IV. CALIFORNIANS

IV. CALIFORNIANS

GROUPAL DIVISIONS; NORTHERN, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, AND SHOSHONES--COUNTRY OF THE CALIFORNIANS-- THE KLAMATHS, MODOCS, SHASTAS, PITT RIVER INDIANS, EUROCS, CAHROCS, HOOPAHS, WEEYOTS, TOLEWAS, AND ROGUE RIVER INDIANS AND THEIR CUSTOMS--THE TEHAMAS, POMOS, UKIAHS, GUALALAS, SONOMAS, PETALUMAS, NAPAS, SUSCOLS, SUISUNES, TAMALES, KARQUINES, OHLONES, TULOMOS, THAMIENS, OLCHONES, RUMSENS, ESCELENS, AND OTHERS OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA--THE CAHUILLAS, DIEGUEÑOS, ISLANDERS, AND MISSION RANCHERIAS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA--THE SNAKES OR SHOSHONES PROPER, UTAHS, BANNOCKS, WASHOES AND OTHER SHOSHONE NATIONS.

Of the seven groups into which this work separates the nations of western North America, the CALIFORNIANS constitute the third, and cover the territory between latitude 43° and 32° 30´, extending back irregularly into the Rocky Mountains. There being few distinctly marked families in this group, I cannot do better in subdividing it for the purpose of description than make of the Californians proper three geographical divisions, namely, the Northern Californians, the Central Californians, and the Southern Californians. The Shoshones, or fourth division of this group, who spread out over south-eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the whole of Nevada and Utah, present more distinctly marked family characteristics, and will therefore be treated as a family.

[Sidenote: HOME OF THE CALIFORNIANS.]

The same chain of mountains, which, as the Cascade Range, divides the land of the Columbians, holds its course steadily southward, and entering the territory of the Californian group forms, under the name of the Sierra Nevada, the partition between the Californians proper and the Shoshones of Idaho and Nevada. The influence of this range upon the climate is also here manifest, only intenser in degree than farther north. The lands of the Northern Californians are well watered and wooded, those of the central division have an abundance of water for six months in the year, namely, from November to May, and the soil is fertile, yielding abundantly under cultivation. Sycamore, oak, cotton-wood, willow, and white alder, fringe the banks of the rivers; laurel, buckeye, manzanita, and innumerable berry-bearing bushes, clothe the lesser hills; thousands of acres are annually covered with wild oats; the moist bottoms yield heavy crops of grass; and in summer the valleys are gorgeous with wild-flowers of every hue. Before the blighting touch of the white man was laid upon the land, the rivers swarmed with salmon and trout; deer, antelope, and mountain sheep roamed over the foot-hills, bear and other carnivora occupied the forests, and numberless wild fowl covered the lakes. Decreasing in moisture toward the tropics, the climate of the Southern Californians is warm and dry, while the Shoshones, a large part of whose territory falls in the Great Basin, are cursed with a yet greater dryness.

The region known as the Great Basin, lying between the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Mountains, and stretching north and south from latitude 33° to 42°, presents a very different picture from the land of the Californians. This district is triangular in shape, the apex pointing toward the south, or southwest; from this apex, which, round the head of the Gulf of California, is at tide level, the ground gradually rises until, in central Nevada, it reaches an altitude of about five thousand feet, and this, with the exception of a few local depressions, is about the level of the whole of the broad part of the basin. The entire surface of this plateau is alkaline. Being in parts almost destitute of water, there is comparatively little timber; sage-brush and greasewood being the chief signs of vegetation, except at rare intervals where some small stream struggling against almost universal aridity, supports on its banks a little scanty herbage and a few forlorn-looking cotton-wood trees. The northern part of this region, as is the case with the lands of the Californians proper, is somewhat less destitute of vegetable and animal life than the southern portion which is indeed a desert occupied chiefly by rabbits, prairie-dogs, sage-hens, and reptiles. The desert of the Colorado, once perhaps a fertile bottom, extending northward from the San Bernardino Mountains one hundred and eighty miles, and spreading over an area of about nine thousand square miles, is a silent unbroken sea of sand, upon whose ashy surface glares the mid-day sun and where at night the stars draw near through the thin air and brilliantly illumine the eternal solitude. Here the gigantic cereus, emblem of barrenness, rears its contorted form, casting weird shadows upon the moonlit level. In such a country, where in winter the keen dust-bearing blast rushes over the unbroken desolate plains, and in summer the very earth cracks open with intense heat, what can we expect of man but that he should be distinguished for the depths of his low attainment.

But although the poverty and barrenness of his country account satisfactorily for the low type of the inhabitant of the Great Basin, yet no such excuse is offered for the degradation of the native of fertile California. On every side, if we except the Shoshone, in regions possessing far fewer advantages than California, we find a higher type of man. Among the Tuscaroras, Cherokees, and Iroquois of the Atlantic slope, barbarism assumes its grandest proportions; proceeding west it bursts its fetters in the incipient civilization of the Gila; but if we continue the line to the shores of the Pacific we find this intellectual dawn checked, and man sunk almost to the utter darkness of the brute. Coming southward from the frozen land of the Eskimo, or northward from tropical Darien we pass through nations possessing the necessaries and even the comforts of life. Some of them raise and grind wheat and corn, many of them make pottery and other utensils, at the north they venture out to sea in good boats and make Behemoth their spoil. The Californians on the other hand, comparatively speaking, wear no clothes, they build no houses, do not cultivate the soil, they have no boats, nor do they hunt to any considerable extent; they have no morals nor any religion worth calling such. The missionary Fathers found a virgin field whereon neither god nor devil was worshiped. We must look, then, to other causes for a solution of the question why a nobler race is not found in California; such for instance as revolutions and migrations of nations, or upheavals and convulsions of nature, causes arising before the commencement of the short period within which we are accustomed to reckon time.

[Sidenote: TRIBAL DIVERSITY.]

There is, perhaps, a greater diversity of tribal names among the Californians than elsewhere in America; the whole system of nomenclature is so complicated and contradictory that it is impossible to reduce it to perfect order. There are tribes that call themselves by one name, but whose neighbors call them by another; tribes that are known by three or four names, and tribes that have no name except that of their village or chief.[423] Tribal names are frequently given by one writer which are never mentioned by any other;[424] nevertheless there are tribes on whose names authorities agree, and though the spelling differs, the sound expressed in these instances is about the same. Less trouble is experienced in distinguishing the tribes of the northern division, which is composed of people who resemble their neighbors more than is the case in central California, where the meaningless term 'Indians,' is almost universally applied in speaking of them.[425]

Another fruitful source of confusion is the indefinite nickname 'Digger' which is applied indiscriminately to all the tribes of northern and middle California, and to those of Nevada, Utah, and the southern part of Oregon. These tribes are popularly known as the Californian Diggers, Washoe Diggers, Shoshone Diggers of Utah, etc., the signification of the term pointing to the digging of roots, and in some parts, possibly, to burrowing in the ground. The name is seemingly opprobrious, and is certainly no more applicable to this people than to many others. By this territorial division I hope to avoid, as far as possible, the two causes of bewilderment before alluded to; neither treating the inhabitants of an immense country as one tribe, nor attempting to ascribe distinct names and idiosyncrasies to hundreds of small, insignificant bands, roaming over a comparatively narrow area of country and to all of which one description will apply.

[Sidenote: NATIONS OF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, the first tribal group, or division, of which I shall speak, might, not improperly, be called the Klamath family, extending as they do from Rogue River on the north, to the Eel River south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary east, and including the Upper and Lower Klamath and other lakes. The principal tribes occupying this region are the Klamaths,[426] who live on the headwaters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that name; the Modocs,[427] on Lower Klamath Lake and along Lost River; the Shastas, to the south-west of the lakes, near the Shasta Mountains; the Pitt River Indians; the Eurocs on the Klamath River between Weitspek and the coast; the Cahrocs[428] on the Klamath River from a short distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Mountains; the Hoopahs in Hoopah Valley on the Trinity near its junction with the Klamath; numerous tribes on the coast from Eel River and Humboldt Bay north, such as the Weeyots,[429] Wallies, Tolewahs, etc., and the Rogue River Indians,[430] on and about the river of that name.[431]

The Northern Californians are in every way superior to the central and southern tribes.[432] Their physique and character, in fact, approach nearer to the Oregon nations than to the people of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. This applies more particularly to the inland tribes. The race gradually deteriorates as it approaches the coast, growing less in stature, darker in color, more and more degraded in character, habits, and religion. The Rogue River Indians must, however, be made an exception to this rule. The tendency to improve toward the north, which is so marked among the Californians, holds good in this case; so that the natives on the extreme north-west coast of the region under consideration, are in many respects superior to the interior but more southerly tribes.

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES.]

The Northern Californians round the Klamath lakes, and the Klamath, Trinity, and Rogue rivers, are tall, muscular, and well made,[433] with a complexion varying from nearly black to light brown, in proportion to their proximity to, or distance, from the ocean or other large bodies of water; their face is large, oval, and heavily made, with slightly prominent cheek-bones, nose well set on the face and frequently straight, and eyes which, when not blurred by ophthalmia, are keen and bright. The women are short and some of them quite handsome, even in the Caucasian sense of the word;[434] and although their beauty rapidly fades, yet they do not in old age present that unnaturally wrinkled and shriveled appearance, characteristic of the Central Californians. This description scarcely applies to the people inhabiting the coast about Redwood Creek, Humboldt Bay, and Eel River, who are squat and fat in figure, rather stoutly built, with large heads covered with coarse thick hair, and repulsive countenances, who are of a much darker color, and altogether of a lower type than the tribes to the east and north of them.[435]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

Dress depends more on the state of the climate than on their own sense of decency. The men wear a belt, sometimes a breech-clout, and the women an apron or skirt of deer-skin or braided grass; then they sometimes throw over the shoulders a sort of cloak, or robe, of marten or rabbit skins sewn together, deer-skin, or, among the coast tribes, seal or sea-otter skin. When they indulge in this luxury, however, the men usually dispense with all other covering.[436] Occasionally we find them taking great pride in their gala dresses and sparing no pains to render them beautiful. The Modocs, for instance, took large-sized skins, and inlaid them with brilliant-colored duck-scalps, sewed on in various figures; others, again, embroidered their aprons with colored grasses, and attached beads and shells to a deep fringe falling from the lower part.[437] A bowl-shaped hat, or cap, of basket-work, is usually worn by the women, in making which some of them are very skillful. This hat is sometimes painted with various figures, and sometimes interwoven with gay feathers of the woodpecker or blue quail.[438] The men generally go bare-headed, their thick hair being sufficient protection from sun and weather. In the vicinity of the lakes, where, from living constantly among the long grass and reeds, the greatest skill is acquired in weaving and braiding, moccasins of straw or grass are worn.[439] At the junction of the Klamath and Trinity rivers their moccasins have soles of several thicknesses of leather.[440] The natives seen by Maurelle at Trinidad Bay, bound their loins and legs down to the ankle with strips of hide or thread, both men and women.

The manner of dressing the hair varies; the most common way being to club it together behind in a queue, sometimes in two, worn down the back, or occasionally in the latter case drawn forward over the shoulders. The queue is frequently twisted up in a knot on the back of the head--en castanna--as Maurelle calls it. Occasionally the hair is worn loose, and flowing, and some of the women cut it short on the forehead. It is not uncommon to see wreaths of oak or laurel leaves, feathers, or the tails of gray squirrels twisted in the hair; indeed, from the trouble which they frequently take to adorn their coiffure, one would imagine that these people were of a somewhat æsthetic turn of mind, but a closer acquaintance quickly dispels the illusion. On Eel River some cut all the hair short, a custom practiced to some extent by the Central Californians.[441]

[Sidenote: FACIAL ORNAMENTATION.]

As usual these savages are beardless, or nearly so.[442] Tattooing, though not carried to any great extent, is universal among the women, and much practiced by the men, the latter confining this ornamentation to the breast and arms. The women tattoo in three blue lines, extending perpendicularly from the centre and corners of the lower lip to the chin. In some tribes they tattoo the arms, and occasionally the back of the hands. As they grow older the lines on the chin, which at first are very faint, are increased in width and color, thus gradually narrowing the intervening spaces. Now, as the social importance of the female is gauged by the width and depth of color of these lines, one might imagine that before long the whole chin would be what Southey calls "blue, darkly, deeply, beautifully blue;" but fashion ordains, as in the lip-ornament of the Thlinkeets, that the lines should be materially enlarged only as the charms of youth fade, thus therewith gauging both age and respectability.[443] In some few tribes, more especially in the vicinity of the lakes, the men paint themselves in various colors and grotesque patterns. Among the Modocs the women also paint. Miller says that when a Modoc warrior paints his face black before going into battle it means victory or death, and he will not survive a defeat.[444] Both men and women pierce the dividing cartilage of the nose, and wear various kinds of ornaments in the aperture. Sometimes it is a goose-quill, three or four inches long, at others, a string of beads or shells. Some of the more northerly tribes wear large round pieces of wood or metal in the ears.[445] Maurelle, in his bucolic description of the natives at Trinidad bay, says that "on their necks they wear various fruits, instead of beads."[446] Vancouver, who visited the same place nearly twenty years later, states that "all the teeth of both sexes were by some process ground uniformly down horizontally to the gums, the women especially, carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth reduced even below this level."[447]

Here also we see in their habitations the usual summer and winter residences common to nomadic tribes. The winter dwellings, varying with locality, are principally of two forms--conical and square. Those of the former shape, which is the most widely prevailing, and obtains chiefly in the vicinity of the Klamath lakes and on the Klamath and Trinity rivers, are built in the manner following: A circular hole, from two to five feet in depth, and varying in diameter, is dug in the ground. Round this pit, or cellar, stout poles are sunk, which are drawn together at the top until they nearly meet; the whole is then covered with earth to the depth of several inches. A hole is left in the top, which serves as chimney and door, a rude ladder or notched pole communicating with the cellar below, and a similar one with the ground outside. This, however, is only the commoner and lighter kind of conical house. Many of them are built of much heavier timbers, which, instead of being bent over at the top, and so forming a bee-hive-shaped structure, are leaned one against the other.

The dwellings built by the Hoopahs are somewhat better. The inside of the cellar is walled up with stone; round this, and at a distance of a few feet from it, another stone wall is built on the surface level, against which heavy beams or split logs are leaned up, meeting at the top, or sometimes the lower ends of the poles rest against the inside of the wall, thus insuring the inmates against a sudden collapse of the hut.[448]

[Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN HABITATIONS.]

The square style of dwelling is affected more by the coast tribes, although occasionally seen in the interior. A cellar, either square or round, is dug in the same manner as with the conical houses. The sides of the hole are walled with upright slabs, which project some feet above the surface of the ground. The whole structure is covered with a roof of sticks or planks, sloping gently outward, and resting upon a ridge-pole. The position of the door varies, being sometimes in the roof, sometimes on a level with the ground, and occasionally high up in the gable. Its shape and dimensions, however, never alter; it is always circular, barely large enough to admit a full-grown man on hands and knees. When on the roof or in the gable, a notched pole or mud steps lead up to the entrance; when on the ground, a sliding panel closes the entrance. In some cases, the excavation is planked up only to a level with the ground. The upper part is then raised several feet from the sides, leaving a bank, or rim, on which the inmates sleep; occasionally there is no excavation, the house being erected on the level ground, with merely a small fire-hole in the centre. The floors are kept smooth and clean, and a small space in front of the door, paved with stones and swept clean, serves as gossiping and working ground for the women.[449]

The temporary summer houses of the Northern Californians are square, conical, and inverted-bowl-shaped huts; built, when square, by driving light poles into the ground and laying others horizontally across them; when conical, the poles are drawn together at the top into a point; when bowl-shaped, both ends of the poles are driven into the ground, making a semi-circular hut. These frames, however shaped, are covered with neatly woven tule matting,[450] or with bushes or ferns.[451]

[Sidenote: HUNTING AND FISHING.]

The Californians are but poor hunters; they prefer the snare to the bow and arrow. Yet some of the mountain tribes display considerable dexterity in the chase. To hunt the prong-buck, the Klamath fastens to each heel a strip of ermine-skin, and keeping the herd to the windward, he approaches craftily through the tall grass as near as possible, then throwing himself on his back, or standing on his head, he executes a pantomime in the air with his legs. Naturally the antelope wonder, and being cursed with curiosity, the simple animals gradually approach. As soon as they arrive within easy shooting-distance, down go the hunter's legs and up comes the body. Too late the antelope learn their mistake; swift as they are, the arrow is swifter; and the fattest buck pays the penalty of his inquisitiveness with his life. The Veeards, at Humboldt Bay, construct a slight fence from tree to tree, into which inclosure elk are driven, the only exit being by a narrow opening at one end, where a pole is placed in such a manner as to force the animal to stoop in passing under it, when its head is caught in a noose suspended from the pole. This pole is dragged down by the entangled elk, but soon he is caught fast in the thick undergrowth, and firmly held until the hunter comes up.[452] Pitfalls are also extensively used in trapping game. A narrow pass, through which an elk or deer trail leads, is selected for the pit, which is ten or twelve feet deep. The animals are then suddenly stampeded from their feeding-grounds, and, in their wild terror, rush blindly along the trail to destruction.[453] The bear they seldom hunt, and if one is taken, it is usually by accident, in one of their strong elk-traps. Many of the tribes refuse to eat bear-meat, alleging that the flesh of a man-eating animal is unclean; but no doubt Bruin owes his immunity as much to his teeth and claws as to his uncleanness.

[Sidenote: FISHING BY NIGHT ON THE KLAMATH.]

Fishing is more congenial to the lazy taste of these people than the nobler but more arduous craft of hunting; consequently fish, being abundant, are generally more plentiful in the aboriginal larder than venison. Several methods are adopted in taking them. Sometimes a dam of interwoven willows is constructed across a rapid at the time when salmon are ascending the river; niches four or five feet square are made at intervals across the dam, in which the fish, pressed on by those behind, collect in great numbers and are there speared or netted without mercy. Much ingenuity and labor are required to build some of the larger of these dams. Mr Gibbs describes one thrown across the Klamath, where the river was about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up the stream in its deepest part. It was built by first driving stout posts into the bed of the river, at a distance of some two feet apart, having a moderate slope, and supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve feet, by two braces; the one coming to the surface of the water, the other reaching to the string-pieces. These last were heavy spars, about thirty feet in length, and secured to each post by withes. The whole dam was faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close together as to prevent the fish from passing up. The top, at this stage of the water, was two or three feet above the surface. The labor of constructing this work must, with the few and insufficient tools of the natives, have been immense. Slight scaffolds were built out below it, from which the fish were taken in scoop-nets; they also employ drag-nets and spears, the latter having a movable barb, which is fastened to the shaft with a string in order to afford the salmon play.[454] On Rogue River, spearing by torch-light--a most picturesque sight--is resorted to. Twenty canoes sometimes start out together, each carrying three persons--two women, one to row and the other to hold the torch, and a spearman. Sometimes the canoes move in concert, sometimes independently of each other; one moment the lights are seen in line, like an army of fire-flies, then they are scattered over the dark surface of the water like ignes fatui. The fish, attracted by the glare, rise to the surface, where they are transfixed by the unerring aim of the spearmen. Torchlight spearing is also done by driving the fish down stream in the day-time by dint of much wading, yelling, and howling, and many splashes, until they are stopped by a dam previously erected lower down; another dam is then built above, so that the fish cannot escape. At night fires are built round the edge of the enclosed space, and the finny game speared from the bank.[455] Some tribes on the Klamath erect platforms over the stream on upright poles, on which they sleep and fish at the same time. A string leads from the net either to the fisherman himself or to some kind of alarm; and as soon as a salmon is caught, its floundering immediately awakens the slumberer. On the sea-shore smelts are taken in a triangular net stretched on two slender poles; the fisherman wades into the water up to his waist, turns his face to the shore, and his back to the incoming waves, against whose force he braces himself with a stout stick, then as the smelts are washed back from the beach by the returning waves, he receives them in his net. The net is deep, and a narrow neck connects it with a long network bag behind; into this bag the fish drop when the net is raised, but they cannot return. In this manner the fisherman can remain for some time at his post, without unloading.

Eels are caught in traps having a funnel-shaped entrance, into which the eels can easily go, but which closes on them as soon as they are in. These traps are fastened to stakes and kept down by weights. Similar traps are used to take salmon.

When preserved for winter use, the fish are split open at the back, the bone taken out, then dried or smoked. Both fish and meat, when eaten fresh, are either broiled on hot stones or boiled in water-tight baskets, hot stones being thrown in to make the water boil. Bread is made of acorns ground to flour in a rough stone mortar with a heavy stone pestle, and baked in the ashes. Acorn-flour is the principal ingredient, but berries of various kinds are usually mixed in, and frequently it is seasoned with some high-flavored herb. A sort of pudding is also made in the same manner, but is boiled instead of baked.

They gather a great variety of roots, berries, and seeds. The principal root is the camas,[456] great quantities of which are dried every summer, and stored away for winter provision. Another root, called kice, or kace,[457] is much sought after. Of seeds they have the wocus,[458] and several varieties of grass-seeds. Among berries the huckleberry and the manzanita berry are the most plentiful.[459] The women do the cooking, root and berry gathering, and all the drudgery.

The winter stock of smoked fish hangs in the family room, sending forth an ancient and fish-like smell. Roots and seeds are, among some of the more northerly tribes, stored in large wicker boxes, built in the lower branches of strong, wide-spreading trees. The trunk of the tree below the granary is smeared with pitch to keep away vermin.[459] The Modocs are sometimes obliged to cache their winter hoard under rocks and bushes; the great number of their enemies and bad character of their ostensibly friendly neighbors, rendering it unsafe for them to store it in their villages. So cunningly do they conceal their treasure that one winter, after an unusually heavy fall of snow, they themselves could not find it, and numbers starved in consequence.[460]

Although the Northern Californians seldom fail to take a cold bath in the morning, and frequently bathe at intervals during the day, yet they are never clean.[461]

[Sidenote: WAR AND WEAPONS.]

The Northern Californians are not of a very warlike disposition, hence their weapons are few, being confined chiefly to the bow and arrow.[462] The bow is about three feet in length, made of yew, cedar, or some other tough or elastic wood, and generally painted. The back is flat, from an inch and a half to two inches wide, and covered with elk-sinews, which greatly add both to its strength and elasticity; the string is also of sinew. The bow is held horizontally when discharged, instead of perpendicularly as in most countries. The arrows are from two to three feet long, and are made sometimes of reed, sometimes of light wood. The points, which are of flint, obsidian, bone, iron, or copper, are ground to a very fine point, fastened firmly into a short piece of wood, and fitted into a socket in the main shaft, so that on withdrawing the arrow the head will be left in the wound. The feathered part, which is from five to eight inches long, is also sometimes a separate piece bound on with sinews. The quiver is made of the skin of a fox, wild-cat, or some other small animal, in the same shape as when the animal wore it, except at the tail end, where room is left for the feathered ends of arrows to project. It is usually carried on the arm.[463]

Mr Powers says: "doubtless many persons who have seen the flint arrow-heads made by the Indians, have wondered how they succeeded with their rude implements, in trimming them down to such sharp, thin points, without breaking them to pieces. The Veeards--and probably other tribes do likewise--employ for this purpose a pair of buck-horn pincers, tied together at the point with a thong. They first hammer out the arrow-head in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nip off one tiny fragment after another, using that infinite patience which is characteristic of the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, on one piece. There are Indians who make arrows as a specialty, just as there are others who concoct herbs and roots for the healing of men."[464] The Shastas especially excelled in making obsidian arrow-heads; Mr Wilkes of the Exploring Expedition notices them as being "beautifully wrought," and Lyon, in a letter to the American Ethnological Society, communicated through Dr E. H. Davis, describes the very remarkable ingenuity and skill which they display in this particular. The arrow-point maker, who is one of a regular guild, places the obsidian pebble upon an anvil of talcose slate and splits it with an agate chisel to the required size; then holding the piece with his finger and thumb against the anvil, he finishes it off with repeated slight blows, administered with marvelous adroitness and judgment. One of these artists made an arrow-point for Mr Lyon out of a piece of a broken porter-bottle. Owing to his not being acquainted with the grain of the glass, he failed twice, but the third time produced a perfect specimen.[465] The Wallies poison their arrows with rattlesnake-virus, but poisoned weapons seem to be the exception.[466] The bow is skilfully used; war-clubs are not common.[467]

[Sidenote: WAR AND ITS MOTIVES.]

Wars, though of frequent occurrence, were not particularly bloody. The casus belli was usually that which brought the Spartan King before the walls of Ilion, and Titus Tatius to incipient Rome--woman. It is true, the Northern Californians are less classic abductors than the spoilers of the Sabine women, but their wars ended in the same manner--the ravished fair cleaving to her warrior-lover. Religion also, that ever-fruitful source of war, is not without its conflicts in savagedom; thus more than once the Shastas and the Umpquas have taken up arms because of wicked sorceries, which caused the death of the people.[468] So when one people obstructed the river with their weir, thereby preventing the ascent of salmon, there was nothing left for those above but to fight or starve.

Along Pitt River, pits from ten to fifteen feet deep were formerly dug, in which the natives caught man and beast. These man-traps, for such was their primary use, were small at the mouth, widening toward the bottom, so that exit was impossible, even were the victim to escape impalement upon sharpened elk and deer horns, which were favorably placed for his reception. The opening was craftily concealed by means of light sticks, over which earth was scattered, and the better to deceive the unwary traveler, footprints were frequently stamped with a moccasin in the loose soil. Certain landmarks and stones or branches, placed in a peculiar manner, warned the initiated, but otherwise there was no sign of impending danger.[469]

Some few nations maintain the predominancy and force the weaker to pay tribute.[470] When two of these dominant nations war with each other, the conflict is more sanguinary. No scalps are taken, but in some cases the head, hands, or feet of the conquered slain are severed as trophies. The Cahrocs sometimes fight hand to hand with ragged stones, which they use with deadly effect. The Rogue River Indians kill all their male prisoners, but spare the women and children.[471] The elk-horn knives and hatchets are the result of much labor and patience.[472]

The women are very ingenious in plaiting grass, or fine willow-roots, into mats, baskets, hats, and strips of parti-colored braid for binding up the hair. On these, angular patterns are worked by using different shades of material, or by means of dyes of vegetable extraction. The baskets are of various sizes, from the flat, basin-shaped, water-tight, rush bowl for boiling food, to the large pointed cone which the women carry on their backs when root-digging or berry-picking.[473] They are also expert tanners, and, by a comparatively simple process, will render skins as soft and pliable as cloth. The hide is first soaked in water till the hair loosens, then stretched between trees or upright posts till half dry, when it is scraped thoroughly on both sides, well beaten with sticks, and the brains of some animal, heated at a fire, are rubbed on the inner side to soften it. Finally it is buried in moist ground for some weeks.

[Sidenote: MANUFACTURES AND BOATS.]

The interior tribes manifest no great skill in boat-making, but along the coast and near the mouth of the Klamath and Rogue rivers, very good canoes are found. They are still, however, inferior to those used on the Columbia and its tributaries. The lashed-up-hammock-shaped bundle of rushes, which is so frequently met in the more southern parts of California, has been seen on the Klamath,[474] but I have reason to think that it is only used as a matter of convenience, and not because no better boat is known. It is certain that dug-out canoes were in use on the same river, and within a few miles of the spot where tule buoys obtain. The fact is, this bundle of rushes is the best craft that could be invented for salmon-spearing. Seated astride, the weight of the fisherman sinks it below the surface; he can move it noiselessly with his feet so that there is no splashing of paddles in the sun to frighten the fish; it cannot capsize, and striking a rock does it no injury. Canoes are hollowed from the trunk of a single redwood, pine, fir, sycamore, or cottonwood tree. They are blunt at both ends and on Rogue River many of them are flat-bottomed. It is a curious fact that some of these canoes are made from first to last without being touched with a sharp-edged tool of any sort. The native finds the tree ready felled by the wind, burns it off to the required length, and hollows it out by fire. Pitch is spread on the parts to be burned away, and a piece of fresh bark prevents the flames from extending too far in the wrong direction. A small shelf, projecting inward from the stern, serves as a seat. Much trouble is sometimes taken with the finishing up of these canoes, in the way of scraping and polishing, but in shape they lack symmetry. On the coast they are frequently large; Mr Powers mentions having seen one at Smith River forty-two feet long, eight feet four inches wide, and capable of carrying twenty-four men and five tons of merchandise. The natives take great care of their canoes, and always cover them when out of the water to protect them from the sun. Should a crack appear they do not caulk it, but stitch the sides of the split tightly together with withes. They are propelled with a piece of wood, half pole, half paddle.[475]

[Sidenote: WEALTH IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

Wealth, which is quite as important here as in any civilized communities, and of much more importance than is customary among savage nations, consists in shell-money, called allicochick, white deer-skins, canoes, and, indirectly, in women. The shell which is the regular circulating medium is white, hollow, about a quarter of an inch through, and from one to two inches in length. On its length depends its value. A gentleman, who writes from personal observation, says: "all of the older Indians have tattooed on their arms their standard of value. A piece of shell corresponding in length to one of the marks being worth five dollars, 'Boston money,' the scale gradually increases until the highest mark is reached. For five perfect shells corresponding in length to this mark they will readily give one hundred dollars in gold or silver."[476] White deer-skins are rare and considered very valuable, one constituting quite an estate in itself.[477] A scalp of the red-headed woodpecker is equivalent to about five dollars, and is extensively used as currency on the Klamath. Canoes are valued according to their size and finish. Wives, as they must be bought, are a sign of wealth, and the owner of many is respected accordingly.[478]

Among the Northern Californians, hereditary chieftainship is almost unknown. If the son succeed the father it is because the son has inherited the father's wealth, and if a richer than he arise the ancient ruler is deposed and the new chief reigns in his stead. But to be chief means to have position, not power. He can advise, but not command; at least, if his subjects do not choose to obey him, he cannot compel obedience.

There is most frequently a head man to each village, and sometimes a chief of the whole tribe, but in reality each head of a family governs his own domestic circle as he thinks best. As in certain republics, when powerful applicants become multiplied--new offices are created, as salmon-chief, elk-chief, and the like. In one or two coast tribes the office is hereditary, as with the Patawats on Mad River, and that mysterious tribe at Trinidad Bay, mentioned by Mr Meyer, the Allequas.[479]

Their penal code is far from Draconian. A fine of a few strings of allicochick appeases the wrath of a murdered man's relatives and satisfies the requirements of custom. A woman may be slaughtered for half the sum it costs to kill a man. Occasionally banishment from the tribe is the penalty for murder, but capital punishment is never resorted to. The fine, whatever it is, must be promptly paid, or neither city of refuge nor sacred altar-horns will shield the murderer from the vengeance of his victim's friends.[480]

[Sidenote: WOMEN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.]

In vain do we look for traces of that Arcadian simplicity and disregard for worldly advantages generally accorded to children of nature. Although I find no description of an actual system of slavery existing among them, yet there is no doubt that they have slaves. We shall see that illegitimate children are considered and treated as such, and that women, entitled by courtesy wives, are bought and sold. Mr Drew asserts that the Klamath children of slave parents, who, it may be, prevent the profitable prostitution or sale of the mother, are killed without compunction.[481]

Marriage, with the Northern Californians, is essentially a matter of business. The young brave must not hope to win his bride by feats of arms or softer wooing, but must buy her of her father, like any other chattel, and pay the price at once, or resign in favor of a richer man. The inclinations of the girl are in nowise consulted; no matter where her affections are placed, she goes to the highest bidder, and "Mammon wins his way where seraphs might despair." Neither is it a trifling matter to be bought as a wife; the social position of the bride herself, as well as that of her father's family thereafter, depends greatly upon the price she brings; her value is voted by society at the price her husband pays for her, and the father whose daughter commands the greatest number of strings of allicochick, is greatly to be honored. The purchase effected, the successful suitor leads his blushing property to his hut and she becomes his wife without further ceremony. Wherever this system of wife-purchase obtains, the rich old men almost absorb the female youth and beauty of the tribe, while the younger and poorer men must content themselves with old and ugly wives. Hence their eagerness for that wealth which will enable them to throw away their old wives and buy new ones. When a marriage takes place among the Modocs, a feast is given at the house of the bride's father, in which, however, neither she nor the bridegroom partake. The girl is escorted by the women to a lodge, previously furnished by public contributions, where she is subsequently joined by the man, who is conducted by his male friends. All the company bear torches, which are piled up as a fire in the lodge of the wedded pair, who are then left alone. In some tribes this wife-traffic is done on credit, or at least partially so; but the credit system is never so advantageous to the buyer as the ready-money system, for until the full price is paid, the man is only 'half-married,' and besides he must live with his wife's family and be their slave until he shall have paid in full.[482] The children of a wife who has cost her husband nothing are considered no better than bastards, and are treated by society with contumely; nobody associates with them, and they become essentially ostracized. In all this there is one redeeming feature for the wife-buyer; should he happen to make a bad bargain he can, in most instances, send his wife home and get his money back. Mr Gibbs asserts that they shoot their wives when tired of them, but this appears inconsistent with custom.

[Sidenote: ADULTERY AND CHASTITY.]

Polygamy is almost universal, the number of wives depending only on the limit of a man's wealth. The loss of one eye, or expulsion from the tribe, are common punishments for adultery committed by a man. A string of beads, however, makes amends. Should the wife venture on any irregularity without just compensation, the outraged honor of her lord is never satisfied until he has seen her publicly disemboweled. Among the Hoopahs the women are held irresponsible and the men alone suffer for the crime.[483] Illegitimate children are life-slaves to some male relative of the mother, and upon them the drudgery falls; they are only allowed to marry one in their own station, and their sole hope of emancipation lies in a slow accumulation of allicochick, with which they can buy their freedom. We are told by Mr Powers that a Modoc may kill his mother-in-law with impunity. Adultery, being attended with so much danger, is comparatively rare, but among the unmarried, who have nothing to fear, a gross licentiousness prevails.[484]

Among the Muckalucs a dance is instituted in honor of the arrival of the girls at the age of puberty. On the Klamath, during the period of menstruation the women are banished from the village, and no man may approach them. Although the principal labor falls to the lot of the women, the men sometimes assist in building the wigwam, or even in gathering acorns and roots.[485] Kane mentions that the Shastas, or, as he calls them, the Chastays, frequently sell their children as slaves to the Chinooks.[486] Dances and festivities, of a religio-playful character, are common, as when a whale is stranded, an elk snared, or when the salmon come. There is generally a kind of thanksgiving-day once a year, when the people of neighboring tribes meet and dance. The annual feast of the Veeards is a good illustration of the manner of these entertainments. The dance, which takes place in a large wigwam, is performed by as many men as there is room for, and a small proportion of women. They move in a circle slowly round the fire, accompanying themselves with their peculiar chant. Each individual is dressed in all the finery he can muster; every valuable he possesses in the way of shells, furs, or woodpecker-scalps, does duty on this occasion; so that the wealth of the dancers may be reckoned at a glance. When the dance has concluded, an old gray-beard of the tribe rises, and pronounces a thanksgiving oration, wherein he enumerates the benefits received, the riches accumulated, and the victories won during the year; exhorting the hearers meanwhile, by good conduct and moral behavior, to deserve yet greater benefits. This savage Nestor is listened to in silence and with respect; his audience seeming to drink in with avidity every drop of wisdom that falls from his lips; but no sooner is the harangue concluded than every one does his best to violate the moral precepts so lately inculcated, by a grand debauch.

The Cahrocs have a similar festival, which they call the Feast of the Propitiation. Its object is much the same as that of the feast just described, but in place of the orator, the chief personage of the day is called the Chareya, which is also the appellation of their deity. No little honor attaches to the position, but much suffering is also connected with it. It is the duty of the Chareya-man to retire into the mountains, with one attendant only, and there to remain for ten days, eating only enough to keep breath in his body. Meanwhile the Cahrocs congregate in honor of the occasion, dance, sing, and make merry. When the appointed period has elapsed, the Chareya-man returns to camp, or is carried by deputies sent out for the purpose, if he have not strength to walk. His bearers are blindfolded, for no human being may look upon the face of the Chareya-man and live. His approach is the signal for the abrupt breaking up of the festivities. The revelers disperse in terror, and conceal themselves as best they may to avoid catching sight of the dreaded face, and where a moment before all was riot and bustle, a deathly stillness reigns. Then the Chareya-man is conducted to the sweat-house, where he remains for a time. And now the real Propitiation-Dance takes place, the men alone participating in its sacred movements, which are accompanied by the low, monotonous chant of singers. The dance over, all solemnity vanishes, and a lecherous saturnalia ensues, which will not bear description. The gods are conciliated, catastrophes are averted, and all is joy and happiness.[487]

[Sidenote: SPORTS AND GAMES.]

A passion for gambling obtains among the northern Californians as elsewhere. Nothing is too precious or too insignificant to be staked, from a white or black deer-skin, which is almost priceless, down to a wife, or any other trifle. In this manner property changes hands with great rapidity.

I have already stated that on the possession of riches depend power, rank, and social position, so that there is really much to be lost or won. They have a game played with little sticks, of which some are black, but the most white. These they throw around in a circle, the object being seemingly to make the black ones go farther than the white. A kind of guess-game is played with clay balls.[488] There is also an international game, played between friendly tribes, which closely resembles our 'hockey.' Two poles are set up in the ground at some distance apart, and each side, being armed with sticks, endeavors to drive a wooden ball round the goal opposite to it.[489] In almost all their games and dances they are accompanied by a hoarse chanting, or by some kind of uncouth music produced by striking on a board with lobster-claws fastened to sticks, or by some other equally primitive method. Before the introduction of spirituous liquors by white men drunkenness was unknown. With their tobacco for smoking, they mix a leaf called kinnik-kinnik.[490]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

The diseases and ailments most prevalent among these people are scrofula, consumption, rheumatism, a kind of leprosy, affection of the lungs, and sore eyes, the last arising from the dense smoke which always pervades their cabins.[491] In addition to this they have imaginary disorders caused by wizards, witches, and evil spirits, who, as they believe, cause snakes and other reptiles to enter into their bodies and gnaw their vitals. Some few roots and herbs used are really efficient medicine, but they rely almost entirely upon the mummeries and incantations of their medicine men and women.[492] Their whole system of therapeutics having superstition for a basis, mortality is great among them, which may be one of the causes of the continent being, comparatively speaking, so thinly populated at the time of its discovery. Syphilis, one of the curses for which they may thank the white man, has made fearful havoc among them. Women doctors seem to be more numerous than men in this region; acquiring their art in the temescal or sweat-house, where unprofessional women are not admitted. Their favorite method of cure seems to consist in sucking the affected part of the patient until the blood flows, by which means they pretend to extract the disease. Sometimes the doctress vomits a frog, previously swallowed for the occasion, to prove that she has not sucked in vain. She is frequently assisted by a second physician, whose duty it is to discover the exact spot where the malady lies, and this she effects by barking like a dog at the patient until the spirit discovers to her the place. Mr Gibbs mentions a case where the patient was first attended by four young women, and afterward by the same number of old ones. Standing round the unfortunate, they went through a series of violent gesticulations, sitting down when they could stand no longer, sucking, with the most laudable perseverance, and moaning meanwhile most dismally. Finally, when with their lips and tongue they had raised blisters all over the patient, and had pounded his miserable body with hands and knees until they were literally exhausted, the performers executed a swooning scene, in which they sank down apparently insensible.[493] The Rogue River medicine-men are supposed to be able to wield their mysterious power for harm, as well as for good, so that should a patient die, his relatives kill the doctor who attended him; or in case deceased could not afford medical attendance, they kill the first unfortunate disciple of Æsculapius they can lay hands on, frequently murdering one belonging to another tribe; his death, however, must be paid for.[494]

But the great institution of the Northern Californians is their temescal, or sweat-house, which consists of a hole dug in the ground, and roofed over in such a manner as to render it almost air-tight. A fire is built in the centre in early fall, and is kept alive till the following spring, as much attention being given to it as ever was paid to the sacred fires of Hestia; though between the subterranean temescal, with its fetid atmosphere, and lurid fire-glow glimmering faintly through dense smoke on swart, gaunt forms of savages, and the stately temple on the Forum, fragrant with fumes of incense, the lambent altar-flame glistening on the pure white robes of the virgin priestesses, there is little likeness. The temescal[495] is usually built on the brink of a stream; a small hatchway affords entrance, which is instantly closed after the person going in or out. Here congregate the men of the village and enact their sudorific ceremonies, which ordinarily consist in squatting round the fire until a state of profuse perspiration sets in, when they rush out and plunge into the water. Whether this mode of treatment is more potent to kill or to cure is questionable. The sweat-house serves not only as bath and medicine room, but also as a general rendezvous for the male drones of the village. The women, with the exception of those practicing or studying medicine, are forbidden its sacred precincts on pain of death; thus it offers as convenient a refuge for henpecked husbands as a civilized club-house. In many of the tribes the men sleep in the temescal during the winter, which, notwithstanding the disgusting impurity of the atmosphere, affords them a snug retreat from the cold gusty weather common to this region.[496]

[Sidenote: BURIAL AND MOURNING.]

Incremation obtains but slightly among the Northern Californians, the body usually being buried in a recumbent position. The possessions of the deceased are either interred with him, or are hung around the grave; sometimes his house is burned and the ashes strewn over his burial-place. Much noisy lamentation on the part of his relatives takes place at his death, and the widow frequently manifests her grief by sitting on, or even half burying herself in, her husband's grave for some days, howling most dismally meanwhile, and refusing food and drink; or, on the upper Klamath, by cutting her hair close to the head, and so wearing it until she obtains consolation in another spouse. The Modocs hired mourners to lament at different places for a certain number of days, so that the whole country was filled with lamentation. These paid mourners were closely watched, and disputes frequently arose as to whether they had fulfilled their contract or not.[497] Occasionally the body is doubled up and interred in a sitting position, and, rarely, it is burned instead of buried. On the Klamath a fire is kept burning near the grave for several nights after the burial, for which rite various reasons are assigned. Mr Powers states that it is to light the departed shade across a certain greased pole, which is supposed to constitute its only approach to a better world. Mr Gibbs affirms that the fire is intended to scare away the devil, obviously an unnecessary precaution as applied to the Satan of civilization, who by this time must be pretty familiar with the element. The grave is generally covered with a slab of wood, and sometimes two more are placed erect at the head and foot; that of a chief is often surrounded with a fence; nor must the name of a dead person ever be mentioned under any circumstances.[498]

[Sidenote: BURIAL CEREMONIES AT PITT RIVER.]

The following vivid description of a last sickness and burial by the Pitt River Indians, is taken from the letter of a lady eye-witness to her son in San Francisco:--

It was evening. We seated ourselves upon a log, your father, Bertie, and I, near the fire round which the natives had congregated to sing for old Gesnip, the chief's wife. Presently Sootim, the doctor, appeared, dressed in a low-necked, loose, white muslin, sleeveless waist fastened to a breech-cloth, and red buck-skin cap fringed and ornamented with beads; the face painted with white stripes down to the chin, the arms from wrist to shoulder, in black, red, and white circles, which by the lurid camp-fire looked like bracelets, and the legs in white and black stripes,--presenting altogether a merry-Andrew appearance. Creeping softly along, singing in a low, gradually-increasing voice, Sootim approached the invalid and poised his hands over her as in the act of blessing. The one nearest him took up the song, singing low at first, then the next until the circle was completed; after this the pipe went round; then the doctor taking a sip of water, partly uncovered the patient and commenced sucking the left side; last of all he took a pinch of dirt and blew it over her. This is their curative process, continued night after night, and long into the night, until the patient recovers or dies.

Next day the doctor came to see me, and I determined if possible to ascertain his own ideas of these things. Giving him some muck-a-muck,[499] I asked him, "What do you say when you talk over old Gesnip?" "I talk to the trees, and to the springs, and birds, and sky, and rocks," replied Sootim, "to the wind, and rain, and leaves, I beg them all to help me." Iofalet, the doctor's companion on this occasion, volunteered the remark: "When Indian die, doctor very shamed, all same Boston doctor;[500] when Indian get well, doctor very smart, all same Boston doctor." Gesnip said she wanted after death to be put in a box and buried in the ground, and not burned. That same day the poor old woman breathed her last--the last spark of that wonderful thing called life flickered and went out; there remained in that rude camp the shriveled dusky carcass, the low dim intelligence that so lately animated it having fled--whither? When I heard of it I went to the camp and found them dressing the body. First they put on Gesnip her best white clothes, then the next best, placing all the while whatever was most valuable, beads, belts, and necklaces, next the body. Money they put into the mouth, her daughter contributing about five dollars. The knees were then pressed up against the chest, and after all of her own clothing was put on, the body was rolled up in the best family bear-skin, and tied with strips of buckskin.

Then Soomut, the chief and husband, threw the bundle over his shoulders, and started off for the cave where they deposit their dead, accompanied by the whole band crying and singing, and throwing ashes from the camp-fire into the air. And thus the old barbarian mourns: "Soomut had two wives--one good, one bad; but she that was good was taken away, while she that is bad remains. O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" And the mournful procession take up the refrain: "O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" Again the ancient chief: "Soomut has a little boy, Soomut has a little girl, but no one is left to cook their food, no one to dig them roots. O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" followed by the chorus. Then again Soomut: "White woman knows that Gesnip was strong to work; she told me her sorrow when Gesnip died. O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and this was kept up during the entire march, the dead wife's virtues sung and chorused by the whole tribe, accompanied by the scattering of ashes and lamentations which now had become very noisy. The lady further states that the scene at the grave was so impressive that she was unable to restrain her tears. No wonder then that these impulsive children of nature carry their joy and sorrow to excess, even so far as in this instance, where the affectionate daughter of the old crone had to be held by her companions from throwing herself into the grave of her dead mother. After all, how slight the shades of difference in hearts human, whether barbaric or cultured!

As before mentioned, the ruling passion of the savage seems to be love of wealth; having it, he is respected, without it he is despised; consequently he is treacherous when it profits him to be so, thievish when he can steal without danger, cunning when gain is at stake, brave in defense of his lares and penates. Next to his excessive venality, abject superstition forms the most prominent feature of his character. He seems to believe that everything instinct with animal life--with some, as with the Siahs, it extends to vegetable life also--is possessed by evil spirits; horrible fancies fill his imagination. The rattling of acorns on the roof, the rustling of leaves in the deep stillness of the forest is sufficient to excite terror. His wicked spirit is the very incarnation of fiendishness; a monster who falls suddenly upon the unwary traveler in solitary places and rends him in pieces, and whose imps are ghouls that exhume the dead to devour them.[501]

Were it not for the diabolic view he takes of nature, his life would be a comparatively easy one. His wants are few, and such as they are, he has the means of supplying them. He is somewhat of a stoic, his motto being never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow, and he concerns himself little with the glories of peace or war. Now and then we find him daubing himself with great stripes of paint, and looking ferocious, but ordinarily he prefers the calm of the peaceful temescal to the din of battle. The task of collecting a winter store of food he converts into a kind of summer picnic, and altogether is inclined to make the best of things, in spite of the annoyance given him in the way of reservations and other benefits of civilization. Taken as a whole, the Northern Californian is not such a bad specimen of a savage, as savages go, but filthiness and greed are not enviable qualities, and he has a full share of both.[502]

[Sidenote: THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS.]

THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy a yet larger extent of territory, comprising the whole of that portion of California extending, north and south, from about 40° 30´ to 35°, and, east and west, from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary.

[Sidenote: NATIONS OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

The Native Races of this region are not divided, as in the northern part of the state, into comparatively large tribes, but are scattered over the face of the country in innumerable little bands, with a system of nomenclature so intricate as to puzzle an Oedipus. Nevertheless, as among the most important, I may mention the following: The Tehamas, from whom the county takes its name; the Pomos, which name signifies 'people', and is the collective appellation of a number of tribes living in Potter Valley, where the head-waters of Eel and Russian rivers interlace, and extending west to the ocean and south to Clear Lake. Each tribe of the nation takes a distinguishing prefix to the name of Pomo, as, the Castel Pomos and Ki Pomos on the head-waters of Eel River; the Pome Pomos, Earth People, in Potter Valley; the Cahto Pomos, in the valley of that name; the Choam Chadéla Pomos, Pitch-pine People, in Redwood Valley; the Matomey Ki Pomos, Wooded Valley People, about Little Lake; the Usals, or Camalél Pomos, Coast People, on Usal Creek; the Shebalne Pomos, Neighbor People, in Sherwood Valley, and many others. On Russian River, the Gallinomeros occupy the valley below Healdsburg; the Sanéls, Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in the vicinity of the village of Sanél; the Comachos dwell in Ranchería and Anderson valleys; the Ukiahs, or Yokias, near the town of Ukiah, which is a corruption of their name;[503] the Gualalas[504] on the creek which takes its name from them, about twenty miles above the mouth of Russian River. On the borders of Clear Lake were the Lopillamillos, the Mipacmas, and Tyugas; the Yolos, or Yolays, that is to say, 'region thick with rushes,' of which the present name of the county of Yolo is a corruption, lived on Cache Creek; the Colusas occupied the west bank of the Sacramento; in the Valley of the Moon, as the Sonomas called their country, besides themselves there were the Guillicas, the Kanimares, the Simbalakees, the Petalumas, and the Wapos; the Yachichumnes inhabited the country between Stockton and Mount Diablo. According to Hittel, there were six tribes in Napa Valley: the Mayacomas, the Calajomanas, the Caymus, the Napas, the Ulucas, and the Suscols; Mr Taylor also mentions the Guenocks, the Tulkays, and the Socollomillos; in Suisun Valley were the Suisunes, the Pulpones, the Tolenos, and the Ullulatas; the tribe of the celebrated chief Marin lived near the mission of San Rafael, and on the ocean-coast of Marin County were the Bolanos and Tamales; the Karquines lived on the straits of that name. Humboldt and Mülhlenpfordt mention the Matalanes, Salses, and Quirotes, as living round the bay of San Francisco. According to Adam Johnson, who was Indian agent for California in 1850, the principal tribes originally living at the Mission Dolores, and Yerba Buena, were the Ahwashtes, Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos; Choris gives the names of more than fifteen tribes seen at the Mission, Chamisso of nineteen, and transcribed from the mission books to the TRIBAL BOUNDARIES of this group, are the names of nearly two hundred rancherías. The Socoisukas, Thamiens, and Gergecensens roamed through Santa Clara County. The Olchones inhabited the coast between San Francisco and Monterey; in the vicinity of the latter place were the Rumsens or Runsiens, the Ecclemaches, Escelens or Eslens, the Achastliens, and the Mutsunes. On the San Joaquin lived the Costrowers, the Pitiaches, Talluches, Loomnears, and Amonces; on Fresno River the Chowclas, Cookchaneys, Fonechas, Nookchues, and Howetsers; the Eemitches and Cowiahs, lived on Four Creeks; the Waches, Notoowthas, and Chunemmes on King River, and on Tulare Lake, the Talches and Woowells.

In their aboriginal manners and customs they differ but little, so little, in fact, that one description will apply to the whole division within the above-named limits. The reader will therefore understand that, except where a tribe is specially named, I am speaking of the whole people collectively.

The conflicting statements of men who had ample opportunity for observation, and who saw the people they describe, if not in the same place, at least in the same vicinity, render it difficult to give a correct description of their physique. They do not appear to deteriorate toward the coast, or improve toward the interior, so uniformly as their northern neighbors; but this may be accounted for by the fact that several tribes that formerly lived on the coast have been driven inland by the settlers and vice versa.

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES.]

Some ethnologists see in the Californians a stock different from that of any other American race; but the more I dwell upon the subject, the more convinced I am, that, except in the broader distinctions, specific classifications of humanity are but idle speculations. Their height rarely exceeds five feet eight inches, and is more frequently five feet four or five inches, and although strongly they are seldom symmetrically built. A low retreating forehead, black deep-set eyes, thick bushy eyebrows, salient cheek-bones, a nose depressed at the root and somewhat wide-spreading at the nostrils, a large mouth with thick prominent lips, teeth large and white, but not always regular, and rather large ears, is the prevailing type. Their complexion is much darker than that of the tribes farther north, often being nearly black; so that with their matted, bushy hair, which is frequently cut short, they present a very uncouth appearance.[505]

The question of beard has been much mooted; some travelers asserting that they are bearded like Turks, others that they are beardless as women. Having carefully compared the pros and cons, I think I am justified in stating that the Central Californians have beards, though not strong ones, and that some tribes suffer it to grow, while others pluck it out as soon as it appears.[506]

[Sidenote: DRESS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

During summer, except on festal occasions, the apparel of the men is of the most primitive character, a slight strip of covering round the loins being full dress; but even this is unusual, the majority preferring to be perfectly unencumbered by clothing. In winter the skin of a deer or other animal is thrown over the shoulders, or sometimes a species of rope made from the feathers of water-fowl, or strips of otter-skin, twisted together, is wound round the body, forming an effectual protection against the weather. The women are scarcely better clad, their summer costume being a fringed apron of tule-grass, which falls from the waist before and behind nearly down to the knees, and is open at the sides. Some tribes in the northern part of the Sacramento Valley wear the round bowl-shaped hat worn by the natives on the Klamath. During the cold season a half-tanned deer-skin, or the rope garment above mentioned, is added. The hair is worn in various styles. Some bind it up in a knot on the back of the head, others draw it back and club it behind; farther south it is worn cut short, and occasionally we find it loose and flowing. It is not uncommon to see the head adorned with chaplets of leaves or flowers, reminding one of a badly executed bronze of Apollo or Bacchus. Ear-ornaments are much in vogue; a favorite variety being a long round piece of carved bone or wood, sometimes with beads attached, which is also used as a needle-case. Strings of shells and beads also serve as ear-ornaments and necklaces. The head-dress for gala days and dances is elaborate, composed of gay feathers, skillfully arranged in various fashions.[507]

[Sidenote: PERSONAL ADORNMENT.]

Tattooing is universal with the women, though confined within narrow limits. They mark the chin in perpendicular lines drawn downward from the corners and centre of the mouth, in the same manner as the Northern Californians; they also tattoo slightly on the neck and breast. It is said that by these marks women of different tribes can be easily distinguished. The men rarely tattoo, but paint the body in stripes and grotesque patterns to a considerable extent. Red was the favorite color, except for mourning, when black was used. The friars succeeded in abolishing this custom except on occasions of mourning, when affection for their dead would not permit them to relinquish it. The New Almaden cinnabar mine has been from time immemorial a source of contention between adjacent tribes. Thither, from a hundred miles away, resorted vermilion-loving savages, and often such visits were not free from blood-shed.[508] A thick coat of mud sometimes affords protection from a chilly wind. It is a convenient dress, as it costs nothing, is easily put on, and is no incumbrance to the wearer. The nudity of the savage more often proceeds from an indifference to clothing than from actual want. No people are found entirely destitute of clothing when the weather is cold, and if they can manage to obtain garments of any sort at one time of year they can at another.

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

Their dwellings are about as primitive as their dress. In summer all they require is to be shaded from the sun, and for this a pile of bushes or a tree will suffice. The winter huts are a little more pretentious. These are sometimes erected on the level ground, but more frequently over an excavation three or four feet deep, and varying from ten to thirty feet in diameter. Round the brink of this hole willow poles are sunk upright in the ground and the tops drawn together, forming a conical structure, or the upper ends are bent over and driven into the earth on the opposite side of the pit, thus giving the hut a semi-globular shape. Bushes, or strips of bark, are then piled up against the poles, and the whole is covered with a thick layer of earth or mud. In some instances, the interstices of the frame are filled by twigs woven cross-wise, over and under, between the poles, and the outside covering is of tule-reeds instead of earth. A hole at the top gives egress to the smoke, and a small opening close to the ground admits the occupants.

Each hut generally shelters a whole family of relations by blood and marriage, so that the dimensions of the habitation depend on the size of the family.[509]

Thatched oblong houses are occasionally met with in Russian River Valley, and Mr Powers mentions having seen one among the Gallinomeros which was of the form of the letter L, made of slats leaned up against each other, and heavily thatched. Along the centre the different families or generations had their fires, while they slept next the walls. Three narrow holes served as doors, one at either end and one at the elbow.[510] A collection of native huts is in California called a ranchería, from rancho, a word first applied by the Spaniards to the spot where, in the island of Cuba, food was distributed to repartimiento Indians.

[Sidenote: FOOD AND METHODS OF OBTAINING IT.]

The bestial laziness of the Central Californian prevents him from following the chase to any extent, or from even inventing efficient game-traps. Deer are, however, sometimes shot with bow and arrow. The hunter, disguised with the head and horns of a stag, creeps through the long grass to within a few yards of the unsuspecting herd, and drops the fattest buck at his pleasure. Small game, such as hares, rabbits, and birds, are also shot with the arrow. Reptiles and insects of all descriptions not poisonous are greedily devoured; in fact, any life-sustaining substance which can be procured with little trouble, is food for them. But their main reliance is on acorns, roots, grass-seeds, berries and the like. These are eaten both raw and prepared. The acorns are shelled, dried in the sun, and then pounded into a powder with large stones. From this flour a species of coarse bread is made, which is sometimes flavored with various kinds of berries or herbs. This bread is of a black color when cooked, of about the consistency of cheese, and is said, by those who have tasted it, to be not at all unpalatable.[511] The dough is frequently boiled into pudding instead of being baked. A sort of mush is made from clover-seed, which is also described as being rather a savory dish. Grasshoppers constitute another toothsome delicacy. When for winter use, they are dried in the sun; when for present consumption, they are either mashed into a paste, which is eaten with the fingers, ground into a fine powder and mixed with mush, or they are saturated with salt water, placed in a hole in the ground previously heated, covered with hot stones, and eaten like shrimps when well roasted. Dried chrysalides are considered a bonne bouche, as are all varieties of insects and worms. The boiled dishes are cooked in water-tight baskets, into which hot stones are dropped. Meat is roasted on sticks before the fire, or baked in a hole in the ground. The food is conveyed to the mouth with the fingers.

[Sidenote: ACORNS AND WILD FOWL.]

Grasshoppers are taken in pits, into which they are driven by setting the grass on fire, or by beating the grass in a gradually lessening circle, of which the pit is the centre. For seed-gathering two baskets are used; a large one, which is borne on the back, and another smaller and scoop-shaped, which is carried in the hand; with this latter the tops of the ripe grass are swept, and the seed thus taken is thrown over the left shoulder into the larger basket. The seeds are then parched and pulverized, and usually stored as pinole,[512] for winter use.[513] When acorns are scarce the Central Californian resorts to a curious expedient to obtain them. The woodpecker, or carpintero as the Spaniards call it, stores away acorns for its own use in the trunks of trees. Each acorn is placed in a separate hole, which it fits quite tightly. These the natives take; but it is never until hunger compels them to do so, as they have great respect for their little caterer, and would hold it sacrilege to rob him except in time of extreme need.[514] Wild fowl are taken with a net stretched across a narrow stream between two poles, one on either bank. Decoys are placed on the water just before the net, one end of which is fastened to the top of the pole on the farther bank. A line passing through a hole in the top of the pole on the bank where the fowler is concealed, is attached to the nearest end of the net, which is allowed to hang low. When the fowl fly rapidly up to the decoys, this end is suddenly raised with a jerk, so that the birds strike it with great force, and, stunned by the shock, fall into a large pouch, contrived for the purpose in the lower part of the net.[515]

Fish are both speared and netted. A long pole, projecting sometimes as much as a hundred feet over the stream, is run out from the bank. The farther end is supported by a small raft or buoy. Along this boom the net is stretched, the nearer corner being held by a native. As soon as a fish becomes entangled in the meshes it can be easily felt, and the net is then hauled in.[516] On the coast a small fish resembling the sardine is caught on the beach in the receding waves by means of a hand-net, in the manner practiced by the Northern Californian heretofore described.[517] The Central Californians do not hunt the whale, but it is a great day with them when one is stranded.[518] In reality their food was not so bad as some writers assert. Before the arrival of miners game was so plentiful that even the lazy natives could supply their necessities. The 'nobler race,' as usual, thrust them down upon a level with swine. Johnson thus describes the feeding of the natives at Sutter's Fort: "Long troughs inside the walls were filled with a kind of boiled mush made of the wheat-bran; and the Indians, huddled in rows upon their knees before these troughs, quickly conveyed their contents by the hand to the mouth." "But," writes Powers to the author, "it is a well-established fact that California Indians, even when reared by Americans from infancy, if they have been permitted to associate meantime with others of their race, will, in the season of lush blossoming clover, go out and eat it in preference to all other food."[519]

In their personal habits they are filthy in the extreme. Both their dwellings and their persons abound in vermin, which they catch and eat in the same manner as their northern neighbors.[520]

[Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN WEAPONS.]

Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and sometimes clubs. The first-named do not differ in any essential respect from those described as being used by the Northern Californians. They are well made, from two and a half to three feet long, and backed with sinew; the string of wild flax or sinew, and partially covered with bird's down or a piece of skin, to deaden the twang.

The arrows are short, made of reed or light wood, and winged with three or four feathers. The head is of flint, bone, obsidian, or volcanic glass, sometimes barbed and sometimes diamond-shaped. It is fastened loosely to the shaft, and can be extracted only from a wound by cutting it out. The shaft is frequently painted in order that the owner may be able to distinguish his own arrows from others. Spears, or rather javelins, are used, seldom exceeding from four and a half to five feet in length. They are made of some tough kind of wood and headed with the same materials as the arrows. Occasionally the point of the stick is merely sharpened and hardened in the fire.[521] The head of the fishing-spear is movable, being attached to the shaft by a line, so that when a fish is struck the pole serves as a float. Some of the tribes formerly poisoned their arrows, but it is probable that the custom never prevailed to any great extent. M. du Petit-Thouars was told that they used for this purpose a species of climbing plant which grows in shady places. It is said that they also poison their weapons with the venom of serpents.[522] Pedro Fages mentions that the natives in the country round San Miguel use a kind of sabre, made of hard wood, shaped like a cimeter, and edged with sharp flints. This they employ for hunting as well as in war, and with such address that they rarely fail to break the leg of the animal at which they hurl it.[523]

[Sidenote: BATTLES AND WEAPONS.]

Battles, though frequent, were not attended with much loss of life. Each side was anxious for the fight to be over, and the first blood would often terminate the contest. Challenging by heralds obtained. Thus the Shumeias challenge the Pomos by placing three little sticks, notched in the middle and at both ends, on a mound which marked the boundary between the two tribes. If the Pomos accept, they tie a string round the middle notch. Heralds then meet and arrange time and place, and the battle comes off as appointed.[524] Among some tribes, children are sent by mutual arrangement into the enemy's ranks during the heat of battle to pick up the fallen arrows and carry them back to their owners to be used again.[525] When fighting, they stretch out in a long single line and endeavor by shouts and gestures to intimidate the foe.[526]

Notwithstanding the mildness of their disposition and the inferiority of their weapons, the Central Californians do not lack courage in battle, and when captured will meet their fate with all the stoicism of a true Indian. For many years after the occupation of the country by the Spaniards, by abandoning their villages and lying in ambush upon the approach of the enemy, they were enabled to resist the small squads of Mexicans sent against them from the presidios for the recovery of deserters from the missions. During the settlement of the country by white people, there were the usual skirmishes growing out of wrong and oppression on the one side, and retaliation on the other; the usual uprising among miners and rancheros, and vindication of border law, which demanded the massacre of a village for the stealing of a cow.

Trespass on lands and abduction of women are the usual causes of war among themselves. Opposing armies, on approaching each other in battle array, dance and leap from side to side in order to prevent their enemies from taking deliberate aim. Upon the invasion of their territory they rapidly convey the intelligence by means of signals. A great smoke is made upon the nearest hilltop, which is quickly repeated upon the surrounding hills, and thus a wide extent of country is aroused in a remarkably short time.

The custom of scalping, though not universal in California, was practiced in some localities. The yet more barbarous habit of cutting off the hands, feet, or head of a fallen enemy, as trophies of victory, prevailed more widely. They also plucked out and carefully preserved the eyes of the slain.

It has been asserted that these savages were cannibals, and there seems to be good reason to believe that they did devour pieces of the flesh of a renowned enemy slain in battle. Human flesh was, however, not eaten as food, nor for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on or showing hate for a dead adversary, but because they thought that by eating part of a brave man they absorbed a portion of his courage. They do not appear to have kept or sold prisoners as slaves, but to have either exchanged or killed them.[527]

[Sidenote: IMPLEMENTS AND MANUFACTURES.]

They are not ingenious, and manufacture but few articles requiring any skill. The principal of these are the baskets in which, as I have already mentioned, they carry water and boil their food. They are made of fine grass, so closely woven as to be perfectly water-tight, and are frequently ornamented with feathers, beads, shells, and the like, worked into them in a very pretty manner. Fletcher, who visited the coast with Sir Francis Drake in 1579, describes them as being "made in fashion like a deep boale, and though the matter were rushes, or such other kind of stuffe, yet it was so cunningly handled that the most part of them would hold water; about the brimmes they were hanged with peeces of the shels of pearles, and in some places with two or three linkes at a place, of the chaines forenamed ... and besides this, they were wrought vpon with the matted downe of red feathers, distinguished into diuers workes and formes."[528] The baskets are of various sizes and shapes, the most common being conical or wide and flat. Their pipes are straight, the bowl being merely a continuation of the stem, only thicker and hollowed out.[529]

[Sidenote: NO BOATS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY.]

It is a singular fact that these natives about the bay of San Francisco and the regions adjacent, had no canoes of any description. Their only means of navigation were bundles of tule-rushes about ten feet long and three or four wide, lashed firmly together in rolls, and pointed at both ends. They were propelled, either end foremost, with long double-bladed paddles. In calm weather, and on a river, the centre, or thickest part of these rafts might be tolerably dry, but in rough water the rower, who sat astride, was up to his waist in water.[530] It has been asserted that they even ventured far out to sea on them, but that this was common I much doubt.[531] They were useful to spear fish from, but for little else; in proof of which I may mention, on the authority of Roquefeuil, that in 1809-11, the Koniagas employed by the Russians at Bodega, killed seals and otters in San Francisco Bay under the very noses of the Spaniards, and in spite of all the latter, who appear to have had no boats of their own, could do to prevent them. In their light skin baidarkas, each with places for two persons only, these bold northern boatmen would drop down the coast from Bodega Bay, where the Russians were stationed, or cross over from the Farallones in fleets of from forty to fifty boats, and entering the Golden Gate creep along the northern shore, beyond the range of the Presidio's guns, securely establish themselves upon the islands of the bay and pursue their avocation unmolested. For three years, namely from 1809 to 1811, these northern fishermen held possession of the bay of San Francisco, during which time they captured over eight thousand otters. Finally, it occurred to the governor, Don Luis Argüello, that it would be well for the Spaniards to have boats of their own. Accordingly four were built, but they were so clumsily constructed, ill equipped, and poorly manned, that had the Russians and Koniagas felt disposed, they could easily have continued their incursions. Once within the entrance, these northern barbarians were masters of the bay, and such was their sense of security that they would sometimes venture for a time to stretch their limbs upon the shore. The capture of several of their number, however, by the soldiers from the fort, made them more wary thereafter. Maurelle, who touched at Point Arenas in 1775, but did not enter the bay of San Francisco, says that "a vast number of Indians now presented themselves on both points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes made of fule, where they talked loudly for two hours or more, till at last two of them came alongside of the ship, and most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head, and a canister of seeds which tasted much like walnuts." The only account of this voyage in my possession is an English translation, in which "canoes made of fule" might easily have been mistaken for boats or floats of tule.[532] Split logs were occasionally used to cross rivers, and frequently all means of transportation were dispensed with, and swimming resorted to.

Captain Phelps, in a letter to the author, mentions having seen skin boats, or baidarkas, on the Sacramento River, but supposes that they were left there by those same Russian employés.[533] Vancouver, speaking of a canoe which he saw below Monterey, says: "Instead of being composed of straw, like those we had seen on our first visit to San Francisco, it was neatly formed of wood, much after the Nootka fashion, and was navigated with much adroitness by four natives of the country. Their paddles were about four feet long with a blade at each end; these were handled with great dexterity, either entirely on one side or alternately on each side of their canoe."[534] I account for the presence of this canoe in the same manner that Captain Phelps accounts for the skin canoes on the Sacramento, and think that it must have come either from the south or north.

The probable cause of this absence of boats in Central California is the scarcity of suitable, favorably located timber. Doubtless if the banks of the Sacramento and the shores of San Francisco Bay had been lined with large straight pine or fir trees, their waters would have been filled with canoes; yet after all, this is but a poor excuse; for not only on the hills and mountains, at a little distance from the water, are forests of fine trees, but quantities of driftwood come floating down every stream during the rainy season, out of which surely sufficient material could be secured for some sort of boats.

Shells of different kinds, but especially the variety known as aulone, form the circulating medium. They are polished, sometimes ground down to a certain size, and arranged on strings of different lengths.[535]

[Sidenote: CHIEFTAINSHIP AND ITS RIGHTS.]

Chieftainship is hereditary, almost without exception. In a few instances I find it depending upon wealth, influence, family, or prowess in war, but this rarely. In some parts, in default of male descent, the females of the family are empowered to appoint a successor.[536] Although considerable dignity attaches to a chief, and his family are treated with consideration, yet his power is limited, his principal duties consisting in making peace and war, and in appointing and presiding over feasts. Every band has its separate head, and two or even three have been known to preside at the same time.[537] Sometimes when several bands are dwelling together they are united under one head chief, who, however, cannot act for the whole without consulting the lesser chiefs. Practically, the heads of families rule in their own circle, and their internal arrangements are seldom interfered with. Their medicine-men also wield a very powerful influence among them.[538] Sometimes, when a flagrant murder has been committed, the chiefs meet in council and decide upon the punishment of the offender. The matter is, however, more frequently settled by the relatives of the victim, who either exact blood for blood from the murderer or let the thing drop for a consideration. Among the Neeshenams revenge must be had within twelve months after the murder or not at all.[539]

[Sidenote: RULERS OF NEW ALBION.]

According to Fletcher's narrative, there seems to have been much more distinction of rank at the time of Drake's visit to California than subsequent travelers have seen; however, allowance must be made for the exaggerations invariably found in the reports of early voyagers. In proof of this, we have only to take up almost any book of travel in foreign lands printed at that time; wherein dragons and other impossible animals are not only zoölogically described, but carefully drawn and engraved, as well as other marvels in abundance. Captain Drake had several temptations to exaggerate. The richer and more important the country he discovered, the more would it redound to his credit to have been the discoverer; the greater the power and authority of the chief who formally made over his dominions to the queen of England, the less likely to be disputed would be that sovereign's claims to the ceded territory. Fletcher never speaks of the chief of the tribe that received Drake, but as 'the king,' and states that this dignitary was treated with great respect and ceremony by the courtiers who surrounded him. These latter were distinguished from the canaille by various badges of rank. They wore as ornaments chains "of a bony substance, euery linke or part thereof being very little, and thinne, most finely burnished, with a hole pierced through the middest. The number of linkes going to make one chaine, is in a manner infinite; but of such estimation it is amongst them, that few be the persons that are admitted to weare the same; and euen they to whom its lawfull to use them, yet are stinted what number they shall vse, as some ten, some twelue, some twentie, and as they exceed in number of chaines, so thereby are they knowne to be the more honorable personages." Another mark of distinction was a "certain downe, which groweth vp in the countrey vpon an herbe much like our lectuce, which exceeds any other downe in the world for finenesse, and beeing layed vpon their cawles, by no winds can be remoued. Of such estimation is this herbe amongst them, that the downe thereof is not lawfull to be worne, but of such persons as are about the king (to whom also it is permitted to weare a plume of feather on their heads, in signe of honour), and the seeds are not vsed but onely in sacrifice to their gods." The king, who was gorgeously attired in skins, with a crown of feather-work upon his head, was attended by a regular body-guard, uniformly dressed in coats of skins. His coming was announced by two heralds or ambassadors, one of whom prompted the other, during the proclamation, in a low voice. His majesty was preceded in the procession by "a man of large body and goodly aspect, bearing the septer or royall mace;" all of which happened, if we may believe the worthy chaplain of the expedition, on the coast just above San Francisco Bay, three hundred years ago.[540]

[Sidenote: HOW A BRIDE IS WON.]

Slavery in any form is rare, and hereditary bondage unknown.[541] Polygamy obtains in most of the tribes, although there are exceptions.[542] It is common for a man to marry a whole family of sisters, and sometimes the mother also, if she happen to be free.[543] Husband and wife are united with very little ceremony. The inclinations of the bride seem to be consulted here more than among the Northern Californians. It is true she is sometimes bought from her parents, but if she violently opposes the match she is seldom compelled to marry or to be sold. Among some tribes the wooer, after speaking with her parents, retires with the girl; if they agree, she thenceforth belongs to him; if not, the match is broken off.[544] The Neeshenam buys his wife indirectly by making presents of game to her family. He leaves the gifts at the door of the lodge without a word, and, if they are accepted, he shortly after claims and takes his bride without further ceremony. In this tribe the girl has no voice whatever in the matter, and resistance on her part merely occasions brute force to be used by her purchaser.[545]

[Sidenote: CHILD-BIRTH AND THE COUVADE.]

When an Oleepa lover wishes to marry, he first obtains permission from the parents. The damsel then flies and conceals herself; the lover searches for her, and should he succeed in finding her twice out of three times she belongs to him. Should he be unsuccessful he waits a few weeks and then repeats the performance. If she again elude his search, the matter is decided against him.[546] The bonds of matrimony can be thrown aside as easily as they are assumed. The husband has only to say to his spouse, I cast you off, and the thing is done.[547] The Gallinomeros acquire their wives by purchase, and are at liberty to sell them again when tired of them.[548] As usual the women are treated with great contempt by the men, and forced to do all the hard and menial labor; they are not even allowed to sit at the same fire or eat at the same repast with their lords. Both sexes treat children with comparative kindness;[549] boys are, however, held in much higher estimation than girls, and from early childhood are taught their superiority over the weaker sex. It is even stated that many female children are killed as soon as born,[550] but I am inclined to doubt the correctness of this statement as applied to a country where polygamy is practiced as extensively as in California. Old people are treated with contumely, both men and women, aged warriors being obliged to do menial work under the supervision of the women. The Gallinomeros kill their aged parents in a most cold-blooded manner. The doomed creature is led into the woods, thrown on his back, and firmly fastened in that position to the ground. A stout pole is then placed across the throat, upon either end of which a person sits until life is extinct.[551] A husband takes revenge for his wife's infidelities upon the person of her seducer, whom he is justified in killing. Sometimes the male offender is compelled to buy the object of his unholy passions. In consequence of their strictness in this particular, adultery is not common among themselves, although a husband is generally willing to prostitute his dearest wife to a white man for a consideration. The Central Californian women are inclined to rebel against the tyranny of their masters, more than is usual in other tribes. A refractory Tahtoo wife is sometimes frightened into submission. The women have a great dread of evil spirits, and upon this weakness the husband plays. He paints himself in black and white stripes to personate an ogre, and suddenly jumping in among his terrified wives, brings them speedily to penitence. Child-bearing falls lightly on the Californian mother. When the time for delivery arrives she betakes herself to a quiet place by the side of a stream; sometimes accompanied by a female friend, but more frequently alone. As soon as the child is born the mother washes herself and the infant in the stream. The child is then swaddled from head to foot in strips of soft skin, and strapped to a board, which is carried on the mother's back. When the infant is suckled, it is drawn round in front and allowed to hang there, the mother meanwhile pursuing her usual avocations. So little does child-bearing affect these women, that, on a journey, they will frequently stop by the way-side for half an hour to be delivered, and then overtake the party, who have traveled on at the usual pace. Painful parturition, though so rare, usually results fatally to both mother and child when it does occur. This comparative exemption from the curse, "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," is doubtless owing partly to the fact that the sexes have their regular season for copulation, just as animals have theirs, the women bringing forth each year with great regularity. A curious custom prevails, which is, however, by no means peculiar to California. When child-birth overtakes the wife, the husband puts himself to bed, and there grunting and groaning he affects to suffer all the agonies of a woman in labor. Lying there, he is nursed and tended for some days by the women as carefully as though he were the actual sufferer. Ridiculous as this custom is, it is asserted by Mr Tylor to have been practiced in western China, in the country of the Basques, by the Tibareni at the south of the Black Sea, and in modified forms by the Dyaks of Borneo, the Arawaks of Surinam, and the inhabitants of Kamchatka and Greenland.[552] The females arrive early at the age of puberty,[553] and grow old rapidly.[554]

[Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN DIVERSIONS.]

Most important events, such as the seasons of hunting, fishing, acorn-gathering, and the like, are celebrated with feasts and dances which differ in no essential respect from those practiced by the Northern Californians. They usually dance naked, having their heads adorned with feather ornaments, and their bodies and faces painted with glaring colors in grotesque patterns. Broad stripes, drawn up and down, across, or spirally round the body, form the favorite device; sometimes one half of the body is colored red and the other blue, or the whole person is painted jet black and serves as a ground for the representation of a skeleton, done in white, which gives the wearer a most ghastly appearance.[555] The dancing is accompanied by chantings, clapping of hands, blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played with the nose or mouth, beating of skin drums, and rattling of tortoise-shells filled with small pebbles. This horrible discord is, however, more for the purpose of marking time than for pleasing the ear.[556] The women are seldom allowed to join in the dance with the men, and when they are so far honored, take a very unimportant part in the proceedings, merely swaying their bodies to and fro in silence.

Plays, representing scenes of war, hunting, and private life, serve to while away the time, and are performed with considerable skill. Though naturally the very incarnation of sloth, at least as far as useful labor is concerned, they have one or two games which require some exertion. One of these, in vogue among the Meewocs, is played with bats and an oak-knot ball. The former are made of a pliant stick, having the end bent round and lashed to the main part so as to form a loop, which is filled with a network of strings. They do not strike but push the ball along with these bats. The players take sides, and each party endeavors to drive the ball past the boundaries of the other. Another game, which was formerly much played at the missions on the coast, requires more skill and scarcely less activity. It consists in throwing a stick through a hoop which is rapidly rolled along the ground. If the player succeeds in this, he gains two points; if the stick merely passes partially through, so that the hoop remains resting upon it, one point is scored.

But, as usual, games of chance are much preferred to games of skill. The chief of these is the same as that already described in the last chapter as being played by the natives all along the coasts of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, and which bears so close a resemblance to the odd-and-even of our school-days. They are as infatuated on this subject as their neighbors, and quite as willing to stake the whole of their possessions on an issue of chance. They smoke a species of strong tobacco in the straight pipes before mentioned;[557] but they have no native intoxicating drink.[558]

[Sidenote: MEDICINE AND SWEAT-HOUSES.]

The principal diseases are small-pox, various forms of fever, and syphilis. Owing to their extreme filthiness they are also very subject to disgusting eruptions of the skin. Women are not allowed to practice the healing art, as among the Northern Californians, the privileges of quackery being here reserved exclusively to the men. Chanting incantations, waving of hands, and the sucking powers obtain. Doctors are supposed to have power over life and death, hence if they fail to effect a cure, they are frequently killed.[559] They demand the most extortionate fees in return for their services, and often refuse to officiate unless the object they desire is promised them. Sweat-houses similar to those already described are in like manner used as a means of cure for every kind of complaint.[560] They have another kind of sudatory. A hole is dug in the sand of a size sufficient to contain a person lying at full length; over this a fire is kept burning until the sand is thoroughly heated, when the fire is removed and the sand stirred with a stick until it is reduced to the required temperature. The patient is then placed in the hole and covered, with the exception of his head, with sand. Here he remains until in a state of profuse perspiration, when he is unearthed and plunged into cold water. They are said to practice phlebotomy, using the right arm when the body is affected and the left when the complaint is in the limbs. A few simple decoctions are made from herbs, but these are seldom very efficient medicines, especially when administered for the more complicated diseases which the whites have brought among them. Owing to the insufficient or erroneous treatment they receive, many disorders which would be easily cured by us, degenerate with them into chronic maladies, and are transmitted to their children.[561]

Incremation is almost universal in this part of California.[562] The body is decorated with feathers, flowers, and beads, and after lying in state for some time, is burned amid the howls and lamentations of friends and relations. The ashes are either preserved by the family of the deceased or are formally buried. The weapons and effects of the dead are burned or buried with them.[563] When a body is prepared for interment the knees are doubled up against the chest and securely bound with cords. It is placed in a sitting posture in the grave, which is circular. This is the most common manner of sepulture, but some tribes bury the body perpendicularly in a hole just large enough to admit it, sometimes with the head down, sometimes in a standing position. The Pomos formerly burned their dead, and since they have been influenced by the whites to bury them, they invariably place the body with its head toward the south.

[Sidenote: MOURNING FOR THE DEAD.]

A scene of incremation is a weird spectacle. The friends and relatives of the deceased gather round the funeral pyre in a circle, howling dismally. As the flames mount upward their enthusiasm increases, until in a perfect frenzy of excitement, they leap, shriek, lacerate their bodies, and even snatch a handful of smoldering flesh from the fire, and devour it.

The ashes of the dead mixed with grease, are smeared over the face as a badge of mourning, and the compound is suffered to remain there until worn off by the action of the weather. The widow keeps her head covered with pitch for several months. In the Russian River Valley, where demonstrations of grief appear to be yet more violent than elsewhere, self-laceration is much practiced. It is customary to have an annual Dance of Mourning, when the inhabitants of a whole village collect together and lament their deceased friends with howls and groans. Many tribes think it necessary to nourish a departed spirit for several months. This is done by scattering food about the place where the remains of the dead are deposited. A devoted Neeshenam widow does not utter a word for several months after the death of her husband; a less severe sign of grief is to speak only in a low whisper for the same time.[564]

Regarding a future state their ideas are vague; some say that the Meewocs believe in utter annihilation after death, but who can fathom the hopes and fears that struggle in their dark imaginings. They are not particularly cruel or vicious; they show much sorrow for the death of a relative; in some instances they are affectionate toward their families.[565]

[Sidenote: CENTRAL CALIFORNIAN CHARACTER.]

Although nearly all travelers who have seen and described this people, place them in the lowest scale of humanity, yet there are some who assert that the character of the Californian has been maligned. It does not follow, they say, that he is indolent because he does not work when the fertility of his native land enables him to live without labor; or that he is cowardly because he is not incessantly at war, or stupid and brutal because the mildness of his climate renders clothes and dwellings superfluous. But is this sound reasoning? Surely a people assisted by nature should progress faster than another, struggling with depressing difficulties.

From the frozen, wind-swept plains of Alaska to the malaria-haunted swamps of Darien, there is not a fairer land than California; it is the neutral ground, as it were, of the elements, where hyperboreal cold, stripped of its rugged aspect, and equatorial heat, tamed to a genial warmth, meet as friends, inviting, all blusterings laid aside. Yet if we travel northward from the Isthmus, we must pass by ruined cities and temples, traces of mighty peoples, who there flourished before a foreign civilization extirpated them. On the arid deserts of Arizona and New Mexico is found an incipient civilization. Descending from the Arctic sea we meet races of hunters and traders, which can be called neither primitive nor primordial, living after their fashion as men, not as brutes. It is not until we reach the Golden Mean in Central California that we find whole tribes subsisting on roots, herbs and insects; having no boats, no clothing, no laws, no God; yielding submissively to the first touch of the invader; held in awe by a few priests and soldiers. Men do not civilize themselves. Had not the Greeks and the Egyptians been driven on by an unseen hand, never would the city of the Violet Crown have graced the plains of Hellas, nor Thebes nor Memphis have risen in the fertile valley of the Nile. Why Greece is civilized, while California breeds a race inferior to the lowest of their neighbors, save only perhaps the Shoshones on their east, no one yet can tell.

When Father Junípero Serra established the Mission of Dolores in 1776, the shores of San Francisco Bay were thickly populated by the Ahwashtees, Ohlones, Altahmos, Romanons, Tuolomos, and other tribes. The good Father found the field unoccupied, for, in the vocabulary of these people, there is found no word for god, angel, or devil; they held no theory of origin or destiny. A ranchería was situated on the spot where now Beach street intersects Hyde street. Were it there now, as contrasted with the dwellings of San Francisco, it would resemble a pig-sty more than a human habitation.

On the Marin and Sonoma shores of the bay were the Tomales and Camimares, the latter numbering, in 1824, ten thousand souls. Marin, chief of the Tomales, was for a long time the terror of the Spaniards, and his warriors were ranked as among the fiercest of the Californians. He was brave, energetic, and possessed of no ordinary intelligence. When quite old he consented to be baptized into the Romish Church.

[Sidenote: YOSEMITE VALLEY INDIANS.]

It has been suspected that the chief Marin was not a full-bred Indian, but that he was related to a certain Spanish sailor who was cast ashore from a wrecked galeon on a voyage from Manila to Acapulco about the year 1750. The ship-wrecked Spaniards, it has been surmised, were kindly treated by the natives; they married native wives, and lived with the Tomales as of them, and from them descended many of their chiefs; but of this we have no proof.

Yosemite Valley was formerly a stronghold to which tribes in that vicinity resorted after committing their depredations upon white settlers. They used to make their boast that their hiding place could never be discovered by white men. But during the year 1850, the marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the whites arose and drove them into the mountains. Following them thither under the guidance of Tenaya, an old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. The Indians, disheartened at the discovery of their retreat, yielded a reluctant obedience, but becoming again disaffected they renewed their depredations. Shortly afterward the Yosemite Indians made a visit to the Monos. They were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could not resist the temptation to drive off a few stray cattle belonging to their friends. The Monos, enraged at this breach of good faith, pursued and gave them battle. The warriors of the valley were nearly exterminated, scarce half a dozen remaining to mourn their loss. All their women and children were carried away into captivity. These Yosemite Indians consisted of a mixture from various tribes, outlaws as it were from the surrounding tribes. They have left as their legacy a name for every cliff and waterfall within the valley. How marvelous would be their history could we go back and trace it from the beginning, these millions of human bands, who throughout the ages have been coming and going, unknowing and unknown!

In the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal differences than among any people whom we have yet encountered, whose domain is of equal extent. Those who live in the south-eastern corner of the State are thrown by the Sierra Nevada range of mountains into the Shoshone family, to which, indeed, by affinity they belong. The chief tribes of this division are the Cahuillas and the Diegueños, the former living around the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, and the latter in the southern extremity of California. Around each mission were scores of small bands, whose rancherías were recorded in the mission books, the natives as a whole being known only by the name of the mission. When first discovered by Cabrillo in 1542, the islands off the coast were inhabited by a superior people, but these they were induced by the padres to abandon, following which event the people rapidly faded away. The natives called the island of Santa Cruz Liniooh, Santa Rosa Hurmal, San Miguel Twocan, and San Nicolas Ghalashat.

As we approach the southern boundary of California a slight improvement is manifest in the aborigines. The men are here well made, of a stature quite up to the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and pleasant-featured. The children of the islanders are described by the early voyagers as being white, with light hair and ruddy cheeks, and the women as having fine forms, beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor.[566] The beard is plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the purpose of pincers.

[Sidenote: DRESS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

A short cloak of deer-skin or rabbit-skins sewed together, suffices the men for clothing; and sometimes even this is dispensed with, for they think it no shame to be naked.[567] The women and female children wear a petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to the knees; in some districts they also wear short capes covering the breasts.[568] On the coast and, formerly, on the islands, seals furnished the material.[569] The more industrious and wealthy embroider their garments profusely with small shells. Around Santa Barbara rings of bone or shell were worn in the nose; at Los Angeles nasal ornaments were not the fashion. The women had cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as much as eight inches, in length, attached to the ears by a shell ring. Bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of ivory ground round and perforated, small pebbles, and shells.

Paint of various colors was used by warriors and dancers. Mr Hugo Reid, who has contributed valuable information concerning the natives of Los Angeles County, states that girls in love paint the cheeks sparingly with red ochre, and all the women, before they grow old, protect their complexion from the effects of the sun by a plentiful application of the same cosmetic.[570] Vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast painted blue and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance. On his asking where they obtained the silver-like material they showed him a kind of mineral ore, which they said they used for purposes of ornamentation.[571]

They take much pride in their hair, which they wear long. It is braided, and either wound round the head turban-like,[572] or twisted into a top-knot; some tie it in a queue behind. According to Father Boscana the girls are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms. The most usual method was to prick the flesh with a thorn of the cactus-plant; charcoal produced from the maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and an ineffaceable blue was the result.[573]

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD.]

Dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but little from those of the Central Californians. In shape they are conical or semi-globular, and usually consist of a frame, formed by driving long poles into the ground, covered with rushes and earth.[574] On the coast of the Santa Barbara Channel there seems to have been some improvement in their style of architecture. It was probably here that Cabrillo saw houses built after the manner of those in New Spain.[575] It is possible that the influences of the southern civilization may have extended as far as this point. Father Boscana's description of the temples or vanquechs erected by the natives in the vicinity of San Juan Capistrano, in honor of their god, Chinigchinich, is thus translated: "They formed an enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference, not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. This they divided by drawing a line through the centre, and built another, consisting of the branches of trees, and mats to the height of about six feet, outside of which, in the other division, they formed another of small stakes of wood driven into the ground. This was called the gate, or entrance, to the vanquech. Inside of this, and close to the larger stakes, was placed a figure of their god Chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle. This is the edifice of the vanquech."[576]

Almost every living thing that they can lay their hands on serves as food. Coyotes, skunks, wild cats, rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls, lizards, frogs, snakes, excepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and other insects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. Stranded whales, animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish, form the main support of those inhabiting the coast. Venison they are of course glad to eat when they can get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury. When they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same artifice as their northern neighbors, placing a deer's head and horns on their own head, and thus disguised approaching within bow-shot. Bear-meat the majority refuse to eat from superstitious motives.[577] Grasshoppers are eaten roasted. Acorns are shelled, dried, and pounded in stone mortars into flour, which is washed and rewashed in hot and cold water until the bitterness is removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or baked into bread. Various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs, berries, and roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw. Wild fowl are caught in nets made of tules, spread over channels cut through the rushes in places frequented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the water to allow the birds to swim easily beneath them. The game is gently driven or decoyed under the nets, when at a given signal, a great noise is made, and the terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly entangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. Or selecting a spot containing clear water about two feet deep, they fasten a net midway between the surface and the bottom, and strewing the place with berries, which sink to the bottom under the net, they retire. The fowl approach and dive for the berries. The meshes of the net readily admit the head, but hold the prisoner tight upon attempting to withdraw it. And what is more, their position prevents them from making a noise, and they serve also as a decoy for others. Fish are taken in seines made from the tough bark of the tioñe-tree. They are also killed with spears having a movable bone head, attached to a long line, so that when a fish is struck the barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the fish is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in. Many of the inland tribes come down to the coast in the fishing season, and remain there until the shoals leave, when they return to the interior. Food is either boiled by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more frequently, in vessels made of soap-stone.[578]

In their cooking, as in other respects, they are excessively unclean. They bathe frequently, it is true, but when not in the water they are wallowing in filth. Their dwellings are full of offal and other impurities, and vermin abound on their persons.

[Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

Bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons most in use. Sabres of hard wood, with edges that cut like steel, are mentioned by Father Junípero Serra.[579] War is a mere pretext for plunder; the slightest wrong, real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe to attack a weaker one. The smaller bands form temporary alliances; the women and children accompanying the men on a raid, carrying provisions for the march, and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied. Boscana says that no male prisoners are taken, and no quarter given; and Hugo Reid affirms of the natives of Los Angeles County that all prisoners of war, after being tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably put to death. The dead are decapitated and scalped. Female prisoners are either sold or retained as slaves. Scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly exhibited at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would induce them to part with their living captives.[580]

Among the few articles they manufacture are fish-hooks, needles, and awls, made of bone or shell; mortars and pestles of granite, and soap-stone cooking vessels, and water-tight baskets.[581] The clay vessels which are frequently found among them now, were not made by them before the arrival of the Spaniards. The stone implements, however, are of aboriginal manufacture, and are well made. The former are said to have been procured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the Santa Rosa islanders.[582] The instruments which they used in their manufactures were flint knives and awls; the latter Fages describes as being made from the small bone of a deer's fore-foot. The knife is double-edged, made of a flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother of pearl.[583]

On this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, although the balsa, or tule raft, is also in use. These boats are made of planks neatly fastened together and paid with bitumen;[584] prow and stern, both equally sharp, are elevated above the centre, which made them appear to Vizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own junk-like craft. The paddles were long and double-bladed, and their boats, though generally manned by three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry twenty. Canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth on the outside, with both ends shaped alike, were sometimes, though more rarely, used.[585] The circulating medium consisted of small round pieces of the white mussel-shell. These were perforated and arranged on strings, the value of which depended upon their length.[586] I have said before that this money is supposed to have been manufactured for the most part on Santa Rosa Island. Hence it was distributed among the coast tribes, who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the people of the interior.

[Sidenote: GOVERNMENT AND PUNISHMENTS.]

Each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it was to settle disputes,[587] levy war, make peace, appoint feasts, and give good advice. Beyond this he had little power.[588] He was assisted in his duties by a council of elders. The office of chief was hereditary, and in the absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest of kin. She could marry whom she pleased, but her husband obtained no authority through the alliance, all the power remaining in his wife's hands until their eldest boy attained his majority, when the latter at once assumed the command.

A murderer's life was taken by the relatives of his victim, unless he should gain refuge in the temple, in which case his punishment was left to their god. Vengeance was, however, only deferred; the children of the murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or later, upon the murderer or his descendants. When a chief grew too old to govern he abdicated in favor of his son, on which occasion a great feast was given. When all the people had been called together by criers, "the crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect, and he was enrobed with the imperial vestments," as Father Boscana has it; that is to say, he was dressed in a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees, and the rest of his body painted black. He then went into the temple and performed a pas seul before the god Chinigchinich. Here, in a short time, he was joined by the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round him, accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled with small stones. When this ceremony was over he was publicly acknowledged chief.

As I said before, the chief had little actual authority over individuals; neither was the real power vested in the heads of families; but a system of influencing the people was adopted by the chief and the elders, which is somewhat singular. Whenever an important step was to be taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the invasion of an enemy's territory, the sympathies of the people were enlisted by means of criers, who were sent round to proclaim aloud the crime and the criminal, or to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the hostile tribe; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain the desired object.[589]

[Sidenote: MARRIAGE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

The chief could have a plurality of wives, but the common people were only allowed one.[590] The form of contracting a marriage varied. In Los Angeles County, according to Mr Reid, the matter was arranged by a preliminary interchange of presents between the male relatives of the bridegroom and the female relatives of the bride. The former proceeded in a body to the dwelling of the girl, and distributed small sums in shell money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected there for the occasion. These afterward returned the compliment by visiting the man and giving baskets of meal to his people. A time was then fixed for the final ceremony. On the appointed day the girl, decked in all her finery, and accompanied by her family and relations, was carried in the arms of one of her kinsfolk toward the house of her lover; edible seeds and berries were scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled for by the spectators. The party was met half-way by a deputation from the bridegroom, one of whom now took the young woman in his arms and carried her to the house of her husband, who waited expectantly. She was then placed by his side, and the guests, after scattering more seeds, left the couple alone. A great feast followed, of which the most prominent feature was a character-dance. The young men took part in this dance in the rôles of hunters and warriors, and were assisted by the old women, who feigned to carry off game, or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case might be. The spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompaniment.

According to another form of marriage the man either asked the girl's parents for permission to marry their daughter, or commissioned one of his friends to do so. If the parents approved, their future son-in-law took up his abode with them, on condition that he should provide a certain quantity of food every day. This was done to afford him an opportunity to judge of the domestic qualities of his future wife. If satisfied, he appointed a day for the marriage, and the ceremony was conducted much in the same manner as that last described, except that he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in front of his hut, and that she was disrobed before being placed by his side.

Children were often betrothed in infancy, kept continually in each other's society until they grew up, and the contract was scarcely ever broken. Many obtained their wives by abduction, and this was the cause of many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so constantly engaged.

If a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her away, after paying back the value of her wedding presents, and then married her to another. Little difficulty was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground; indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated whenever they grew tired of each other. Adultery was severely punished. If a husband caught his wife in the act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give her up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter to himself.

[Sidenote: CHILD-BIRTH.]

At the time of child-birth many singular observances obtained; for instance, the old women washed the child as soon as it was born, and drank of the water; the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of urine medicinally, and although the husband did not affect the sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed in some manner to affect the unborn child, and he was consequently laid under certain restrictions, such as not being allowed to leave the house, or to eat fish and meat. The women as usual suffer little from child-bearing. One writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman in the vicinity of San Diego: "A few hours before the time arrives she gets up and quietly walks off alone, as if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. In this manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides herself away in some secluded nook, near a stream or hole of water. At the foot of a small tree, which she can easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her 'lying-in-couch,' on which she lies down as soon as the labor pains come on. When the pain is on, she grasps the tree with both hands, thrown up backward over her head, and pulls and strains with all her might, thus assisting each pain, until her accouchement is over. As soon as the child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with a bit of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp scissors, prepared for the occasion, after which the end is burned with a coal of fire; the child is then thrown into the water; if it rises to the surface and cries, it is taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains, and is not even awarded an Indian burial. The affair being all over, she returns to her usual duties, just as if nothing had happened, so matter of fact are they in such matters." Purification at child-birth lasted for three days, during which time the mother was allowed no food, and no drink but warm water. The ceremony, in which mother and child participated, was as follows: In the centre of the hut a pit was filled with heated stones, upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered with earth, except a small aperture through which water was introduced. The mother and child, wrapped in blankets, stood over the pit and were soon in a violent perspiration. When they became exhausted from the effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon the ground and were covered with earth, after which they again took to the heated stones and steam. The mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons, after which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given her. In some tribes she could hold no intercourse with her husband until the child was weaned.

Children, until they arrived at the age of puberty, remained under the control of their parents, afterward they were subject only to the chief. Like the Spartan youth, they were taught that abstinence, and indifference to hardship and privations, constitute the only true manhood. To render them hardy much unnecessary pain was inflicted. They were forbidden to approach the fire to warm themselves, or to eat certain seeds and berries which were considered luxuries.

A youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a severe ordeal; his naked body was beaten with stinging nettles until he was literally unable to move; then he was placed upon the nest of a species of virulent ant, while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them up with sticks. The infuriated ants swarmed over every part of the sufferer's body, into his eyes, his ears, his mouth, his nose, causing indescribable pain.

Boscana states that the young were instructed to love truth, to do good, and to venerate old age.[592] At an early age they were placed under the protection of a tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of some animal. To discover the particular beast which was to guide his future destinies, the child was intoxicated,[593] and for three or four days kept without food of any kind. During this period he was continually harassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food, crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that the persecution would not cease until he yielded, he confessed to seeing his divinity, and described what kind of brute it was. The outline of the figure was then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the breast and arms of the novitiate. This was ignited and allowed to burn until entirely consumed, and thus the figure of the divinity remained indelibly delineated in the flesh. Hunters, before starting on an expedition, would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear-sighted. A girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was laid upon a bed of branches placed over a hole, which had been previously heated, where she was kept with very little food for two or three days. Old women chanted songs, and young women danced round her at intervals during her purification. In the vicinity of San Diego the girl is buried all but her head, and the ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse perspiration. This is continued for twenty-four hours, the patient being at intervals during this time taken out and washed, and then reimbedded. A feast and dance follow.[594]

When the missionaries first arrived in this region, they found men dressed as women and performing women's duties, who were kept for unnatural purposes. From their youth up they were treated, instructed, and used as females, and were even frequently publicly married to the chiefs or great men.[595]

[Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS.]

Gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their principal means of recreation. Their games of chance differed little from those played farther north. That of guessing in which hand a piece of wood was held, before described, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of four. Another game was played by two. Fifty small pieces of wood, placed upright in a row in the ground, at distances of two inches apart, formed the score. The players were provided with a number of pieces of split reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points down, on the ground, and the thrower counted one for every piece that remained white side uppermost; if he gained eight he was entitled to another throw. If the pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted also. Small pieces of wood placed against the upright pegs, marked the game. They reckoned from opposite ends of the row, and if one of the players threw just so many as to make his score exactly meet that of his opponent, the former had to commence again. Throwing lances of reed through a rolling hoop was another source of amusement. Professional singers were employed to furnish music to a party of gamblers. An umpire was engaged, whose duty it was to hold the stakes, count the game, prevent cheating, and act as referee; he was also expected to supply wood for the fire.

When they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling, they were generally dancing; indeed, says Father Boscana, "such was the delight with which they took part in their festivities, that they often continued dancing day and night, and sometimes entire weeks." They danced at a birth, at a marriage, at a burial; they danced to propitiate the divinity, and they thanked the divinity for being propitiated by dancing. They decorated themselves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with divers colors. Sometimes head-dresses and petticoats of feathers were worn, at other times they danced naked. The women painted the upper part of their bodies brown. They frequently danced at the same time as the men, but seldom with them. Time was kept by singers, and the rattling of turtle-shells filled with pebbles. They were good actors, and some of their character-dances were well executed; the step, however, like their chanting, was monotonous and unvarying. Many of their dances were extremely licentious, and were accompanied with obscenities too disgusting to bear recital. Most of them were connected in some way with their superstitions and religious rites.[596]

These people never wandered far from their own territory, and knew little or nothing of the nations lying beyond their immediate neighbors. Mr Reid relates that one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of his own domain, returned with the report that he had seen men whose ears descended to their hips; then he had met with a race of Lilliputians; and finally had reached a people so subtly constituted that they "would take a rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, inhale the essence; throwing the rest away, which on examination proved to be excrement."

[Sidenote: CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS.]

They had a great number of traditions, legends, and fables. Some of these give evidence of a powerful imagination; a few are pointed with a moral; but the majority are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and filled with obscenities. It is said that, in some parts, the Southern Californians are great snake-charmers, and that they allow the reptiles to wind themselves about their bodies and bite them, with impunity.

Feuds between families are nursed for generations; the war is seldom more than one of words, however, unless a murder is to be avenged, and consists of mutual vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each other. Friends salute by inquiries after each other's health. On parting one says 'I am going,' the other answers 'go.'

They are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of omens and auguries. An eclipse frightens them beyond measure, and shooting stars cause them to fall down in the dust and cover their heads in abject terror. Many of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish which he himself had procured, his luck would leave him. For this reason they generally hunt or fish in pairs, and when the day's sport is over, each takes what the other has killed. Living as they do from hand to mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their existence, we cannot expect to find much glimmering of the simpler arts or sciences among them.

Their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count by lunar months, so that to complete their year they are obliged to add several supplementary days. All these months have symbolic names. Thus December and January are called the month of cold; February and March, the rain; March and April, the first grass; April and May, the rise of waters; May and June, the month of roots; June and July, of salmon fishing; July and August, of heat; August and September, of wild fruits; September and October, of bulbous roots; October and November, of acorns and nuts; November and December, of bear and other hunting.

[Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Sorcerers are numerous, and as unbounded confidence is placed in their power to work both good and evil, their influence is great. As astrologers and soothsayers, they can tell by the appearance of the moon the most propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast, or attack an enemy. Sorcerers also serve as almanacs for the people, as it is their duty to note by the aspect of the moon the time of the decease of a chief or prominent man, and to give notice of the anniversary when it comes round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. They extort black-mail from individuals by threatening them with evil. The charm which they use is a ball made of mescal mixed with wild honey; this is carried under the left arm, in a small leather bag,--and the spell is effected by simply laying the right hand upon this bag. Neither does their power end here; they hold intercourse with supernatural beings, metamorphose themselves at will, see into the future, and even control the elements. They are potent to cure as well as to kill. For all complaints, as usual, they 'put forth the charm of woven paces and of waving hands,' and in some cases add other remedies. For internal complaints they prescribe cold baths; wounds and sores are treated with lotions and poultices of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and of a kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds. Other maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces of wood, stone, or other hard substance, which by some means have entered the flesh, and which they pretend to extract by sucking the affected part. In a case of paralysis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles. Blisters are raised by means of dry paste made from nettle-stalks, placed on the bare flesh of the patient, set on fire, and allowed to burn out. Cold water or an emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes, the sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with a fire close to his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at his head, and there left for nature to take its course, while his friends and relatives sit round and howl him into life or into eternity. Snake-bites are cured by an internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom of ants' nests, and an external application of herbs.[598] The medicine-men fare better here than their northern brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery of their patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just anger of their god, and consequently the physician is not held responsible. To avert the displeasure of the divinity, and to counteract the evil influence of the sorcerers, regular dances of propitiation or deprecation are held, in which the whole tribe join.[599]

[Sidenote: DEATH AND BURIAL.]

The temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as elsewhere, which renders a description unnecessary.[600] The dead were either burned or buried. Father Boscana says that no particular ceremonies were observed during the burning of the corpse. The body was allowed to lie untouched some days after death, in order to be certain that no spark of life remained. It was then borne out and laid upon the funeral pyre, which was ignited by a person specially appointed for that purpose. Everything belonging to the deceased was burned with him. When all was over the mourners betook themselves to the outskirts of the village, and there gave vent to their lamentation for the space of three days and nights. During this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the late death was related, and even the progress of the disease which brought him to his grave minutely described in all its stages. As an emblem of grief the hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation to or affection for the deceased, but laceration was not resorted to.[602] Mr Taylor relates that the Santa Inez Indians buried their dead in regular cemeteries. The body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of the dead person.[603] According to Reid, the natives of Los Angeles County waited until the body began to show signs of decay and then bound it together in the shape of a ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that purpose, with offerings of seeds contributed by the family. At the first news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gathered together, and mourned his departure with groans, each having a groan peculiar to himself. The dirge was presently changed to a song, in which all united, while an accompaniment was whistled through a deer's leg-bone. The dancing consisted merely in a monotonous shuffling of the feet.[604] Pedro Fages thus describes a burial ceremony at the place named by him Sitio de los Pedernales.[605] Immediately after an Indian has breathed his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the idol which stands in the village, there it is watched by persons who pass the night round a large fire built for the purpose; the following morning all the inhabitants of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony commences. At the head of the procession marches one smoking gravely from a large stone pipe; followed by three others, he three times walks round the idol and the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is passed the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows three puffs of smoke upon the body. When the feet are reached, a kind of prayer is chanted in chorus, and the parents and relatives of the defunct advance in succession and offer to the priest a string of threaded seeds, about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud cries and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment. Care is taken to place near the body articles which have been manufactured by the deceased during his life-time. A spear or javelin, painted in various vivid colors, is planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating the occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the deceased be a woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture are hung on the javelin.[606]

Death they believed to be a real though invisible being, who gratified his own anger and malice by slowly taking away the breath of his victim until finally life was extinguished. The future abode of good spirits resembled the Scandinavian Valhalla; there, in the dwelling-place of their god, they would live for ever and ever, eating, and drinking, and dancing, and having wives in abundance. As their ideas of reward in the next world were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken limbs or bereavement by death, were attributed to the direct vengeance of their god, for crimes which they had committed.[607]

Though good-natured and inordinately fond of amusement, they are treacherous and unreliable. Under a grave and composed exterior they conceal their thoughts and character so well as to defy interpretation. And this is why we find men, who have lived among them for years, unable to foretell their probable action under any given circumstances.

[Sidenote: THE SHOSHONE FAMILY.]

THE SHOSHONE FAMILY, which forms the fourth and last division of the Californian group, may be said to consist of two great nations, the Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs. The former inhabit south-eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern portions of Utah and Nevada, are subdivided into several small tribes, and include the more considerable nation of the Bannacks. The Utahs occupy nearly the whole of Utah and Nevada, and extend into Arizona and California, on each side of the Colorado. Among the many tribes into which the Utahs are divided may be mentioned the Utahs proper, whose territory covers a great part of Utah and eastern Nevada; the Washoes along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, between Honey Lake and the west fork of Walker River; the Pah Utes, or, as they are sometimes called, Piutes, in western and central Nevada, stretching into Arizona and south-eastern California; the Pah Vants in the vicinity of Sevier Lake, the Pi Edes south of them, and the Gosh Utes, a mixed tribe of Snakes and Utahs, dwelling in the vicinity of Gosh Ute Lake and Mountains.

The Shoshones[608] are below the medium stature; the Utahs, though more powerfully built than the Snakes, are coarser-featured and less agile. All are of a dark bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as usual, beardless. The women are clumsily made, although some of them have good hands and feet.[609]

On the barren plains of Nevada, where there is no large game, the rabbit furnishes nearly the only clothing. The skins are sewn together in the form of a cloak, which is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the body with thongs of the same. In warm weather, or when they cannot obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children are, for the most part, in a state of nudity. The hair is generally allowed to grow long, and to flow loosely over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the forehead, and among the Utahs of New Mexico it is plaited into two long queues by the men, and worn short by the women. Ornaments are rare; I find mention in two instances[610] of a nose-ornament, worn by the Pah Utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several inches in length, thrust through the septum of the nose. Tattooing is not practiced but paint of all colors is used unsparingly.[611]

The Snakes are better dressed than the Utahs, their clothing being made from the skins of larger game, and ornamented with beads, shells, fringes, feathers, and, since their acquaintance with the whites, with pieces of brilliant-colored cloth. A common costume is a shirt, leggins, and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is thrown, in cold weather, a heavy robe, generally of buffalo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer, elk, or beaver. The dress of the women differs but little from that of the men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is longer.[612]

[Sidenote: DRESS OF THE SNAKES.]

The dress of the Snakes seen by captains Lewis and Clarke was richer than is usually worn by them now; it was composed of a robe, short cloak, shirt, long leggins, and moccasins.

The robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with the hair on; the collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from the back of the otter, the head being at one end and the tail at the other. From this collar were suspended from one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins,[613] or rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the head and tail; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of twisted silk-grass, which tapered in thickness toward the tail. The seams were concealed with a fringe of ermine-skin; little tassels of white fur were also attached to each tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. The collar was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster; the shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of deer, was loose and reached half-way down the thigh; the sleeves were open on the under side as low as the elbow,--the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow to the wrist,--and they fitted close to the arm. The collar was square, and cut into fringe, or adorned with the tails of the animals which furnished the hide; the shirt was garnished with fringes and stained porcupine-quills; the leggins were made each from nearly an entire antelope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part of the thigh. The hind legs of the skin were worn uppermost, and tucked into the girdle; the neck, highly ornamented with fringes and quills, trailed on the ground behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen enemies were frequently used.

The moccasins were also of dressed hide, without the hair, except in winter, when buffalo-hide, with the hair inside, answered the purpose. They were made with a single seam on the outside edge, and were embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered with the skin of a polecat, the tail of which dragged behind on the ground. Ear-ornaments of beads, necklaces of shells, twisted-grass, elk-tushes, round bones, like joints of a fish's back-bone, and the claws of the brown bear, were all worn. Eagles' feathers stuck in the hair, or a strip of otter-skin tied round the head, seem to have been the only head-dresses in use.[614] This, or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy and prosperous tribes. Like the Utahs, the Snakes paint extensively, especially when intent upon war.[615]

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The Snakes also build better dwellings than the Utahs. Long poles are leaned against each other in a circle, and are then covered with skins, thus forming a conical tent. A hole in the top, which can be closed in bad weather, serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three or four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside a piece of hide stretched on a stick, which hangs over the aperture as a door. These skin tents, as is necessary to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched with very little labor. When being moved from one place to another, the skins are folded and packed on the ponies, and the poles are hitched to each side of the animal by one end, while the other drags. The habitations of the people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are very primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which they crawl, or even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi-circular in shape, roofless, and three or four feet high, which serves only to break the force of the wind. Some of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves and among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles in the ground. Farnham gives us a very doleful picture of their condition; he says: "When the lizard, and snail, and wild roots are buried in the snows of winter, they are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills, and, having heated them to a certain degree, deposit themselves in them, and sleep and fast till the weather permits them to go abroad again for food. Persons who have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have found the ground around these family ovens strewn with the unburied bodies of the dead, and others crawling among them, who had various degrees of strength, from a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that crawled upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle."[616] Naturally pusillanimous, weak in development, sunk below the common baser passions of the savage, more improvident than birds, more beastly than beasts, it may be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but I confess my inability to do so.

Pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice, and occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer Shoshone tribes. Those living in the vicinity of streams or lakes depend more or less for their subsistence upon fish. The Snakes of Idaho and Oregon, and the tribes occupying the more fertile parts of Utah, having abundance of fish and game, live well the year round, but the miserable root-eating people, partly owing to their inherent improvidence, partly to the scantiness of their food-supply, never store sufficient provision for the winter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they are invariably reduced to extreme destitution. To avoid starvation they will eat dead bodies, and even kill their children for food.[617] A rat or a rabbit is prepared for eating by singeing the hair, pressing the offal from the entrails and cooking body and intestines together. Lizards, snakes, grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish containing hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted; they are then eaten dry or used to thicken soup. Grasshoppers, seeds, and roots, are also gathered and cooked in the same manner as by the nations already described. The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine, about three feet wide and of considerable length. A fence of sage-brush is erected across the rabbit-paths, and on this the net is hung. The rabbits in running quickly along the trail become entangled in the meshes and are taken before they can escape. Lizards are dragged from their holes by means of a hooked stick. To catch ants a piece of fresh hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill; this is soon covered by vast swarms of the insects, which are then brushed off into a bag and kept there until dead, when they are dried for future use. Among the hunting tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a circle of horsemen and beaten to death with clubs. They are also stalked after the fashion of the Californians proper, the hunter placing the head and horns of an antelope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised approaching within shooting distance.

[Sidenote: NATIVE FISH-WEIR.]

Fish are killed with spears having movable heads, which become detached when the game is struck, and are also taken in nets made of rushes or twigs. In the latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed by a bar, the net is then floated down the stream and on reaching the bar both ends are drawn together. The fish thus enclosed are taken from the circle by hand, and the Shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head in his mouth and kills it with his teeth. Captain Clarke describes an ingeniously constructed weir on Snake River, where it was divided into four channels by three small islands. Three of these channels were narrow "and stopped by means of trees which were stretched across, and supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to prevent the passage of the fish. About the centre of each was placed a basket formed of willows, eighteen or twenty feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and terminating in a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the weir. The main channel of the water was then conducted to this weir, and as the fish entered it they were so entangled with each other, that they could not move, and were taken out by emptying the small end of the willow basket. The weir in the main channel was formed in a manner somewhat different; there were, in fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely with an aperture in each side of the angle. This is made by tying a number of poles together at the top, in parcels of three, which were then set up in a triangular form at the base, two of the poles being in the range desired for the weir, and the third down the stream. To these poles two ranges of other poles are next lashed horizontally, with willow bark and withes, and willow sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form a kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the height of three or four feet above the surface of the water. This is so thick as to prevent the fish from passing, and even in some parts with the help of a little gravel and some stone enables them to give any direction which they wish to the water. These two weirs being placed near to each other, one for the purpose of catching the fish as they ascend, the other as they go down the river, are provided with two baskets made in the form already described, and which are placed at the apertures of the weir."

For present consumption the fish are boiled in water-tight baskets by means of red-hot stones, or are broiled on the embers; sometimes the bones are removed before the fish is cooked; great quantities are also dried for winter. Some few of the Utahs cultivate a little maize, vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at agriculture are not general. The Snakes sometimes accompany the more northern tribes into the country of the Blackfeet, for the purpose of killing buffalo.[618]

In their persons, dwellings and habits, the Utahs are filthy beyond description. Their bodies swarm with vermin which they catch and eat with relish. Some of the Snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but, generally speaking, the whole Shoshone family is a remarkably dirty one.[619]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The bow and arrow are universally used by the Shoshones, excepting only some of the most degraded root-eaters, who are said to have no weapon, offensive or defensive, save the club. The bow is made of cedar, pine, or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner already described, or, more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn. The string is of sinew. The length of the bow varies. According to Farnham, that used by the Pi Utes is six feet long, while that of the Shoshones seen by Lewis and Clark was only two and a half feet in length. The arrows are from two to four feet, and are pointed with obsidian, flint, or, among the lower tribes, by merely hardening the tip with fire. Thirty or forty are usually carried in a skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for immediate use. Lances, which are used in some localities, are pointed in the same manner as the arrows when no iron can be procured. The Snakes have a kind of mace or club, which they call a poggamoggon. It consists of a heavy stone, sometimes wrapped in leather, attached by a sinew thong about two inches in length, to the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring nearly two feet. A loop fastened to the end held in the hand prevents the warrior from losing the weapon in the fight, and allows him to hold the club in readiness while he uses the bow and arrow.[620] They also have a circular shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is considered a very important part of a warrior's equipment, not so much from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as from the peculiar virtues supposed to be given it by the medicine-men. The manufacture of a shield is a season of great rejoicing. It must be made from the entire fresh hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process is as follows. A hole is dug in the ground and filled with red-hot stones; upon these water is poured until a thick steam arises. The hide is then stretched, by as many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair can be removed with the hands and it shrinks to the required size. It is then placed upon a prepared hide, and pounded by the bare feet of all present, until the ceremony is concluded. When the shield is completed, it is supposed to render the bearer invulnerable. Lewis and Clarke also make mention of a species of defensive armor "something like a coat of mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed antelope skins, united by means of a mixture of glue and sand. With this they cover their own bodies and those of their horses, and find it impervious to the arrow." I find mention in one instance only, of a shield being used by the Utahs. In that case it was small, circular, and worn suspended from the neck. The fishing spear I have already described as being a long pole with an elk-horn point. When a fish is struck the shaft is loosened from its socket in the head, but remains connected with the latter by a cord.[621] Arrows are occasionally poisoned by plunging them into a liver which has been previously bitten by a rattlesnake.[622]

[Sidenote: MANNER OF MAKING WAR.]

The tribes that possess horses always fight mounted, and manage their animals with considerable address. In war they place their reliance upon strategy and surprise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy's approach. Prisoners of war are killed with great tortures, especially female captives, who are given over to the women of the victorious tribe and by them done to death most cruelly; it is said, however, that male prisoners who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in battle, are frequently dismissed unhurt. Scalps are taken, and sometimes portions of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy are eaten that the eater may become endued with the valor of the slain. He who takes the most scalps gains the most glory. Whether the warriors who furnished the trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator or not, is immaterial; he has but to show the spoils and his fame is established. The Snakes are said to be peculiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. When on foot, they will crouch down in the long grass and remain motionless while the pursuer passes within a few feet of them, or when caught sight of they will double and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. The custom of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke, common to so many of the North American aborigines, is observed by the Shoshones.[623] The pipe, the bowl of which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly passed from mouth to mouth, each smoker blowing the smoke in certain directions and muttering vows at the same time.

The only tools used before iron and steel were introduced by the whites were of flint, bone, or horn. The flint knife had no regular form, and had a sharp edge about three or four inches long, which was renewed when it became dull. Elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges, were used to fell trees. They made water-proof baskets of plaited grass, and others of wicker-work covered with hide. The Snakes and some of the Utahs were versed in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from baked clay. These were not merely open dishes, but often took the form of jars with narrow necks, having stoppers.[624]

[Sidenote: LAWS AND GOVERNMENT.]

Boats, as a rule, the Shoshones have none. They usually cross rivers by fording; otherwise they swim, or pass over on a clumsy and dangerous raft made of branches and rushes.[625] By way of compensation they all, except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute their wealth. They have no regular currency, but use for purposes of barter their stock of dried fish, their horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess. They are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke must invariably precede a bargain.[626] Although each tribe has an ostensible chief, his power is limited to giving advice, and although his opinion may influence the tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes. Every man does as he likes. Private revenge, of course, occasionally overtakes the murderer, or, if the sympathies of the tribe be with the murdered man, he may possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed laws for such cases. Chieftainship is hereditary in some tribes; in others it is derived from prestige.[627]

The Utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and children into slavery for a few trinkets. Great numbers of these unfortunates are sold to the Navajos for blankets. An act which passed the legislature of Utah in 1852, legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial, slavery has been a customary traffic among the Indians; that it was a common practice among them to gamble away their wives and children into slavery, to sell them into slavery to other nations, and that slaves thus obtained were most barbarously treated by their masters; that they were packed from place to place on mules; that these unfortunate humans were staked out to grass and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated and swollen from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen, starved, and killed by their inhuman owners; that families and tribes living at peace would steal each other's wives and children, and sell them as slaves. In view of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate judge, or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and children to suitable white persons for a term not to exceed twenty years.[628]

Polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife is generally bought of her parents;[629] girls are frequently betrothed in infancy; a husband will prostitute his wife to a stranger for a trifling present, but should she be unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the forfeit. The women, as usual, suffer very little from the pains of child-bearing. When the time of a Shoshone woman's confinement draws near, she retires to some secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and remains there for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence as best she can. When the appointed time has elapsed she is considered purified and allowed to join her friends again. The weaker sex of course do the hardest labor, and receive more blows than kind words for their pains. These people, in common with most nomadic nations, have the barbarous custom of abandoning the old and infirm the moment they find them an incumbrance. Lewis and Clarke state that children are never flogged, as it is thought to break their spirit.[630]

[Sidenote: GAMBLING AND DRINKING.]

The games of hazard played by the Shoshones differ little from those of their neighbors; the principal one appears to be the odd-and-even game so often mentioned; but of late years they have nearly abandoned these, and have taken to 'poker,' which they are said to play with such adroitness as to beat a white man. With the voice they imitate with great exactness the cries of birds and beasts, and their concerts of this description, which generally take place at midnight, are discordant beyond measure. Though they manufacture no intoxicating liquor themselves, they will drink the whisky of the whites whenever opportunity offers. They smoke the kinikkinik leaf when no tobacco can be procured from the traders.[631] In connection with their smoking they have many strange observances. When the pipe is passed round at the solemnization of a treaty, or the confirmation of a bargain, each smoker, on receiving it from his neighbor, makes different motions with it; one turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips; another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes with the bowl in the air; a fourth with the bowl on the ground, and so on through the whole company. All this is done with a most grave and serious countenance, which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on. The Snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw off their moccasins as a mark of respect. Any great feat performed by a warrior, which adds to his reputation and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or successfully stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of name. Killing a grizzly bear also entitles him to this honor, for it is considered a great feat to slay one of these formidable animals, and only he who has performed it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the feet or claws of the victim. To bestow his name upon a friend is the highest compliment that one man can offer another.

The Snakes, and some of the Utahs, are skillful riders, and possess good horses. Their horse-furniture is simple. A horse-hair or raw-hide lariat is fastened round the animal's neck; the bight is passed with a single half-hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in the rider's hand; this serves as a bridle. When the horse is turned loose, the lariat is loosened from his jaw and allowed to trail from his neck. The old men and the women have saddles similar to those used for packing by the whites; they are a wooden frame made of two pieces of thin board fitting close to the sides of the horse, and held together by two cross-pieces, in shape like the legs of an isosceles triangle. A piece of hide is placed between this and the horse's back, and a robe is thrown over the seat when it is ridden on. The younger men use no saddle, except a small pad, girthed on with a leather thong. When traveling they greatly overload their horses. All the household goods and provisions are packed upon the poor animal's back, and then the women and children seat themselves upon the pile, sometimes as many as four or five on one horse.[632]

[Sidenote: DISEASES AND BURIAL.]

The poorer Utahs are very subject to various diseases, owing to exposure in winter. They have few, if any, efficient remedies. They dress wounds with pine-gum, after squeezing out the blood. The Snakes are much affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly by their being almost constantly in the water fishing, and by exposure. Syphilis has, of course, been extensively introduced among all the tribes. A few plants and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medicine-men practice their wonted mummeries, but what particular means of cure they adopt is not stated by the authorities. I find no mention of their having sweat-houses.[633]

Concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. In some parts the body is burned, in others it is buried. In either case the property of the deceased is destroyed at his burial. His favorite horse, and, in some instances, his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he may not be alone in the spirit land. Laceration in token of grief is universal, and the lamentations of the dead person's relatives are heard for weeks after his death, and are renewed at intervals for many months. Child-like in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear perfectly indifferent to their loss.[634]

[Sidenote: SHOSHONE CHARACTER.]

The character of the better Shoshone tribes is not much worse than that of the surrounding nations; they are thieving, treacherous, cunning, moderately brave after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail them anything, and exceedingly cruel. Of the miserable root and grass eating Shoshones, however, even this much cannot be said. Those who have seen them unanimously agree that they of all men are lowest. Lying in a state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during the winter, and in spring crawling forth and eating grass on their hands and knees, until able to regain their feet; having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food, in many instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imaginings for religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth, putting no bridle on their passions, there is surely room for no missing link between them and brutes.[635] Yet as in all men there stands out some prominent good, so in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue: they are lovers of their country; lovers, not of fair hills and fertile valleys, but of inhospitable mountains and barren plains; these reptile-like men love their miserable burrowing-places better than all the comforts of civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained by force among the whites, they have been known to pine away and die.

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

[Sidenote: NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS.]

To the NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory extends from Rogue River on the north to Eel River south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary east, including the Klamath, and other lakes, are assigned, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries: There are 'the Hoopahs, and the Ukiahs of Mendocino;' 'the Umpquas, Kowooses or Cooses, Macanootoony's of the Umpqua river section, Nomee Cults, and Nomee Lacks of Tehama County; the Copahs, Hanags, Yatuckets, Terwars and Tolowas, of the lower Klamath river; the Wylaks and Noobimucks of Trinity county mountains west from Sacramento plains; the Modocs of Klamath Lake, the Ylackas of Pitt River, the Ukas and Shastas of Shasta county.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860.

'The Tototins are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located on the coast, one on the forks of the Coquille, and three on Rogue river.' 'The Tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the whole people speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the Tototin river, about four miles from its mouth. Their country extends from the eastern boundary of the Yahshutes, a short distance below their village, up the stream about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the Mackanotins commence.' 'The country of the Euquachees commences at the "Three Sisters," and extends along the coast to a point about three miles to the south of their village, which is on a stream which bears their name. The mining town of Elizabeth is about the southern boundary of the Euquachees, and is called thirty miles from Port Orford. Next southward of the Euquachees are the Yahshutes, whose villages occupy both banks of the Tototin or Rogue river, at its mouth. These people claim but about two and a half miles back from the coast, where the Tototin country commences. The Yahshutes claim the coast to some remarkable headlands, about six miles south of Rogue river. South of these headlands are the Chetlessentuns. Their village is north of, but near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better known to the whites as Pistol river. The Chetlessentuns claim but about eight miles of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the summit of the mountains. Next to the Chetlessentuns on the south are the Wishtenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing their name. They claim the country to a small trading-post known as the Whale's Head, about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of Rogue River. Next in order are the Cheattee or Chitco band, whose villages were situated on each side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small river bearing their name.... The lands of these people extend from Whale's Head to the California line, and back from the coast indefinitely.... The Mackanotin village is about seven miles above that of the Tototins, and is on the same side of the river. They claim about twelve miles of stream. The Shistakoostees succeed them (the Mackanotins). Their village is on the north bank of Rogue river, nearly opposite the confluence of the Illinois. These are the most easterly band within my district in the South.' Parrish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 283-9. 'Dr. Hubbard, in his notes (1856) on the Indians of Rogue River and South Oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the following list of names of Rancherias and clans of the Lototen or Tutatamys tribe. Masonah Band, location, Coquille river; Chockrelatan Band, location, Coquille forks; Quatomah Band, location, Flore's creek; Laguaacha Band, location, Elk river; Cosulhenten Band, location, Port Orford; Yuquache Band, location, Yugua creek; Chetlessenten Band, location, Pistol river; Yah Shutes Band, location, Rogue river; Wishtanatan Band, location, Whale's head; Cheahtoc Band, location, Chetko; Tototen Band, location, six miles above the mouth of Rogue river; Sisticoosta Band, location, above Big Bend, of Rogue river; Maquelnoteer Band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of Rogue river.' Cal. Farmer, June 18, 1860. The Tutotens were a large tribe, numbering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of Oregon. Golden Era, March, 1856. 'Toutounis ou Coquins, sur la rivière de ce nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 335. 'On the lower part of the Clamet River are the Totutune, known by the unfavorable soubriquet of the Rogue, or Rascal Indians.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221. The bands of the Tootooton tribe 'are scattered over a great extent of country--along the coast and on the streams from the California line to twenty miles north of the Coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the coast range of mountains.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 259. Taylor places the Tutunahs in the northwest corner of Del Norte County. MS. Map.

The Hunas live in California a little south of Rogue River, on the way north from Crescent City. Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 314.

Modoc, by some Moädoc, is a word which originated with the Shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies. 'Their proper habitat is on the southern shore of Lower Klamath Lake, on Hot Creek, around Clear Lake, and along Lost River in Oregon.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 535. They own the Klamath River from the lake 'to where it breaks through the Siskiyou range to the westward.' Id., vol. xi., p. 21. In the northern part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map. 'The Modocs of the Klamath Lake were also called Moahtockna.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. East of the Klamaths, whose eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty miles east of the Cascade Range, along the southern boundary of Oregon, 'and extending some distance into California, is a tribe known as the Modocks. East of these again, but extending farther south, are the Moetwas.' 'The country round Ancoose and Modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by the Modoc Indians.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 262-3. 'The Modocs (or Moadoc, as the word is pronounced) known in their language as the Okkowish, inhabit the Goose lake country, and are mostly within the State of California.... The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these Indians by white men in early days from hearing the Shastas speak of them.' See Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 121.

The Oukskenahs, in the north-western part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map.

[Sidenote: THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBES.]

The Klamaths or Lutuami--'Lutuami, or Tlamatl, or Clamet Indians. The first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. The second is that by which they are known to the Chinooks, and through them to the whites. They live on the head waters of the river and about the lake, which have both received from foreigners the name of Clamet.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. That portion of the eastern base of the Cascade Range, south of the forty-fourth parallel, 'extending twenty-five or thirty miles east, and south to the California line, is the country of the Klamath Indians.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 262. The Tlameths 'inhabit the country along the eastern base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains, and south to the Great Klameth Lake.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283. The Clamets inhabit 'Roquas River, near the south boundary' (of Oregon). Warre and Vavasour, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 81. 'Lutuami, Clamets; also Tlamatl--Indians of southwestern Oregon, near the Clamet Lake.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 100. 'Klamacs, sur la rivière de ce nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' De Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 335. Clamet: on the upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake so named. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. 'Next east of the Shastas are the Klamath Lake Indians, known in their language as the Okshee, who inhabit the country about the Klamath lakes, and east about half way to the Goose Lake, to Wright Lake, and south to a line running about due east from Shasta Butte.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, pp. 120-1. 'The name of Klamath or Tlamath, belonging to the tribes on the lake where the river rises, is not known among those farther down.... Thus, at the forks, the Weitspeks call the river below Pohlik, signifying down; and that above Pehtsik, or up; giving, moreover, the same name to the population in speaking of them collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different languages, occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shasté, of which the lowest extends up to Bluff Creek, a few miles above the forks. Of these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two villages.... The names of the principal villages ... are the Weitspek (at the forks), Wahsherr, Kaipetl, Moraiuh, Nohtscho, Méhteh, Schregon, Yauterrh, Pecquan, Kauweh, Wauhtecq, Scheperrh, Oiyotl, Naiagutl, Schaitl, Hopaiuh, Rekqua, and Weht'lqua, the two last at the mouth of the river.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 138.

The Eurocs inhabit 'the lower Klamath from Weitspeck down, and along the coast for about twenty miles.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 530. The Eurocs 'inhabit the banks of the Klamath from the junction of the Trinity to the mouth, and the sea coast from Gold Bluff up to a point about six miles above the mouth of the Klamath.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Cahrocs live between the Eurocs and the foot of the Klamath Mountains, also a short distance up Salmon River. 'On the Klamath River there live three distinct tribes, called the Eurocs, Cahrocs, and Modocs; which names mean respectively, "down the river," "up the river," and "head of the river."' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328. Speaking of Indians at the junction of Salmon and Klamath Rivers, Mr. Gibbs says: 'they do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "Kahruk," up, and "Youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of the Trinity) do "Pehtsik," and "Pohlik."' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 151.

The Tolewahs are the first tribe on the coast north of Klamath River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. The Tahlewahs are a 'tribe on the Klamath River.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 179. 'In the vicinity of Crescent City and Smith's River there are the ... Lopas, Talawas, and Lagoons.' Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, pp. 391-2. 'In Del Norte County ... the Haynaggis live along Smith River, the Tolowas on the Lagoon, and the Tahatens around Crescent City.' Powers' Pomo, MS. The Cops, Hanags, Yantuckets, and Tolawas, are 'Indian tribes living near the Oregon and California coast frontiers.' Crescent City Herald, Aug. 1857. The Tolowas at the meeting point of Trinity, Humboldt, and Klamath counties. MS. Map.

The Terwars, north-west of the Tolowas. MS. Map.

The Weitspeks are the 'principal band on the Klamath, at the junction of the Trinity.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 200.

The Oppegachs are a tribe at Red-Cap's Bar, on the Klamath River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 148.

The Hoopahs live 'am unteren Rio de la Trinidad, oder Trinity River.' Buschmann, Das Apache als eine Athhapask. Spr., p. 218. 'Indian tribe on the lower part of the Trinity River.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 82. The Hoopas live 'in Hoopa Valley, on the lower Trinity River.' Power's Pomo, MS., p. 85. 'The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the river itself, known to the Klamaths by the name of Hoopah.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139; see also p. 422. In the northern part of Klamath County. MS. Map.

'Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or Otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the Okenoke, Agaraits, Uplegoh, Olleppauh'lkahtehtl and Pephtsoh; ... and the Haslintah, Aheltah, Sokéakeit, Tashhuanta, and Witspuk above it; A twelfth, the Méyemma, now burnt, was situated just above "New" or "Arkansas" River.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.

The Copahs, in the extreme north of Klamath county, north of the Hoopahs. MS. Map. The Cops are mentioned as 'living near the Oregon and California coast frontiers,' in the Crescent City Herald, Aug., 1857.

The Kailtas live on the south fork of Trinity River. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Pataways occupy the banks of the Trinity, from the vicinity of Big Bar to South Fork. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Chimalquays lived on New River, a tributary of the Trinity. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Siahs 'occupied the tongue of land jutting down between Eel River, and Van Dusen's Fork.' Powers' Pomo, MS. The Sians or Siahs lived on the headwaters of Smith River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.

The Ehneks, Eenahs, or Eenaghs, lived above the Tolewas on Smith River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. 'Ehnek was the name of a band at the mouth of the Salmon or Quoratem River.' Id., p. 422; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 67.

Wishosk 'is the name given to the Bay (Humboldt) and Mad River Indians by those of Eel River.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 201.

The Weeyots are 'a band on the mouth of Eel River and near Humboldt Bay.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 200. The Humboldt Bay Indians call themselves Wishosk; and those of the hills Teokawilk; 'but the tribes to the northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel River, Weyot, or Walla-walloo.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.

'The Patawats live on the lower waters of Mad River, and around Humboldt Bay, as far south as Arcata, perhaps originally as far down as Eureka.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

Ossegon is the name given to the Indians of Gold Bluff, between Trinidad and the Klamath. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.

'The Lassics formerly dwelt in Mad River Valley, from the head waters down to Low Gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the Wheelcuttas.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

Chori was the name given to the Indians of Trinidad by the Weeyots. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.

The Chillulahs 'occupied the banks of Redwood Creek, from the coast up about twenty miles.' Powers' Pomo, MS. The Oruk, Tchololah, or Bald Hill Indians, lived on Redwood Creek. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.

The Wallies occupy the sandy country north of Humboldt Bay. Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536.

'The Wheelcuttas had their place on the Upper Redwood Creek, from the land of the Chillulahs up to the mountains. They ranged across southward by the foot of the Bald Hills, which appear to have marked the boundary between them and the Chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to Van Dusen's Fork, anent the Siahs and Lassics, with whom they occasionally came in bloody collision.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Veeards 'live around lower Humboldt Bay, and up Eel River to Eagle Prairie.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Shastas live to the south-west of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. 'Sastés, dans l'intérieur au Nord de la Californie.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 335. 'The Shasta Indians, known in their language as Weohow--it meaning stone house, from the large cave in their country--occupy the land east of Shasta river, and south of the Siskiyou mountains, and west of the lower Klamath lake.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 120. The Shastas occupy the centre of the county of that name. MS. Map. 'Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper California.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 168. Watsahewah is the name 'of one of the Scott River bands of the Shasta family.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422. The name is spelled variously as Shasty, Shaste, Sasté, &c.

The Palaiks live to the southeast of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. 'Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper California.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 145.

On the Klamath are the Odeeilahs; in Shasta Valley the Ikarucks, Kosetahs, and Idakariúkes; and in Scott's Valley the Watsahewas and Eehs. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 171.

'The Hamburg Indians, known in their language as the Tka, inhabit immediately at the mouth of Scott's river, known in their language as the Ottetiewa river.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 120.

'The Scott's Valley Indians, known in their language as the Iddoa, inhabit Scott's Valley above the cañon.' Ib.

'The Yreka (a misnomer for Yeka--Shasta Butte) Indians, known in their language as the Hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of Klamath river, and west of Shasta river.' Ib.

The Yuka or Uka tribe 'inhabited the Shasta Mountains in the vicinity of McCloud's fork of Pitt River.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Ukas are directly south of the Modocs. MS. Map. 'The Yukeh, or as the name is variously spelt, Yuka, Yuques, and Uca, are the original inhabitants of the Nome-Cult, or Round Valley, in Tehama County ... and are not to be confounded with the Yukai Indians of Russian River.' Gibbs, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 123.

'The Noser or Noza Indians ... live in the vicinity of Lassen's Butte.' Siskiyou Chronicle, May, 1859.

The Ylakas are to the southeast of the Ukas. MS. Map.

The CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy the whole of that portion of California extending north and south, from about 40° 30´ to 35°, and east and west, from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary. They are tribally divided as follows:

'The Mattoles have their habitat on the creek which bears their name, and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of Bear River. From the coast they range across to Eel River, and by immemorial Indian usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this river from about Eagle Prairie, where they border upon the Veeards, up southward to the mouth of South Fork.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Betumkes live on the South Fork of Eel River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 634. In the northern part of Mendocino County. MS. Map.

The Choweshaks live on the head of Eel river. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 421. Tribes living on the Middle Fork of Eel River, in the valley called by the Indians Betumki were the Naboh Choweshak, Chawteuh Bakowa, and Samunda. Id., p. 116. The Choweshaks lived on the head of Eel River. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 48.

'The Loloncooks live on Bull Creek and the lower South Fork of Eel River, owning the territory between those streams and the Pacific.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Batemdakaiees live in the valley of that name on the head of Eel River. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 17.

[Sidenote: RUSSIAN RIVER AND COAST TRIBES.]

The Pomos consist of 'a great number of tribes or little bands, sometimes one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the region where the headwaters of Eel and Russian rivers interlace, along the estuaries of the coast and around Clear Lake. Really, the Indians all along Russian river to its mouth are branches of this great family, but below Calpello they no longer call themselves Pomos.... The broadest and most obvious division of this large family is, into Eel river Pomos and Russian river Pomos.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 498-9.

The Castel Pomos 'live between the forks of the river extending as far south as Big Chamise and Blue Rock.' Id., p. 499.

The Ki-Pomos 'dwell on the extreme headwaters of South Fork, ranging eastward to Eel River, westward to the ocean and northward to the Castel Pomos.' Ib., MS. Map.

'The Cahto Pomos (Lake people) were so called from a little lake which formerly existed in the valley now called by their name.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500.

The Choam Chadéla Pomos (Pitch Pine People) live in Redwood Valley. Id., p. 504.

The Matomey Ki Pomos (Wooded Valley People) live about Little Lake. Ib.

The Camalèl Pomos (Coast People) or Usals live on Usal Creek. Ib.

The Shebalne Pomos (Neighbor People) live in Sherwood Valley. Ib.

The Pome Pomos (Earth People) live in Potter Valley. Besides the Pome Pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in Potter Valley, each with a different name; and the whole body of them are called Ballo Ki Pomos (Oat Valley People). Id.

The Camalel Pomos, Yonsal Pomos, and Bayma Pomos live on Ten Mile, and the country just north of it, in Mendocino County. Tobin, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 405.

'The Salan Pomas are a tribe of Indians inhabiting a valley called Potter's Valley.' Ford, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 257.

The Niahbella Pomos live in the north-west of Mendocino County. MS. Map.

The Ukiahs live on Russian River in the vicinity of Parker's Ranch. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112, 421. 'The Yuka tribe are those mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains.' Mendocino Herald, March, 1871. The Yukai live on Russian River. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 285. The Ukias are in the south-eastern part of Mendocino County. MS. Map.

The Soteomellos or Sotomieyos 'lived in Russian River valley.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Shumeias 'lived on the extreme upper waters of Eel River, opposite Potter Valley.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Tahtoos 'live in the extreme upper end of Potter Valley.' Ib.

The Yeeaths live at Cape Mendocino. Tobin, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 406.

The Kushkish Indians live at Shelter Cove. Id., p. 405.

The Comachos live in Russian River Valley, in Rancheria and Anderson Valleys. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Kajatschims, Makomas, and Japiams live in the Russian River Valley, north of Fort Ross. Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80.

The Gallinomeros occupy Dry Creek Valley and Russian River Valley below Healdsburg. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Masalla Magoons 'live along Russian river south of Cloverdale.' Id.

The Rincons live south of the Masalla Magoons. Id.

The Gualalas live on Gualala or Wallalla Creek. Id.

The Nahlohs, Carlotsapos, Chowechaks, Chedochogs, Choiteeu, Misalahs, Bacowas, Samindas, and Cachenahs, Tuwanahs, lived in the country between Fort Ross and San Francisco Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 634.

Chwachamaju (Russian Severnovskia) or Northerners, is the name of one of the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Ross. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80. 'Severnovskia, Severnozer, or "Northerners." Indians north of Bodega Bay. They call themselves Chwachamaja.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 170.

The Olamentkes live at Bodega. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethnog., p. 80; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 20.

The Kainamares or Kainaméahs are at Fitch's Ranch, extending as far back as Santa Rosa, down Russian River, about three leagues to Cooper's Ranch, and thence across the coast at Fort Ross, and for twenty-five miles above. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 102. 'The Kanimares had rancherias at Santa Rosa, Petaluma, or Pataloma, and up to Russian river.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. 'The proper name of Russian river in Sonoma valley is Canimairo after the celebrated Indians of those parts.' Id., June 8, 1860. The Indians of the plains in vicinity of Fort Ross, call themselves Kainama. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80. The Kyanamaras 'inhabit the section of country between the cañon of Russian river and its mouth.' Ford, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 257.

The Tumalehnias live on Bodega Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 102.

The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in Russian River Valley in the vicinity of the village of Sanél. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Sonomas, Sonomis, or Sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of Sonoma. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The Sonomas lived in the south-eastern extremity of what is now the county of Sonoma. MS. Map.

The Tchokoyems lived in Sonoma valley. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 421. The Chocuyens lived in the region now called Sonoma county, and from their chief the county takes its name. Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 22. The word Sonoma means 'Valley of the Moon.' Tuthill's Hist. Cal., p. 301. The Tchokoyems live in Sonoma Valley. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 184.

'The Timbalakees lived on the west side of Sonoma valley.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Guillicas lived 'northwest of Sonoma,' on the old Wilson ranch of 1846. Ib.; MS. Map.

The Kinklas live in 39° 14´ north lat. and 122° 12´ long. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. The Klinkas are a 'tribu fixée au nord du Rio del Sacramento.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 358. South of the Rogue River Indians 'the population is very scanty until we arrive at the valley of the Sacramento, all the tribes of which are included by the traders under the general name of Kinklá, which is probably, like Tlamatl, a term of Chinook origin.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221.

The Talatui live 'on the Kassima River, a tributary to the Sacramento, on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 631. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 180.

The Oleepas live on the Feather River, twenty miles above Marysville. Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 293.

'The Nemshous, as stated by General Sutter, roamed (prior to 1846) between the Bear and American rivers; across the Sacramento were the Yolos and Colusas; north of the American Fork were the Bashones. On the banks of the river north of Fort Helvetia, roamed the Veshanacks, the Touserlemnies and Youcoolumnies; between the American (plain and hills) and the Mokalumne roamed the Walacumnies, Cosumnies, Solumnees, Mokelumnees, Suraminis, Yosumnis, Lacomnis, Kis Kies and Omochumnies.' Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. The Colusas live in the north-eastern corner of Colusa County. The Yolos, in the northern part of the county of that name. West of them the Olashes. The Bushones in the south of Yolo County. The Nemshoos in the eastern part of Placer County. The Yukutneys north of them. The Vesnacks south-west of the Nemshoos, and north of the Pulpenes. The Youcoulumnes and Cosumnes are in the eastern part of Amador county. The Mokelumnes south of them. The Yachachumnes west of the Mokelumnes. MS. Map. 'Yolo is a corruption of the Indian Yoloy, which signified a region thick with rushes, and was the name of the tribe owning the tule lands west of the Sacramento and bordering on Cache Creek.' Tuthill's Hist. Cal., p. 301. The following are names of rancherias of tame Indians or Neophytes in the Sacramento Valley; Sakisimme, Shonomnes, Tawalemnes, Seywamenes, Mukelemnes, Cosumne. Rancherias of wild Indians or Gentiles, are: Sagayacumne, Socklumnes, Olonutchamne, Newatchumne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omatchamne, Yusumne, Yuleyumne, Tamlocklock, Sapototot, Yalesumne, Wapoomne, Kishey, Secumne, Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshan, Palanshan, Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock, Sishu, Mimal, Yulu, Bubu, Honcut. Indian Tribes of the Sacramento Valley, MS. Tame Indians or Neophites: Lakisumne, Shonomne, Fawalomnes, Mukeemnes, Cosumne. Wild Indians or Gentiles: Sagayacumne, Locklomnee, Olonutchamne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omutchamne, Yusumne, Yaleyumne, Yamlocklock, Lapototot, Yalesumne, Wajuomne, Kisky, Secumne, Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshaw, Palanshawl Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock, Lishu, Mimal, Ubu, Bubu, Honcut. Sutter's Estimate of Indian Population, 1847, MS. The Ochecamnes, Servushamnes, Chupumnes, Omutchumnes, Sicumnes, Walagumnes, Cosumnes, Sololumnes, Turealemnes, Saywamines, Nevichumnes, Matchemnes, Sagayayumnes, Muthelemnes, and Lopstatimnes, lived on the eastern bank of the Sacramento. The Bushumnes (or Pujuni), (or Sekomne) Yasumnes, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yaesumnes, Huk, and Yucal, lived on the western bank of the Sacramento. Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 630, 631.

The Yubas or Yuvas lived on Yuva River, a tributary to the Sacramento. Fremont's Geog. Memoir, p. 22.

The Meidoos and Neeshenams are on the Yuba and Feather Rivers. 'As you travel south from Chico the Indians call themselves Meidoo until you reach Bear River; but below that it is Neeshenam, or sometimes mana or maidec, all of which denote men or Indians.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 21.

The Cushnas live near the south fork of the Yuba River. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., 506; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 59. Taylor also mentions the Cushnas south of the Yuba. Cal. Farmer, May 31, 1861.

[Sidenote: CLEAR LAKE TRIBES.]

The Guenocks and Locollomillos lived between Clear Lake and Napa. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Lopillamillos or Lupilomis lived on the borders of Clear lake. Ib.; MS. Map.

The Mayacmas and Tyugas dwell about Clear Lake. San Francisco Herald, June, 1858. The Mayacmas and Tyugas 'inhabited the vicinity of Clear lake and the mountains of Napa and Mendocino counties.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860; MS. Map.

The Wi-Lackees 'live along the western slope of the Shasta mountains from round Valley to Hay Fork, between those mountains on one side and Eel and Mad Rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream about to Low Gap.' Powers' Pomo, MS. The Wye Lakees, Nome Lackees, Noimucks, Noiyucans and Noisas, lived at Clear Lake. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 438.

Napobatin, meaning 'many houses,' was the collective name of six tribes living at Clear Lake: their names were Hulanapo, Habenapo or stone house, Dahnohabe, or stone mountain, Möalkai, Shekom, and Howkuma. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 109.

The Shanelkayas and Bedahmareks, or lower people, live on the east fork of Eel River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 109.

'The Sanéls live at Clear lake.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. 'The Sanels occupy Russian River Valley in the vicinity of the American village of Sanel.' Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Bochheafs, Ubakheas, Tabahteas, and the Moiyas, live between Clear Lake and the coast. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112.

The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, occupy Russian River Valley in the vicinity of the village of Sanel. Powers' Pomo, MS.

The Napas 'inhabited the Salvador Vallejo ranch of Entre-Napa--that is the place between Napa river and Napa creek.' Hittell, in Hesperian Mag., vol. iv., p. 56; Cal. Farmer, June 7, 1861. 'The Napa Indians lived near that town and near Yount's ranch.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

'The Caymus tribe occupied the tract now owned by G. C. Yount.' Hittell, in Hesperian Mag., vol. iv., p. 55.

'The Calajomanas had their home on the land now known as the Bale ranche.' Ib.

The Mayacomas dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper end of Napa Valley. Ib.

The Ulucas lived on the east of the river Napa, near the present townsite. Id., p. 56.

'The Suscols lived on the ranch of that name, and between Napa and Benicia.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. 'The former domain of the Suscol Indians was afterwards known as Suscol ranch.' Hittel, in Hesperian Mag., vol. iv., p. 56; MS. Map.

The Tulkays lived 'below the town of Napa.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Canaumanos lived on Bayle's ranch in Napa valley. Ib.

The Mutistuls live 'between the heads of Napa and Putos creeks.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 111.

The Yachimeses originally occupied the ground upon which the city of Stockton now stands. Cal. Farmer, Dec. 7, 1860.

The Yachichumnes 'formerly inhabited the country between Stockton and Mt. Diablo.' San Francisco Evening Bulletin, Sept. 9, 1864.

The Suisunes live in Suisun valley. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. Solano County was named from their chief. Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 22; Tuthill's Hist. Cal., p. 301.

The Ullulatas 'lived on the north side of Suisun Valley.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Pulpenes lived on the eastern side of Suisun Valley. Ib.

The Tolenos lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. Ib.

The Karquines lived on the straits of that name. Ib.

The Tomales, Tamales, Tamallos, or Tamalanos, and Bollanos, lived between Bodega Bay and the north shore of San Francisco Bay. Id., March 2, 1860, March 30, 1860.

The Socoisukas, Thamiens, and Gerguensens or Gerzuensens 'roamed in the Santa Clara valley, between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers, and the country west of San Jose city to the mountains.' Id., June 22, 1860.

The Lecatuit tribe occupied Marin county, and it is from the name of their chief that the county takes its name. Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 22.

'The Petalumas or the Yolhios lived near or around that town.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

The Tulares, so called by the Spaniards, lived between the northern shore of the bay of San Francisco and San Rafael. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 421.

The Wapos inhabited 'the country about the Geysers.' Ford, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 257.

The Yosemites inhabited the valley of the same name. The Tosemiteiz are on the headwaters of the Chowchilla. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399.

The Ahwahnachees are the inhabitants of Yosemite Valley. Hittel's Yosemite, p. 42.

[Sidenote: TRIBES NEAR THE MISSION DOLORES.]

The following names of rancherías which formerly existed in the vicinity of the Mission Dolores, are taken from the Mission Books: Abmoctac, Amutaja, Altanui, Aleytac, Anchin, Aleta, Aramay, Altajumo, Aluenchi, Acnagis, Assunta, Atarpe, Anamás, Acyum, Anamon, Cachanegtac, Caprup, Cazopo, Carascan, Conop, Chutchin, Chagunte, Chapugtac, Chipisclin, Chynau, Chipletac, Chuchictac, Chiputca, Chanigtac, Churmutcé, Chayen, Chupcan, Elarroyde, Flunmuda, Génau, Guloismistac, Gamchines, Guanlen, Hunctu, Halchis, Horocroc, Huimen, Itáes, Juniamuc, Josquigard, Juchium, Juris, Joquizará, Luidneg, Luianeglua, Lamsim, Livangelva, Livangebra, Libantone, Macsinum, Mitliné, Malvaitac, Muingpe, Naig, Naique, Napa, Ompivromo, Ousint, Oturbe, Olestura, Otoacte, Petlenum, or Petaluma, Pruristac, Puichon, Puycone, Patnetac, Pructaca, Purutea, Proqueu, Quet, Sitlintaj, Suchni, Subchiam, Siplichiquin, Siscastac, Ssiti, Sitintajea, Ssupichum, Sicca, Soisehme, Saturaumo, Satumuo, Sittintac, Ssichitca, Sagunte, Ssalayme, Sunchaque, Ssipudca, Saraise, Sipanum, Sarontac, Ssogereate, Sadanes, Tuzsint, Tatquinte, Titmictac, Tupuic, Titiyú, Timita, Timsim, Tubisuste, Timigtac, Torose, Tupuinte, Tuca, Tamalo, or Tomales, Talcan, Totola, Urebure, Uturpe, Ussete, Uchium, Véctaca, Vagerpe, Yelamú, Yacmui, Yacomui, Yajumui, Zomiomi, Zucigin ... Aguasajuchium, Apuasto, Aguasto, Carquin, (Karquines), Cuchian, Chaclan, Chiguau, Cotejen, Chuscan, Guylpunes, Huchun, Habasto, Junatca, Jarquin, Sanchines, Oljon, Olpen, Olemos, Olmolococ, Quemelentus, Quirogles, Salzon, Sichican, Saucon, Suchigin, Sadan, Uquitinac, Volvon (or Bolbon). 'The tribes of Indians upon the Bay of San Francisco, and who were, after its establishment, under the supervision of the Mission of Dolores, were five in number; the Ahwashtees, Ohlones (called in Spanish Costanos, or Indians of the Coast), Altahmos, Romanons, and Tuolomos. There were, in addition to these, a few small tribes, but all upon the land extending from the entrance to the head of San Francisco Bay, spoke the same language.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, May 31, 1861. The tribes mentioned by Adam Johnston in Schoolcraft, who lived around the Missions of Dolores and Yerba Buena, were the 'Ahwashtes, Ohlones, Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos. The Ohlones were likely the same called by the old priests, Sulones, Solomnies, the Sonomis were another.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 506. 'The following races of Californians were named to us living within the precincts of the Mission of San Francisco; Guymen, Utschim, Olumpali, Soclan, Sonomi, Chulpun, Umpin, Kosmitas, Bulbones, Tchalabones, Pitem, Lamam, Apalamu, Tcholoones, Suysum, Numpali, Tamal, and Ululato.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 51. 'On compte dans cette seul mission (San Francisco) plus de quinze différentes tribus d'Indiens: les Khoulpouni; les Oumpini; les Kosmiti; les Lamanès; les Bolbonès; les Pitemèns; les Khalalons; les Apatamnès, ils parlent la même langue et habitent le long des bords du Rio Sacramento; les Guimen; les Outchioung; les Olompalis; les Tamals; les Sonons ils parlent la même langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de San Francisco; les Saklans; les Ouloulatines; les Noumpolis; les Souissouns; ils parlent des langues différentes.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. iii., pp. 5, 6. 'California Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and formerly under the supervisions of the Mission Dolores. There were five tribes: Ashwashtes, Olhones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the coast), Altahmos, Romonans, and Tulomos. A few other small tribes round the bay speak the same language.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 53. 'Um die Bai von San Francisco die Matalánes, Salses und Quiróles, deren Sprachen, eine gemeinsame Quelle haben.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. The Olchones 'inhabit the seacoast between San Francisco and Monterey.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 78. The Salsonas, 'viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al Sueste (of San Francisco Bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 214.

The Korekins formerly lived at the mouth of the San Joaquin. Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 141.

'The rancherias of Indians near this Mission, all within eight or ten miles of Santa Cruz, ... were: Aulintac, the rancheria proper to the Mission; Chalumü, one mile north-west of the Mission; Hottrochtac, two miles north-west; ... Wallanmai; Sio Cotchmin; Shoremee; Onbi; Choromi; Turami; Payanmin; Shiuguermi; Hauzaurni. The Mission also had neophytes of the rancherias of Tomoy, Osacalis (Souquel), Yeunaba, Achilla, Yeunata, Tejey, Nohioalli, Utalliam, Locobo, Yeunator, Chanech, Huocom, Chicutae, Aestaca, Sachuen, Hualquilme, Sagin, Ochoyos, Huachi, Apil, Mallin, Luchasmi, Coot, and Agtism, as detailed in a letter from Friar Ramon Olbez to Governor de Sola, in November, 1819, in reply to a circular from him, as to the native names, etc., of the Indians of Santa Cruz, and their rancherias.' Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860.

The Mutsunes are the natives of the Mission of San Juan Baptista. Cal. Farmer, Nov. 23, and June 22, 1860; Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 205.

The Ansaymas lived in the vicinity of San Juan Bautista. Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'Four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the Mission (Monterey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of Echilat, called San Francisquita. Eslanagan was one on the east side of the river and Ecgeagan was another; another was Ichenta or San Jose; another Xaseum in the Sierra, ten leagues from Carmelo; that of Pachhepes was in the vicinity of Xaseum, among the Escellens. That of the Sargentarukas was seven leagues south and east of the river in a Canaditta de Palo Colorado.' Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860.

The Runsienes live near Monterey. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The Rumsen or Runsienes are 'Indians in the neighbourhood of Monterey, California. The Achastliers speak a dialect of the same language.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 163. 'Um den Hafen von Monterey leben die Rumsen oder Runsien, die Escelen oder Eslen, die Ecclemáches, und Achastliés.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. 'La partie septentrionale de la Nouvelle-Californie est habitée par les deux nations des Rumsen et Escelen.... Elles forment la population du preside et du village de Monterey. Dans la baie de S. Francisco, on distingue les tribus des Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes.' Humboldt, Pol., p. 321. 'Eslen y Runsien que ocupan toda la California septentrional.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 167. 'Um Monterey wohnen zwey Völker ... die Rumsen, und im Osten von diesen die Escelen.' Vater, Mithridates, p. 202. 'The Eslenes clan roamed over the present ranchos San Francisquito, Tallarcittos, and up and down the Carmelo Valley.' 'The rancheria per se of the Escellens was named by the priests, Santa Clara; Soccorondo was across the river a few miles. Their other little clans or septs were called Coyyo, Yampas, Fyules, Nennequi, Jappayon, Gilimis, and Yanostas.' Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The Eskelens are 'California Indians, east of Monterey. The Ekklemaches are said to be a tribe of the Eskelen, and to speak the richest idiom of all the California Indians.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 68. The country of the Ecclemachs extends more than twenty leagues east of Monterey. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 17, 1862.

The Katlendarucas seem 'to have been situated near the Esteros or Lagoons about the mouth of the Salinas river, or in the words of the old priest, "en los Esteros de la entrada al mar del Rio de Monterey, o reversa de esta grande Ensenada." Their rancherias were Capanay, Lucayasta, Paysim, Tiubta, Culul, Mustac, Pytogius, Animpayamo, Ymunacam, and all on the Pajaro river, or between it and the Salinas.' Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860; MS. Map.

The Sakhones had rancherias near Monterey 'on the ranchos now known as Loucitta, Tarro, National Buena Esperanza, Buena Vista, and lands of that vicinity.' Ib.; MS. Map.

'The Wallalshimmez live on Tuolumne River.' Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399.

'The Potoancies claim the Merced river as their homes.' Ib. The Potaaches occupy the same region on the MS. Map.

'The Nootchoos ... live on the headwaters of Chowchilla.' Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399. The Nootchoos live on the south fork of the Merced. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.

'The Pohoneeches live on the headwaters of Fresno.' Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399. The Pohoneeches live on the north bank of the Fresno. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.

The Pitcatches, the Tallenches, and the Coswas, live on the San Joaquin. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399.

[Sidenote: KING'S RIVER AND TULARE LAKE TRIBES.]

'The Wattokes, a nation of Indians, consisting of the Wattokes, Ituchas, Chokemnies, and Wechummies, live high up on King's river.' Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 399.

The Watches, the Notonotoos, and the Wemelches, live in the neighborhood of King's River Farm. Ib.

'The Talches and Woowells live on Tulare Lake.' Ib.

The Chowchillas, Choocchancies, and Howachez, are mentioned as living at Fresno River Farm. Id., p. 399. The Chowchillas inhabit 'from the Kern River of the Tulare deltas to the Feather river.' Taylor, in Bancroft's Hand Book Almanac, 1864, p. 32.

The Wallas live in Tuolumne county. Patrick, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 240. There has been much discussion about the word Wallie, or Walla. Powers asserts that it is derived from the word 'wallim,' which means 'down below', and was applied by the Yosemite Indians to all tribes living below them. The Wallies live on the Stanislaus and Tuolumne. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.

The Mewahs live in Tuolumne county. Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 244.

The Meewoc nation 'extended from the snow-line of the Sierra to the San Joaquin River, and from the Cosumnes to the Fresno.... North of the Stanislaus they call themselves Meewoc (Indians); south of it, to the Merced, Meewa; south of that to the Fresno, Meewie. On the upper Merced river is Wakâlla; on the upper Tuolumne, Wakalumy; on the Stanislaus and Mokelumne, Wakalumytoh.... As to tribal distribution, the Meewocs north of the Stanislaus, like the Neeshenams, designate principally by the points of the compass. These are toomun, choomuch, háyzooit, and ólowit (north, south, east, and west), from which are formed various tribal names--as Toomuns, Toomedocs, and Tamolécas, Choomuch, Choomwits, Choomedocs, or Chimedocs, and Choomtéyas; Olowits, Olówedocs, Oloweéyas, etc. Olówedocs is the name applied to all Indians living on the plains, as far west as Stockton. But there are several names which are employed absolutely, and without any reference to direction. On the south bank of the Cosumnes are the Cawnees; on Sutter Creek, the Yulónees; on the Stanislaus and Tuolumne the extensive tribe of Wallies; in Yosemite, the Awánees, on the south fork of Merced, the Nootchoos; on the middle Merced, the Choomtéyas, on the upper Chowchilla, the Héthtoyas; on the middle Chowchilla the tribe that named the stream; and on the north bank of the Fresno the Pohoneechees.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., pp. 322-5; MS. Map.

The Coitch tribe live one hundred and fifty miles east of the Vegas of Santa Clara. Los Angeles Star, May 18, 1861.

The Notonatos lived on King's river. Maltby's MS. Letter.

The Kahweahs lived on Four Creeks. Ib.

The Yolanchas lived on Tule river. Ib.

The Pokoninos lived on Deer creek. Ib.

The Poloyamas lived on Pasey creek. Ib.

The Polokawynahs lived on Kern river. Ib.

The Ymithces and Cowiahs live on Four Creeks. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 303.

The Waches, Notoowthas, Ptolmes, and Chunemnes live on King river. Ib.

The Costrowers, Pitiaches, Talluches, Loomnears and Amonces live on the San Joaquin. Id., p. 304.

The Chowclas, Chookchaneys, Phonechas, Nookchues, and Howetsers, live on the Fresno river. Ib.

The Coconoons live on the Merced river. Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 413.

The Monos living west of the Sierra Nevada, live on Fine Gold Gulch and the San Joaquin river. Ib. East of the Sierra Nevada they occupy the country south of Mono Lake. MS. Map. 'The Monos, Cosos, and some other tribes, occupy the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevadas.' Cal. Farmer, May 8, 1863. 'The Olanches, Monos, Siqiurionals, Wasakshes, Cowhuillas, Chokiamauves, Tenisichs, Yocolles, Paloushiss, Wikachumnis, Openoches, Taches, Nutonetoos and Choemimnees, roamed from the Tuolumne to Kings river and the Tejon, on the east of the San Joaquin, the Tulare lakes and in the Sierra Nevada, as stated by Lieut. Beale, in 1856.' Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860.

The Tulareños live in the mountain wilderness of the Four Creeks, Porsiuncula (or Kerns or Current) river and the Tejon; and wander thence towards the headwaters of the Mohave and the neighborhood of the Cahuillas. Their present common name belongs to the Spanish and Mexican times and is derived from the word Tularé (a swamp with flags). Hayes' MS. 'Tulareños, Habitant la grande vallée de los Tulares de la Californie.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 335.

'The Yocut dominion includes the Kern and Tulare basins and the middle of San Joaquin, stretching from Fresno to Kern River Falls.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 105.

Cumbatwas on Pitt river. Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.

Shastas, in Shasta and Scott valleys. Ib.

[Sidenote: SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS.]

The SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth parallel, are, as far as is known, tribally distributed as follows:

The Cahuillos 'inhabit principally a tract of country about eighty miles east from San Bernardino, and known as the Cabeson Valley, and their villages are on or near the road leading to La Paz on the Colorado River.... Another branch of this tribe numbering about four hundred occupy a tract of country lying in the mountains about forty miles southeast from San Bernardino, known as the Coahuila Valley.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, pp. 194-5. 'The Coahuillas are scattered through the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains and eastward in the Cabesan Valley.' Whiting, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 691. The Coahuilas live in the San Jacinto Mountains. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 17. The Cohuillas reside in the northern half of the country, commencing on the coast, and extending to within fifty miles of the Colorado river, following the eastern base of the mountains. San Francisco Herald, June, 1853. The Cahuillos or Cawios reside 'near the Pacific, between the sources of the San Gabriel and Santa Anna.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 26. 'The Cahuillas are a little to the north of the San Luiseños, occupying the mountain ridges and intervening valleys to the east and southeast of Mount San Bernadino, down towards the Mohava river and the desert that borders the river Colorado, the nation of Mohavas lying between them and these rivers. I am unable just now to give the number and names of all their villages. San Gorgonio, San Jacinto, Coyote, are among those best known, though others even nearer the desert, are more populous.' Hayes' MS. The Cohuillas occupy the southwestern part of San Bernardino County, and the northwestern part of San Diego county. MS. Map. 'The Carvilla Indians occupy the Country from San Gorgonio Pass to the Arroyo Blanco.' Cram's Topog. Memoir, p. 119. 'The Cowillers and Telemnies live on Four Creeks.' Id., p. 400. 'The limits of the Kahweyah and Kahsowah tribes appear to have been from the Feather river in the northern part of the State, to the Tulare lakes of the south.' Cal. Farmer, May 25, 1860.

The Diegeños 'are said to occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, and about the same distance below San Diego, and to extend about a hundred miles into the interior.' Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. The Dieguinos are in the southern part of San Diego County, and extend from the coast to the desert. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 240. The Dieguinas reside in the southern part of the country watered by the Colorado, and claim the land from a point on the Pacific to the eastern part of the mountains impinging on the desert. San Francisco Herald, June, 1853. The Comeyas or Diegenos 'occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, and about the same distance below San Diego, and extend about a hundred miles into the interior.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 7. 'The Indians round San Diego, Deguinos, Diegeños, were in a savage state, and their language almost unknown. Bartlett says that they are also called Comeya; but Whipple asserts that the Comeya, a tribe of the Yumas, speak a different language.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 62. On page 220 Ludewig says that as the name Diegeños means the Indians round San Diego, there is no such name as Deguinos. 'The villages of the Dieguinos, wherever they live separately, are a little to the south of the Cahuillas. Indeed, under this appellation they extend a hundred miles into Lower California, in about an equal state of civilization, and thence are scattered through the Tecaté valley over the entire desert on the west side of New River.... Their villages known to me are San Dieguito (about twenty souls), San Diego Mission, San Pasqual, Camajal (two villages), Santa Ysabel, San José, Matahuay, Lorenzo, San Felipe, Cajon, Cuyamaca, Valle de las Viejas.' Hayes' MS.

The Missouris 'are scattered over San Bernardino, San Diego and other counties in the southern part of the State.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 17.

The Kechi inhabit the country about Mission San Luis Rey. Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 92.

The Chumas, or Kachumas live three miles from the Mission of Santa Inez. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861.

Los Cayotes was the name given by the Spaniards to the tribe which originally inhabited San Diego county. Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 147.

The New River Indians 'live along New River, sixty miles west from Fort Yuma, and near San Diego.' Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 216.

The Sierras, or Caruanas, the Lagunas, or Tataguas, and the Surillos or Cartakas are mentioned as living on the Tejon reservation. Wentworth, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, pp. 324-6.

The Serranos lived in the vicinity of San Bernardino. Reid, in Los Angeles Star, Letter I., in Hayes Col.

Mr Taylor claims to have discovered the exact positions of many of the places mentioned. His statement, for the accuracy of which I by no means vouch, is as follows: 'Xucu, or Shucu, on the Ortega farm, near Rincon Point; Missisissepono on Rafel Gonzale's rancho on Saticoy river, near sea, sometimes called Pono; Coloc, near Carpentaria beach. Mugu, below Saticoy some thirty miles, near the sea; Anacbuc or Anacarck, near the islet of La Patera, near the sea shore. Partocac or Paltocac, the Indian cemetery on the Mesa of La Patera, near sea; Aguin at the beach of Los Llagos Canada; Casalic, at the Refugio Playa and Canada; Tucumu or playa of Arroyo Honda. Xocotoc, Cojo, or Cojotoc, near Pt. Concepcion; Pt. Concepcion, Cancac or Caacac, or Cacat.' Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 1863.

[Sidenote: SOUTHERN MISSION INDIANS.]

The following names of rancherías were taken from the archives of the various missions; in the vicinity of La Purissima: Lajuchu, Silimastus, Sisolop, Jlaacs, or Slacus, Huasna, Estait, Esmischue, Ausion, Esnispele, Silisne, Sacspili, Estait, Huenejel, Husistaic, Silimi, Suntaho, Alacupusyuen, Espiiluima, Tutachro, Sisolop, Naila, Tutachro, Paxpili, or Axpitil, Silino, Lisahuato, Guaslaique, Pacsiol, Sihimi, Huenepel Ninyuelgual, Lompoc, Nahuey, or Nahajuey, Sipuca, Stipu, Ialamma, Huasna, Sacsiol, Kachisupal, Salachi, Nocto, Fax, Salachi, Sitolo, or Sautatho, Omaxtux. Near Santa Inez, were: Sotomoenu, Katahuac, Asiuhuil, Situchi, Kulahuasa, Sisuchi, Kuyam, or Cuyama, Ionata, Tekep, Kusil, Sanchu, Sikitipuc, Temesathi, Lujanisuissilac, Tapanissilac, Ialamne, Chumuchn, Suiesia, Chumuchu, Tahijuas, Tinachi, Lompoe, Ionata, Aguama, Sotonoemu, Guaislac, Tequepas, Matiliha, Stucu, Aketsum, or Kachuma, Ahuamhoue, Geguep, Achillimo, Alizway, Souscoc, Talaxano, Nutonto, Cholicus. Near Santa Barbara were Guainnonost, Sisabanonase, Huelemen, Inoje, Luijta, Cajpilili, Missopeno (Sopono), Inajalayehua, Huixapa, Calahuassa, Snihuax, Huililoc, Yxaulo, Anijue, Sisuch, Cojats, Numguelgar, Lugups, Gleuaxcuyu, Chiuchin, Ipec, Sinicon, Xalanaj, Xalou, Sisahiahut, Cholosoc, Ituc, Guima, Huixapapa, Eleunaxciay, Taxlipu, Elmian, Anajue, Huililic, Inajalaihu, Estuc, Eluaxcu. Sihuicom, Liam. Some of these were from rancherias of the valleys east of the range on the coast. Some of these Taylor locates as follows: 'Janaya, above the Mission, Salpilil on the Patera; Aljiman, near the windmill of La Patera; Geliec, near islet of La Patera; Tequepes, in Santa Ynez Valley; Cascili, in the Refugio playa; Miguihui, on the Dos Pueblos; Sisichii, in Dos Pueblos; Maschal, on Santa Cruz Island; Gelo, the islet of La Patera; Cuyamu on Dos Pueblos also Cinihuaj on same rancho; Coloc, at the Rincon; Alcax in La Goleta; Allvatalama, near the La Goleta Estero; Sayokenek, on the Arroyo Burro; Partocac Cemetery, near Sea Bluffs of La Goleta; Humaliju, of San Fernando Mission; Calla Wassa and Anijue, of Santa Ynez Mission; Sajcay in Los Cruces; Sasaguel, in Santa Cruz Island; Lucuyumu, in the same Island, dated November, 1816; Nanahuani and Chalosas were also on same Island; Eljman was on San Marcos, Xexulpituc and Taxlipu, were camps of the Tulares.' Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 1863.

Near San Buenaventura Mission were: 'Miscanaka, name of the Mission site. Ojai or Aujay, about ten miles up San Buenavent river. Mugu, on the coast near sea on Guadalasca rancho, not far from the point so called. Matillija up the S. B. river towards Santa Inez, which mission also had Matilija Indians. The Matillija Sierra separates the valleys of S. Buenaventa and S. Inez. Sespe was on the San Cayetano rancho of Saticoy river, twenty miles from the sea. Mupu and Piiru were on the arroyos of those names which came into the Saticoy near Sespe. Kamulas was higher up above Piiru. Cayeguas (not a Spanish name as spelt on some maps) on rancho of that name. Somes or Somo near hills of that name. Malico, range of hills south of Somo. Chichilop, Lisichi, Liam, Sisa, Sisjulcioy, Malahue, Chumpache, Lacayamu, Ypuc, Lojos Aogni, Luupsch, Miguigui, and Chihucchihui were names of other rancherias.... Ishgua or Ishguaget, was a rancheria near the mouth of the Saticoy river and not far from the beach.... Hueneme was a rancheria on the ocean coast a few miles south of Saticoy river. Tapo and Simi were rancherias on the present Noriega rancho of Simi. Saticoy is the name of the existing rancheria ... on the lower part of the Santa Paula or Saticoy rancho, about eight miles from the sea, near some fine springs of water, not far from the river, and near the high road going up the valleys.' Cal. Farmer, July 24, 1863. 'The site of San Fernando was a rancheria called Pasheckno. Other clans were Okowvinjha, Kowanga and Saway Yanga. The Ahapchingas were a clan or rancheria between Los Angeles and San Juan Capistrano, and enemies of the Gabrielenos or those of San Gabriel.... The following are the names of the rancherias, or clans, living in the vicinity of San Luis Rey Mission: Enekelkawa was the name of one near the mission-site, Mokaskel, Cenyowpreskel, Itukemuk, Hatawa, Hamechuwa, Itaywiy, Milkwanen, Ehutewa, Mootaeyuhew, and Hepowwoo, were the names of others. At the Aquas Calientes was a very populous rancheria, called Hakoopin.' Id., May 11, 1860.

In Los Angeles county, the following are the principal lodges or rancherias, with their corresponding present local names: Yangna, Los Angeles; Sibag-na, San Gabriel; Isanthcagna, Mision Vieja; Sisitcanogna, Pear Orchard; Sonagna, Mr White's farm; Acuragua, The Presa; Asucsagna, Azuza; Cucomogna, Cucamonga Farm; Pasinogna, Rancho del Chino; Awigna, La Puente; Chokishgna, The Saboneria; Nacaugna, Carpenter's Farm; Pineugna, Santa Catalina Island; Pimocagna, Rancho de los Ybarras; Toybipet, San José; Hutucgna, Santa Ana (Yorbes); Aleupkigna, Santa Anita; Maugna, Rancho de los Felis; Hahamogna, Rancho de los Verdugas; Cabuegna, Caliuenga; Pasecgna, San Fernando; Houtgna, Ranchito de Lugo, Suangna, Suanga; Pubugna, Alamitos; Tibahagna, Serritos; Chowig-na, Palos Verdes; Kinkipar, San Clemente Island, Harasgna. Reid, in Los Angeles Star, Letter I., in Hayes Collection.

The San Luisieños inhabit the northern part of San Diego, from the coast east, including the mountains. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 240. 'The villages of the San Luiseños are in a section of country adjacent to the Cahuillas, between 40 and 70 miles in the mountainous interior from San Diego; they are known as Las Flores, Santa Margarita, San Luis Rey Mission, Wahoma, Pala, Temecula, Ahuanga (two villages), La Joya, Potrero, and Bruno's and Pedro's villages within five or six miles of Aqua Caliente; they are all in San Diego County.' Hayes' MS.

The Noches are settled along the rivers which flow between the Colorado and the Pacific Ocean. Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 45. Garces mentions the western Noches in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., vol. i., p. 299.

The Tejon Indians were those who inhabited the southern part of Tulare valley. Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 83.

The Playanos were Indians who came to settle in the valley of San Juan Capistrano. Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 249.

The SHOSHONES, whose territory spreads over south-eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the whole of Utah and Nevada, extending into Arizona and New Mexico, and the eastern border of California, I divide into two great nations, the Snakes or Shoshones, proper, and the Utahs, with their subdivisions. Wilson divides the Shoshones into the Shoshones and Bannacks, and the Utahs; the latter he subdivides into seven bands, which will be seen under Utahs. He adds: 'Among the Shoshonies there are only two bands properly speaking. The principal or better portion are called Shoshonies, or Snakes ... the others the Shoshocoes.... Their claim of boundary is to the east, from the red Buttes on the North fork of the Platte, to its head in the Park, Decayaque, or Buffalo Bull-pen, in the Rocky Mountains; to the south across the mountains, over to the Yanpapa, till it enters Green, or Colorado river, and then across to the backbone or ridge of mountains called the Bear river mountains running nearly due west towards the Salt Lake, so as to take in most of the Salt Lake, and thence on to the sinks of Marry's or Humboldt's river; thence north to the fisheries, on the Snake river, in Oregon; and thence south (their northern boundary), to the Red Buttes, including the source of Green River.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. 'Under various names ... the great race of Shoshones, is found scattered over the boundless wilderness, from Texas to the Columbia. Their territory is bounded on the north and west by ... the Blackfeet and Crows.' Brownell's Ind. Races, pp. 537-8.

[Sidenote: THE SNAKES.]

The Snakes, or Shoshones proper, although they form a part only of the great Shoshone family, are usually termed 'the Shoshones' by the authorities. They are divided by Dr Hurt into 'Snakes, Bannacks, Tosiwitches, Gosha Utes, and Cumumpahs, though he afterwards classes the last two divisions as hybrid races between the Shoshones and the Utahs.... The Shoshones claim the northeastern portion of the territory for about four hundred miles west, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five miles south from the Oregon line.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 46. 'The great Snake nation may be divided into three divisions, namely, the Shirrydikas, or dog-eaters; the Wararereekas, or fish-eaters; and the Banattees, or robbers. But, as a nation, they all go by the general appellation of Shoshones, or Snakes.... The Shirrydikas are the real Shoshones, and live in the plains hunting the buffalo.' The country claimed by the Snake tribes 'is bounded on the east by the Rocky Mountains, on the south by the Spanish waters; on the Pacific, or west side, by an imaginary line, beginning at the west end, or spur, of the Blue Mountains, behind Fort Nez Percés, and running parallel with the ocean to the height of land beyond the Umpqua River, in about north lat. 41° (this line never approaches within 150 miles of the Pacific); and on the north by another line, running due east from the said spur of the Blue Mountains, and crossing the great south branch, or Lewis River, at the Dalles, till it strikes the Rocky Mountains 200 miles north of the three pilot knobs, or the place thereafter named the 'Valley of Troubles.'' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 249, 251. 'They embrace all the territory of the Great South Pass, between the Mississippi valley and the waters of the Columbia.... Under the name of Yampatickara or Root-eaters and Bonacks they occupy with the Utahs the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake, extending south and west to the borders of New Mexico and California.' Brownell's Ind. Races, pp. 533-7, 540. 'The hunters report, that the proper country of the Snakes is to the east of the Youta Lake, and north of the Snake or Lewis river; but they are found in many detached places. The largest band is located near Fort Boise, on the Snake river to the north of the Bonacks.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 501. The Shoshones 'occupy the centre and principal part of the great Basin.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. 'Inhabit that part of the Rocky Mountains which lies on the Grand and Green River branches of the Colorado of the West, the valley of Great Bear River, the habitable shores of the Great Salt Lake, a considerable portion of country on Snake River above and below Fort Hall, and a tract extending two or three hundred miles to the west of that post.' Farnham's Trav., p. 61. The Shoshones inhabit about one third of the territory of Utah, living north of Salt Lake 'and on the line of the Humboldt or Mary River, some 400 miles west and 100 to 125 south of the Oregon line. The Yuta claim the rest of the territory between Kansas, the Sierra Nevada, New Mexico and the Oregon frontier.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 575. 'Les Soshonies, c'est-à-dire les déterreurs de racines, surnommés les Serpents, ... habitent la partie méridionale du territoire de l'Orégon, dans le voisinage de la haute Californie.' De Smet, Voy., p. 24. 'Their country lies south-west of the south-east branch of the Columbia, and is said to be the most barren of any part of the country in these western regions.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 83. 'On the south part of the Oregon Territory, adjoining upper California, are located the Shoshones or Snake Indians.' Ib., p. 308. 'Serpents ou Saaptins, Monquis, Bonacks et Youtas toutes les branches du Rio Colombia ou Sud-Est et les environs du lac Salé an Timpanogos.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 335. 'The country of the Shoshonees proper is south of Lewis or Snake River, and east of the Salt Lake. There is, however one detached band, known as the Wihinasht, or Western Snakes, near Fort Boirie, separated from the main body by the tribe of Bonnaks.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219. 'The Shoshones are a small tribe of the nation called Snake Indians, a vague denomination, which embraces at once the inhabitants of the southern part of the Rocky mountains, and of the plains on each side.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 305. The Snakes or Shothoucs 'formerly occupied the whole of that vast territory lying between the Rocky and the Blue Mountains, and extending northward to the lower fork of the Columbia, and to the south as far as the basin of the Great Salt Lake.' Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 275. 'They occupy southern and western Nevada.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 18. 'They inhabit the southern part of the Rocky Mountains and the plains on each side.' Bulfinch's Ogn., p. 124. 'They occupy all the country between the southern branches of Lewis's river, extending from the Umatullum to the E. side of the Stony Mountains, on the southern parts of Wallaumut river from about 40° to 47° N. Lat. A branch of this tribe reside ... in spring and summer on the W. fork of Lewis river, a branch of the Columbia, and in winter and fall on the Missouri.' Morse's Rept., p. 369. 'The Shoshones dwell between the Rocky and blue mountain ranges.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 151. 'The aboriginees of the Reese River country consist of the Shoshone nation, divided into many subordinate tribes, each having a distinctive name, and occupying a tract of country varying from 20 to 50 miles square. Their country is bordered on the west by the Pi-Utes, the Edwards Creek mountains some 20 miles west of Reese River, being the dividing line. On the east it extends to Ruby Valley, where it joins on the territory of the Goshoots, the Bannocks being their neighbors on the northeast.' Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863. 'The Snake tribe, inhabit the country bordering on Lewis and Bear Rivers, and their various tributaries.' Palmer's Jour., p. 43. 'The Snake Indians, who embrace many tribes, inhabit a wide extent of country at the head of Snake River above and below Fort Hall, and the vicinity of Great Bear River and Great Salt Lake. They are a migratory race, and generally occupy the south-eastern portion of Oregon.' Dunn's Ogn., p. 325. The Shoshones inhabit the great plains to the southward of the Lewis River. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 143. The Shoshones occupy 'almost the whole eastern half of the State (Nevada). The line separating them from the Pai-Utes on the east and south is not very clearly defined.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 114. 'The western bands of Shoshones ... range from the Idaho boundary north, southward to the thirty-eighth parallel; their western limit is the line passing through the Sunatoya Mountains; their eastern limit Steptoe and Great Salt Lake Valleys.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 95. The Snakes inhabit 'the plains of the Columbia between the 43d and 44th degrees of latitude.' Franchère's Nar., p. 150. The Washakeeks or Green River Snakes inhabit the country drained by Green River and its tributaries. The Tookarikkahs, or mountain sheep-eaters, 'occupy the Salmon river country and the upper part of Snake River Valley, and Coiners' Prairie, near the Boise mines.' These two bands are the genuine Snakes; other inferior bands are the Hokandikahs or Salt Lake Diggers who 'inhabit the region about the great lake.' The Aggitikkahs or Salmon-eaters who 'occupy the region round about Salmon falls, on Snake river.' Stuart's Montana, p. 80.

[Sidenote: BANNACKS AND UTAHS.]

'The Bannacks, who are generally classed with the Snakes, inhabit the country south of here, (Powder River) in the vicinity of Harney lake.... The Winnas band of Snakes inhabit the country north of Snake river, and are found principally on the Bayette, Boise, and Sickley rivers.' Kirkpatrick, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, pp. 267-8. The Bonacks 'inhabit the country between Fort Boise and Fort Hall.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502. They 'inhabit the southern borders of Oregon, along the old Humboldt River emigrant road.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 47. The Bonaks seem 'to embrace Indian tribes inhabiting a large extent of country west of the Rocky Mountains. As the name imports, it was undoubtedly given to that portion of Indians who dig and live on the roots of the earth.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 221. The Bonaks inhabit 'the banks of that part of Saptin or Snake River which lies between the mouth of Boisais or Reeds River and the Blue Mountains.' Farnham's Trav., p. 76. The Bonax inhabit the country west of the Lewis fork of the Columbia between the forty-second and forty-fourth parallels. Parker's Map. The Bannacks range through northern Nevada, and into Oregon and Idaho. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 18. They 'claim the southwestern portions of Montana as their land.' Sully, in Id., p. 289. 'This tribe occupies most of that portion of Nevada north of the forty-first degree of north latitude, with the southeastern corner of Oregon and the southwestern corner of Idaho.' Parker, in Id., 1866, p. 114. The Bannocks drift 'from Boise City to the game country northeast of Bozeman, Montana, and south as far as Fort Bridger, Wyoming Territory ... traveling from Oregon to East of the Rocky Mountains.' High, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, pp. 272-3.

[Sidenote: UTAHS.]

The Utah nation occupies all that portion of the territory assigned to the Shoshone family lying south of the Snakes, between the country of the Californians proper, and the Rocky Mountains. It is divided into several tribes, the number varying with different authorities. Wilson divides the Utah nation into seven tribes; viz., the 'Taos, Yampapas, Ewinte, Tenpenny Utahs, Parant Utahs, Sampiches, Pahmetes.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. 'Besides the Parawat Yutas, the Yampas, 200-300 miles south, on the White River; the Tebechya, or sun-hunters, about Tête de Biche, near Spanish lands; and the Tash Yuta, near the Navajos; there are scatters of the nation along the Californian road from Beaver Valley, along the Santa Clara, Virgen, Las Vegas, and Muddy Rivers, to New Mexico.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578. 'The tribes of Utah Territory are: Utahs at large, Pi Utahs, roving, Uwinty Utahs, Utahs of Sampitch Valley, Utahs of Carson Valley, Utahs of Lake Sevier and Walker River, Navahoes and Utahs of Grand River, Shoshonees, or Snakes proper, Diggers on Humboldt River, Eutahs of New Mexico.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 498. The Utahs are composed of several bands, the most important of which are the Timpanogs who 'range through Utah valley and the mountains adjoining the valley on the east.... The Uintahs, the principal band of the Utahs, ... range through Uintah valley and the Green River country.... The Pah Vants ... range through Pah Vant and Sevier valleys and west to the White mountains.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 145. 'The Yutah nation is very numerous, and is also made up of many bands, which are to be distinguished only by their names.... Four of these bands called Noaches, Payuches, Tabiachis and Sogup, are accustomed to occupy lands within the province of New Mexico, or very near it, to the north and northeast.' Whipple, Ewbank, & Turner's Rept., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'The Utahs are divided into three bands--Mohuaches, Capotes, and Nomenuches or Poruches.' Delgado, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 163; see also pp. 17, 18. 'The Ute tribe Dr. Hurt divides into the Pah Utahs, Tamp Pah-Utes, Cheveriches, Pah Vants, San Pitches, and Pyedes. The Utahs proper inhabit the waters of Green River, south of Green River Mountains, the Grand River and its tributaries and as far south as the Navajo country. They also claim the country bordering on Utah Lake and as far south as the Sevier Lake.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 44. 'The Utahs are a separate and distinct tribe of Indians, divided into six bands, each with a head chief, as follows: The Menaches ... the Capotes ... the Tabe-naches ... the Cibariches ... the Tempanahgoes ... the Piuchas.' Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 178. 'The Yutahs are subdivided into four great bands: the Noaches, the Payuches (whom we believe to be identical with the Paï Utahs), the Tabiachis, and the Sogups, who live in perfect harmony on the north eastern confines of New Mexico, and at a distance of 500 miles to the south of the great tribe of the Zuguaganas.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 8. The Utes are 'those ... which inhabit the vicinity of the lakes and streams and live chiefly on fish, being distinguished by the name of Pah Utahs or Pah Utes, the word Pah, in their language signifying water.' Stansbury's Rept., p. 148. 'The country of the Utaws is situated to the east and southeast of the Soshonees, at the sources of the Rio Colorado.' De Smet's Letters, p. 39. 'The Youtas live between the Snake and Green Rivers.' Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 430. 'The Utahs of New Mexico are a portion of the tribe of the same name inhabiting the Territory of Utah.... They inhabit and claim all that region of country, embracing the sources of the north-western tributaries of the Arkansas river, above Bent's fort, up to the southern boundary of Utah Territory, and all the northern tributaries of the Rio Grande, which lie within New Mexico and north of the 37th parallel of latitude.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 169. The Utes 'occupy and claim that section of country ranging from Abiquin, northward to Navajo River and westward somewhat of this line.' Davis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 255. The Eutaws 'reside on both sides of the Eutaw or Anahuac mountains, they are continually migrating from one side to the other.' Farnham's Trav., p. 48. 'The Youtas inhabit the country between the Snake and Green rivers.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502. 'The Utahs' claim of boundaries are all south of that of the Shoshonies, embracing the waters of the Colorado, going most probably to the Gulf of California.' Wilson, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 698. The country of the Utaws 'is situated to the east and southeast of the Shoshones, about the Salt Lake, and on the head waters of the Colorado river, which empties into the gulf of California.... Their country being in latitude about 41°.' 'The Utaws are decent in appearance and their country, which is towards Santa Fe, is said to be tolerably good.' Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 79, 309. The Yutas, Utaws, or Youtas, 'range between lat. 35° and 42° North and the Meridians 29° and 37° W. Long. of Washington. The great Yutas tribe is divided into two families which are contradistinguished by the names of their respective head-quarters; the Tao Yutas, so called because their principal camp is pitched in Tao mountains, seventy miles north of Santa Fé; and the Timpanigos Yutas, who hold their great camp near the Timpanigos lake.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 371. 'Um den Fluss Dolóres haben die Yutas, Tabeguáchis, Payúches und Tularénos ihre Wohnsitze.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 538. The Utahs live 'on the border of New Mexico.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 196. 'Le pays des Utaws est situé à l'est et au sud-est de celui des Soshonies, aux sources du Rio-Colorado.' De Smet, Voy., p. 30. 'The Yutas or Eutaws are one of the most extensive nations of the West, being scattered from the north of New Mexico to the borders of Snake river and Rio Colorado.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 300.

The Pah Utes occupy the greater part of Nevada, and extend southward into Arizona and south-eastern California. There is reason to believe that the Pi Utes are a distinct tribe from the Pah Utes, but as the same localities are frequently assigned to both tribes by different writers, and as many have evidently thought them one and the same, thereby causing great confusion, I have thought it best to merely give the names as spelled by the authorities without attempting to decide which tribe is being spoken of in either case. The Pah-Utes 'range principally in the southwestern portion of Utah and the southeastern portion of Nevada.' Head, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 124. The Pah Utes 'are spread over the vast tract of territory, between the Sierra Nevada and the Colorado River, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the northward through California and Nevada into Southern Oregon and Idaho.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 92. The Pah-Utes inhabit the western part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 59. The Pah Utes and Pah Edes range over all that part of Utah south of the city of Filmore in Millard County. Head, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 150. 'The term Pah Utes is applied to a very large number of Indians who roam through that vast section of country lying between the Sierra Nevada and the Colorado, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the northward through California, Nevada, into Southern Oregon and Idaho. The Indians of this tribe in Arizona are located in the Big Bend of the Colorado, on both sides of the river, and range as far east as Diamond River, west to the Sierra Nevada, and northward into the State of Nevada.' Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 216. The Pah Utes 'properly belong in Nevada and Arizona, but range over in southwestern Utah.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 146. The Pah-Utes 'range principally from the borders of Oregon, on the north, to the southeast boundary of Nevada, and from the Sierra Nevada eastward to the Humboldt River and Sink of Carson; there are one or two small bands of them still further east, near Austin, Nevada. They are much scattered within these limits.' Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, pp. 94-5. 'The Pah-utes roam along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, from the mouth of the Virgin with the Colorado (in about lat. 36° long. 115°) to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake country of Fremont's explorations.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'The Pa-utahs, and Lake Utahs occupy the territory lying south of the Snakes, and upon the waters of the Colorado of the west and south of the Great Salt Lake.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 179. The Pá Yuta (Pey Utes) 'extend from forty miles west of Stony Point to the Californian line, and N.W. to the Oregon line, and inhabit the valley of the Fenelon River, which rising from Lake Bigler empties itself into Pyramid Lake.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 576. 'The Womenunche (also known as the Pa Uches) occupy the country on the San Juan river.' Collins, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, p. 238. 'The custom of designating the different bands of Pah Utes is derived from the name of some article of food not common in other localities; "Ocki," signifies "trout," "toy," "tule," &c. The Ocki Pah Utes ... are located on Walker River and Lake, and the mountains adjacent thereto. The Cozaby Pah Utes ... range from Mono Lake east to Smoky Valley.' Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, pp. 112-13. The Pah Utes extend, 'over portions of Utah and Arizona Territories, also the States of Nevada and California. Fenton, in Id., p. 113.

The Chemehuevis are a band of Pah-Utahs. Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 76. The Chimehuevais live about forty miles below the Colorado River agency, on the California side of the river, and are scattered over an area of fifty square miles. Tonner, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 323. The Chemehuewas are 'located mainly on the west bank of the Colorado, above La Paz, and ranges along the river from about thirty miles south of Fort Mohave, to a point fifty miles north of Fort Yuma, to the eastward, but a short distance.' Sherman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 216. The Chemehuevis live on the Colorado river, above the Bill Williams fork, a small tribe and quite unknown. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 387. The Chemehuevis are 'a band of Pahutahs, ... belonging to the great Shoshonee family.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 35. 'The Chimchinves are undoubtedly a branch of the Pah Ute tribe.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 102.

[Sidenote: PI UTES AND GOSH UTES.]

The Pi Utes, or Pyutes, 'inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mexico; their locations being generally in the vicinity of the principal rivers and lakes of the Great Basin, viz., Humboldt, Carson, Walker, Truckee, Owens's, Pyramid, and Mono.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 48. 'The tribe of Indians who inhabit this section (near Fort Churchill) of which the post forms the centre comes under the one generic name of Piute, and acknowledge as their great chief Winnemucca. They are split up into small Captaincies and scattered throughout a vast extent of territory.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 154. The Piutes or Paiuches inhabit 'the northern banks of the Colorado, the region of Severe river, and those portions of the Timpanigos desert where man can find a snail to eat.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 371. The Piutes live 'along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, from the mouth of the Virgen with the Colorado (in about Lat. 36° Long. 115°) to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'Von 34° nordwärts die Pai Utes.' Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 430. The territory occupied by the Piutes 'is about one hundred miles broad, and is bounded on the north by the country of the Bannocks, on the east by that of the Shoshones, on the south by the State line between Nevada and California and on the west by the territory of the Washoes.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 115. The Piutes inhabit 'a country two hundred miles long by one hundred and twenty broad, lying parallel and east of that of the Washoes.... South of Walker lake are the Mono Pi Utes.... They are closely allied to the Walker River or Ocki Pi Utes ... located in the vicinity of Walker river and lake and Carson river and Upper lake.... At the lower Carson lake are the Toy Pi Utes.' Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 119. 'Upon the Colorado river, in the northern part of the Territory lives a band, or some bands, of Pi Utes, occupying both sides of the river, roaming to the limit of Arizona on the west, but on the east, for some miles, how far cannot be determined.' Whittier, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 140. The Pi Ute 'range extends north to the Beaver, south to Fort Mojave, east to the Little Colorado and San Francisco Mountains, and on the west through the southern part of Nevada as far as the California line ... the larger portion living in Nevada.' Fenton, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 203. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-west portion of Utah. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142. 'The Pi Ute Indians are scattered over a large extent of country in Southeastern Nevada and Southwestern Utah.' Powell, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 562. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-eastern part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 59.

The Gosh Utes inhabit the country west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the Pah Utes. They are said by most writers to be of mixed breed, between the Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs: 'The Goshautes live about forty miles west' of Salt Lake City. Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 212. The Goships, or Gosha Utes, range west of Salt Lake. Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17. The Goships 'range between the Great Salt Lake and the land of the western Shoshones.' Head, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 123. The Goship Shoshones 'live in the western part of Utah, between Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the Territory,' (Utah). Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230. The Goshutes are located 'in the country in the vicinity of Egan Cañon.... In the Shoshone range.' Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96. 'The Goship Shoshones inhabit that part of Utah which lies between Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the Territory (Utah).' Tourtellotte, in Id., p. 141. The Goshoots 'Dr. Hurt classes among the Shoshones; but according to Mr. G. W. Bean, Capt. Simpson's Guide in the fall of 1858 ... they are the offspring of a disaffected portion of the Ute tribe, that left their nation, about two generations ago, under their leader or Chief Goship, whence their name Goship Utes since contracted into Goshutes.... Reside principally in the grassy valleys west of Great Salt Lake, along and in the vicinity of Capt. Simpson's routes, as far as the Ungoweah Range.' Simpson's Route to Cal., pp. 47-8. The Gosh Yutas, 'a body of sixty under a peaceful leader were settled permanently on the Indian Farm at Deep Creek, and the remainder wandered 40 to 200 miles west of Gt. S. L. City.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577.

The Toquimas live about the head of Reese River Valley, and in the country to the east of that point. Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863.

The Temoksees live about thirty miles south of Jacobsville. Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863.

The Pah Vants 'occupy the Corn Creek, Paravan, and Beaver Valleys, and the valley of Sevier.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 45. Half the Pavants 'are settled on the Indian farm at Corn Creek; the other wing of the tribe lives along Sevier Lake, and the surrounding country in the north-east extremity of Filmore Valley, fifty miles from the City, where they join the Gosh Yuta.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577. Although Mr Burton gives this as the fruit of his own observation, it is evidently taken from Forney's Rept., in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 364, which reads as follows: 'About half of them (the Pahvants) have their home on the Corn Creek Indian farm. The other wing of the tribe lives along Sevier lake and surrounding country, in the northeast extremity of Fillmore valley, and about fifty miles from Fillmore city.' The Pah Vants range 'through Pah-Vant and Sevier valleys, and west to the White Mountains.' Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17. 'The Pahvents occupy the territory in the vicinity of Corn Creek reservation, and south of the Goship Shoshones.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230. 'The Pah Vant Indians inhabit the country south of the Goship Shoshones.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142.

The Pi Edes 'are a band ranging through Beaver and Little Salt Lake Valley, and on the Virgin and Santa Clara rivers, down to the Muddy, embracing the whole southern portion of Utah Territory.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 145. 'The Py Edes live adjoining the Pahvants, down to the Santa Clara.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 45. 'The Pi Ede Indians inhabit the country south of the Pah Vants.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142. 'The Piede Indians inhabit the extreme southern portion of the territory (Utah) on the Santa Clara and Muddy rivers.' Armstrong, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 234. The Piede Indians live on Rio Virgin and Santa Clara river. Carvalho's Incid. of Trav., p. 223.

[Sidenote: WASHOES AND SAMPITCHES.]

The Washoes 'inhabit the country along the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, from Honey lake on the north to the west fork of Walker's river the south.' Dodge, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 374. Simpson's Route to Cal., on p. 45, and Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578, repeat this. The Washoes 'are stated to have boundaries as high up as the Oregon line, along the eastern flanks of the Sierra Nevada, as far to the east as two hundred miles and to the south to Walker's river.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Washoes live in the extreme western part of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 115. 'Commencing at the western boundary of the State, we have first the Washoe tribe, ... occupying a tract of country one hundred miles long, north and south, by twenty-five in width.' Campbell, in Id., p. 119. The Washoes 'live along Lake Bigler and the headwaters of Carson, Walker, and Truckee rivers, and in Long and Sierra Valleys.' Wasson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 114. The Washoes 'are scattered over a large extent of country along the western border of the State' of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 18. The Washoes 'frequent the settled portions of the State, principally the towns of Virginia City, Carson City, Reno, Washoe City, and Genoa. In summer they betake themselves to the mountains in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe and Hope Valley.' Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96.

The Sampitches 'range through the Sanpitch valley and creek on the Sevier river.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 145. 'The Sampiches are a tribe wandering on the desert to the south of Youta Lake.' Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 430. Burton mentions 'Sampichyas' settled at San Pete. City of the Saints, p. 578. The San Pitches 'live in the San Pitch valley and along the Sevier river.' Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 18. 'The San Pitches occupy a territory south and east of the Timpanagos.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869. p. 230. 'The San Pitch Indians inhabit the country about the San Pete reservation.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142. 'Les Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont les plus proches voisins des Serpents.' De Smet, Voy., p. 28.

The Uinta Utes 'claim Uinta valley and the country along Green river.' Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 364. The Uinta Yutas live 'in the mountains south of Fort Bridger, and in the country along Green River.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577.

The Yam Pah Utes 'inhabit the country south of the Uinta Valley reservation.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Id., 1869, p. 231.

The Elk Mountain Utes live in the south-eastern portion of Utah. Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578. repeats.

The Tosawees or White Knives, or as they are sometimes called Shoshoteos or Foot-men, on the Humboldt and Goose Creek. Stuart's Montana, p. 80. 'The Tosawitches, or White Knives, inhabit the region along the Humboldt River.' Simpson's Shortest Route, p. 47. The Indians about Stony Point are called Tosawwitches (white knives). Hurt, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856.

The Weber Utes 'live in the valley of Salt Lake.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230, also in Id., 1870, p. 141. The Weber Utes live in the vicinity of Salt Lake City. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 56. The Weber River Yutas are principally seen in Great Salt Lake City. Their chief settlement is forty miles to the north. Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578.

The Cum Umbahs 'are mixed-bloods of the Utes and Shoshonees, and range in the region of Salt lake, Weber and Ogden valleys in northern Utah.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 144.

The Wimmenuches are 'a tribe of the Ute Indians, whose country is principally from Tierra Amarilla northward to Ellos de los Animas and thence also to the Rio Grande. They mix with the Pi Utes in Utah.' Davis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 255. The Wemenuche Utes 'roam and hunt west of the San Juan River, and their lodges are to be found along the banks of the Rio de las Animas, Rio de la Plata and Rio Mancos.' Hanson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 155. The Weminuche Utes live near the San Juan river. Armstrong, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 307.

The Capote Utes 'roam from within five to fifty miles of the agency, but the greater part of the time live in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla, from five to ten miles distant, north and south along the Rio Charmer.' Hanson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 154; Armstrong, in Id., 1870, p. 307.

'The Sheberetches inhabit the country south of the Yam Pah Utes.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142.

The Fish Utes 'inhabit the country about Red Lake, south of the Sheberetches.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142.

The Tash Utes live near the Navajos. Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578.

The Tabechya, or Sun-hunters, 'live about Tête de Biche, near Spanish lands.' 'Timpenaguchya, or Timpana Yuta, corrupted into Tenpenny Utes, ... dwell about the kanyon of that name, and on the east of the Sweetwater Lake.' Burton's City of the Saints, pp. 577-8. 'The Timpanoge Indians formerly resided at and about Spanish Fort reservation, but they are now scattered among other bands and do not now exist as a separate tribe.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; see also Id., 1869, p. 230. The Timpanogs inhabit 'Utah valley, and the neighboring mountains.' Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17.

FOOTNOTES:

[423] 'Sometimes there is a tribal name for all who speak the same language; sometimes none, and only names for separate villages; sometimes a name for a whole tribe or family, to which is prefixed a separate word for each dialect, which is generally co-extensive with some valley. Of the first, an instance is found in the Cahrocs, on the Klamath, who are a compact tribe, with no dialects; of the second, in the large tribe on the lower Klamath, who have also no dialects, and yet have no name, except for each village; of the third, in the great family of the Pomos on Russian river, who have many dialects, and a name for each,--as Ballo Ki Pomos, Cahto Pomos, etc.... Some remnants of tribes have three or four names, all in use within a radius of that number of miles; some, again, are merged, or dovetailed, into others; and some never had a name taken from their own language, but have adopted that given them by a neighbor tribe, altogether different in speech.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328.Return to passage

[424] The natives 'when asked to what tribe they belong, give the name of their chief, which is misunderstood by the inquirer to be that of the tribe itself.' Bartlett's Nar., vol. ii., p. 30.Return to passage

[425] 'Every fifteen or twenty miles of country seems to have been occupied by a number of small lodges or septs, speaking a different language or very divergent dialect.' Taylor, in Bancroft's Hand-book Almanac, 1864, p. 29. Beechey counted eleven different dialects in the mission of San Carlos. Voyage, vol. ii., p. 73. 'Almost every 15 or 20 leagues, you find a distinct dialect; so different, that in no way does one resemble the other.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 240. 'From the San Joaquin northward to the Klamath there are some hundreds of small tribes.' Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 304.Return to passage

[426] Hale calls them the Lutuami, or Tlamatl, and adds, 'the first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. The second is that by which they are known to the Chinooks, and through them, to the whites.' Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218.Return to passage

[427] 'There true name is Moüdoc--a word which originated with the Shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, 1873, vol. x., p. 535. 'Also called Moahtockna.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these Indians by white men in early days, by hearing the Shastas speak of them.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 121.Return to passage

[428] Speaking of Indians at the junction of the Salmon and Klamath rivers: 'They do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "Kahruk," up, and "Youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of the Trinity) do "Peh-tsik," and "Poh-lik."' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 151.Return to passage

[429] 'The Bay (Humboldt) Indians call themselves, as we were informed, Wish-osk; and those of the hills Te-ok-a-wilk; but the tribes to the northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel river, We-yot, or Walla-walloo.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.Return to passage

[430] They are also called Lototen or Tututamy, Totutime, Toutouni, Tootooton, Tutoten, Tototin, Tototutna, etc.Return to passage

[431] For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.Return to passage

[432] Mr. Gibbs, speaking of the tribes seen on the Klamath and Trinity rivers, says: 'In person these people are far superior to any we had met below; the men being larger, more muscular, and with countenances denoting greater force and energy of character, as well as intelligence. Indeed, they approach rather to the races of the plains, than to the wretched "diggers" of the greater part of California.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 140. 'The Indians in the northern portion of California and in Oregon, are vastly superior in stature and intellect to those found in the southern part of California.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, 1856. The Indians on the Trinity 'are of another tribe and nature from those along the Sacramento.' Kelly's Excursion, vol. ii., p. 166. Speaking of the Wallies, they, 'in many respects differ from their brethren in the middle and lower counties of the State. They are lighter colored and more intelligent.' Johnson, in Overland Monthly, 1869, vol. ii., p. 536.Return to passage

[433] 'The males are tall, averaging in height about five feet eight inches, are well proportioned, athletic, and possess the power of endurance to a great degree.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. 'The people here (Rogue River) were larger and stronger than those in South California, but not handsomer.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. Speaking of Indians on the Klamath River, 'their stature is a trifle under the American; they have well-sized bodies, erect and strong-knit.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328. On the upper Trinity they are 'large and powerful men, of a swarthier complexion, fierce and intractable.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 129. Near Mount Shasta, 'a fine-looking race, being much better proportioned than those more to the northward, and their features more regular.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 254. At Klamath Lake, 'well-grown and muscular.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. On the Trinity, 'majestic in person, chivalrous in bearing.' Kelly's Excursion, vol. ii., p. 166.Return to passage

[434] In the vicinity of Klamath lake 'the squaws are short in comparison with the men, and, for Indians have tolerably regular features.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. In the Rogue River region 'some of them are quite pretty, usually well-formed, handsomely developed, small features, and very delicate and well-turned hands and feet.... They are graceful in their movements and gestures, ... always timid and modest.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. On the Klamath River, 'with their smooth, hazel skins, oval faces, plump and brilliant eyes, some of the young maidens,--barring the tattooed chins,--have a piquant and splendid beauty.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. On the Klamath and Trinity Rivers, many of the women 'were exceedingly pretty; having large almond-shaped eyes, sometimes of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks. Their figures were full, their chests ample; and the younger ones had well-shaped busts, and rounded limbs.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 140. But as to the beauty of women tastes never agree; Mr Kelly in his Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 167, speaking of a band of 'noble-looking Indians' which he met near Trinity River, says that they were 'accompanied by a few squaws, who, strange to say, in this latitude are ugly, ill-favoured, stunted in stature, lumpy in figure, and awkward in gait,' and concerning the Rogue River Indians a lady states that 'among the women ... there were some extremely clumsy figures.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. The Pit-River Indian girls 'have the smallest and prettiest feet and hands I have ever seen.' Miller's Life amongst the Modocs, p. 374.Return to passage

[435] At Crescent City, Mr Powers saw some 'broad-faced squaws of an almost African blackness;' the Patawats in the vicinity of Mad River and Humboldt Bay are 'blackskinned, pudgy in stature; well cushioned with adipose tissue;' at Redwood Creek 'like most of the coast tribes they are very dark colored, squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the interior Indians.' Pomo, MS. At Trinidad Bay 'their persons were in general indifferently, but stoutly made, of a lower stature than any tribe of Indians we had before seen.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 246. At the mouth of Eel River the Weeyots 'are generally repulsive in countenance as well as filthy in person.... Their heads are disproportionately large; their figures, though short, strong and well developed.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. Carl Meyer names the Indians he saw at Trinidad Bay, Allequas, or Wood-Indians (Holzindianer). I do not find the name anywhere else, and judging by his description, they appear to differ considerably from the natives seen in the same vicinity by Vancouver or Mr Powers; he, Meyer, says; 'Sie sind von unserm Wuchse, starke und beleibte, kräftige Gestalten. Ihre Haut ist wenig zimmet oder lohfarbig, eher weisslich, wie die der antisischen Inkas gewesen sein soll; bei der Jugend und besonders beim weiblichen Geschlechte schimmert oft ein sanftes Roth auf den Wangen hervor. Ihr Kopf ist wenig gedrückt, die Stirn hoch, der Gesichtswinkel gegen 80 Grad, die Nase römisch gekrümmt, das Auge gross in wenig quadratisch erweiterten Augenhöhlen und intelligent, die Lippen nicht aufgetrieben, das Kinn oval, und Hände und Füsse klein.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215.Return to passage

[436] At Pitt River they 'have no dress except a buckskin thrown around them.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. Near Mount Shasta 'they can scarcely be said to wear any dress, except a mantle of deer or wolf skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with a highly ornamented girdle.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 255. Near Pitt River, the Indians were nearly naked. Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 61. At Trinidad Bay 'their clothing was chiefly made of the skins of land animals, with a few indifferent small skins of the sea-otter.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. 'The men, however, do not wear any covering, except the cold is intense, when indeed they put upon their shoulders the skins of sea-wolves, otters, deer, or other animals.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 16. 'They were clothed, for the most part, in skins.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 118. On Smith River they were 'in a complete state of nature, excepting only a kind of apology for an apron, worn by the women, sometimes made of elk's skin, and sometimes of grass.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 313. Among the Weeyots at Eel River the men 'wore a deer-skin robe over the shoulder, and the women a short petticoat of fringe.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. On Klamath River their only dress was the fringed petticoat, or at most, a deerskin robe thrown back over the shoulders, in addition. Id., p. 141. 'The primitive dress of the men is simply a buckskin girdle about the loins; of the women, a chemise of the same material, or of braided grass, reaching from the breast to the knees.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. 'Were quite naked excepting the maro.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253. The Klamath Lake Indians 'wear little more than the breech-cloth.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. 'They were all well dressed in blankets and buckskin.' Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 70. Carl Meyer, speaking of a tribe he names Allequas, at Trinidad Bay, says: 'der Mann geht im Sommer ganz nackt, im Winter trägt er eine selbst gegerbte Hirsch- oder Rehdecke über die Schultern.' 'Die Allequas-Weiber tragen im Sommer von Bast-Schnüren oder von Rehfellstreifen, im Winter von Pelzwerk oder Gänseflaum verfertigte Schürzen, die bis auf die Knie reichen.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 217, 219. 'The Klamaths, during the summer go naked, in winter they use the skins of rabbits and wild fowl for a covering.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283.Return to passage

[437] 'An Indian will trap and slaughter seventy-five rabbits for one of these robes, making it double, with fur inside and out.' Powers' Pomo, MS.Return to passage

[438] Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 107, 127; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., 282.Return to passage

[439] Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 282; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204.Return to passage

[440] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142.Return to passage

[441] Maurelle's Jour., p. 17; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 127, 142; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329; Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. 'Die Allequas (Trinidad Bay) haben starkes, ziemlich geschmeidiges Haar, das der Männer und der Kinder wird bis auf einen Zoll Länge regelmässig abgebrannt, so dass sie das Aussehen von Titusköpfen erhalten. Zuweilen sieht man die Männer auch mit einem ziemlich langen, durch eine harzige Flüssigkeit gesteiften, aufgerichteten Zopf, der als Schmuck betrachtet, bei festlichen Anlässen, oder im Kriege mit rothen oder weissen Federn geziert wird, und alsdann dem Schopf eines Wiedehopfs gleicht.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215. 'Both men and women part their hair in the middle, the men cut it square on the neck and wear it rather long, the women wear theirs long, plaited in two braids, hanging down the back.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[442] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. 'Barthaare haben sie, wie alle Indianer Nord-Amerikas, nur wenig; sie werden ausgerupft, und nur in der Trauer stehen gelassen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, pp. 215-16.Return to passage

[443] The men tattoo so that they may 'be recognized if stolen by Modocs.' 'With the women it is entirely for ornament.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. At Rogue River the women 'were tattooed on the hands and arms as well as the chin.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. At Trinidad Bay 'they ornamented their lower lip with three perpendicular columns of punctuation, one from each corner of the mouth and one in the middle, occupying three fifths of the chin.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. Maurelle says the same, and adds that a space is left between each line, 'which is much larger in the young than in the older women, whose faces are generally covered with punctures.' Jour., p. 17. At Mad River and Humboldt Bay, the same, 'and also lines of small dots on the backs of their hands.' Powers' Pomo, MS. At mouth of Eel River 'both sexes tattoo; the men on their arms and breasts; the women from inside the under lip down to and beneath the chin. The extent of this disfigurement indicates to a certain extent, the age and condition of the person.' 'In the married women the lines are extended up above the corners of the mouth.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 127, 142. 'I have never observed any particular figures or designs upon their persons; but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm. Tattooing has mostly been on the persons of females, and seems to be esteemed as an ornament, not apparently indicating rank or condition.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The squaws among the Cahrocs on the Klamath 'tattoo, in blue, three narrow fern-leaves, perpendicularly on the chin.' 'For this purpose they are said to employ soot, gathered from a stove, mingled with the juice of a certain plant.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. Among the Shastys the women 'are tattooed in lines from the mouth to the chin.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. Among the Allequas at Trinidad bay: 'Die Mädchen werden im fünften Jahre mit einem schwarzen Streifen von beiden Mundwinkeln bis unter das Kinn tättowirt, welchem Striche dann alle fünf Jahre ein parallellaufender beigefügt wird, so dass man an diesen Zeichnungen leicht das Alter jeder Indianerin übersehen kann.... Die Männer bemalen sich bei besondern Anlässen mit einem Tannenfirniss, den sie selbst bereiten, das Gesicht, und zeichnen allerlei geheimnissvolle Figuren und Verzierungen auf Wange, Nase und Stirn, indem sie mit einem hölzernen Stäbchen den noch weichen Firniss auf den einzelnen Stellen von der Haut wegheben.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 216.Return to passage

[444] 'I never saw two alike.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. At Klamath lake they are 'painted from their heads to their waists all colours and patterns.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. The Modocs 'paint themselves with various pigments formed from rotten wood, different kinds of earth, &c.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536. Kane 'took a sketch of a Chastay (Shasta) female slave (among the Chinooks) the lower part of whose face, from the corners of the mouth to the ears and downwards, was tattooed of a bluish colour. The men of this tribe do not tattoo, but paint their faces like other Indians.' Wand., p. 182. Ida Pfeiffer, Second Journ., p. 315, saw Indians on Smith river, who painted their faces 'in a most detestable manner. They first smeared them with fish fat and then they rubbed in the paint, sometimes passing a finger over it in certain lines, so as to produce a pattern.' Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 361.Return to passage

[445] 'No taste in bead work.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'In den Ohren tragen die Allequas (at Trinidad bay) Schmucksachen, welche sie theils von den Weissen erhalten, theils aus Holz nachahmen; auch sind diese Gegenstände zuweilen durch Steinchen ersetzt, die talismanische Kräfte besitzen sollen. Nur die in den fernen Bergen wohnenden tragen hölzerne oder auch eiserne Ringe in den Nasenwandungen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 216; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142; Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., plate xiv.Return to passage

[446] Maurelle's Jour., p. 18.Return to passage

[447] Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247.Return to passage

[448] 'The lodges are dome-shaped; like beaver-houses, an arched roof covers a deep pit sunk in the ground, the entrance to which is a round hole.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 278. 'Large round huts, perhaps 20 feet in diameter, with rounded tops, on which was the door by which they descended into the interior.' Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204. 'The Modoc excavates a circular space from two to four feet deep, then makes over it a conical structure of puncheons, which is strongly braced up with timbers, frequently hewn and a foot square.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536; Id., vol. ix., p. 156. 'The style was very substantial, the large poles requiring five or six men to lift.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 175. 'Have only an opening at the summit.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 261. On the inside of the door they frequently place a sliding panel. 'The Kailtas build wigwams in a conical shape--as all tribes on the Trinity do--but they excavate no cellars.' Powers' Pomo, MS. See full description of dwellings, by Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The entrance is a 'round hole just large enough to crawl into, which is on a level with the surface of the ground, or is cut through the roof.' Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536; Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 377.Return to passage

[449] 'Built of plank, rudely wrought.' The roofs are not 'horizontal like those at Nootka, but rise with a small degree of elevation to a ridge in the middle.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 241-2. Well built, of boards; often twenty feet square; roof pitched over a ridge-pole; ground usually excavated 3 or 4 feet; some cellars floored and walled with stone. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 140. 'The dwellings of the Hoopas were built of large planks, about 1½ inches thick, from two to four feet wide, and from six to twelve feet in length.' Trinity Journal, April, 1857. 'The floors of these huts are perfectly smooth and clean, with a square hole two feet deep in the centre, in which they make their fire.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 17. 'The huts have never but one apartment. The fire is kindled in the centre, the smoke escaping through the crevices in the roof.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. The houses of the Eurocs and Cahrocs 'are sometimes constructed on the level earth, but oftener they excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep, and twelve or fifteen feet in diameter.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 530; Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 220; The Shastas and their neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[450] Kit Carson says of lodges seen near Klamath lake: 'They were made of the broad leaves of the swamp flag, which were beautifully and intricately woven together.' Peters' Life of Carson, p. 263. 'The wild sage furnishes them shelter in the heat of summer, and, like the Cayote, they burrow in the earth for protection from the inclemencies of winter.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283. 'Their lodges are generally mere temporary structures, scarcely sheltering them from the pelting storm.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 262.Return to passage

[451] 'Slightly constructed, generally of poles.' Emmons, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. 'The earth in the centre scooped out, and thrown up in a low, circular embankment.' Turner, in Overland Monthly, p. xi., p. 21.Return to passage

[452] Powers' Pomo, MS.Return to passage

[453] 'The rocks supply edible shell-fish.' Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS. 'The deer and elk are mostly captured by driving them into traps and pits.' 'Small game is killed with arrows, and sometimes elk and deer are dispatched in the same way.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, April, 1856. 'The elk they usually take in snares.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. 'The mountain Indians subsisted largely on game, which of every variety was very abundant, and was killed with their bows and arrows, in the use of which they were very expert.' Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 497. 'Die Indianer am Pittflusse machen Graben oder Löcher von circa 5 Kubikfuss, bedecken diese mit Zweigen und Gras ganz leicht, sodass die Thiere, wenn sie darüber gejagt werden, hinein fallen und nicht wieder herauskönnen. Wilde Gänse fangen sie mit Netzen ... Nur selten mögen Indianer den grauen Bär jagen.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 181; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[454] Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., classifies their ancient arrow and spear points thus: Long barbs with projections, short barbs with projections, and long and short barbs without projections. 'The point of the spear is composed of a small bone needle, which sits in a socket, and pulls out as soon as the fish starts. A string connecting the spear handle and the center of the bone serves, when pulled, to turn the needle cross wise in the wound.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 8, 1861; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 146.Return to passage

[455] The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Hubbard, in Golden Era, April, 1856; Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 497. 'In spawning-time the fish school up from Clear Lake in extraordinary numbers, so that the Indians have only to put a slight obstruction in the river, when they can literally shovel them out.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS.Return to passage

[456] 'The camas is a bulbus root, shaped much like an onion.' Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 22.Return to passage

[457] 'A root about an inch long, and as large as one's little finger, of a bitter-sweetish and pungent taste, something like ginseng.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537.Return to passage

[458] 'An aquatic plant, with a floating leaf, very much like that of a pond-lily, in the centre of which is a pod resembling a poppy-head, full of farinaceous seeds.' Ib. See also Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 222. 'Their principal food is the kamas root, and the seed obtained from a plant growing in the marshes of the lake, resembling, before hulled, a broom-corn seed.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 263.Return to passage

[459] The Klamaths 'subsist upon roots and almost every living thing within their reach, not excepting reptiles, crickets, ants, etc.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283; Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 391; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.Return to reference 1 Return to reference 2

[460] Turner, in Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 24.Return to passage

[461] At Rogue River, 'the men go in the morning into the river, but, like the Malays, bring all the dirt out on their skins that they took in.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. At Pitt River they are 'disgusting in their habits.' Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 61; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'Of the many hundreds I have seen, there was not one who still observed the aboriginal mode of life, that had not a sweet breath. This is doubtless due to the fact that, before they became civilized, they ate their food cold.' Powers' Pomo, MS. 'They always rise at the first dawn of day, and plunge into the river.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. 'Their persons are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house and the cold-bath constantly.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142. 'Mit Tagesanbruch begibt sich der Allequa (Trinidad Bay) in jeder Jahreszeit zur nahen Quelle, wo er sich am ganzen Leibe wäscht und in den Strahlen der aufsteigenden Sonne trocknen lässt.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 221; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.Return to passage

[462] Carl Meyer, after describing the bow, adds: 'Fernere Waffen der Allequas sind; das Obsidian-Beil oder Tomahawk, die Keule, die Lanze und der Wurfspiess.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 218. This statement, I think, may be taken with some allowance, as nowhere else do I find mention of a tomahawk being used by the Californians.Return to passage

[463] Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., speaking of an ancient spear-point, says, 'the pointed teeth show it to have been a very dangerous weapon.' Roseborough's letter to the author, MS. On the Klamath River, 'among the skins used for quivers, I noticed the otter, wild-cat, fisher, fawn, grey fox and others.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 141. Near Mt Shasta, 'bows and arrows are very beautifully made: the former are of yew, and about three feet long ... backed very neatly with sinew, and painted.... The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 255. At Port Trinidad, 'arrows are carried in quivers of wood or bone, and hang from their wrist or neck.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 20. On Pigeon River 'their arrows were in general tipped with copper or iron.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 110. The Pit River 'arrows are made in three parts.' Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 61. The Allequas at Trinidad Bay, described by Carl Meyer, carried their arrows either 'schussfertig in der Hand oder in einem über die Schultern geworfenen Köcher aus Fuchs- oder Biberpelz. Der Bogen ist aus einer starken, elastischen Rothtannenwurzel verfertigt, etwa 3½ Fuss lang und auf der Rückseite mit einer Bärensehne überklebt.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 217. See Mofras, Explor., Atlas, plate xxv. Speaking of the quiver, Mr Powers says: 'in the animal's head they stuff a quantity of grass or moss, as a cushion for the arrow-heads to rest in, which prevents them from being broken.' Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532. 'Their arrows can only be extracted from the flesh with the knife.' Cutts' Conquest of Cal., p. 170. 'Am oberen Theile (California) ist der Bogen von einer Lage von Hirsch-Sehnen verstärkt und elastisch gemacht. Die Pfeile bestehen aus einem rohrartigen Gewächse von mässiger Länge, an der Spitze mit Obsidian ... versehen, ihre Länge ist 2 Zoll, ihre Breite 1 Zoll und die Dicke 1/3 Zoll, scharfkantig und spitz zulaufend.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 180.Return to passage

[464] Powers' Pomo, MS.; Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[465] Hist. Mag., vol. iii., p. 214.Return to passage

[466] Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. At Trinidad Bay 'zuweilen werden die Pfeile mit dem Safte des Sumachbaumes vergiftet, und alsdann nur zum Erlegen wilder Raubthiere gebraucht.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 218. 'Einige Stämme vergiften die Spitzen ihrer Pfeile auf folgende Weise: Sie reizen nämlich eine Klapperschlange mit einer vorgehaltenen Hirschleber, worin sie beisst, und nachdem nun die Leber mit dem Gifte vollständig imprägnirt ist, wird sie vergraben und muss verfaulen; hierin wird nun die Spitze eingetaucht und dann getrocknet.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 180. The Pitt River Indians 'use the poison of the rattle-snake, by grinding the head of that reptile into an impalpable powder, which is then applied by means of the putrid blood and flesh of the dog to the point of the weapon.' Gross' System of Surgery, vol. i., p. 321. 'The Pitt River Indians poisoned their arrows in a putrid deer's liver. This is a slow poison, however, and sometimes will not poison at all.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS.Return to passage

[467] Among other things seen by Meyer were, 'noch grössere Bogen, die ihnen als bedeutende Ferngeschosse dienen. Ein solcher ist 6 Fuss lang, und der Indianer legt sich auf die Erde, um denselben zu spannen, indem er das rechte Knie in den Bogen einstemmt und mit beiden Armen nachhilft.' The bow and arrow, knife, and war-club, constitute their weapons. In one of their lodges I noticed an elk-skin shield, so constructed as to be impervious to the sharpest arrows. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 262. Miller mentions a Modoc who was 'painted red, half-naked, and held a tomahawk in his hand.' Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 20.Return to passage

[468] Salem Statesman, April, 1857.Return to passage

[469] Hence, if we may credit Miller, Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 373, the name Pitt River.Return to passage

[470] The Hoopas exacted tribute from all the surrounding tribes. At the time the whites arrived the Chimalaquays were paying them tribute in deer-skins at the rate of twenty-five cents per head. Powers' Pomo, MS. The Hoopahs have a law requiring those situated on the Trinity, above them to pay tribute. Humboldt Times, Nov. 1857; S. F. Evening Bulletin, Nov. 23, 1857.Return to passage

[471] The Sassics, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Klamaths and Rogue River Indians, take no scalps, but decapitate the slain, or cut off their hands and feet. Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317.Return to passage

[472] The Veeards on Lower Humboldt Bay 'took elk-horns and rubbed them on stones for days together, to sharpen them into axes and wedges.' Powers' Pomo, MS. On the Klamath river they had 'spoons neatly made of bone and horn.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 146.Return to passage

[473] 'For basket making, they use the roots of pine-trees, the stem of the spice-bush, and ornament with a kind of grass which looks like a palm leaf, and will bleach white. They also stain it purple with elder berries, and green with soapstone.' ... 'The Pitt River Indians excel all others in basket-making, but are not particularly good at bead work.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS., Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204; Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 134; Powers' Pomo, MS.Return to passage

[474] Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253; Emmons, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 218.Return to passage

[475] The boats formerly used by the Modocs were 'quite rude and unshapely concerns, compared with those of the lower Klamath, but substantial and sometimes large enough to carry 1800 pounds of merchandise.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532, vol. x., p. 536. 'Blunt at both ends, with a small projection in the stern for a seat.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142. 'Those on Rogue river were roughly built--some of them scow fashion, with flat bottom.' Emmons, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. The Pitt River Indians 'used boats made from pine; they burn them out ... about twenty feet long, some very good ones.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[476] Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433. 'A kind of bead made from a shell procured on the coast. These they string and wear about the neck.... Another kind is a shell about an inch long, which looks like a porcupine quill. They are more valuable than the other. They also use them as nose-ornaments.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The unit of currency is a string of the length of a man's arm, with a certain number of the longer shells below the elbow, and a certain number of the shorter ones above.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. 'A rare shell, spiral in shape, varying from one to two inches in length, and about the size of a crowquill, called by the natives, Siwash, is used as money.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856.Return to passage

[477] 'The ownership of a (white) deer-skin, constitutes a claim to chieftainship, readily acknowledged by all the dusky race on this coast.' Humboldt Times, Dec., 1860.Return to passage

[478] 'Property consists in women, ornaments made of rare feathers and shells, also furs and skins.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Their wealth 'consisted chiefly of white deerskins, canoes, the scalp of the red-headed woodpecker, and aliquachiek.' Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497.Return to passage

[479] 'Have no tribal organization, no such thing as public offence.' Roseborough's letter to the author, MS. A Pitt River chief tried the white man's code, but so unpopular was it, that he was obliged to abandon it. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. Among the Klamath and Trinity tribes the power of the chief 'is insufficient to control the relations of the several villages, or keep down the turbulence of individuals.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 139-140. The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopas, and Kailtas, have a nominal chief for each village, but his power is extremely limited and each individual does as he likes. Among the Tolewas in Del Norte County, money makes the chief. The Modocs and Patawats have an hereditary chieftainship. Powers' Pomo, MS. At Trinidad Bay they were 'governed by a ruler, who directs where they shall go both to hunt and fish.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 18. 'Der Häuptling ist sehr geachtet; er hat über Handel und Wandel, Leben und Tod seiner Unterthanen zu verfügen, und seine Macht vererbt sich auf seinen Erstgebornen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 223. The chief 'obtains his position from his wealth, and usually manages to transmit his effects and with them his honors, to his posterity.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Formerly 'the different rancherias had chiefs, or heads, known as Mow-wee-mas, their influence being principally derived from their age, number of relatives, and wealth.' Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint. Spec. Com., p. 497.Return to passage

[480] The Cahrocs compound for murder by payment of one string. Among the Patawats the average fine for murdering a man is ten strings, for killing a woman five strings, worth about $100 and $50 respectively. 'An average Patawut's life is considered worth about six ordinary canoes, each of which occupies two Indians probably three months in making, or, in all, tantamount to the labor of one man for a period of three years.' 'The Hoopas and Kailtas also paid for murder, or their life was taken by the relatives of the deceased.' Powers' Pomo, MS. 'They seem to do as they please, and to be only governed by private revenge. If one man kills another the tribe or family of the latter kill the murderer, unless he buy himself off.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[481] Drew's Owyhee Reconnaissance, p. 17.Return to passage

[482] The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopahs, and Patawats, all acquire their wives by purchase. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Powers' Pomo, MS. 'Wenn ein Allequa seine künftige Lebensgefährtin unter den Schönen seines Stammes erwählt hat und sich verheirathen will, muss er dem Mauhemi (chief) eine armslange Muschelschnur vorzeigen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 223. The mountain Indians seldom, if ever, intermarry with those on the coast. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. Buy wives with shell-money. Pfeiffer's Second Journ. Among the Modocs 'the women are offered for sale to the highest buyer.' Meacham's Lecture, in S. F. Alta California, Oct. 6, 1861; Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs.Return to passage

[483] Polygamy is common among the Modocs. Meacham's Lecture, in S. F. Alta California, Oct. 6, 1873. On Pitt River a chief sometimes has five wives. 'The most jealous people in the world.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS. 'Among the tribes in the north of the State adultery is punished by the death of the child.' Taylor, in California Farmer, March 8, 1861. 'The males have as many wives as they are able to purchase;' adultery committed by a woman is punished with death. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Among the Cahrocs polygamy is not tolerated; among the Modocs polygamy prevails, and the women have considerable privilege. The Hoopa adulterer loses one eye, the adulteress is exempt from punishment. Powers' Pomo, MS. The Weeyots at Eel river 'have as many wives as they please.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. At Trinidad Bay 'we found out that they had a plurality of wives.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 19.Return to passage

[484] All the young unmarried women are a common possession. Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 330. The women bewail their virginity for three nights before their marriage. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 173. If we believe Powers, they cannot usually have much to bewail.Return to passage

[485] Boys are disgraced by work. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. Women work, while men gamble or sleep. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 242; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.Return to passage

[486] Kane's Wand., p. 182.Return to passage

[487] For the god Chareya, see Bancroft's Nat. Races, vol. iii., pp. 90, 161.Return to passage

[488] Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 318. The Pitt River Indians 'sing as they gamble and play until they are so hoarse they cannot speak.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[489] Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433.Return to passage

[490] 'They used tobacco, which they smoaked in small wooden pipes, in form of a trumpet, and procured from little gardens, where they had planted it.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 21.Return to passage

[491] The Pitt River Indians 'give no medicines.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The prevailing diseases are venereal, scrofula and rheumatism.' Many die of consumption. Force, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 157. At the mouth of Eel river 'the principal diseases noticed, were sore eyes and blindness, consumption, and a species of leprosy.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 128. They suffer from a species of lung fever. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 289. 'A disease was observed among them (the Shastas) which had the appearance of the leprosy.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 255.Return to passage

[492] 'The only medicine I know of is a root used for poultices, and another root or plant for an emetic.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The root of a parasite fern, found growing on the tops of the fir trees (collque nashul), is the principal remedy. The plant in small doses is expectorant and diurtetic; hence it is used to relieve difficulties of the lungs and kidneys; and, in large doses, it becomes sedative and is an emmenagogue; hence, it relieves fevers, and is useful in uterine diseases, and produces abortions. The squaws use the root extensively for this last mentioned purpose.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856.Return to passage

[493] A Pitt River doctor told his patient that for his fee 'he must have his horse or he would not let him get well.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 428; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 175.Return to passage

[494] The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Rector, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, p. 261; Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p. 369; Miller, in Id., p. 361.Return to passage

[495] Temescal is an Aztec word defined by Molina, Vocabulario, 'Temazcalli, casilla como estufa, adonde se bañan y sudan.' The word was brought to this region and applied to the native sweat-houses by the Franciscan Fathers. Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 72, gives 'sweat-house' in the Chemehuevi language, as pahcaba.Return to passage

[496] Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317; Powers' Pomo, MS.; Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 432.Return to passage

[497] Meacham's Lecture on the Modocs, in S. F. Alta California, Oct. 6, 1873; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[498] On Pitt River they burn their dead and heap stones over the ashes for a monument. 'No funeral ceremonies.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. On the ocean frontier of south Oregon and north California 'the dead are buried with their faces looking to the west.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. The Patawats and Chillulas bury their dead. The Tolewahs are not allowed to name the dead. Powers' Pomo, MS. 'It is one of the most strenuous Indian laws that whoever mentions the name of a deceased person is liable to a heavy fine, the money being paid to the relatives.' Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 431. 'The bodies had been doubled up, and placed in a sitting posture in holes. The earth, when replaced, formed conical mounds over the heads.' Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 69. 'They bury their dead under the noses of the living, and with them all their worldly goods. If a man of importance, his house is burned and he is buried on its site.' Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. 'The chick or ready money, is placed in the owner's grave, but the bow and quiver become the property of the nearest male relative. Chiefs only receive the honors of a fence, surmounted with feathers, round the grave.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 175. 'Upon the death of one of these Indians they raised a sort of funeral cry, and afterward burned the body within the house of their ruler.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 19.Return to passage

[499] Muck-a-muck, food. In the Chinook Jargon 'to eat; to bite; food. Muckamuck chuck, to drink water.' Dict. Chinook Jargon, or Indian Trade Language, p. 12.Return to passage

[500] In the vicinity of Nootka Sound and the Columbia River, the first United States traders with the natives were from Boston; the first English vessels appeared about the same time, which was during the reign of George III. Hence in the Chinook Jargon we find 'Boston, an American; Boston illahie, the United States;' and 'King George, English--King George man, an Englishman.'Return to passage

[501] 'They will often go three or four miles out of their way, to avoid passing a place which they think to be haunted.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.Return to passage

[502] The Pitt River Indians 'are very shrewd in the way of stealing, and will beat a coyote. They are full of cunning.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. They 'are very treacherous and bloody in their dispositions.' Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 61. 'The Indians of the North of California stand at the very lowest point of culture.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 316. 'Incapable of treachery, but ready to fight to the death in avenging an insult or injury. They are active and energetic in the extreme.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 166. At Klamath Lake they are noted for treachery. Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 205. 'The Tolowas resemble the Hoopas in character, being a bold and masterly race, formidable in battle, aggressive and haughty.' The Patawats are 'extremely timid and inoffensive.' The Chihulas, like most of the coast tribes 'are characterized by hideous and incredible superstitions.' The Modocs 'are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom, sullen when angered, and notorious for keeping punic faith. Their bravery nobody can dispute.' The Yukas are a 'tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and every way bad, but brave race.' Powers' Pomo, MS. On Trinity River 'they have acquired the vices of the whites without any of their virtues.' Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 391. Above the forks of the main Trinity they are 'fierce and intractable.' On the Klamath they 'have a reputation for treachery, as well as revengefulness; are thievish, and much disposed to sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged.' They 'blubber like a schoolboy at the application of a switch.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 139, 141, 176. The Rogue River Indians and Shastas 'are a warlike race, proud and haughty, but treacherous and very degraded in their moral nature.' Miller, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 361. At Rogue River they are 'brave, haughty, indolent, and superstitious.' Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p. 363; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.Return to passage

[503] These are not to be confounded with the Yukas in Round Valley, Tehama County.Return to passage

[504] Spelled Walhalla on some maps.Return to passage

[505] In the vicinity of Fort Ross, 'Die Indianer sind von mittlerem Wuchse, doch trifft man auch hohe Gestalten unter ihnen an; sie sind ziemlich wohl proportionirt, die Farbe der Haut ist bräunlich, doch ist diese Farbe mehr eine Wirkung der Sonne als angeboren; die Augen und Haare sind schwarz, die letzteren stehen straff.... Beide Geschlechter sind von kräftigem Körperbau.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 81. 'Quoique surpris dans un très-grand négligé, ces hommes me parurent beaux, de haute taille, robustes et parfaitement découplés ... traits réguliers ... yeux noirs ... nez aquilin surmonté d'un front élevé, les pommettes des joues arrondies, ... fortes lèvres ... dents blanches et bien rangées ... peau jaune cuivré, un cou annonçant la vigueur et soutenu par de larges épaules ... un air intelligent et fier à la fois.... Je trouvai toutes les femmes horriblement laides.' Laplace, Circumnav., tom. vi., 145-6. At the head of the Eel River 'the average height of these men was not over five feet four or five inches. They were lightly built, with no superfluous flesh, but with very deep chests and sinewy legs.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 119. 'The Clear Lake Indians are of a very degraded caste; their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls of the Chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly.' Id., p. 108. At Bodega Bay 'they are an ugly and brutish race, many with negro profiles.' Id., p. 103. 'They are physically an inferior race, and have flat, unmeaning features, long, coarse, straight black hair, big mouths, and very dark skins.' Revere's Tour, p. 120. 'Large and strong, their colour being the same as that of the whole territory.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. It is said of the natives of the Sacramento valley, that 'their growth is short and stunted; they have short thick necks, and clumsy heads; the forehead is low, the nose flat with broad nostrils, the eyes very narrow and showing no intelligence, the cheek-bones prominent, and the mouth large. The teeth are white, but they do not stand in even rows: and their heads are covered by short, thick, rough hair.... Their color is a dirty yellowish-brown.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 307. 'This race of Indians is probably inferior to all others on the continent. Many of them are diminutive in stature, but they do not lack muscular strength, and we saw some who were tall and well-formed.... Their complexion is a dark mahogany, or often nearly black, their faces round or square, with features approximating nearer to the African than the Indian. Wide, enormous mouth, noses nearly flat, and hair straight, black, and coarse.... Small, gleaming eyes.' Johnson's Cal. and Ogn., pp. 142-3. Of good stature, strong and muscular. Bryant's Cal., p. 266. 'Rather below the middle stature, but strong, well-knit fellows.... Good-looking, and well limbed.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 81, 111. 'They were in general fine stout men.' A great diversity of physiognomy was noticeable. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 105, 107. On the Sacramento 'were fine robust men, of low stature, and badly formed.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. 'The mouth is very large, and the nose broad and depressed.' 'Chiefly distinguished by their dark color ... broad faces, a low forehead.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. 'Their features are coarse, broad, and of a dark chocolate color.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 2, 1860. At Drake's Bay, just above San Francisco, the men are 'commonly so strong of body, that that which two or three of our men could hardly beare, one of them would take vpon his backe, and without grudging carrie it easily away, vp hill and downe hill an English mile together.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 131. 'Los Naturales de este sitio y Puerto son algo trigueños, por lo quemados del Sol, aunque los venidos de la otra banda del Puerto y del Estero ... son mas blancos y corpulentos.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 215. 'Ugly, stupid, and savage; otherwise they are well formed, tolerably tall, and of a dark brown complexion. The women are short, and very ugly; they have much of the negro in their countenance.... Very long, smooth, and coal-black hair.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., pp. 282-3. 'They all have a very savage look, and are of a very dark color.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 47. 'Ill made; their faces ugly, presenting a dull, heavy, and stupid countenance.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 13. The Tcholovoni tribe 'differe beaucoup de toutes les autres par les traits du visage par sa physionomie, par un extèrieur assez agréable.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 6., plate vi., vii., xii. 'The Alchones are of good height, and the Tuluraios were thought to be, generally, above the standard of Englishmen. Their complexion is much darker than that of the South-sea Islanders, and their features far inferior in beauty.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 76. At Santa Clara they are 'of a blackish colour, they have flat faces, thick lips, and black, coarse, straight hair.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 98. 'Their features are handsome, and well-proportioned; their countenances are cheerful and interesting.' Morrell's Voy., p. 212. At Placerville they are 'most repulsive-looking wretches.... They are nearly black, and are exceedingly ugly.' Borthwick's Three Years in Cal., p. 128. In the Yosemite Valley 'they are very dark colored,' and 'the women are perfectly hideous.' Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. The Monos on the east side of the Sierra are 'a fine looking race, straight, and of good height, and appear to be active.' Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 2-3. At Monterey 'ils sont en général bien faits, mais faibles d'esprit et de corps.' In the vicinity of San Miguel, they are 'généralement d'une couleur foncée, sales et mal faits ... à l'exception tout fois des Indiens qui habitent sur les bords de la rivière des tremblements de terre, et sur la côte voisine. Ceux-ci sont blancs, d'une joli figure, et leurs cheveux tirent sur le roux.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 332, 163; also quoted in Marmier, Notice sur les Indiens, p. 236. 'Sont généralement petits, faibles ... leur couleur est très-approchante de celle des nègres dont les cheveux ne sont point laineux: ceux de ces peuples sont longs et très-forts.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 281. 'La taille des hommes est plus haute (than that of the Chilians), et leurs muscles mieux prononcés.' The figure of the women 'est plus élevée (than that of the Chilian women), et la forme de leurs membres est plus régulière; elles sont en général d'une stature mieux développée et d'une physionomie moins repoussante.' Rollin, in La Pérouse, Voy., tom. iv., p. 52. At San José 'the men are almost all rather above the middling stature, and well built; very few indeed are what may be called undersized. Their complexions are dark but not negro like ... some seemed to possess great muscular strength; they have very coarse black hair.' Some of the women were more than five feet six inches in height. And speaking of the Californian Indians, in general, 'they are of a middling, or rather of a low stature, and of a dark brown colour, approaching to black ... large projecting lips, and broad, flat, negro-like noses; ... bear a strong resemblance to the negroes.... None of the men we saw were above five feet high ... ill-proportioned ... we had never seen a less pleasing specimen of the human race.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 194-5, 164, see plate. And speaking generally of the Californian Indians: 'Die Männer sind im Allgemeinen gut gebaut und von starker Körperbildung,' height 'zwischen fünf Fuss vier Zoll und fünf Fuss zehn oder eilf Zoll.' Complexion 'die um ein klein wenig heller als bei den Mulatten, also weit dunkler ist, als bei den übrigen Indianerstämmen.' Osswald, Californien, p. 62. The coast Indians 'are about five feet and a half in height, and rather slender and feeble,' in the interior they 'are taller and more robust.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 364. 'Cubische Schädelform, niedrige Stirn, breites Gesicht, mit hervorragendem Jochbogen, breite Lippen und grosser Mund, mehr platte Nase und am Innenwinkel herabgezogene Augen.' Wimmel, Californien, pp. v, 177. 'Les Californiens sont presque noirs; la disposition de leur yeux et l'ensemble de leur visage leur donnent avec les européens une ressemblance assez marquée.' Rossi, Souvenirs, pp. 279-80. 'They are small in stature; thin, squalid, dirty, and degraded in appearance. In their habits little better than an ourang-outang, they are certainly the worst type of savage I have ever seen.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 249. 'More swarthy in complexion, and of less stature than those east of the Rocky Mountains ... more of the Asiatic cast of countenance than the eastern tribe.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 304. 'Dépasse rarement la hauteur de cinq pieds deux ou trois pouces; leur membres sont grêles et médiocrement musclés. Ils ont de grosses lévres qui se projettent en avant, le nez large et aplati comme les Ethiopiens; leurs cheveux sont noirs, rude et droits.' Auger, Voy. en Cal., p. 165. 'Generally of small stature, robust appearance, and not well formed.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91. 'Schön gewachsen und von schwärtzlich-brauner Farbe.' Mühlenpfordt Mejico, tom. ii., part ii., p. 455. 'Low foreheads and skins as black as Guinea negroes.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 85. 'En naissant les enfants sont presque blancs ... mais ils noircissent en grandissant.' 'Depuis le nord du Rio Sacramento jusqu'au cap San Lucas ... leurs caractères physique, leurs moeurs et leurs usages sont les mêmes.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 263, 367. 'Skin of such a deep reddish-brown that it seems almost black.' Figuier's Human Race, p. 493; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 528; Forbes' Cal., pp. 180-3; Harper's Monthly, vol. xiii., p. 583. 'A fine set of men, who, though belonging to different nationalities, had very much the same outward appearance; so that when you have seen one you seem to have seen them all.' Pim and Seemann's Dottings, p. 15.Return to passage

[506] On the Sacramento River 'the men universally had some show of a beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 105. 'They had beards and whiskers an inch or two long, very soft and fine.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. On Russian River 'they have quite heavy moustaches and beards on the chin, but not much on the cheeks, and they almost all suffer it to grow.' The Clear Lake Indians 'have also considerable beards, and hair on the person.' At the head of South Fork of Eel River, 'they pluck their beards.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 108-119. At Monterey 'plusieurs ont de la barbe; d'autres, suivant les pères missionaires, n'en ont jamais eu, et c'est un question qui n'est pas même décidée dans le pays.' La Pérouse, Voy., vol. ii., p. 282. 'Les Californiens ont la barbe plus fournie que les Chiliens, et les parties génitales mieux garnies: cependant j'ai remarqué, parmi les hommes, un grand nombre d'individus totalement dépourvus de barbe; les femmes ont aussi peu de poil au pénil et aux aisselles.' Rollin, in La Pérouse, Voy., vol. iv., p. 53. 'They have the habit common to all American Indians of extracting the beard and the hair of other parts of their body.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 364. Beards 'short, thin, and stiff.' Bartlett's Nar., vol. ii., p. 34. 'In general very scanty, although occasionally a full flowing beard is observed.' Forbes' Cal., pp. 181-2. 'Beards thin; many shave them close with mussel-shells.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 164. 'Ihr Bart ist schwach.' Wimmel, Californien, vol. v. At San Antonio, 'in the olden times, before becoming christians, they pulled out their beards.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. Choris in his Voy. Pitt., plates vi., vii., xii., of part iii., draws the Indians with a very slight and scattered beard. 'Pluck out their beard.' Auger, Voy. in Cal., p. 165. 'Wear whiskers.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91. 'Les Indiens qui habitent dans la direction du cap de Nouvel-An (del Año Nuevo) ... ont des moustaches.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 335. Mühlenpfordt mentions that at the death of a relation, 'die Männer raufen Haupthaar und Bart sich aus.' Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 456.Return to passage

[507] At Fort Ross 'Die Männer gehen ganz nackt, die Frauen hingegen bedecken nur den mittleren Theil des Körpers von vorne und von hinten mit den Fellen wilder Ziegen; das Haar binden die Männer auf dem Schopfe, die Frauen am Nacken in Büschel zusammen; bisweilen lassen sie es frei herunter wallen; die Männer heften die Büschel mit ziemlich künstlich, aus einer rothen Palme geschnitzten Hölzchen fest.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 82. At Clear Lake 'the women generally wear a small round, bowl-shaped basket on their heads; and this is frequently interwoven with the red feathers of the woodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the blue quail.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. See also p. 68, plate xiv., for plate of ornaments. At Kelsey River, dress 'consists of a deer-skin robe thrown over the shoulders.' Id., p. 122. In the Sacramento Valley 'they were perfectly naked.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 111. 'Both sexes have the ears pierced with large holes, through which they pass a piece of wood as thick as a man's finger, decorated with paintings or glass beads.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 307. 'The men go entirely naked; but the women, with intuitive modesty, wear a small, narrow, grass apron, which extends from the waist to the knees, leaving their bodies and limbs partially exposed.' Delano's Life on the Plains, pp. 305, 307. 'They wear fillets around their heads of leaves.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. 'The dress of the women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of strings of 'Californian flax,' or sometimes of rushes.' Men naked. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. At Bodega they 'most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. 'The women wore skins of animals about their shoulders and waists;' hair 'clubbed behind.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 436. Around San Francisco Bay: 'in summer many go entirely naked. The women, however, wear a deer-skin, or some other covering about their loins; but skin dresses are not common.' To their ears the women 'attach long wooden cylinders, variously carved, which serve the double purpose of ear-rings and needle-cases.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'All go naked.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'The men either go naked or wear a simple breech-cloth. The women wear a cloth or strips of leather around their loins.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 33. Three hundred years ago we are told that the men in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay 'for the most part goe naked; the women take a kinde of bulrushes, and kembing it after the manner of hemp, make themselues thereof a loose garment, which being knitte about their middles, hanges downe about their hippes, and so affordes to them a couering of that which nature teaches should be hidden; about their shoulders they weare also the skin of a deere, with the haire vpon it.' The king had upon his shoulders 'a coate of the skins of conies, reaching to his wast; his guard also had each coats of the same shape, but of other skin.... After these in their order, did follow the naked sort of common people, whose haire being long, was gathered into a bunch behind, in which stucke plumes of feathers; but in the forepart onely single feathers like hornes, every one pleasing himselfe in his owne device.' Drake's World Encomp., pp. 121, 126. 'Asi como Adamitas se presentan sin el menor rubor ni vergüenza (esto es, los hombres) y para librarse del frio que todo el año hace en esta Mision (San Francisco), principalmente las mañanas, se embarran con lodo, diciendo que les preserva de él, y en quanto empieza á calentar el Sol se lavan: las mugeres andan algo honestas, hasta las muchachas chiquitas: usan para la honestidad de un delantar que hacen de hilos de tule, ó juncia, que no pasa de la rodilla, y otro atrás amarrados á la cintura que ambos forman como unas enaguas, con que se presentan con alguna honestidad, y en las espaldas se ponen otros semejantes para librarse en alguna manera del frio.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 217. At Monterey, and on the coast between Monterey and Santa Barbara the dress 'du plus riche consiste en un manteau da peau de loutre qui couvre ses reins et descend au dessous des sines.... L'habillement des femmes est un manteau de peau de cerf mal tannée.... Les jeunes filles au-dessous de neuf ans n'ont qu'une simple ceinture et les enfans de l'autre sexe sont tout nus.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., pp. 304-5. 'Ils se percent aussi les oreilles, et y portent des ornemens d'un genre et d'un gout trés-variés.' Rollin, in La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 53. 'Those between Monterey and the extreme northern boundary of the Mexican domain, shave their heads close.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 239. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco 'presque tous ... vont entierement nus; ceux qui ont quelques vêtements, n'ont autre chose qu'une casaque faite de courroies de peau de lapins, de lièvres ou de loutres tressés ensemble, et qui ont conservé le poil. Les femmes ont une espèce de tablier de roseaux tressés qui s'attache autour de la taille par un cordon, et pend jusqu'aux genoux; une peau de cerf mal tannée et mal préparée, jetée sur leurs épaules en guise de manteau, compléte leur toilette.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 155; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 227. 'Sont tres peu couverts, et en été, la plupart vont tout nus. Les femmes font usage de peaux de daim pour se couvrir.... Ces femmes portent encore comme vêtement des espèces de couvertures sans envers, faites en plumes tissues ensemble ... il a l'avantage d'être très-chaud.... Elles portent généralement, au lieu de boucles d'oreilles, des morceaux d'os ou de bois en forme de cylindre et sculptés de différentes manières. Ces ornements sont creux et servent également d'étuis pour renfermer leurs aiguilles.' Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., p. 135. Speaking generally of the Californian Indians, 'both sexes go nearly naked, excepting a sort of wrapper round the waist, only in the coldest part of the winter they throw over their bodies a covering of deer-skin, or the skin of the sea-otter. They also make themselves garments of the feathers of many different kinds of water fowl, particularly ducks and geese, bound together fast in a sort of ropes, which ropes are then united quite close so as to make something like a feather skin.' It is very warm. 'In the same manner they cut the sea-otter skins into small strips, which they twist together, and then join them as they do the feathers, so that both sides have the fur alike.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 163-4. See also Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 364, and Forbes' Cal., p. 183. 'Im Winter selbst tragen sie wenig Bekleidung, vielleicht nur eine Hirschhaut, welche sie über die Schulter werfen; Männer, Frauen und Kinder gehen selbst im Winter im Schnee barfuss.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 177; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 249; Patrick, Gilbert, Heald, and Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, pp. 240-4; Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 4, and plate xii.; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 455; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Shea's Catholic Missions, p. 98; Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; Augur, Voy. en Cal., p. 100. After having collated the above notes I was rather taken aback by meeting the following: 'The general costume of nearly all the Californian Indians gives them rather an interesting appearance; when fully dressed, their hair, which has been loose, is tied up, either with a coronet of silver, or the thongs of skin, ornamented with feathers of the brightest colours; bracelets made in a similar manner are wore; breeches and leggings of doe-skin, sewed, not unfrequently with human hair; a kind of kilt of varied coloured cloth or silk (!), fastened by a scarf, round their waist; ... The women wear a cloth petticoat, dyed either blue or red, doe-skin shirt, and leggings, with feathered bracelets round their waist.' Coulter's Adventures, vol. i., pp. 172-3. Surely Mr Coulter should know an Indian dress from one composed of Mexican cloth and trinkets.Return to passage

[508] At Bodega the women 'were as much tatooed or punctured as any of the females of the Sandwich islands.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 436. In the Sacramento Valley 'most of the men had some slight marks of tattooing on the breast, disposed like a necklace.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 105. Dana, in a note to Hale, says: 'The faces of the men were colored with black and red paint, fancifully laid on in triangles and zigzag lines. The women were tattooed below the mouth.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. 'Most of them had some slight marks of tattooing on their breast; somewhat similar to that of the Chinooks.... The face was usually painted, the upper part of the cheek in the form of a triangle, with a blue-black substance, mixed with some shiny particles that looked like pulverized mica.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 198, 259. 'Their faces daubed with a thick dark glossy substance like tar, in a line from the outside corners of the eyes to the ends of the mouth, and back from them to the hinge of the jawbone ... some also had their entire foreheads coated over.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 111. 'The women are a little tattooed on the chin.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 307. At Monterey and vicinity, 'se peignent le corps en rouge, et en noir lorsqu'ils sont en deuil.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 305. 'Se peignent la peau pour se parer.' Rollin, in La Pérouse, Voy., tom. iv., p. 53. 'This one thing was obserued to bee generall amongst them all, that euery one had his face painted, some with white, some blacke, and some with other colours.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 126. 'Tattooing is practised in these tribes by both sexes, both to ornament the person and to distinguish one clan from another. It is remarkable that the women mark their chins precisely in the same way as the Esquimaux.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'Les indigènes indepéndents de la Haute-Californie sont tatoués ... ces signes servent d'ornement et de distinction, non seulement d'une tribu à une autre tribu, mais encore, d'une famille à une autre famille.' Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., pp. 134-5. 'Tattooing is also used, but principally among the women. Some have only a double or triple line from each corner of the mouth down to the chin; others have besides a cross stripe extending from one of these stripes to the other; and most have simple long and cross stripes from the chin over the neck down to the breast and upon the shoulders.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 167; see plate, p. 169. When dancing, 'ils se peignent sur le corps des lignes régulières, noires, rouges et blanches. Quelques-uns ont la moitié du corps, depuis la tête jusqu'en bas, barbouillée de noir, et l'autre de rouge; le tout croisé par des raies blanches, d'autres se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 4; see also plate xii. 'I have never observed any particular figured designs upon their persons, but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm.' Mostly on the persons of the females. Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 'Les femmes seules emploient le tatouage.' Auger, Voy. en Cal., p. 165.Return to passage

[509] 'Il est bien rare qu'un Indien passe la nuit dans sa maison. Vers le soir chacun prend son arc et ses flèches et va se réunir aux autres dans de grandes cavernes, parce-qu'ils craignent d'être attaqués a l'improviste par leurs ennemis et d'être surpris sans défense au milieu de leurs femmes et de leurs enfants.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 316-7.Return to passage

[510] Two authors describe their dwellings as being much smaller than I have stated them to be: 'leur maisons ont quatre pieds de diamètre.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 238. Their wigwams have 'une élévation au-dessus du sol de cinq à huit pieds et une circonférence de dix à douze.' Holinski, La Californie, p. 172. The authorities I have followed, and who agree in essential particulars, are: Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 103, 106; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198; Pfeiffer's Second Journ., pp. 307-8; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 106; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 242; Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 34, 282; Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 2; Drake's World Encomp., p. 121; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 30, with cut; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 13, 15; Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., vol. vi., pp. 367, 390; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 165; La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 295; Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 306; Gerstäcker's Journ., p. 218; Gilbert, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 242; Patrick, in Id., p. 240; Jewett, in Id., p. 244; Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 299; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 163; Wimmel, Californien, pp. 177, 179; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 365; Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 5; Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 72; Kostromitonow, in Id., p. 83; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., p. 456; Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91; Roquefeuil's Voy. Round the World, p. 29; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 316, 343.Return to passage

[511] Wilkes, and the majority of writers, assert that the acorns are sweet and palatable in their natural state; Kostromitonow, however, says: 'Nachdem die Eicheln vom Baume gepflückt sind, werden sie in der Sonne gedörrt, darauf gereinigt und in Körben mittelst besonders dazu behauener Steine gestossen, dann wird im Sande oder sonst wo in lockerer Erde eine Grube gegraben, die Eicheln werden hineingeschüttet und mit Wasser übergossen, welches beständig von der Erde eingezogen wird. Dieses Ausspülen wiederholt man so lange bis die Eicheln alle ihre eigenthümliche Bitterkeit verloren haben.' Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 84. The acorn bread 'looks and tastes like coarse black clay, strongly resembling the soundings in Hampton roads, and being about as savory and digestible.' Revere's Tour, p. 121. Never having eaten 'coarse black clay,' I cannot say how it tastes, but according to all other authorities, this bread, were it not for the extreme filthiness of those who prepare it, would be by no means disagreeable food.Return to passage

[512] Pinole is an Aztec word, and is applied to any kind of grain or seeds, parched and ground, before being made into dough. 'Pinolli, la harina de mayz y chia, antes que la deslian.' Molina, Vocabulario. The Aztecs made pinole chiefly of maize or Indian corn.Return to passage

[513] 'Nos trageron su regalo de tamales grandes de mas de á tercia con su correspondiente grueso, amasados de semillas silvestres muy prietas que parecen brea; los probé y no tienen mal gusto y son muy mantecosos.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vii., p. 68. Among the presents given to Drake by the Indians was 'a roote which they call Petáh, whereof they make a kind of meale, and either bake it into bread or eate it raw; broyled fishes, like a pilchard; the seede and downe aforenamed, with such like.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 126. Catch salmon in baskets. 'They neither sow nor reap, but burn their meadows from time to time to increase their fertility.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'Les rats, les insectes, les serpentes, tout sans exception leur sert de nourriture.... Ils sont trop maladroits et trop paresseux pour chasser.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 2. 'Entre ellas tienen una especie de semilla negra, y de su harina hacen unos tamales, á modo de bolas, de tamaño de una naranja, que son muy sabrosos, que parecen de almendra tostada muy mantecosa.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 216; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164; Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 116. 'Their fastidiousness does not prompt them to take the entrails out' of fishes and birds. Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. 'Live upon various plants in their several seasons, besides grapes, and even use the Artemesia.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 202, 259. 'Ils trouvent aussi autour d'eux une quantité d'aloès dont ils font un fréquent usage.... Ils utilisent éncore la racine d'une espèce de roseau.... Ils mangent aussi une fleur sucrée qui ressemble à celle de l'églantier d'Espagne, et qui croît dans les endroits marécageux.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., pp. 232-3, 237. Were cannibals and their sorcerers still eat human flesh. Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 362, 366-9. The Meewocs 'eat all creatures that swim in the waters, all that fly through the air, and all that creep, crawl, or walk upon the earth, with, perhaps a dozen exceptions.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 324. 'Ils se nourrissent également d'une espèce de gâteaux fabriqués avec du gland, et qu'ils roulent dans le sable avant de le livrer à la cuisson; de là vient qu'ils sont, jeunes encore, les dents usées jusqu'à la racine, et ce n'est pas, comme le dit Malte-Brun, parce qu'ils ont l'habitude de les limer.' Auger, Voy. en Cal., p. 163. 'While I was standing there a couple of pretty young girls came from the woods, with flat baskets full of flower-seed, emitting a peculiar fragrance, which they also prepared for eating. They put some live coals among the seed, and swinging it and throwing it together, to shake the coals and the seed well, and bring them in continual and close contact without burning the latter, they roasted it completely, and the mixture smelled so beautiful and refreshing that I tasted a good handful of it, and found it most excellent.' Gerstaecker's Journ., p. 211. See farther: Humboldt, Pol., tom. i., pp. 324-5; Holinski, La Californie, p. 174; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 106-7, 113; Wimmel, Californien, pp. 179, 181; Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 113; Taylor's El Dorado, vol. i., p. 241; King's Rept., in Taylor's El Dorado, vol. ii., p. 210; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 163; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 36; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., pp. 136-7; Fremont's Explor. Ex., pp. 242, 244; Johnson's Cal. and Ogn., p. 142; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222; Placerville Index, Aug., 1859; Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 303; Patrick, McDermott, Gilbert, Benitz, Jannson, Von Schmidt, McAdam, Bowlby, and Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, pp. 18, 41-4; La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 282; Helper's Land of Gold, pp. 269-70; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., pp. 441-2; Macfie's Vanc. Isl., pp. 450-1; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., pp. 91-2, 152, 316; Yate's Sketch of the Sacramento Valley in 1842, MS.; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; McDaniels' Early Days of Cal. MS.; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., pp. 339, 346; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 455-6; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.Return to passage

[514] When the Indian finds a tree stocked by the carpenter bird he 'kindles a fire at its base and keeps it up till the tree falls, when he helps himself to the acorns.' Helper's Land of Gold, p. 269.Return to passage

[515] Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 75.Return to passage

[516] 'When a sturgeon is caught, the spinal marrow, which is considered a delicacy, is drawn out whole, through a cut made in the back, and devoured raw.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 32-3.Return to passage

[517] Browne, in Harper's Mag., vol. xxiii., p. 315.Return to passage

[518] 'They cook the flesh of this animal in holes dug in the ground and curbed up with stone like wells. Over this they build large fires, heat them thoroughly, clean out the coals and ashes, fill them with whale flesh, cover the opening with sticks, leaves, grass and earth, and thus bake their repast.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 366-7. 'Ils font rôtir cette chair dans des trous creusés en terre.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 237.Return to passage

[519] Johnson's Cal. and Ogn., p. 132; Powers' Account of John A. Sutter, MS.; and Id., Letter to the author, MS.Return to passage

[520] 'Reinlichkeit kennen sie nicht, und in ihren Hütten sind die diversesten Parasiten vertreten.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 177. 'I have seen them eating the vermin which they picked from each other's heads, and from their blankets. Although they bathe frequently, they lay for hours in the dirt, basking in the sun, covered with dust.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. 'In their persons they are extremely dirty.' Eat lice like the Tartars. Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 76-7. 'Very filthy, and showed less sense of decency in every respect than any we had ever met with.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 106.Return to passage

[521] 'Ein Bogen mit Pfeilen und ein Spiess sind ihre Waffen; alles dieses wird meistens aus jungem Tannenholz verfertigt. Die Spitzen der Pfeile und Spiesse bestehen aus scharfen, künstlich behauenen Steinen, zur Bogensehne nehmen sie die Sehnen wilder Ziegen; ausserdem führen sie in Kriegszeiten eine Art von Schleuder, mit welcher sie Steine auf eine grosse Entfernung werfen.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 89. Bow 'from three to four and a half feet long.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 368. 'Their arms are clubs, spears of hard wood, and the bow and arrow.... Arrows are mostly made of reeds.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Feb. 22, 1860. 'Die einzige Waffe zur Erlegung des Wildes ist ihnen der Bogen und Pfeil.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 180. 'Their only arms were bows and arrows.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. Bows 'about thirty inches long ... arrows are a species of reed ... spears are pointed with bone.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 306. 'The quiver of dressed deer-skin, holds both bow and arrows.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 123. 'The point (of the arrow) itself is a piece of flint chipped down into a flat diamond shape, about the size of a diamond on a playing-card; the edges are very sharp, and are notched to receive the tendons with which it is firmly secured to the arrow.' Borthwick's Three Years in Cal., p. 131. 'Arrows are pointed with flint, as are also their spears, which are very short. They do not use the tomahawk or scalping knife.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91. 'Leurs armes sont l'arc et les flèches armées d'un silex très-artistement travaillé.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 305. 'Ces arcs sont encore garnis, au milieu, d'une petite lanière de cuir, qui a pour object d'empêcher la flèche de dévier de la position qu'on lui donne en la posant sur l'arc.... Ils prétendent que cette précaution rend leurs coups encore plus sûrs. Les flèches sont moins longues que l'arc, elles ont ordinairement de 80 à 85 centimètres de long, elles sont faites d'un bois très-léger et sont égales en grosseur à chaque extrémité ... l'autre extrémité de la flèche est garnie, sur quatre faces, de barbes en plumes qui ont 10 centimètres de longueur sur 0,015 millimètres de hauteur.' Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., p. 138. They 'maintain armories to make their bows, and arrows, and lances.' Arrows 'are tipped with barbed obsidian heads ... the shaft is ornamented with rings of the distinguishing paint of the owner's rancheria. Their knives and spear-points are made of obsidian and flint.' Arrows are of two kinds, 'one short and light for killing game, and the other a war-shaft measuring a cloth-yard in length.' Revere's Tour, pp. 121-2. 'Ces flèches offrent peu de danger à une certaine distance, à cause de la parabole qu'elles sont forcées de décrire, et qui donne à celui que les voit venir la temps de les éviter.' Auger, Voy. en Cal., p. 163. 'La corde, faite avec du chanvre sylvestre, est garnie d'un petit morceau de peau qui en étouffe le sifflement.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 378; see Atlas, plate 25. 'Ihre Waffen bestehen nur in Bogen und Pfeil.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., part ii., p. 455. 'They have no offensive arms at all, except bows and arrows, and these are small and powerless.... Arrows are about two feet long.' Gerstaecker's Journ., p. 212. 'Sometimes the bow is merely of wood and rudely made.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'Their weapons consist only of bows and arrows; neither the tomahawk nor the spear is ever seen in their hands.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'A portion of the string is covered with downy fur' to deaden the sound. Arrows are invariably pointed with flint. They have 'sometimes wooden barbs.' Javelins pointed with flint, or sometimes simply sharpened at the end. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 109. Arrows were about three feet long, and pointed with flint. Short spears also pointed with flint. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. 'Traian unas lanzas cortas con su lengüeta de pedernal tan bien labradas como si fuesen de hierro ó acero, con solo la diferencia de no estar lisas.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vii., p. 68. 'Los mas de ellos traian varas largas en las manos á modo de lanzas.' Id., p. 61; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 249; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS.Return to passage

[522] Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., p. 139.Return to passage

[523] Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 164; Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 228. It is impossible to locate with certainty the San Miguel of Fages. There are now several places of the name in California, of which the San Miguel in San Luis Obispo County comes nearest the region in which, to agree with his own narrative, Fages must have been at the time. The cimeter mentioned by him, must have strongly resembled the maquahuitl of the ancient Mexicans, and it was possibly much farther south that he saw it.Return to passage

[524] Powers' Pomo, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 169.Return to passage

[525] Butte Record, Aug., 1866.Return to passage

[526] 'Suelen entrar en ella entonando cánticos militares mezclados de extraños alaridos; y acostumbran formarse los campeones en dos lineas muy próximas para empezar disparándose flechazos. Como uno de sus principales ardides consiste en intimidar al enemigo, para conseguirlo procura cada partido que oiga el contrario los preparativos de la batalla.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 170. 'On coming in sight of the enemy they form in an extended line, something like light infantry, and shouting, like bacchanals dance from side to side to prevent the foe from taking deliberate aim.' Revere's Tour, p. 122.Return to passage

[527] In the vicinity of Fort Ross: 'In ihren Kriegen wird Unerschrockenheit geachtet; gefangene Feinde tödtet man nicht, sondern wechselt sie nach beendigtem Kampfe aus; nie verurtheilt man sie zu Sklaven.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 77. Near Feather River 'they carry off their dead to prevent their being scalped, which next after death they are most fearful of.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 83. In the Sacramento Valley 'the Californians differ from the other North American tribes in the absence of the tomahawk and of the practice of scalping.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. At Clear Lake, 'they do not scalp the slain.' Revere's Tour, p. 122. In the vicinity of San Francisco 'occasionally, they appear to have eaten pieces of the bodies of their more distinguished adversaries killed in battle.' Soulé's Annals of San Francisco, p. 52. At Monterey, 'lorsqu'ils avaient vaincu et mis à mort sur le champ de bataille des chefs ou des hommes très-courageux, ils en mangeaient quelques morceaux, moins en signe de haine et de vengeance, que comme un hommage qu'ils rendaient à leur valeur, et dans la persuasion qua cette nourriture était propre à augmenter leur courage.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 306. 'Muchos indios armados de arco y flechas y llamándolos vinieron luego y me regularon muchos de ellos flechas, que es entre ellos la mayor demostracion de paz.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie iv., tom. vii., p. 53. At Santa Cruz they eat slices of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy, thinking to gain some of his valour. They 'take the scalps of their enemies ... they pluck out the eyes of their enemies.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 370. 'Gefangene werden nicht lange gehalten, sondern gleich getödtet.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 178. In order to intimidate their enemies 'cometen con el propio fin en las primeras víctimas las crueldades mas horrorosas.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage p. 170.Return to passage

[528] Drake's World Encomp., p. 126.Return to passage

[529] 'Make baskets of the bark of trees.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 368. 'Make a very ingenious straw box for keeping their worm bait alive; burying it in the earth, yet not allowing the worms to escape.' Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. 'Die gewöhnlichste Form für den Korb ist halbconisch, 3 Fuss lang und 18 Zoll breit.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 182. 'Their baskets, made of willows, are perfectly water-tight.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. 'They sometimes ornament the smaller ones with beads, pearl-shell, feathers, &c.' Revere's Tour, p. 122 'Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres utensiles sont artistiquement incrustés de morceaux de nacre de perle ... garnissent leur calebasses et leur cruches d'ouvrages de vannerie brodés avec des fils-déliés qu'elles tirent de diverses racines.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 233; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 243; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107; Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 367; Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48; Borthwick's Three Years in Cal., p. 131; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 324.Return to passage

[530] Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake 'their canoes or rather rafts are made of bundles of the tulé plant.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. At San Francisco Bay and vicinity 'the only canoes of the Indians are made of plaited reeds.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90. 'They do not possess horses or canoes of any kind; they only know how to fasten together bundles of rushes, which carry them over the water by their comparative lightness.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'Les Indiens font leur pirogues à l'instant où ils veulent entreprendre un voyage par eau; elles sont en roseaux. Lorsque l'on y entre elles s'emplissent à moitié d'eau; de sorte qu'assis, l'on en a jusqu'au gras de la jambe; on les fait aller avec des avirons extrêmement longs, et pointus aux deux extremités.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 6. Had no boats, but it was reported that they had previously used boats made of rushes. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103. 'The most rude and sorry contrivances for embarcation I had ever beheld.... They were constructed of rushes and dried grass of a long broad leaf, made up into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest in the middle and regularly tapering to a point at each end ... appeared to be very ill calculated to contend with wind and waves.... They conducted their canoe or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the Esquimaux.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 5. 'The balsas are entirely formed of the bulrush ... commonly the rowers sit on them soaked in water, as they seldom rise above the surface.' Forbes' Cal., p. 191. Build no canoes, but occasionally make use of rafts composed of one or two logs, generally split. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. 'The "Balsa" is the only thing of the boat kind known among them. It is constructed entirely of bulrushes ... sit flat upon the craft, soaked in water, plying their paddles ... most of them in all kinds of weather, are either below, or on a level with the water.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 368. 'My opinion is that the Indians of California, previous to the occupation by the Jesuit Fathers had no other boats than those made from the tule, and even as late as 1840, I never knew or heard of an Indian using any other.' Phelps' Letter, MS.Return to passage

[531] Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 23.Return to passage

[532] Roquefeuil's Voy., pp. 25-6. Tule is an Aztec word, from tollin, signifying rushes, flags, or reeds. Molina, Vocabulario. Mendoza says that when the ancient Mexicans arrived at the site of Mexico, it was a complete swamp, covered 'con grandes matorrales de enea, que llaman tuli.' Esplicacion del Codice, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. v., p. 40. That the Spaniards themselves had not boats at this time is also asserted by Kotzebue: 'That no one has yet attempted to build even the simplest canoe in a country which produces a superabundance of the finest wood for the purpose, is a striking proof of the indolence of the Spaniards, and the stupidity of the Indians.' New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90.Return to passage

[533] Phelps' Letter, MS.Return to passage

[534] Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 415. 'Sending off a man with great expedition, to vs in a canow.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 119.Return to passage

[535] The shells 'they broke and rubbed down to a circular shape, to the size of a dime, and strung them on a thread of sinews.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 2, 1860. 'Three kinds of money were employed ... white shell-beads, or rather buttons, pierced in the centre and strung together, were rated at $5 a yard; periwinkles, at $1 a yard; fancy marine shells, at various prices, from $3 to $10, or $15, according to their beauty.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.Return to passage

[536] The office of chief is hereditary in the male line only. The widows and daughters of the chiefs are, however, treated with distinction, and are not required to work, as other women. Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 73. In one case near Clear Lake, when 'the males of a family had become extinct and a female only remained, she appointed a chief.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. At the Port of Sardinas 'durmió dos noches en la capitana una india anciana, que era señora de estos pueblos, acompañada de muchos Indios.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. xxxii.Return to passage

[537] The Kainameahs had three hereditary chiefs. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 103.Return to passage

[538] In Russian River Valley and the vicinity: 'Die Achtung die man für den Vater hegte, geht häufig auf den Sohn über; aber die Gewalt des Oberhauptes ist im Allgemeinen sehr nichtig; denn es steht einem jeden frei, seinen Geburtsort zu verlassen und einen anderen Aufenthalt zu wählen.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 77-8. 'Derjenige, der am meisten Anverwandte besitzt, wird als Häuptling oder Tojon anerkannt; in grösseren Wohnsitzen giebt es mehrere solcher Tojone, aber ihre Autorität ist nichts sagend. Sie haben weder das Recht zu befehlen, noch den Ungehorsam zu züchtigen.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 86. At Clear Lake chiefdom was hereditary. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also pp. 103, 110. Among the Gualalas and Gallinomeros, chieftainship was hereditary. The Sanéls live in large huts, each containing 20 or 30 persons related to each other, each of these families has its own government. The Comachos paid voluntary tribute for support of chief. Powers' Pomo, MS. In the Sacramento Valley a chief has more authority than that arising merely from his personal character. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 108. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco, in the vicinity of San Miguel 'chaque village est gouverné despotiquement par un chef qui est seul arbitre de la paix et de la guerre.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 163. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 227; Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 244; Gerstaecker's Journ., p. 213; Histoire Chrétienne de la Cal., p. 52; Wimmel, Californien, pp. 177-8.Return to passage

[539] 'El robo era un delito casi desconocido en ambas naciones. Entre los Runsienes se miraba quasi con indiferencia el homicidio; pero no así entre los Eslenes, los quales castigaban al delinquente con pena de muerte.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 171. 'Im Fall ein Indianer ein Verbrechen in irgend einem Stamme verübt hat, und die Häuptlinge sich bestimmt haben ihn zu tödten, so geschieht dies durch Bogen und Pfeil.' Wimmel, Californien, pp. 177-8; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 24.Return to passage

[540] Drake's World Encomp., pp. 124-6.Return to passage

[541] Wimmel, Californien, p. 178.Return to passage

[542] Near San Francisco, 'teniendo muchas mugeres, sin que entre ellas se experimente la menor emulacion.' Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 217. At Monterey 'la polygamie leur était permise.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 303. In Tuolumne County 'polygamy is practiced.' Healey, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 244. At Clear Lake 'polygamy is practiced only by the chiefs.' Revere's Tour, p. 125. 'Bei manchen Stämmen wird Vielweiberei gestattet.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 178. 'A man often marries a whole family, the mother and her daughters.... No jealousies ever appear among these families of wives.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367. 'An Indian man may have as many wives as he can keep; but a woman cannot have a plurality of husbands, or men to whom she owes obedience.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 224. In the Sacramento Valley 'the men in general have but one wife.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. 'Of these Indians it is reported that no one has more than one wife.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. 'Entre los Runsienes y Eslenes no era permitido á cada hombre tener mas de una muger.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 170. At Clear Lake and down the coast to San Francisco Bay 'they have but one wife at a time.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. In the vicinity of Fort Ross 'es ist nicht erlaubt mehr als eine Frau zu haben.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. In the country round San Miguel 'non-seulement ce capitaine a le droit d'avoir deux femmes, tandis que les autres Indiens n'en ont qu'une, mais il peut les renvoyer quand cela lui plaît, pour en prendre d'autres dans le village.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 163. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 227.Return to passage

[543] At Monterey, 'ils étaient même dans l'usage d'épouser toutes les soeurs d'une famille.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 303. Near Fort Ross, 'die Blutsverwandtschaft wird streng beachtet und es ist nicht gestattet aus dem ersten oder zweiten Grade der Verwandtschaft zu heirathen; selbst im Falle einer Scheidung darf der nächste Anverwandte die Frau nicht ehelichen, doch giebt es auch Ausnahmen.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. At San Francisco 'no conocen para sus casamientos el parentezco de afinidad; antes bien este los incita á recibir por sus propias mugeres á sus cuñadas, y aun á las suegras, y la costumbre que observan es, que el que logra una muger, tiene por suyas á todas sus hermanas.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 217. 'Parentage and other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles to matrimony.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367. 'Souvent une femme presse son mari d'épouser ses soeurs, et même sa mère, et cette proposition est fréquemment acceptée.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 235. 'Este método de comprar las mugeres era comun á entrambas naciones (Runsienes y Eslenes), bien que entre los Runsienes hacia mucho mas solemne el contrato la intervencion de los parientes de los novios, contribuyendo los del varon con su quota, la qual se dividia entre los de la novia al tiempo de entregar á esta.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage. p. 171.Return to passage

[544] Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223.Return to passage

[545] Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 23.Return to passage

[546] Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 306. At Santa Cruz, 'the Gentile Indian, when he wishes to marry, goes to the hut of her he desires for a wife, and sitting himself close by her, sighs without speaking a word, and casting at her feet some beads on a string, goes out, and without further ceremony he is married.' Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. At Clear Lake 'rape exists among them in an authorized form, and it is the custom for a party of young men to surprise and ravish a young girl, who becomes the wife of one of them.' Revere's Tour, pp. 125-6.Return to passage

[547] Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 234. At Clear Lake 'if the parties separate the children go with the wife.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112.Return to passage

[548] Powers' Pomo, MS.Return to passage

[549] 'The Yukas are often brutal and cruel to their women and children, especially to the women.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 308. In the vicinity of Fort Ross, 'sie lieben ihre Kinder mit grosser Zärtlichkeit.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 77.Return to passage

[550] Wimmel, Californien, p. 178. 'The practice of abortion, so common among the Chinooks and some other tribes in Oregon, is unknown here.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 112-13.Return to passage

[551] Mr Powers, in his Pomo, MS., makes this assertion upon what he states to be reliable authority.Return to passage

[552] For a full account of this custom of the couvade, as it existed in various parts of the world, see Tylor's Researches, pp. 293-302, and Max Müller's Chips, vol. ii., pp. 271-9. For its observance in California, see Venagas, Noticias de Cal., tom. i., p. 94, and Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367.Return to passage

[553] 'It was not a thing at all uncommon, in the days of the Indians' ancient prosperity, to see a woman become a mother at twelve or fourteen. An instance was related to me where a girl had borne her first-born at ten, as nearly as her years could be ascertained, her husband, a White Man, being then sixty-odd.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500.Return to passage

[554] For further authorities on family and domestic affairs, see: Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 456; Delano's Life on the Plains, pp. 306; Forbes' Cal., p. 190; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 317-26. Also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., pp. 232-35; Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 223-4; Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860; Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 217; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 308, 500-6, vol. x., p. 325; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 106-8; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 170-1; Borthwick's Three Years in Cal., p. 129; La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 303; Rollin, in Id., tom. iv., pp. 57-8; Laplace, Circumnav., tom. vi., p. 145; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 112-13; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 201, 259; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; Gilbert, McAdam, and Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, pp. 242-4; Revere's Tour, p. 126; Reid, in Los Angeles Star, 1852; Farnham's Life in Cal., pp. 367-70; Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 77; Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 83-8.Return to passage

[555] Every traveler who has seen them dance enters into details of dress, etc.; but no two of these accounts are alike, and the reason of this is that they have no regular figures or costumes peculiar to their dances, but that every man, when his dress is not paint only, wears all the finery he possesses with an utter disregard for uniformity. 'At some of their dances we were told that they avoid particular articles of food, even fowls and eggs.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 113. Dancing is executed at Santa Cruz, by forming a circle, assuming a stooping posture, raising a loud, discordant chant, and, without moving from their places, lifting and lowering a foot, and twisting the body into various contortions. Archives of Santa Cruz Mission. 'In their dances they sometimes wear white masks.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. 'Se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 4. When a Wallie chief 'decides to hold a dance in his village, he dispatches messengers to the neighboring rancherias, each bearing a string whereon is tied a certain number of knots. Every morning thereafter the invited chief unties one of the knots, and when the last but one is reached, they joyfully set forth for the dance.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. For descriptions of dances of Neeshenams, see Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., pp. 26-7.Return to passage

[556] 'Each one had two and sometimes three whistles, made of reeds, in his mouth.' San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 21, 1858. 'Some had whistles or double flageolets of reed which were stuck into their noses.' Revere's Tour, p. 133. 'The Gentiles do not possess any instrument whatever.' Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. 'Their own original instrument consists of a very primitive whistle, some double, some single, and held in the mouth by one end, without the aid of the fingers; they are about the size and length of a common fife, and only about two notes can be sounded on them.' Cal. Farmer, Oct. 26, 1860.Return to passage

[557] 'They use a species of native tobacco of nauseous and sickening odour.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. 'They burned the aulone shell for the lime to mix with their tobacco, which they swallowed to make them drunk.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. 'A species of tobacco is found on the sandy beaches which the Indians prepare and smoke.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 202. 'Se pusieron á chupar y reparé en ellos la misma ceremonia de esparcir el humo hácia arriba diciendo en cada bocanada unas palabras; solo entendí una que fué esmen que quiere decir sol; observé la misma costumbre de chupar primero el mas principal, luego da la pipa á otro, y da vuelta á otros.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vii., p. 69; see also p. 77.Return to passage

[558] On the subject of amusements, see Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 282. Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 307; Helper's Land of Gold, pp. 271-2; Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 72, 76-7; Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 85-92; Holinski, La Californie, p. 173; Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 5, 1860; Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Drake's World Encomp., p. 128; Revere's Tour, pp. 120-133; San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 21, 1858, Nov. 29, 1871; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 307-8, 501-5, vol. x., pp. 325-7; Power's Pomo, MS.; Laplace, Circumnav., tom. vi., p. 150; Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 127; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., pp. 442-6; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367; Hist. Chrétienne, pp. 53-4; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pp. ii., p. 456; Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. iii., pp. 4-5; La Pérouse, Voy., vol. ii., pp. 306-7.Return to passage

[559] The Meewocs 'believe that their male physicians, who are more properly sorcerers, can sit on a mountain top fifty miles distant from a man they wish to destroy, and compass his death by filliping poison towards him from their finger-ends.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 327.Return to passage

[560] 'I incautiously entered one of these caverns during the operation above described, and was in a few moments so nearly suffocated with the heat, smoke, and impure air, that I found it difficult to make my way out.' Bryant's Cal., p. 272.Return to passage

[561] 'Zur Heilung bedienen sich die Schamane der Kräuter und Wurzeln, grösstentheils aber saugen sie mit dem Munde das Blut aus der kranken Stelle aus, wobei sie Steinchen oder kleine Schlangen in den Mund nehmen und darauf versichern, sie hätten dieselben aus der Wunde herausgezogen.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 95; see also pp. 83, 91, 94-5. 'Until now it has not been ascertained that the Indians had any remedy for curing the sick or allaying their sufferings. If they meet with an accident they invariably die.' Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. 'Ring-worm is cured by placing the milk of the poison oak in a circle round the affected part.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 440. 'Among the Meewocs stomachic affections and severe travail are treated with a plaster of hot ashes and moist earth spread on the stomach.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 327. See further: Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., p. 140; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 370; Holinski, La Californie, p. 173; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 324; Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 35, 78; San Joaquin Republican, Sept., 1858; La Pérouse, Voy., tom. iv., p. 63; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 103, 107; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 193; Pickering's Races, in Id., vol. ix., p. 109; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 333; also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 237; Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52; Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284; Powers' Pomo, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 166; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 94; Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 295; Laplace, Circumnav., tom. vi., p. 152.Return to passage

[562] 'From north to south, in the present California, up to the Columbia river they burnt the dead in some tribes, and in others buried them. These modes of sepulture differed every few leagues.' Taylor's Indianology, in Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. A dead Oleepa was buried by one woman in 'a pit about four feet deep, and ten feet in front of the father's door.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 301. At Santa Cruz 'the Gentiles burn the bodies of their warriors and allies who fall in war; those who die of natural death they inter at sundown.' Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. The Indians of the Bay of San Francisco burned their dead with everything belonging to them, 'but those of the more southern regions buried theirs.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 363. In the vicinity of Clear Lake all the tribes with the exception of the Yubas bury their dead. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 289.Return to passage

[563] 'Los Runsienes dividian últimamente entre los parientes las pocas cosas que componian la propiedad del difunto. Los Eslenes, al contrario, no solo no repartian cosa alguna, sino que todos sus amigos y súbditos debian contribuir con algunos abalorios que enterraban con el cadáver del fallecido.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 172. 'If a woman dies in becoming a mother, the child, whether living or dead, is buried with its mother.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 437.Return to passage

[564] 'Die nächsten Anverwandten schneiden sich das Haar ab und werfen es ins Feuer, wobei sie sich mit Steinen an die Brust schlagen, auf den Boden stürzen, ja bisweilen aus besonderer Anhänglichkeit zu dem Verstorbenen sich blutrünstig oder gar zu Tode stossen; doch sind solche Fälle selten.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. 'The body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also: Tehama Gazette, May, 1859; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 171-2; Powers' Pomo, MS.; also in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 502, vol. x., p. 328, vol. xii., p. 28; San Francisco Evening Bulletin, April 4, 1861; Macfie's Vanc. Isl., pp. 448-50; La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 306; Placerville Index, 1857; Marmier, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., pp. 230, 236; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 437; Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 369; Folsom Dispatch, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 9, 1860; Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 225; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 458; Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 242; Forbes' Cal., p. 195.Return to passage

[565] In the Russian River Valley the Indians 'sind weichherzig, und von Natur nicht rachsüchtig ... sie erlernen mit Leichtigkeit mancherlei Handarbeiten und Gewerbe.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 77-8. Near Fort Ross 'sind sie sanft und friedfertig, und sehr fähig, besonders in der Auffassung sinnlicher Gegenstände. Nur in Folge ihrer unmässigen Trägheit und Sorglosigkeit scheinen sie sehr dumm zu seyn.' Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 81-2. 'They appear ... by no means so stupid' as those at the missions. Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 26. At Bodega Bay 'their disposition is most liberal.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake 'they are docile, mild, easily managed ... roguish, ungrateful, and incorrigibly lazy ... cowardly and cringing towards the whites ... thorough sensualists and most abandoned gamblers ... wretchedly improvident.' Revere's Tour, pp. 120-1. In the Sacramento Valley they are 'excessively jealous of their squaws ... stingy and inhospitable.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 114. 'A mirthful race, always disposed to jest and laugh.' Dana, in Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222. 'Possessed of mean, treacherous, and cowardly traits of character, and the most thievish propensities.' Johnson's Cal. and Ogn., p. 143. In the vicinity of San Francisco Bay 'they are certainly a race of the most miserable beings I ever saw, possessing the faculty of human reason.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 13. 'For the most part an idle, intemperate race.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 78. 'They are a people of a tractable, free, and louing nature, without guile or treachery.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 131. 'Bastantes rancherias de gentiles muy mansos y apacibles.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 497. 'Son muy mansos, afables, de buenas caras y los mas de ellos barbados.' Palou, Noticias, in Id., tom. vii., p. 59. At Monterey they 'étaient lourds et peu intelligents.' Those living farther from the missions were not without 'une certaine finesse, commune à tous les hommes élevés dans l'état de nature.' Petit-Thouars, Voy., tom. ii., p. 134. 'Ces peuples sont si peu courageux, qu'ils n'opposent jamais aucune résistance aux trois ou quatre soldats qui violent si évidement à leur égard le droit des gens.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 297. 'The Yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and every way bad, but brave race.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 306. The Tahtoos were very cowardly and peace-loving. Powers' Pomo, MS. Than the Oleepas 'a more jolly, laughter-loving, careless, and good-natured people do not exist.... For intelligence they are far behind the Indians east of the Rocky Mountains.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 297. The Kannimares 'were considered a brave and warlike Indian race.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The condition of the Wallas 'is the most miserable that it is possible to conceive; their mode of living, the most abject and destitute known to man.' Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 241. The Fresno River Indians 'are peaceable, quiet and industrious.' Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 304. A rational, calculating people, generally industrious. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 291. On the coast range north and east of Mendocino 'they are a timid and generally inoffensive race.' Bailey, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 304. In Placer County they are industrious, honest, and temperate; the females strictly virtuous. Brown, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 243. Lazy, trifling, drunken. Applegate, Ib. In Tuolumne: friendly, generally honest, truthful; men lazy, women industrious. Jewett, Id., p. 244. In the Yosemite Valley, 'though low in the scale of man, they are not the abject creatures generally represented; they are mild, harmless, and singularly honest.' Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. At Santa Clara they have no ambition, are entirely regardless of reputation and renown. Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 21. In stupid apathy 'they exceed every race of men I have ever known, not excepting the degraded races of Terra del Fuego or Van Dieman's Land.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 97. At Santa Cruz 'they are so inclined to lying that they almost always will confess offences they have not committed;' very lustful and inhospitable. Comellas' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. At Kelsey River they are 'amiable and thievish.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 124. 'In general terms, the California Indians are more timid, peaceable, and joyous than any of their neighbors.' Stephens, in Powers' Pomo, MS. 'Their stupidity, insensibility, ignorance, inconstancy, slavery to appetite, excessive sloth and laziness, being absorbed for the time in the stir and din of night-watching and battle, give them a new existence.' Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 366. 'Faul und jeder Anstrengung abgeneigt.' Osswald, Californien, p. 63. 'Stupidity seemed to be their distinctive character.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 239. 'Loose, lazy, careless, capricious, childish and fickle.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 2, 1860. 'They are really the most harmless tribes on the American continent.' Gerstaecker's Nar., p. 212. Revengeful, timid, treacherous and ungrateful. Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284. 'Cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 'Dull, indolent, phlegmatic, timid and of a gentle, submissive temper.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 199. 'In stature no less than in mind are certainly of a very inferior race of human beings.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 168. 'Pusillanimous.' Forbes' Cal., p. 183. 'Ils sont également extrêmes dans l'expression de la joie et de la colère.' Rollin, in La Pérouse, Voy., tom. iv., p. 58. 'Seemed to be almost of the lowest grade of human beings.' King's Rept., in Bayard Taylor's El Dorado, Appendix, vol. ii., p. 210. 'Die Indianer von Californien sind physisch und moralisch den andern Indianern untergeordnet.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 177. 'Su estupidez mas parece un entorpecimiento de las potencias por falta de accion y por pereza característica, que limitacion absoluta de sus facultades intelectuales; y así quando se las pone en movimiento, y se les dan ideas, no dexan de discernir y de aprender lo que se les enseña.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164. 'I noticed that all the Indians from Southern to Northern California were low, shiftless, indolent, and cowardly.' Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 16. Cowardly and treacherous in the extreme. Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS.Return to passage

[566] At Santa Catalina 'las mujeres son muy hermosas y honestas, los niños son blancos y rubios y muy risueños.' Salmeron, Relaciones, p. 18, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv. See also Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 140; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 712. At Santa Barbara, 'son mas altos, dispuestos, y membrados, que otros, que antes se avian visto.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 714. On the coast from San Diego to San Francisco they are 'd'une couleur foncée, de petite taille, et assez mal faits.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 153; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 226. At San Luis Rey, 'sont bien faits et d'une taille moyenne.' Id., p. 171; quoted in Marmier, p. 229. An Indian seen at Santa Inez Mission 'was about twenty-seven years old, with a black thick beard, iris of the eyes light chocolate-brown, nose small and round, lips not thick, face long and angular.' Cal. Farmer, May 4, 1860. The Noches 'aunque de buena disposicion son delgados y bastante delicados para andar á pié.' Garces, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., tom. i., p. 295. 'Well proportioned in figure, and of noble appearance.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 45. 'The women (of the Diegeños) are beautifully developed, and superbly formed, their bodies as straight as an arrow.' Michler, in Emory's U. S. and Mex., Bound. Survey, vol. i., p. 107. The Cahuillas 'are a filthy and miserable-looking set, and great beggars, presenting an unfavorable contrast to the Indian upon the Colorado.' Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 134.Return to passage

[567] The ordinary cloak descends to the waist: 'le chef seul en a une qui lui tombe jusqu'au jarret, et c'est là la seule marque de distinction.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 172; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 229.Return to passage

[568] These capes Father Crespi describes as being 'unos capotillos hechos de pieles de liebres y conejos de que hacen tiras y tercidas como mecate; cosen uno con otro y las defienden del frio cubriéndolas por la honestidad.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., pp. 291-2; see also Id., p. 312.Return to passage

[569] The lobo marino of the Spanish is the common seal and sea calf of the English; le veau marin and phoque commun of the French; vecchio marino of the Italians; Meerwolf and Meerhund of the Germans; Zee-Hund of the Dutch; Sael-hund of the Danes; Sial of the Swedes; and moelrhon of the Welsh. Knight's Eng. Encyc. Nat. Hist., vol. iv., p. 299.Return to passage

[570] Reid, in Los Angeles Star.Return to passage

[571] Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv., p. 18.Return to passage

[572] This hair turban or coil 'sirve de bolsa para guardar en la cabeza los abalorios y demas chucherias que se les dá.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 215. The same custom seems to prevail among the Cibolos of New Mexico, as Marmier, in his additional chapter in the French edition of Bryant's Cal., p. 258, says: 'les hommes du peuple tressent leurs cheveux avec des cordons, et y placent le peu d'objets qu'ils possèdent, notamment la corne qui renferme leur tabac à fumer.'Return to passage

[573] On the subject of dress see also Navarrete, Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. lxiv.; Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 79; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 45; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 240; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 138; Garces, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie ii., tom. i., p. 294; Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 229.Return to passage

[574] On the Los Angeles Coast: 'La ranchería se compone de veinte casas hechas de zacate de forma esférica á modo de uno media naranja con su respiradero en lo alto por donde les entra la luz y tiene salida el humo.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 314; Hoffmann, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 149.Return to passage

[575] 'Partiéron de allí el 9, entráron en una ensenada espaciosa, y siguiendo la costa viéron en ella un pueblo de Indios junto á la mar con casas grandes á manera de las de Nueva-España.' Navarrete, Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. xxix., xxxi., xxxvi. The accounts of Cabrillo's voyage are so confused that it is impossible to know the exact locality in which he saw the people he describes. On this point compare Cabrillo, Relacion, in Col. Doc. Hist. Florida, tom. i., p. 173; Browne's Lower Cal., pp. 18, 19; Burney's Chron. Hist. Discov., vol. i., pp. 221-5; Clavigero, Storia della Cal., tom. i., pp. 154-5; Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 329; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 210-11; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv., p. 18; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 306. 'Nur um die Meerenge von Santa Barbara fand man, 1769, die Bewohner ein wenig gesittigter. Sie bauten grosse Häuser von pyramidaler Form, in Dörfer vereint.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 454-5.Return to passage

[576] Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 259; Bancroft's Nat. Races, vol. iii., pp. 163-9.Return to passage

[577] 'One of their most remarkable superstitions is found in the fact of their not eating the flesh of large game. This arises from their belief that in the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain generations, long since past, have entered.... A term of reproach from a wild tribe to those more tamed is, "they eat venison."' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 215-6; see also Reid, in Los Angeles Star.Return to passage

[578] 'All their food was either cold or nearly so.... Salt was used very sparingly in their food, from an idea that it had a tendency to turn their hair gray.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 'I have seen many instances of their taking a rabbit, and sucking its blood with eagerness, previous to consuming the flesh in a crude state.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 239. 'Viven muy regalados con varias semillas, y con la pesca que hacen en sus balsas de tule ... y queriendoles dar cosa de comida, solian decir, que de aquello no, que lo que querian era ropa; y solo con cosa de este género, eran los cambalaches que hacian de su pescado con los Soldados y Arrieros.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 79. See also Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 712; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 139; Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 102; Id., 1869, pp. 194-5; Walker, in Id., 1872, p. 67; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 125; Hoffmann, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 149; Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., pp. 82-3.Return to passage

[579] Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, pp. 83-4.Return to passage

[580] Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 306-9.Return to passage

[581] The baskets, though water-proof, 'were used only for dry purposes. The vessels in use for liquids were roughly made of rushes and plastered outside and in with bitumen or pitch, called by them sanot.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 454-5; and Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 82.Return to passage

[582] 'Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres ustensiles sont incrustés avec beaucoup d'art de morceaux de nacre de perle.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 319. 'Mortars and pestles were made of granite, about sixteen inches wide at the top, ten at the bottom, ten inches high and two thick.' Soapstone pots were 'about an inch in thickness, and procured from the Indians of Santa Catalina; the cover used was of the same material.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star. On the eastern slopes of the San Bernardino Mountains, blankets are made which will easily hold water. Taylor, in San Francisco Bulletin, 1862, also quoted in Shuck's Cal. Scrap Book, p. 405. 'Todas sus obras son primorosas y bien acabadas.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 315.Return to passage

[583] Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 319-20.Return to passage

[584] 'The planks were bent and joined by the heat of fire, and then paved with asphaltum, called by them chapapote.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 1, 1860.Return to passage

[585] At Santa Catalina Vizcaino saw 'vnas Canoguelas, que ellos vsan, de Tablas bien hechas, como Barquillos, con las Popas, y Proas levantadas, y mas altas, que el Cuerpo de la Barca, ò Canoa.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. i., p. 712; see also Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv., p. 18. On the coast of Los Angeles Father Crespi saw 'canoas hechas de buenas tablas de pino, bien ligadas y de una forma graciosa con dos proas.... Usan remos largos de dos palas y vogan con indecible lijeriza y velocidad.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 315. At San Diego Palou describes 'balsas de tule, en forma de Canoas, con lo que entran muy adentro del mar.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 79; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 240; Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 228. Description of balsas, which differ in no respect from those used north.Return to passage

[586] 'The worth of a rial was put on a string which passed twice and a-half round the hand, i. e., from end of middle finger to wrist. Eight of these strings passed for the value of a silver dollar.' Cal. Farmer, June 1, 1860. 'Eight yards of these beads made about one dollar of our currency.' Id., Jan. 18, 1861.Return to passage

[587] 'If a quarrel occurred between parties of distinct lodges (villages), each chief heard the witnesses produced by his own people; and then, associated with the chief of the opposite side, they passed sentence. In case they could not agree, an impartial chief was called in, who heard the statements made by both, and he alone decided. There was no appeal from his decision.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star.Return to passage

[588] 'Pour tout ce qui concerne les affaires intérieures, l'influence des devins est bien supérieure à la leur.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 373. At San Diego 'Chaque village est soumis aux ordres absolus d'un chef.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 153; or see Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 226. 'I have found that the captains have very little authority.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 194.Return to passage

[589] Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 262-9.Return to passage

[590] Dr. Hoffman states that in the vicinity of San Diego 'their laws allow them to keep as many wives as they can support.' San Francisco Medical Press, vol. vi., p. 150. Fages, speaking of the Indians on the coast from San Diego to San Francisco, says: 'Ces Indiens n'ont qu'une seule femme à la fois, mais ils en changent aussi souvent que cela leur convient.' Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 153. Of those in the vicinity of San Luis Rey the same author says: 'Les chefs de ce district ont le privilége de prendre deux on trois femmes, de les répudier ou de les changer aussi souvent qu'ils le veulent; mais les autres habitants n'en ont qu'une seule et ne peuvent les répudier qu'en cas d'adultère.' Id., p. 173.Return to passage

[591] 'Les veufs des deux sexes, qui veulent se remarier, ne peuvent le faire qu'avec d'autres veufs.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 173; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 230.

[592] 'The perverse child, invariably, was destroyed, and the parents of such remained dishonored.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 270. 'Ils ne pensent pas à donner d'autre éducation à leurs enfants qu'à enseigner aux fils exactement ce que faisait leur père; quant aux filles, elles ont le droit de choisir l'occupation qui leur convient le mieux.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1814, tom. ci., p. 153.Return to passage

[593] The intoxicating liquor was 'made from a plant called Pibat, which was reduced to a powder, and mixed with other intoxicating ingredients.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 271.Return to passage

[594] Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 215. For other descriptions of ceremony observed at age of puberty, see: Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. vi., pp. 150-1; McKinstry, in San Francisco Herald, June, 1853.Return to passage

[595] 'Pero en la Mision de S. Antonio se pudo algo averiguar, pues avisando á los Padres, que en una de las casas de los Neófitos se habian metido dos Gentiles, el uno con el traje natural de ellos, y el otro con el trage de muger, expresándolo con el nombre de Joya (que dicen llamarlos asi en su lengua nativa) fué luego el P. Misionero con el Cabo y un Soldado á la casa á ver lo que buscaban, y los hallaron en el acto de pecado nefando. Castigáronlos, aunque no con la pena merecida, y afearonles el hecho tan enorme; y respondió el Gentil, que aquella Joya era su muger.... Solo en el tramo de la Canal de Santa Bárbara, se hallan muchos Joyas, pues raro es el Pueblo donde no se vean dos ó tres.' Palou, Vida de Junípero Serra, p. 222. 'Así en esta ranchería como en otros de la canal, hemos visto algunos gentiles con traje de muger con sus nagüitas de gamusa, y muy engruesadas y limpias; no hemos podido entender lo que significa, ni á qué fin.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 325. See also Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 283-4; Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 371; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., tom. ii., pp. 427; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 173.Return to passage

[596] 'In some tribes the men and the women unite in the dance; in others the men alone trip to the music of the women, whose songs are by no means unpleasant to the ear.' McKinstry, in S. Francisco Herald, June 1853. 'In their religious ceremonial dances they differ much. While, in some tribes, all unite to celebrate them, in others, men alone are allowed to dance, while the women assist in singing.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 214-15.Return to passage

[597] 'La danse est exécutée par deux couples au son d'une espèce de flûte, les autres restent simples spectateurs et se contentent d'augmenter le bruit en frappant des roseaux secs.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., p. 176; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 289-95; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 214-15; McKinstry, in S. Francisco Herald, June 1853; Reid, in Los Angeles Star; Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tom. vi., p. 322.

[598] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 380. 'When the new year begun, no thought was given to the past; and on this account, even amongst the most intelligent, they could not tell the number of years which had transpired, when desirous of giving an idea of any remote event.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 303.Return to passage

[599] 'For Gonorrhoea they used a strong decoction of an herb that grows very plentifully here, and is called by the Spanish "chancel agua," and wild pigeon manure, rolled up into pills. The decoction is a very bitter astringent, and may cure some sores, but that it fails in many, I have undeniable proof. In syphilis they use the actual cautery, a living coal of fire applied to the chancer, and a decoction of an herb, said to be something like sarsaparilla, called rosia.' Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 152-3.Return to passage

[600] I am indebted for the only information of value relating to the medical usages of the southern California tribes, to Boscana's MS., literally translated by Robinson in his Life in Cal., pp. 310-14, and also given in substance in Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 378-9, and to Reid's papers on the Indians of Los Angeles County, in the Los Angeles Star, also quoted in Cal. Farmer, Jan. 11, 1861.Return to passage

[601] See Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 377-8, and plate, p. 248, and Hoffmann, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 152.

[602] 'The same custom is now in use, but not only applied to deaths, but to their disappointments and adversities in life, thus making public demonstration of their sorrow.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 314-15.Return to passage

[603] California Farmer, May 22, 1863.Return to passage

[604] Reid, in Los Angeles Star.Return to passage

[605] The latitude of which he fixes at 34° 33´.Return to passage

[606] Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, tom. ci., pp. 173-4. Quoted almost literally by Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 230.Return to passage

[607] Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 317.Return to passage

[608] In spelling the word Shoshone, I have followed the most common orthography. Many, however, write it Shoshonee, others, Shoshonie, either of which would perhaps give a better idea of the pronunciation of the word, as the accent falls on the final e. The word means 'Snake Indian,' according to Stuart, Montana, p. 80; and 'inland,' according to Ross, Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 249. I apply the name Shoshones to the whole of this family; the Shoshones proper, including the Bannacks, I call the Snakes; the remaining tribes I name collectively Utahs.Return to passage

[609] See Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 249; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-9; Remy and Brenchley's Journey, vol. i., p. 124; Chandless' Visit, p. 118; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 377; Carvalho's Incid. of Trav., p. 200; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 178; Beckwith, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 42; Farley's Sanitary Rept., in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 154; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; Hesperian Magazine, vol. x., p. 255; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 197; Prince, quoted in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Townsend's Nar., pp. 125, 133; Bryant, Voy. en Cal., pp. 152, 194; Coke's Rocky Mountains, p. 276; Fremont's Explor. Ex., pp. 148, 267; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 312; Figuier's Human Race, p. 484; Burton's City of the Saints, p. 585. Mention is made by Salmeron of a people living south of Utah Lake, who were 'blancas, y rosadas las mejillas como los franceses.' Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv., p. 101. Escalante, speaking of Indians seen in the same region, lat. 39° 34´ 37´´, says: 'Eran estos de los barbones, y narices agujeradas, y en su idioma se nombran Tirangapui, Tian los cinco, que con su capitan venieron primero, tan crecida la barba, que parecian padres capuchinos ó belemitas.' Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., tom. i., p. 476. Wilkes writes, 'Southwest of the Youta Lake live a tribe who are known by the name of the Monkey Indians; a term which is not a mark of contempt, but is supposed to be a corruption of their name.... They are reported to live in fastnesses among high mountains; to have good clothing and houses; to manufacture blankets, shoes, and various other articles, which they sell to the neighboring tribes. Their colour is as light as that of the Spaniards; and the women in particular are very beautiful, with delicate features, and long flowing hair.... Some have attempted to connect these with an account of an ancient Welsh colony, which others had thought they discovered among the Mandans of the Missouri; while others were disposed to believe they might still exist in the Monkeys of the Western Mountains. There is another account which speaks of the Monquoi Indians, who formerly inhabited Lower California, and were partially civilized by the Spanish missionaries, but who have left that country, and of whom all traces have long since been lost.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 502-3. 'On the southern boundary of Utah exists a peculiar race, of whom little is known. They are said to be fair-skinned, and are called the "White Indians;" have blue eyes and straight hair, and speak a kind of Spanish language differing from other tribes.' San Francisco Evening Bulletin, May 15, 1863. Taylor has a note on the subject, in which he says that these fair Indians were doubtless the Moquis of Western New Mexico. Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863. Although it is evident that this mysterious and probably mythic people belong in no way to the Shoshone family, yet as they are mentioned by several writers as dwelling in a region which is surrounded on all sides by Shoshones, I have given this note, wherefrom the reader can draw his own conclusions.Return to passage

[610] Beckwith, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 42; Heap's Cent. Route, p. 102.Return to passage

[611] Speaking of women: 'their breasts and stomachs were covered with red mastic, made from an earth peculiar to these rocks, which rendered them hideous. Their only covering was a pair of drawers of hare-skin, badly sewn together, and in holes.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. ii., p. 386; see also vol. i., p. 127, and vol. ii., pp. 389, 404, 407. 'The women often dress in skirts made of entrails, dressed and sewed together in a substantial way.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. Hareskins 'they cut into cords with the fur adhering; and braid them together so as to form a sort of cloak with a hole in the middle, through which they thrust their heads.' Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 376. The remaining authorities describe them as naked, or slightly and miserably dressed; see Stansbury's Rept., pp. 82, 202-3; Chandless' Visit, p. 291; Heap's Cent. Route, p. 100; Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 255; Bryant's Cal., p. 194; Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 365; Dodge, Ib., pp. 374-5; Fenton, in Id., 1869, p. 203; Graves, in Id., 1854, p. 178; Burton's City of the Saints, pp. 217-18, 272-3, 581, 585; Fremont's Explor. Ex., pp. 148, 168-9, 212, 218, 225, 227, 267; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 129; Saxon's Golden Gate, p. 251; Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 197; Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 539; Dunn's Oregon, p. 331.Return to passage

[612] Townsend's Nar., pp. 125, 133; De Smet, Voy., p. 25; Dunn's Oregon, p. 325; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-30, 308-9; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 249-50, 257-8, vol. ii., pp. 22-3; Chandless' Visit, p. 118; Carvalho's Incid. of Trav., p. 200; White's Ogn., p. 377; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 244, 281.Return to passage

[613] 'The ermine is the fur known to the north-west traders by the name of the white weasel, but is the genuine ermine.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 313.Return to passage

[614] Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 312-15.Return to passage

[615] 'On y rencontre aussi des terres métalliques de différentes couleurs, telles que vertes, bleues, jaunes, noires, blanches, et deux sortes d'ocres, l'une pâle, l'autre d'un rouge brillant comme du vermillion. Les Indiens en font très-grand cas; ils s'en servent pour se peindre le corps et le visage.' Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, tom. xii., p. 83.Return to passage

[616] 'They remain in a semi-dormant, inactive state the entire winter, leaving their lowly retreats only now and then, at the urgent calls of nature, or to warm their burrows.... In the spring they creep from their holes ... poor and emaciated, with barely flesh enough to hide their bones, and so enervated from hard fare and frequent abstinence, that they can scarcely move.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 179. Stansbury mentions lodges in Utah, east of Salt Lake, which were constructed of 'cedar poles and logs of a considerable size, thatched with bark and branches, and were quite warm and comfortable.' Stansbury's Rept., p. 111; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 334; Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 255; Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., pp. 80-1, 129, vol. ii., pp. 362, 373; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., tom. iv., p. 101; Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 154; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 378; Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 538; Heap's Cent. Route, pp. 98-9; De Smet, Voy., p. 28; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 247, vol. ii., pp. 256-7; Coke's Rocky Mountains, p. 257; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 117; White's Ogn., p. 376; Irving's Astoria, pp. 257, 290; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 305; Fremont's Explor. Ex., 1842-3, pp. 142, 212, 218; Townsend's Nar., p. 136; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 325, 331-2, 337-8; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 179; Farnham's Trav., pp. 58, 61-2; Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 51; Burton's City of the Saints, p. 573; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.Return to passage

[617] Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 275; De Smet, Voy., p. 29; Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 375; Saint-Amant, Voyages, p. 325.Return to passage

[618] 'They eat the seed of two species of Conifers, one about the size of a hazel-nut, the other much smaller. They also eat a small stone-fruit, somewhat red, or black in colour, and rather insipid; different berries, among others, those of Vaccinium. They collect the seed of the Atriplex and Chenopodium, and occasionally some grasses. Among roots, they highly value that of a bushy, yellowish and tolerably large broomrape, which they cook or dry with the base, or root-stock, which is enlarged, and constitutes the most nutritious part. They also gather the napiform root of a Cirsium acaule, which they eat raw or cooked; when cooked, it becomes quite black, resinous as pitch and rather succulent; when raw, it is whitish, soft, and of a pleasant flavour.' Remy and Brenchley's Journey, vol. i., p. 129. The Shoshones of Utah and Nevada 'eat certain roots, which in their native state are rank poison, called Tobacco root, but when put in a hole in the ground, and a large fire burned over them, become wholesome diet.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. 'Of the roots used ... the pap-pa, or wild potatoe, is abundant.' Id., vol. iv., p. 222; see also, Id., vol. v., pp. 199-200. At Bear River, 'every living animal, thing, insect, or worm they eat.' Fremont's Explor. Exp., p. 142, see also pp. 148, 160, 173-4, 212, 218-19, 267, 273. Inland savages are passionately fond of salt; those living near the sea detest it. Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, tom. xii., p. 85. The Utahs eat 'the cactus leaf, piñon-nut, and various barks; the seed of the bunch-grass, and of the wheat, or yellow grass, somewhat resembling rye, the rabbit-bush twigs, which are chewed, and various roots and tubers; the soft sego bulb, the rootlet of the cat-tail flag, and of the tule, which when sun-dried and powdered to flour, keeps through the winter and is palatable even to white men.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 581, see also pp. 573, 577. The Pi-Edes 'live principally on lizards, swifts, and horned toads.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865. p. 145; see also Id., 1854, p. 229; 1856, p. 234; 1861, p. 112; 1859, p. 365; 1866, pp. 114; 1869, pp. 203, 216; 1870, pp. 95, 114; 1872, p. 59. The Snakes eat a white-fleshed kind of beaver, which lives on poisonous roots, whose flesh affects white people badly, though the Indians roast and eat it with impunity. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 117, see also vol. i., p. 269-72; Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 539; Farnham's Life and Adven., pp. 371, 376-8; Irving's Bonneville's Adven., pp. 255, 257, 401-2; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 501; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Bryant's Cal., p. 202; Stansbury's Rept., pp. 77, 148, 233; Kelly's Excursion, vol. i., p. 238; Saxon's Golden Gate, p. 251; Smith, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1828, tom. xxxvii., p. 209; Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 178-9; Townsend's Nar., p. 144; White's Ogn., p. 376; Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 228-31, 309; Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 277; Irving's Astoria, pp. 258, 295; De Smet, Voy., pp. 28-30, 127; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 334; Farnham's Trav., pp. 58, 61; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., pp. 242, 270, vol. ii., pp. 19, 60, 61, 64, 244, 311; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 534; Simpson's Route to Pac., pp. 51-2; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 270, 288-9, 298-9; Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.Return to passage

[619] The Wararereeks are 'dirty in their camps, in their dress, and in their persons.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250. The persons of the Piutes are 'more disgusting than those of the Hottentots. Their heads are white with the germs of crawling filth.' Farnham's Trav., p. 58. 'A filthy tribe--the prey of idleness and vermin.' Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 325. Bryant says, of the Utahs between Salt Lake and Ogden's Hole, 'I noticed the females hunting for the vermin in the heads and on the bodies of their children; finding which they ate the animals with an apparent relish.' Bryant's Cal., p. 154. The Snakes 'are filthy beyond description.' Townsend's Nar., p. 137. 'J'ai vu les Sheyennes, les Serpents, les Youts, etc., manger la vermine les uns des autres à pleins peignes.' De Smet, Voy., p. 47. 'The Snakes are rather cleanly in their persons.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 61.Return to passage

[620] 'A weapon called by the Chippeways, by whom it was formerly used, the poggamoggon.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 309. Bulfinch, Oregon, p. 126, says the stone weighs about two pounds. Salmeron also mentions a similar weapon used by the people living south of Utah Lake; concerning whom see note 187, p. 423.Return to passage

[621] The Utahs 'no usan mas armas que las flechas y algunas lanzas de perdernal, ni tienen otro peto, morrion ni espaldar que el que sacaron del vientre de sus madres.' Escalante, quoted in Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., ser. iii., part iv., p. 126. 'Bows made of the horns of the bighorn ... are formed by cementing with glue flat pieces of the horn together, covering the back with sinewes and glue, and loading the whole with an unusual quantity of ornaments.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 309. At Ogden River, in Utah, they work obsidian splinters 'into the most beautiful and deadly points, with which they arm the end of their arrows.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 343. 'Pour toute arme, un arc, des flèches et un bâton pointu.' De Smet, Voy., p. 28. 'Bows and arrows are their (Banattees) only weapons of defence.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 251. The arrows of the Pa-Utes 'are barbed with a very clear translucent stone, a species of opal, nearly as hard as the diamond; and, shot from their long bow, are almost as effective as a gunshot.' Fremont's Expl. Ex., p. 267. The Pi-Utes and Pitches 'have no weapon of defence except the club, and in the use of that they are very unskilful.' Farnham's Trav., p. 58. Southwest of Great Salt Lake, 'their arms are clubs, with small bows and arrows made of reeds.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 180. The Pi-Utes 'make some weapons of defence, as bows and arrows. The bows are about six feet long; made of the savine (Juniperus sabina).' Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 378; see farther, Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. ii., pp. 291, 261; Stansbury's Rept., p. 232; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 198; Heap's Cent. Route, pp. 56, 72, 77, 84, 99; Palmer's Jour., p. 134; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 129; Irving's Bonneville's Adven., pp. 146, 255, 400; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-9, 233; Irving's Astoria, p. 279; Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1822, tom. xiii., p. 50; Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.Return to passage

[622] Remy and Brenchley's Jour., vol. ii., p. 407; Heap's Cent. Route, p. 99; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 171.Return to passage

[623] 'Taking an enemy's scalp is an honour quite independent of the act of vanquishing him. To kill your adversary is of no importance unless the scalp is brought from the field of battle, and were a warrior to slay any number of his enemies in action, and others were to obtain the scalps or first touch the dead, they would have all the honours, since they have borne off the trophy.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 309; see also p. 265. The Utahs 'will devour the heart of a brave man to increase their courage, or chop it up, boil it in soup, engorge a ladleful, and boast they have drunk the enemy's blood.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 581; see also p. 140. The Utahs never carry arrows when they intend to fight on horseback. Heap's Cent. Route, p. 77; see also p. 100; Remy and Brenchley's Journ., pp. 97, 99; Stansbury's Rept., p. 81; De Smet, Voy., pp. 28-9; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 275, vol. ii., pp. 93-6; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 129; Farnham's Trav., p. 36.Return to passage

[624] The pipe of the chief 'was made of a dense transparent green stone, very highly polished, about two and a half inches long, and of an oval figure, the bowl being in the same situation with the stem. A small piece of burnt clay is placed in the bottom of the bowl to separate the tobacco from the end of the stem.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 267. Pots made of 'a stone found in the hills ... which, though soft and white in its natural state, becomes very hard and black after exposure to the fire.' Id., p. 312. 'These vessels, although rude and without gloss, are nevertheless strong, and reflect much credit on Indian ingenuity.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 274. Pipe-stems 'resemble a walking-stick more than anything else, and they are generally of ash, and from two-and-a-half to three feet long.' Id., vol. ii., p. 109. 'Cooking vessels very much resembling reversed bee-hives, made of basket work covered with buffalo skins.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 244. Stansbury discovered pieces of broken Indian pottery and obsidian about Salt Lake. Stansbury's Rept., p. 182. The material of baskets 'was mostly willow twig, with a layer of gum, probably from the pine tree.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 573. The Utahs 'manufacture very beautiful and serviceable blankets.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 200. 'Considering that they have nothing but stone hammers and flint knives it is truly wonderful to see the exquisite finish and neatness of their implements of war and hunting, as well as their ear-rings and waist-bands, made of an amalgam of silver and lead.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. 'Les Indiens en font des jarres, des pots, des plats de diverses formes. Ces vaisseaux communiquent une odeur et une saveur très-agréables à tout ce qu'ils renferment; ce qui provient sans doute de la dissolution de quelque substance bitumineuse contenue dans l'argile.' Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, tom. xii., p. 83. 'The pipes of these Indians are either made of wood or of red earth; sometimes these earthen pipes are exceedingly valuable, and Indians have been known to give a horse in exchange for one of them.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 130; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 128-32, 228-9, 234.Return to passage

[625] Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 274.Return to passage

[626] Among the Snakes in Idaho garments of four to five beaver-skins were sold for a knife or an awl, and other articles of fur in proportion. Horses were purchased for an axe each. A ship of seventy-four guns might have been loaded with provision, such as dried buffalo, bought with buttons and rings. Articles of real value they thus disposed of cheaply, while articles of comparatively no value, such as Indian head-dress and other curiosities, were held high. A beaver-skin could thus be had for a brass-ring, while a necklace of bears' claws could not be purchased for a dozen of the same rings. Axes, knives, ammunition, beads, buttons and rings, were most in demand. Clothing was of no value; a knife sold for as much as a blanket; and an ounce of vermilion was of more value than a yard of fine cloth. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 257-9. See further, Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 316; Townsend's Nar., pp. 133, 138; Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Farnham's Trav., p. 61.Return to passage

[627] 'They inflict no penalties for minor offences, except loss of character and disfellowship.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 306-7; Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 128.Return to passage

[628] 'It is virtuous to seize and ravish the women of tribes with whom they are at war, often among themselves, and to retain or sell them and their children as slaves.' Drews' Owyhee Recon., p. 17. The Pi-Edes 'barter their children to the Utes proper for a few trinkets or bits of clothing, by whom they are again sold to the Navajos for blankets.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 45. 'Some of the minor tribes in the southern part of the Territory (Utah), near New Mexico, can scarcely show a single squaw, having traded them off for horses and arms.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 582. 'Viennent trouver les blancs, et leur vendent leurs enfants pour des bagatelles.' De Smet, Voy., p. 29; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.; Utah, Acts, Resolutions, etc., p. 87.Return to passage

[629] 'A refusal in these lands is often a serious business; the warrior collects his friends, carries off the recusant fair, and after subjecting her to the insults of all his companions espouses her.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 582.Return to passage

[630] 'The women are exceedingly virtuous ... they are a kind of mercantile commodity in the hands of their masters. Polygamy prevails among the chiefs, but the number of wives is not unlimited.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., pp. 123-8. They are given to sensual excesses, and other immoralities. Farnham's Trav., p. 62; see also p. 60. 'Prostitution and illegitimacy are unknown ... they are not permitted to marry until eighteen or twenty years old ... it is a capital offence to marry any of another nation without special sanction from their council and head chief. They allow but one wife.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. At the time of their confinement the women 'sit apart; they never touch a cooking utensil, although it is not held impure to address them, and they return only when the signs of wrath have passed away.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 573. 'Infidelity of the wife, or prostitution of an unmarried female, is punishable by death.' Davies, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 133. 'Our Pi-Ute has a peculiar way of getting a foretaste of connubial bliss, cohabiting experimentally with his intended for two or three days previous to the nuptial ceremony, at the end of which time, either party can stay further proceedings, to indulge other trials until a companion more congenial is found.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 155; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 307-8, 315; De Smet, Voy., p. 27.Return to passage

[631] The Snakes 'ont une sorte de tabac sauvage qui croît dans les plaines contiguës aux montagnes du Spanish-River, il a les feuilles plus étroites que le nôtre, il est plus agréable à fumer, ses effets étant bien moins violens.' Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, tom. xii., pp. 82-3. The Kinik-kinik 'they obtain from three different plants. One is a Cornus, resembling our Cornus sanguinea; after having detached the epidermic cuticle, they scrape the bark and dry it, when it is ready for use. Another is a Vaccinium with red berries; they gather the leaves to smoke them when dry; the third is a small shrub, the fruit and flower of which I have never seen, but resembles certain species of Daphnads (particularly that of Kauai), the leaves of which are in like manner smoked.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 130; see also p. 132; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 306; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 174; De Smet, Voy., pp. 25-6; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-9, 237, 242-3.Return to passage

[632] 'En deux occasions diverses, je comptai cinq personnes ainsi montées, dont deux, certes, paraissaient aussi capables, chacune à elle seule, de porter la pauvre bête, que le cheval était à même de supporter leurs poids.' De Smet, Voy., p. 127; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 266, 309-11, 316; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 178.Return to passage

[633] 'With strong constitutions generally, they either die at once or readily recover.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 581. 'There is no lack of pulmonary difficulties among them.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p. 155. Syphilis usually kills them. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 316. 'The convollaria stellata ... is the best remedial plant known among those Indians.' Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 273; Davies, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 132; Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 276; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-9, 240-2.Return to passage

[634] 'The Yutas make their graves high up the kanyons, usually in clefts of rock.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 150. At the obsequies of a chief of the Timpenaguchya tribe 'two squaws, two Pa Yuta children, and fifteen of his best horses composed the "customs."' Id., p. 577. 'When a death takes place, they wrap the body in a skin or hide, and drag it by the leg to a grave, which is heaped up with stones, as a protection against wild beasts.' Id., p. 582; Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., pp. 131, 345; De Smet, Voy., p. 28; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 359, 363.Return to passage

[635] The Shoshones of Carson Valley 'are very rigid in their morals.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 85. At Haw's Ranch, 'honest and trustworthy, but lazy and dirty.' Id., p. 123. These Kusi-Utahs 'were very inoffensive and seemed perfectly guileless.' Id., vol. ii., p. 412. The Pai-uches are considered as mere dogs, the refuse of the lowest order of humanity. Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 376. The Timpanigos Yutas 'are a noble race ... brave and hospitable.' Id., p. 371. The Pi-utes are 'the most degraded and least intellectual Indians known to the trappers.' Farnham's Trav., p. 58. 'The Snakes are a very intelligent race.' Id., p. 62. The Bannacks are 'a treacherous and dangerous race.' Id., p. 76. The Pi-Edes are 'timid and dejected;' the Snakes are 'fierce and warlike;' the Tosawitches 'very treacherous;' the Bannacks 'treacherous;' the Washoes 'peaceable, but indolent.' Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 45-9. The Utahs 'are brave, impudent, and warlike ... of a revengeful disposition.' Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 178. 'Industrious.' Armstrong, in Id., 1856, p. 233. 'A race of men whose cruelty is scarcely a stride removed from that of cannibalism.' Hurt, in Id., p. 231. 'The Pah-utes are undoubtedly the most interesting and docile Indians on the continent.' Dodge, in Id., 1859, p. 374. The Utahs are 'fox-like, crafty, and cunning.' Archuleta, in Id., 1865, p. 167. The Pi-Utes are 'teachable, kind, and industrious ... scrupulously chaste in all their intercourse.' Parker, in Id., 1866, p. 115. The Weber-Utes 'are the most worthless and indolent of any in the Territory.' Head, in Id., p. 123. The Bannocks 'seem to be imbued with a spirit of dash and bravery quite unusual.' Campbell, in Id., p. 120. The Bannacks are 'energetic and industrious.' Danilson, in Id., 1869, p. 288. The Washoes are docile and tractable. Douglas, in Id., 1870, p. 96. The Pi-utes are 'not warlike, rather cowardly, but pilfering and treacherous.' Powell, in Id., 1871, p. 562. The Shoshokoes 'are extremely indolent, but a mild, inoffensive race.' Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 257. The Snakes 'are a thoroughly savage and lazy tribe.' Franchère's Nar., p. 150. The Shoshones are 'frank and communicative.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 306. The Snakes are 'pacific, hospitable and honest.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 325. 'The Snakes are a very intelligent race.' White's Ogn., p. 379. The Pi-utes 'are as degraded a class of humanity as can be found upon the earth. The male is proud, sullen, intensely insolent.... They will not steal. The women are chaste, at least toward their white brethren.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical Jour., vol. iii., p. 154. The Snakes have been considered 'as rather a dull and degraded people ... weak in intellect, and wanting in courage. And this opinion is very probable to a casual observer at first sight, or when seen in small numbers; for their apparent timidity, grave, and reserved habits, give them an air of stupidity. An intimate knowledge of the Snake character will, however, place them on an equal footing with that of other kindred nations, either east or west of the mountains, both in respect to their mental faculties and moral attributes.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 151. 'Les Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont ... un peuple plus misérable, plus dégradé et plus pauvre. Les Français les appellent communément les Dignes-de-pitié, et ce nom leur convient à merveille.' De Smet, Voy., p. 28. The Utahs 'pariassent doux et affables, très-polis et hospitaliers pour les étrangers, et charitables entre eux.' Id., p. 30. 'The Indians of Utah are the most miserable, if not the most degraded, beings of all the vast American wilderness.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64. The Utahs 'possess a capacity for improvement whenever circumstances favor them.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 180. The Snakes are 'la plus mauvaise des races des Peaux-Rouges que j'ai fréquentées. Ils sont aussi paresseux que peu prévoyants.' Saint-Amant, Voy., p. 325. The Shoshones of Idaho are 'highly intelligent and lively ... the most virtuous and unsophisticated of all the Indians of the United States.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. The Washoes have 'superior intelligence and aptitude for learning.' Id., June 14, 1861; see also Id., June 26, 1863. The Nevada Shoshones 'are the most pure and uncorrupted aborigines upon this continent ... they are scrupulously clean in their persons, and chaste in their habits ... though whole families live together, of all ages and both sexes, in the same tent, immorality and crime are of rare occurrence.' Prince, in Id., Oct. 18, 1861. The Bannacks 'are cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 'The Utahs are predatory, voracious and perfidious. Plunderers and murderers by habit ... when their ferocity is not excited, their suspicions are so great as to render what they say unreliable, if they do not remain altogether uncommunicative.' Id., vol. v., pp. 197-8. The Pa-Vants 'are as brave and improvable as their neighbours are mean and vile.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577. 'The Yuta is less servile, and consequently has a higher ethnic status than the African negro; he will not toil, and he turns at a kick or a blow.' Id., p. 581. The Shoshokoes 'are harmless and exceedingly timid and shy.' Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 538.Return to passage