pp. 90, 279; Lyon's Journal, vol. ii., pp. 64, 198; Arlegui, Chrón. de Zacatecas, p. 162; Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 210; Apostólicos Afanes, pp. 10, 67; Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. iii., p. 299; Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., pp. 276, 296; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 55-6; Biart, in Revue Française, Dec. 1864, pp. 478-9; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1833, tom. lix., p. 61; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 302; Burkart, Mexico, tom. i., pp. 50-1.Return to passage

[904] 'Les cabanes sont de véritables cages en bambous.' Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., p. 274; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, p. 170; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., pp. 179, 522; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 192, 195, 373, 437, 447; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., pp. 223-4; Beaufoy's Mex. Illustr., p. 258; Pagés Travels, vol. i., p. 159; Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 47.Return to passage

[905] Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 250; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 582. 'Estos Otomies comian los zorrillos que hieden, culebras y lirones, y todo género de ratones, comadrejas, y otras sabandijas del campo y del monte, lagartijas de todas suertes, y abejones y langostas de todas maneras.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 126-7, 123-5. In Jalisco 'Los indios de aquellas provincias son caribes, que comen carne humana todas las veçes que la pueden aver.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 568.Return to passage

[906] In Puebla 'Los Indios se han aplicado mas al cultivo de la tierra y plantío de frutas y legumbres.' In Michoacan 'Cultivan mucho maiz, frixoles y ulgodon.' Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. i., pp. 494, 714. In Querétaro 'viven del cultivo de las sementeras.' Id., tom. iii., p. 320.Return to passage

[907] 'They boil the Indian wheat with lime, and when it has stood a-while grind it, as they do the cacao.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. v., pp. 496, 492, 513; Walton's Span. Col., p. 305. For further account of food see Tylor's Anahuac, pp. 88-9, 156; Sivers, Mittelamerika, p. 295; Klemm, Cultur-Geschichte, p. 102; Delaporte, Reisen, tom. x., p. 323; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 31, 44, 53, 73, 127; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., pp. 79, 87; Larenaudière, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1824, tom. xxiii., p. 67; Prieto, Viajes, pp. 191-2, 373; Mex. in 1842, pp. 46, 64, 68; Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 32; Albornoz, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom. i., p. 488; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., pp. 185, 218-19; Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 245, with plate; Mendoza, Hist. de las Cosas, p. 310; Malte-Brun, Précis de la Géog., tom. vi., p. 443.Return to passage

[908] Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., pp. 268-9. 'One would think the bath would make the Indians cleanly in their persons, but it hardly seems so, for they look rather dirtier after they have been in the temazcalli than before.' Tylor's Anahuac, p. 302.Return to passage

[909] Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 33, 72-3; Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 235. 'El arco y la flecha eran sus armas en la guerra, aunque para la caza los caciques y señores usaban tambien de cervatanas.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., p. 279. 'I saw some Indians that kill'd the least birds upon the highest trees with pellets shot out of trunks.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 512, and in Berenger, Col. de Voy., tom. ii., p. 397.Return to passage

[910] West und Ost Indischer Lustgart, pt. i., p. 102; Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. ii., pp. 141-4, with plate; Cartas al Abate de Pradt, p. 114; Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 286; Arricivita, Crónica Seráfica, p. 89; Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 129, 133; Lyon's Journal, vol. i., pp. 149, 293; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii.; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 378. 'Una macana, á manera de porra, llena de puntas de piedras pedernales.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 568. 'En schilden uit stijve stokjens gevlochten, van welke sick verwonderens-waerdig dienen in den oorlog.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 225-6, and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 254.Return to passage

[911] 'Siempre procuran de acometer en malos pasos, en tierras dobladas y pedregosas.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. vii., lib. ii., cap. xii. 'Tres mil Yndios formaban en solo una fila haciendo frente á nuestro campo.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 34; see further, Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 572; Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 235.Return to passage

[912] The Chichimecs 'Flea their heads, and fit that skin upon their own heads with all the hair, and so wear it as a token of valour, till it rots off in bits.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 513, and Berenger, Col. de Voy., tom. ii., p. 400. 'Quitandoles los cascos con el pelo, se los llevan á su Pueblo, para baylar el mitote en compañia de sus parientes con las cabezas de sus enemigos en señal del triunfo.' Arlegui, Chrón. de Zacatecas, pp. 179, 159-60. Further reference in Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 133-4; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., p. 281.Return to passage

[913] Cassel, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1830, tom. xlv., p. 338; Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., p. 274; Prieto, Viajes, p. 193; Tylor's Anahuac, pp. 201-2; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., pp. 224-6, 241; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 224; and Dapper, _Neue Welt_, p. 252.Return to passage

[914] 'The Indians of this Countrie doe make great store of Woollen Cloth and Silkes.' Purchas His Pilgrimes, vol. iv., lib. vii., p. 1433. The Otomís 'sabian hacer lindas labores en las mantas, enaguas, y vipiles que tejian muy curiosamente; pero todas ellas labraban lo dicho de hilo de maguéy que sacaban y beneficiaban de las pencas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 127; see also, Tylor's Anahuac, p. 201; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 193; Carpenter's Trav. Mex., p. 243; Mex. in 1842, p. 66; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 341; Lyon's Journal, vol. ii., p. 43; Thümmel, Mexiko, p. 63.Return to passage

[915] Dale's Notes, p. 24.Return to passage

[916] 'In those countreys they take neither golde nor silver for exchange of any thing, but onley Salt.' Chilton, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; compare Lyon's Journal, vol. i., p. 293, and vol. ii., p. 198; and Tylor's Anahuac, p. 85.Return to passage

[917] Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 98; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 316; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 237; Lafond, Voyages, tom. i., p. 131; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 243; Mill's Hist. Mex., p. 6; Carpenter's Trav. Mex., p. 243. 'Les Mexicains ont conservé un goût particulier pour la peinture et pour l'art de sculpter en pierre et en bois.' Malte-Brun, Précis de la Géog., tom. vi., p. 446. 'Lo particular de Michoacan era el arte de pintar con las plumas de diversos colores.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., p. 90. 'Son muy buenos cantores y tañedores de toda suerte de instrumentos.' Mendoza, Hist. de las Cosas, p. 308.Return to passage

[918] Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., p. 281; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 567; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 31, 68; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1833, tom. lix., p. 61.Return to passage

[919] Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 296; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 428-30. 'Tenian uso y costumbre los otomíes, de que los varones siendo muy muchachos y tiernos se casasen, y lo mismo las mugeres.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 127. Chichimecs 'casanse con las parientas mas cercanas, pero no con las hermanas.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.Return to passage

[920] Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., pp. 246-8; Bullock's Mexico, vol. i., p. 192; Apostólicos Afanes, pp. 21-2; Rittner, Guatimozin, p. 81. 'El amancebamiento no es deshonra entre ellos.' Zarfate, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., pp. 281, 335. 'Zlingerden de kinderen in gevlochte korven aen boomtakken.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 219; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 246.Return to passage

[921] 'La mancebía, el incesto, y cuanto tiene de mas asquerosamente repugnante el desarreglo de la concupiscencia, se ha convertido en hábito.' Prieto, Viajes, p. 379; Fossey, Mexique, p. 27; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 56.Return to passage

[922] Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 97; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 160; Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., p. 131; Apostólicos Afanes, p. 12; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, pp. 19, 127; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 80; Thümmel, Mexiko, p. 61; Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. ii., p. 470; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 219; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 517.Return to passage

[923] Arlegui, Chrón. de Zacatecas, pp. 161-2; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, pp. 175-6; Mendoza, Hist. de las Cosas, p. 311; Prieto, Viajes, p. 375; Apostólicos Afanes, p. 12. 'Los indios, si no todos en su mayor parte, viven ligados por una especie de masonería.' Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 199. 'Wenn mehrere in Gesellschaft gehen, nie neben, sondern immer hinter einander und selten ruhig schreitend, sondern fast immer kurz trabend.' Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 39. 'L'Indien enterre son argent, et au moment de sa mort il ne dit pas à son plus proche parent oú il a déposé son trésor, afin qu'il ne lui fasse pas faute quand il ressuscitera.' Cassel, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1830, tom. xlv., p. 339.Return to passage

[924] 'La petite vérole et la rougeole sont deux maladies très communes.' Chappe d'Auteroche, Voyage, p. 25. The Pintos 'marked with great daubs of deep blue ... the decoration is natural and cannot be effaced.' Tylor's Anahuac, p. 309. See further: Fossey, Mexique, pp. 33-4, 395-6. Compare Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., pp. 66, 69-70, 88; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 250; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 282; Cassel, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1830, tom. xlv., p. 340; Löwenstern, Mexique, p. 207; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, pp. 502-3; Malte-Brun, Précis de la Géog., tom. vi., p. 443; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 40.Return to passage

[925] 'Los Indios son grandes herbolarios, y curan siempre con ellas.' Mendoza, Hist. de las Cosas, p. 311. 'For fevers, for bad colds, for the bite of a poisonous animal, this (the temazcalli) is said to be a certain cure; also for acute rheumatism.' Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 255; Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 430; Menonville, Reise, p. 124; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 306; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 250.Return to passage

[926] 'Notant barbari, folia parti affectæ aut dolenti applicata, de eventu morbi præjudicare: nam si firmiter ad hæreant, certum signum esse ægrum convaliturum, sin decidant, contra.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 271; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 438-9.Return to passage

[927] The remains of one of their ancient kings found in a cave is thus described; 'estaba cubierto de pedreria texida segun su costumbre en la manta con que se cubria desde los hombros hasta los pies, sentado en la misma silla que la fingieron el solio, con tahalí, brazaletes, collares, y apretadores de plata; y en la frente una corona de hermosas plumas, de varios colores mezcladas, la mano izquierda puesta en el brazo de la silla, y en la derecha un alfange con guarnicion de plata.' Alcedo, Diccionario, tom. iii., p. 299. See also: Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., pp. 259-60; Apostólicos Afanes, p. 22; Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 249.Return to passage

[928] D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 353; Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 200; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, pp. 170, 201; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, pp. 114, 172; Larenaudière, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1824, tom. xxiii., p. 67; Ottavio, in Id., 1833, tom. lix., p. 71; Rittner, Guatimozin, pp. 81-2; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 446-7; Arizcorreta, Respuesta á, pp. 24, 26; Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 131, 135; Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 285; Lafond, Voyages, tom. i., p. 213; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 40-1; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 10; Poinsett's Notes Mex., pp. 108, 161; Malte-Brun, Précis de la Géog., tom. vi., p. 445; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 492; Berenger, Col. de Voy., tom. ii., pp. 383-4; Bonnycastle's Span. Am., vol. i., pp. 49-50. 'L'indigène mexicain est grave, mélancolique, silencieux, aussi long-temps que les liqueurs enivrantes n'ont pas agi sur lui.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., pp. 94, 96. 'The most violent passions are never painted in their features.' Mill's Hist. Mex., pp. 5-6, 10. 'Of a sharpe wit, and good vnderstanding, for what soeuer it be, Sciences or other Arts, these people are very apt to learne it with small instructing.' Purchas His Pilgrimes, vol. iv., p. 1433.Return to passage

[929] The Pintos of Guerrero are 'most ferocious savages.' Tylor's Anahuac, p. 309. The Chichimecs are 'los peores de todos y los mayores homicidas y salteadores de toda la tierra.' Zarfate, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. i., p. 281. See further, Almaraz, Memoria, p. 18; Kératry, in Revue des deux Mondes, Sept., 1866, p. 453; Delaporte, Reisen, tom. x., p. 323; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 284; Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 269, 280; Combier, Voy., p. 394; Biart, in Revue Française, Dec., 1864, pp. 479, 485; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; Ribas, Hist. de los Triumphos, p. 721; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 560; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 271; Beaumont, Crón. de Mechoacan, MS., pp. 197, 235; Pagés' Travels, vol. i., p. 150.Return to passage

[930] The Mayas, 'Sie selbst nennen sich heute noch Macegual, d. h. Eingeborene vom Maya-Lande, nie Yucatanos oder Yucatecos, was spanischer Ausdruck für die Bewohner des Staates ist.' Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 142-3. See also Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 163, 173, 176, 196; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, preface, p. clvii.; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 208; tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 140-3; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 396, 400-1; Remesal, Hist. de Chyapa, pp. 264-5; Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 14.Return to passage

[931] Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 220, 224, 227; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 89-94; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 215; Macgregor's Progress of America, pp. 848, 850; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, pp. 287, 500-1; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 394. Zapotecs 'bien tallados,' Mijes 'Arrogantes, altiuos de condicion, y cuerpo,' Miztecs 'linda tez en el rostro, y buena disposicion en el talle.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 202, 271, 354, 401, tom. i., pt. ii., p. 134. 'Tehuantepec women: Jet-black hair, silky and luxuriant, enframes their light-brown faces, on which, in youth, a warm blush on the cheek heightens the lustre of their dark eyes, with long horizontal lashes and sharply-marked eyebrows.' Tempsky's Mitla, p. 269. The Soques, 'short, with large chests and powerful muscles.... Both men and women have very repulsive countenances.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126.Return to passage

[932] 'Es gente la de Yucatan de buenos cuerpos, bien hechos, y rezios'.... The women 'bien hechas, y no feas ... no son blancas, sino de color baço.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv. See further: Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 148; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 258; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 291; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 16.Return to passage

[933] Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 285; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 255; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 288; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. de Tehuantepec, p. 194; Palacios, in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 166; Leon, in Id., p. 162; Museo Mex., tom. ii., p. 555. 'Muchachos ya mayorcillos. Todos desnudos en carnes, como nacieron de sus madres.... Tras ellos venian muchos Indios mayores, casi tan desnudos como sus hijos, con muchos sartales de flores ... en la cabeza, rebuxada una toca de colores, como tocado de Armenio.' Remesal, Hist. Chyapa, p. 292.Return to passage

[934] 'With their hair ty'd up in a Knot behind, they think themselves extream fine.' Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 114. 'Muy empenachados y pintados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 221-2, 226.Return to passage

[935] 'Their apparell was of Cotton in manifold fashions and colours.' Purchas His Pilgrimes, vol. v., p. 885. The Maya woman's dress 'se reduce al hipil que cubre la parte superior del cuerpo, y al fustan ó enagua, de manta de algodon.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 158. Of the men 'un calzoncillo ancho y largo hasta media pierna, y tal vez hasta cerca del tobillo, de la misma manta, un ceñidor blanco ó de colores, un pañuelo, y un sombrero de paja, y á veces una alpargata de suela, con sus cordones de mecate.' Registro Yucateco, tom. i., pp. 177-8. See further: Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 267; Galindo, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. iii., p. 59; Wilson's Amer. Hist., pp. 88, 114; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., pp. 147, 179.Return to passage

[936] 'Tous portaient les cheveux longs, et les Espagnols ont eu beaucoup de peine à les leur faire couper; la chevelure longue est encore aujourd'hui le signe distinctif des Indiens insoumis.' Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 40. 'Las caras de blanco, negro, y colorado pintadas, que llaman embijarse, y cierto parecen demonios pintados.' Cogolludo, Hist. de Yucathan, p. 6. Compare above with Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 50; Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 262.Return to passage

[937] 'The buildings of the lower class are thatched with palm-leaves, and form but one piece, without window or chimney.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 544. 'Cubrense las casas de vna cuchilla que los Indios hazen de pajas muy espessas y bien assentadas, que llaman en esta tierra jacales.' Dávila Padilla, Hist. Fund. Mex., p. 549. See also: Museo Mex., tom. ii., p. 554; Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 221, 225, with cut; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 252; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 197.Return to passage

[938] The Chochos and Chontales 'no tenian Pueblo fundado, si no cobachuelas estrechas en lo mas escondido de los montes.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 336. The Chinantecs lived 'en rancherias entre barrancas, y espessuras de arboles.' Burgoa, Palestra, Hist., pt. i., fol. 102; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, p. 438.Return to passage

[939] Zapotecs; 'Se dan con gran vicio sus sementeras.' Miztecs, 'labradores de mayz, y frizol.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 36, 143 and 47, 165-6, 184, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 199-200, 202, 228, 282, 396, 398, 400. Zapotecs, 'grande inclinacion, y exercicio á la caza, y monteria de animales campesinos en especial de venados.' Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt. i., fol. 110. See further: Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 220-2, 225-6; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 90, 93-4; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 196; Navarrete, Col. de Viages, tom. iii., pp. 56, 61; Galindo, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. iii., p. 59.Return to passage

[940] Tabasco: 'Comen a sus horas concertadas, carnes de vaca, puerco, y aues, y beué vna beuida muy sana, hecha de cacao, mayz, y especia de la tierra, la qual llaman Zocolate.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. Tortillas, 'When they are baked brown, they are called "totoposti," and taste like parched corn.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. The Chontales, 'su alimento frecuente es el posole ... rara vez comen la carne de res.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 161-2; Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 112-14; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 543-4.Return to passage

[941] Sr Moro, speaking of the chintule, says: 'Una infusion de estas raices comunica su fragancia al agua que los tehuantepecanos emplean como un objeto de lujo sumamente apreciado, tanto para labar la ropa de uso, como para las abluciones personales.' Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 180. 'Toutes les parties de leur vêtement sont toujours nouvellement blanchies. Les femmes se baignent au moins une fois par jour.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 24. At Chiapas, 'Tous ces Indiens, nus ou en chemise, répandaient dans l'atmosphère une odeur sui generis qui soulevait le coeur.' Charnay, Ruines Américaines, p. 457. The women are 'not very clean in their habits, eating the insects from the bushy heads of their children.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. 'No son muy limpias en sus personas, ni en sus casas, con quanto se laban.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 148.Return to passage

[942] 'Peleauan con lanças, armadas las puntas con espinas y huessos muy agudos de pescados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi. 'Usaban de lanzas de desmesurado tamaño para combatir.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 187. See also: Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 461; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 336; Cogolludo, Hist. de Yucathan, pp. 5-6, 11, 77; Navarrete, Col. de Viages, tom. iii., pp. 58-59; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 179.Return to passage

[943] 'Tienen enfrente deste Pueblo vn cerro altissimo, con vna punta que descuella soberviamente, casi entre la Region de las nubes, y coronase con vna muy dilatada muralla de lossas de mas de vn estado de alto, y quentan de las pinturas de sus characteres historiales, que se retiraban alli, para defenderse de sus enemigos.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 167. 'Començaron luego á tocar las bozinas, pitos, trompetillas, y atabalejos de gente de guerra.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and lib. iv., cap. xi. Also see Cogolludo, Hist. de Yucathan, pp. 5, 77-8; Navarrete, Col. de Viages, tom. iii., pp. 60-3; Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 263.Return to passage

[944] Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt. i., fol. 110; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 196; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, p. 454. 'Sobre vna estera si la tiene, que son muy pocos los que duermen en alto, en tapescos de caña ... ollas, ó hornillos de tierra ... casolones, ò xicaras.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 294, 393.Return to passage

[945] 'Los zoques cultivan ... dos plantas pertenecientes á la familia de las bromelias, de las cuales sacan el ixtle y la pita cuyas hebras saben blanquear, hilar y teñir de varios colores. Sus hilados y las hamacas que tejen con estas materias, constituyen la parte principal de su industria y de su comercio'.... The Zapotecs, 'los tejidos de seda silvestre y de algodon que labran las mugeres, son verdaderamente admirables.' Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 170, 180. Of the Miztecs it is said that 'las mugeres se han dado á texer con primor paños, y huepiles, assi de algodon como de seda, y hilo de oro, muy costosos.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 143, and tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 400. Further reference in Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 226-7; Chilton, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 394; Wappäus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163; Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 49; Gage's New Survey, p. 236; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 198, 209.Return to passage

[946] Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; Cogolludo, Hist. de Yucathan, p. 2; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., pp. 179, 214; Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 123. 'Their canoes are formed out of the trunk of a single mahogany or cedar tree.' Dale's Notes, p. 24. When Grijalva was at Cozumel 'vino una canoa.' Navarrete, Col. de Viages, tom. iii., p. 56. The Huaves 'no poseyendo embarcaciones propias para arriesgarse en aguas de algun fondo, y desconociendo hasta el uso de los remos, no frecuentan mas que los puntos que por su poca profundidad no ofrecen mayor peligro.' Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, p. 90.Return to passage

[947] Mill's Hist. Mex., p. 158; Palacios, in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 166; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 547; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 108; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 394; Macgregor's Progress of America, vol. i., p. 849; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, p. 93; Stephens' Yucatan, vol. ii., p. 14.Return to passage

[948] 'Les seigneurs de Cuicatlan étaient, au temps de la conquête très-riches et très-puissants, et leurs descendants en ligne directe, décorés encore du titre de caciques.' Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338-9. At Etla 'Herren des Ortes waren Caziken, welche ihn als eine Art von Mannlehen besassen, und dem Könige einen gewissen Tribut bezahlen mussten.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 188. The Miztecs 'tenian señalados como pregoneros, officiales que elegian por año, para que todas las mañanas al despuntar el Sol, subidos en lo mas alto de la casa de su Republica, con grandes vozes, llamasen, y exitasen á todos, diziendo salid, salid á trabajar, á trabajar, y con rigor executivo castigaban al que faltaba de su tarea.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 151, also Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.Return to passage

[949] 'Estava sujeta á diuersos Señores, que como Reyezuelos dominaban diuersos territorios ... pero antes auia sido toda sujeta á vn Señor, y Rey Supremo, y asi gouernada con gouierno Monarquico.' Cogolludo, Hist. de Yucathan, p. 60. 'En cada pueblo tenian señalados Capitanes a quienes obedecian.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-iv. For old customs and new, compare above with Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 168, and Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 267.Return to passage

[950] 'With other presents which they brought to the conqueror were twenty female slaves.' Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 264.Return to passage

[951] 'Vbo en esta juridicion grandes errores, y ritos con las paridas, y niños recien nacidos, lleuandolos á los rios, y sumergiendolos en el agua, hazian deprecacion á todos los animales aquatiles, y luego á los de tierra le fueran fauorables, y no le ofendieran.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 329. 'Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida á la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere.' Museo Mex., tom. ii., pp. 554-5. 'Between husband and wife cases of infidelity are rare.... To the credit of the Indians be it also said, that their progeny is legitimate, and that the vows of marriage are as faithfully cherished as in the most enlightened and favored lands. Youthful marriages are nevertheless of frequent occurrence.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 222. Women of the Japateco race: 'their manners in regard to morals are most blameable.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. Moro, referring to the women of Jaltipan, says: 'Son de costumbres sumamente libres: suele decirse ademas que los jaltipanos no solo no las celan, sino que llevan las ideas de hospitalidad á un raro exceso.' Garay, Reconocimiento, p. 116; Ferry, Costal L'Indien, pp. 6-7; Registro Yucateco, tom. i., p. 166.Return to passage

[952] 'Iuntauanse en el Capul, que es vna casa del comun, en cada barrio, para hazer casamientos, el Cazique, el Papa, los desposados, los parientes: estando sentados el señor, y el Papa, llegauan los contrayentes, y el Papa les amonestaua que dixessen las cosas que auian hecho hasta aquella hora.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.Return to passage

[953] Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 114; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 50; Stephens' Yucatan, vol. ii., pp. 15-16; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 272; Dicc. Univ., tom. iv., p. 256; Baeza, in Registro Yucateco, tom. i., p. 166.Return to passage

[954] 'Their amusements are scarcely worthy of note ... their liveliest songs are sad, and their merriest music melancholy.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 222. 'Afectos á las bebidas embriagantes, conocen dos particulares, el chorote, y el balché ó guarapo, compuesto de agua, caña de azúcar, palo-guarapo y maiz quemado.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 162. See also: Fossey, Mexique, pp. 343, 364; Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; Stephens' Yucatan, vol. i., pp. 144-5; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, pp. 496-7.Return to passage

[955] 'Provinciæ Guazacualco atque Ylutæ nec non et Cueztxatlæ indiginæ, multas ceremonias Iudæorum usurpabant, nam et circumcidebantur, more à majoribus (ut ferebant) accepto, quod alibi in hisce regionibus ab Hispanis hactenus non fuit observatum.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 261. 'They appear to regard with horror and avoid with superstitious fear all those places reputed to contain remains or evidences of their former religion.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. See further: Museo Mex., tom. ii., pp. 554-5; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, pp. 265, 286; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 281-2, 290, 313, 332, 335-6, 397; Id., Palestra Hist., fol. 110; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 90, 93; Dicc. Univ., tom. iv., p. 257.Return to passage

[956] Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 329; Baeza, in Registro Yucateco, tom. i., p. 168; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 313; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. 'Ay en esta tierra mucha diuersidad de yeruas medicinales, con que se curan los naturales.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. The Maya 'sabe las virtudes de todas las plantas como si hubiese estudiado botánica, conoce los venenos, los antídotos, y no se lo ocultan los calmantes.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 158, 162, 178.Return to passage

[957] Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 51; Museo Mex., tom. ii., p. 554. 'En Tamiltepec, los indios usan de ceremonias supersticiosas en sus sepulturas. Se les ve hacer en los cementerios pequeños montones de tierra, en los que mezclan víveres cada vez que entierran alguno de ellos.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 231.Return to passage

[958] The Miztecs 'siempre de mayor reputacion, y mas políticos.' Zapotecs 'naturalmente apazibles, limpios, lucidos, y liberales.' Nexitzas 'astutos, maliciosos, inclinados á robos, y desacatos, con otros Cerranos supersticiosos, acostumbrados á aleuosias, y hechizeros.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 151, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 202, 312, also fol. 204, 211, 228, 271, 282, 294, 335, 400. Choles, 'nacion ... feroz, guerrera é independiente.' Balbi, in Orozco y Berra, Geografía, p. 167. 'Siendo los Indios Mixes de natural feroz, barbaro, y duro, que quieren ser tratados con aspereza, y rigor.' Dávila, Teatro Ecles., tom. i., p. 224. See further: Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt. i., fol. 101; Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 161-2, 186-7; Torres, in Id., p. 179; Museo Mex., tom. ii., pp. 554-5; Tempsky's Mitla, p. 269; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543; Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 220-7; Charnay, Ruines Américaines, pp. 258-9, 287; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. 439; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 200; Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 115-16; Dávila Padilla, Hist. Fund. Mex., p. 294; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325.Return to passage

[959] 'Es el indio yucateco un monstruoso conjunto de religion é impiedad, de virtudes y vicios, de sagacidad y estupidez ... tiene ideas exactas precisas de lo bueno y de lo malo.... Es incapaz de robar un peso, y roba cuatro veces dos reales.... Siendo honrado en casi todas sus acciones ... se puede decir que el único vicie que le domina es el de la embriaguez.' Registro Yucateco, tom. i., pp. 291-3; Baeza, in Id., tom. i., pp. 166-8, 174; Morelet, Voyage, tom. i., p. 148; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; Mill's Hist. Mex., p. 158; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 89-34; Müller, Reisen, tom. ii., p. 371.Return to passage