The Mediterranean (part 4 of 5)

The Mediterranean (part 4 of 5)

Between these two souks the Souk el-Leffa (Pl. C, 5), off which, on the right, is the Souk el-Kebabdjia (lace), leads to the *=Souk Sekajine=, the saddle-market, where, among gorgeous caparisons embroidered in gold and silver, we are specially struck with the ornaments worn by horses at the fantasias (p. 99).

We return to the Souk el-Leffa. Thence, to the left, we follow the short Souk ed-Dziria, past the Hôpital Sadiki (Pl. B, C, 5), destined for natives, to the—

Rue Sidi Ben-Ziad, on the S. side of the Dâr el-Bey (p. 336). The small Sidi Youssef Mosque (‘Mosquée’; Pl. C, 5), belonging to the Hanefites (p. 445), with the handsome tomb of the founder and an octagonal minaret, dates from 1610–37.—At the lower end of the street, where the Souk el-Bey branches off to the left to the Place de la Kasba, we turn to the right into the—

=Souk el-Berka=, the slave-market, which was abolished only in 1842. Down to 1816 Christians captured by the pirates were sold here by auction. This is now the seat of the silversmiths, goldsmiths, and dealers in antiquities, mostly Jews. The best of their gold trinkets are from Paris; the fine silver filigree is Genoese or Maltese; the ancient coins are often spurious.

From the Souk el-Berka the Souk el-Trouk, the street of the tailors, almost all Jews, who make the rich costumes of the Moslems, leads back to the Souk el-Attârîn.

From the N.W. angle of the Zitouna Mosque the Rue Sidi Ben-Arous leads into the Rue de la Kasba (p. 334). At the junction of these streets, adjoining the burial-chapel of Mohammed Murad Bey (d. 1705), is the Hanefite Mosque of Sidi ben-Arous (Pl. C, 5), of 1654, similar in plan to that of Sidi Youssef (p. 335), with an elegant minaret.

The Rue de la Kasba ends at the PLACE DE LA KASBA (Pl. B, C, 5), with its charming grounds.

On the S. side of this square rises the =Dâr el-Bey= (Pl. B, C, 5), the largest pile of buildings in the Medina, erected in 1810 on the foundations of a Roman theatre(?) by Moroccan architects under Hamuda Bey as his town-palace. It is now the seat of the French secretary-general and other authorities. The Bey usually comes hither on Monday mornings from La Marsa (p. 351) for the transaction of business. Admittance, see p. 331. The entrance is by the portal where a sentry is posted.

The covered quadrangle (patio) on the first floor forms the centre of the palace. The fine timber ceiling in the dining-room is the only object of interest in the state apartments. The council-chamber of the ministers has a dome with remarkably fine stucco-work. Here, as in the Bardo and at Kassar-Saïd, the effect is marred by European gewgaws.

Fine *View from the flat roof over the white houses of the town, the Zitouna and many smaller mosques. Best light at and after noon.

To the W. of the Place de la Kasba, at the junction of the two upper boulevards Bab-Benat (Pl. B, 4; p. 337) and Bab-Menara (Pl. B, C, 5, 6), the old town culminates in the =Kasba= (Pl. B, 5), an extensive group of barracks on the site of the palace of the Hafsides and the Turkish citadel. The Kasba Mosque, with its fine minaret, well restored in 1904, dates from 1231–5.

Near the old Bab-Menara, where the Souk des Sacs diverges to the reservoir of the waterworks (p. 339), is the small Mosquée el-Ksar (Pl. C, 5), the oldest in Tunis, said to have been founded by Hassan ibn en-Nôman (p. 322). The handsome minaret (1545) is an addition of the Turkish period.

On the N. side of the mosque runs the Rue du Château. No. 3 is the DIVISION D’OCCUPATION (Pl. C, 5), the seat of the French commandant, formerly the *Dâr-Hussein (18th cent.; well restored in 1876), one of the finest Mauro-Turkish palaces in Tunis. (Adm. by special introduction only.)

The Rue des Andalous (Pl. C, 5), which begins here, and its side-street Rue du Riche are the aristocratic streets of the Medina. Many of the houses have elegant marble portals and artistically grated windows. Parallel, on the E., leading to the Avenue de Bab-Djedid, runs the long Rue Tourbet el-Bey, in which at No. 62, at the corner of the Rue Sidi-Zamouhl, rises the Tourbet el-Bey (Pl. C, 6), the domed tomb of the Husseinites (p. 323; ladies sometimes admitted).

The Rue Sidi Kassem, the next side-street on the left, leads to the Djamâa Djedid (‘new mosque’), or Mosquée des Teinturiers (Pl. C, 5, 6), founded by Hussein Ali ben-Turki (p. 323). The modern minaret is by Si Slîmân Ennigro (p. 334).

The open space near the dilapidated Bab Djedid (Pl. C, 6), dating from 1277, is an afternoon haunt of snake-charmers and story-tellers (5–10 c. to the boy soliciting money).

Between the Bab Djedid and the Place aux Chevaux (Pl. B, 6; p. 339) is the =Market Quarter= of Rebat Bab-Djazira (p. 332), containing the Souk el-Aâssar, the Souk des Armes, and the Marché-au-Blé.

From the Bab Djedid we return to the Place de la Kasba (p. 336; tramway No. 2, see p. 330).

In the BOULEVARD BAB-BENAT, in an old Moslem cemetery on the right, is the Tekia (Pl. B, 4, 5), a home for the aged (1905). On the left, founded in 1876, is the Collège Sadiki (Pl. B, 4), a high school for Moslems. Farther on rises the handsome Palais de Justice (Pl. B, 4; 1901). These two buildings are in the neo-Moorish style.

We may now proceed direct to the Place Bab-Souika (see below; tramway No. 3, p. 330); but it is better to take the less direct route through the N.W. part of the Medina, by the Rue du Lutteur (diverging to the right from Boul. Bab-Benat, a little before the Palais de Justice), Rue du Pacha (Pl. B, 4), Rue de la Hafsia (Pl. B, C, 4), Rue Achour (Pl. C, B, 4, 3; with the Hanefite Mosque of Sidi Mohammed Bey on the left), Rue el-Monastiri, and Rue Sidi-Mahrez.

On the left, in the last-named street, rises the *=Mosque of Sidi Mahrez= (Pl. B, 3), with several domes in the Turkish style, built in the latter half of the 17th cent., resembling in the interior the Ahmed Mosque of Constantinople (p. 550). The square minaret was added early in the 19th century.—On the right is the school or Zaouïa Sidi Mahrez.

The picturesque PLACE BAB-SOUIKA (Pl. B, C, 3) lies between the Medina and the poor Rebat Bab-Souika (p. 332). Executions took place here in the Turkish period. The Rue el-Halfaouine (‘alfa street’), partly vaulted over, and lined with butchers’ shops, leads hence to the lively and industrious—

PLACE EL-HALFAOUINE (Pl. B, 2), with its numerous Arab cafés, where on Mohammedan festivals, such as Ramadan (p. 447) and Bairam, the evenings and nights are spent in mirth and frolic. On the W. side is the Djamâa Sahab et-Taba (Pl. B, 2), one of the largest mosques in Tunis, founded on blocks of stone from Carthage. The Souk el-Djedid on the N. side is for silk wares.

Time permitting, we may glance at the Rue des Potiers (Pl. C, 3), seat of the once noted pottery of Tunis, or at the =Jewish Quarter= (Hara; Pl. C, 3, 4), in the N.E. part of the Medina. The chief Synagogues (visitors admitted) are in the Impasse es-Snadli, at the corner of Rue Sidi-Mardoun, in Rue Zarkoun (Pl. C, D, 4), etc.

The interesting Old Jewish Cemetery (Pl. D, E, 3), just outside the old town, is entered from the Rue du Cimetière-Israélite.

c. Environs.

=1.= About 1¼ M. to the N. of Tunis lies the *=Jardin du Belvédère=, laid out in 1892, the most popular promenade in the environs, well shaded with palm-trees, but still unfinished. The grounds cover 250 acres on the slope of Belvedere Hill (269 ft.), which was fortified in the Turkish period. The chief entrance is at the Rond Point at the end of the Ave. de Paris (p. 333; tramway No. 7, p. 330), and there is a side-entrance (tramway No. 6) in the Ave. Carnot, near the Pépinière Municipale (nursery-ground) and the Cimetière Municipal (opened in 1883).

Halfway up, above the main entrance, rises the Pavillon du Belvédère (café; fine view from the terrace). On the S. slope of the hill, ¼ M. from the Avenue Carnot and concealed amid the thick vegetation, is the Mida, the ruin of a mosque-court brought from the souks of the Medina. Farther up is the *Pavillon de la Manouba, a freely restored Moorish garden-pavilion from the Palais de la Manouba (pp. 342, 343), with fine ornamentation in stucco and a charming view. The top of the hill affords a splendid *Panorama, especially towards evening. To the S. is the old town with the Kasba, the Manoubia Hill, and Fort Sidi Bel-Hassen; more to the right, beyond the Sebkha es-Sedjoumi, rise the distant hills of Zaghouan; to the E. lies Lake Bahira with the island of Chikly, the Ship Canal, and the little towns of Goletta and Rades, backed by the Gulf of Tunis and Cape Bon; then, more to the N.E., rise the hills of Carthage, with the cathedral and Sidi Bou-Saïd; a little to the left, in the plain, lie La Marsa and the Sebkha er-Riana; to the W. are seen the Bardo and the two aqueducts.

Adjoining the Institut Pasteur (1904), on the N. side of the Rond-Point, is the entrance to the =Jardin d’Essais= (adm., see p. 331), opened in 1892, with many tropical and subtropical plants. Connected with it is the Ecole Coloniale d’Agriculture, founded in 1898.

The tramway (No. 7) runs on through olive-groves to (3 M.) the village of El-Ariana, once famed for its Hafside palace of Abu Fehr, and now noteworthy for its beautiful roses. It is a favourite resort of the Jews of Tunis, especially on Saturday afternoons, when Jewish musicians and dancers perform at the cafés.

=2.= A less extensive but more picturesque *View than that from the Belvedere is obtained from the hill, to the W. of the old town, on which lie the decayed Turkish forts of =Bordj Flifel= and =Bordj Rabta= (193 ft.). The shortest way to the hill is by the Rue Bab el-Allouch (Pl. B, 3; see tramway No. 3, p. 330) and through the gate of that name. We then follow the Bardo road (comp. p. 339), straight on, between the garden of the Hôpital Civil (Pl. A, 3, 4), on the right, and the Ecole Professionnelle Loubet (Pl. A, 4), a technical school, on the left. About 6 min. from the gate we diverge to the right by a field-road, and we reach the top in 6 min. more. Near the forts are numerous dilapidated Silos (rabta), once the bey’s granaries.

The Bardo is about 1 M. farther on, but we now return to the crossroads (see above) and follow another road to the S., leaving the village of Mélassine on the right, to the Bab Sidi Abdallah (Pl. A, 5). Close to this gate is the Château d’Eau or Reservoir (Pl. A, B, 5; visitors admitted) of the waterworks of Tunis, which was substituted in 1859–62 for the Roman aqueduct of Carthage (p. 348). It is supplied by the main conduit from Zaghouan (p. 359), 58½ M. long, by an auxiliary branch from the Aïn Djouggar (1276 ft.), 23 M. distant, and (since 1905) by a new branch, 50 M. long, from Djebel Bargou, which flows partly through a tunnel 4 M. in length.

=3.= The =Manoubia Hill= (240 ft.) may be reached in ¼ hr. by a road to the S. from the Bab Sidi Kassem (Pl. A, 6), a town-gate 3 min. to the S. of the reservoir. Or we may start from the Place aux Chevaux (Pl. B, 6; p. 337), whence, near the Collège Alaoui (seminary for teachers), we have a good view of the city and of Lake Bahira, and then follow the Rue Bab el-Gorjani (Pl. B, C, 7). The hill offers a fine view, especially in the morning, of the city, Lake Bahira, the hills of Carthage and Cape Bon; at our feet lies the Sebkha es-Sedjoumi; to the S. rise the hills of La Mohamédia and Oudna, backed by the jagged mountains of Zaghouan.

=4.= From the Bab Alleoua (Pl. E, 7; station of tramway No. 8, p. 330) diverge the roads to Rades (p. 363), Hammam-Lif (p. 363), and the Mornag (p. 358). We ascend across the Cimetière Sidi Bel-Hassen (Pl. E, 7), the largest Mohammedan cemetery of Tunis, now desecrated and therefore open to ‘unbelievers’, to the (12 min.) Zaouïa Sidi Bel-Hassen, where we enjoy a charming view of the city and Lake Bahira. The mosque, where many of the former beys’ wives are buried, stands on the site of a cavern which was for many years inhabited by the Moroccan saint Sidi Bel-Hassen ech-Chadly, the founder of the Chadlya brotherhood. The beautiful view from the top of the hill (240 ft.), a little apart from the small Fort Sidi Bel-Hassen, resembles that from the Manoubia Hill.

=5.= The =Bardo=, the former winter-residence of the beys, lies in the fertile plain to the W. of Tunis, 1¼ M. from Bab Bou-Saâdoun (Pl. A, 2), and 2 M. from Bab el-Allouch (Pl. A, B, 3, 4; see p. 338) or from Bab Sidi Abdallah (Pl. A, 5). Starting from the Porte de France, we may go by tramway No. 3 (p. 330; 5 c.) to Place Bab-Souika, and thence by tramway No. 5 (15 c.) to the Bardo. About halfway we cross the Aqueduc du Bardo, originally Roman, a branch of the Carthage aqueduct (p. 348), restored by Andalusian Moors in the 16th century.—Those who prefer to go by carriage should drive out past the Reservoir (see above), and return round the N. side of the old town, past the Feskia or Ancien Réservoir (Pl. A, 1, 2; for rain-water) and the Mohammedan Cimetière el-Bsili (Pl. B, C, 1, 2), to Bab el-Khadra (Pl. C, 2).

During the Turkish period the Bardo, like the Moroccan palaces of the present day, formed a little town by itself. It included several palaces of the beys and of the widows of deceased princes, a treasury, dwellings of the court officials, a mosque, baths, barracks, and a prison (zendala), and the whole group was enclosed by a massive rectangular wall. Most of the sadly ruined buildings have been utilized since 1900 as material for the new harbour-works. At the S. end the outer wall has disappeared. From the tramway station we enter the pretty grounds (1903) to the right. Immediately to the left is the way to the remains of the chief palace of the beys, and beyond it, on the left, to the Museum. Straight ahead rises the ruin of a domed building; beyond it are the mosque and the prison (now a reformatory for natives).

The =Palace of the Beys=, erected after 1782 by Hamuda Bey (p. 336), contains several objects of interest, apart from its tasteless European furniture and poor pictures. Adm., see p. 331.

We enter by a flight of steps, adorned with marble lions of mediocre Italian workmanship, and through a vestibule with delicate decoration in stucco. The anterior colonnaded court is adjoined on the right by the hall of justice, where the beys used to pronounce sentences of death which were immediately carried out close by; opposite to it is the reception-room. A passage to the left brings us to a second colonnaded court. A tasteful marble portal (Italian) leads thence into the Salle des Glaces, which has a fine ceiling and a valuable Kairwan carpet. We then mount the staircase to the First Floor, where the large festal hall is on the right.

The old Palace of the Harem, a creation of the extravagant bey Sidi Mohammed (1855–9), rivalling the Alcázar of Seville (p. 61) in its wealth of decoration, was carefully restored in 1885–1888 and converted into a national museum.

The *=Musée du Bardo=, or Musée Alaoui, named after Bey Ali Pasha (1882–1902), containing the rich yield of excavations in every part of Tunisia, is now the finest collection in Barbary. The Moorish and Turkish antiquities were arranged in 1900 in a pretty little adjoining palace under the name of Musée Arabe. Adm., see p. 331; catalogue (1897) 10 fr., supplement (1906–10) 27 fr.; director, M. Merlin.

=Ground Floor.= The ENTRANCE ROOM contains Roman mosaics from Henchir Sidi Djedidi, etc.; family tombstone of the imperial slave Optatus, from the burial-ground of the Officiales (p. 348). Also, on the right, votive stones from the temples of Saturn at Aïn-Tounga and on Jebel Bou-Kornin (p. 363), Roman milestones from the Tebessa road, etc.; on the left, Roman tomb-cippi and inscriptions. Then two altars bearing regulations in favour of farmers on the imperial estates: D441. from Henchir-Mettich near Testour (time of Trajan), and D 442. from Aïn-Ouassel (time of Septimius Severus); C 1030. Statue of Concordia from Djorf Bou-Grara (p. 392). At the end of the room, a much damaged Roman sarcophagus with the Muses.—On the right is—

ROOM I (Pre-Roman Room). Along the walls are Punic and neo-Punic votive stones dedicated to Baal, Tanit (p. 356), and other deities; then tomb-stelæ, catapult-balls from an arsenal at Carthage, etc.—At the back-wall of the side-room is a stela from Maktar, nearly 7 ft. high, with a Libyan and neo-Punic inscription.—On the left of the Entrance Room is—

ROOM III (Early-Christian Room). In the centre, B 53. Font from El-Kantara (p. 394). Along the walls are mosaics from Tabarca and other places, and sarcophagi. In the show-case, lamps and vessels in clay from Oudna (5–6th cent.).—In the passage to R. IV, terracotta slabs with reliefs, once the mural decoration of churches.

ROOM IV (Bulla Regia Room), containing finds from Hammam-Darradji (p. 326): Roman sculptures of the time of Antoninus Pius (138–161), incl. C 1017. A Minerva Polias in the style of a Parthenos with the cornucopia of Bonus Eventus and a mural crown; *C 1018. Torso of Athena; C 1014. Æsculapius, after a Greek original of the 4th cent.; C 1013. Colossal statue of Apollo, after the school of Scopas; C 1015. Ceres; Roman inscriptions.—In the adjoining Room V, terracotta figures from the temples of Baal and Tanit at Bir Bou-Rekba.

On the STAIRCASE, C 1033. Head of Hercules, Roman mosaics, etc.; on the upper landing, C 939. Statue of Apollo from the theatre at Carthage.

=First Floor.= ROOM VI, the old inner court (patio) of the palace. In the centre are two large Roman mosaics from Oudna (2nd cent. A. D.): A 103. Bacchus presenting the vine to the Attic king Icarius (A 104. Hare and fox hunt, in front); A 105. Representation of a country estate, with hunting scenes. Between the columns of the portico are Roman statues in marble from Carthage (C 944. Ganymede; C 979. Bacchus; C 924. Juno; C 982. Isis; and others). Along the walls are marble busts and heads, most of them from Carthage.—Adjoining this room on the N. is—

ROOM VII, formerly the banqueting-room, with superb *Dome carved in wood. In the centre, A 1 Mosaic pavement, about 150 sq. yds., from a Roman villa near Susa (‘Cortège de Neptune’). By the end-walls, A 25–27. Three semicircular mosaics from Tabarca (beginning of the 4th cent. A.D.) representing a country seat with park, stable, granary, sheds, and cellar. By the left side-wall are two Roman mosaics (A 7. Fishing; A 12. Head of Oceanus); A 19. Early-Christian relief with circus-scenes; old Christian *Sarcophagus Mosaics from Tabarca, mostly representing the deceased in the attitude of prayer, between two candles. The wall-presses contain Punic, Rhodian, Roman, and early-Christian lamps. By the back-wall are Roman pottery, and implements in bronze, ivory, and bone. Also a fine bust of Athena from Carthage.—Next comes—

ROOM VIII. In the centre, bronze armour of Campanian origin (end of 3rd cent. B.C.), found in a Punic tomb at Ksour-Essaf (p. 370): *E 3. A silver-gilt patera (sacrificial bowl) from Bizerta, weighing nearly 24 lbs., with reliefs (contest of Apollo and Marsyas, sacrifice to Dionysus, Bacchic scene).—In the side-cases are gold trinkets and cut gems, mostly from Carthage. In the window-cases are Mauretanian, Roman, and Byzantine coins. Along the walls are Roman mosaics from Dougga and from *Chebba (A 292. Neptune and the Four Seasons; A 293. Orpheus among the animals); C 1115. The Graces and the Four Seasons (front of a fine marble sarcophagus).

ROOM IX. In the centre, A 287. The Procession of Bacchus, a large mosaic from El-Djem. Along the walls are Roman mosaics from El-Djem (A 288. Hare-hunt; A 289. Nine Muses; etc.), from Thina (Thænæ), from Susa (A 6. Boat with quaint representation of the water), and from Djorf Bou-Grara (A 301, A 301 bis. Wrestlers). In the corners, C 1026. Torso of a draped woman, perhaps a Victoria, in black marble; C 72. Head of Augustus; C 1027. Head of Hercules (all from El-Djem). In the press on the left, three leaden urns and six admirably preserved glass cinerary urns from the burial-ground of the Officiales at Carthage (p. 348). In the press on the right, bronze utensils. In the wall-cases, leaden and bronze objects from Carthage and Hammam Darradji; also so-called ‘tabellæ defixionum’, rolls of lead with curses directed against enemies in the circus (found in tombs at Susa). Detached, C 16. Torso of a Bacchante from El-Djem.—We return to R. VI and thence, to the left, enter—

ROOM XI, formerly the concert-room, containing Roman mosaics. In the centre, A 166. Mosaic pavement from Medeïna, showing the different kinds of Roman trading vessels; also the heads of a river-god and of Oceanus. By the entrance-wall, A 171. Temple (containing statues of Apollo and Diana, and hunting scenes) from Carthage. By the wall opposite, A 162. A seriously damaged representation of a banquet (4th cent. A.D.) from Carthage.—The opposite—

ROOM XII was formerly the dining-room. The presses contain relics from Punic tombs (some of them imported, Egyptian, Greek, and Etruscan). In the two central cases, terracotta-masks (to avert evil spirits), which also were among the objects buried with the dead.—A door on the same (W.) side of R. VI as that to R. XII gives access to three rooms (XIV-XVI) containing objects discovered at the bottom of the sea near Mehdia (see p. 370) in 1907–10.

ROOM XIV. A bronze *Hermes of Dionysus, in an archaic style, by Boëthus of Chalcedon (according to the inscription; 2nd cent. B.C.). On a shelf are remains of a large bronze capital with two female heads. In the glass-cases are two bronze lamps with the figure of a runner; numerous bronze statuettes, among others an Eros playing a lyre, two female dancers, a buffoon, Satyr, and actors; bronze utensils.

ROOM XV. In the centre, a bronze *Statue of a winged Eros (4½ ft. high). Along the walls, a leaden anchor; terracotta amphoræ, bars of lead with stamps in Latin, flour-mills; in the glass-case, a terracotta lamp with its wick still preserved.

ROOM XVI (marble objects). Large mixing bowls (‘crateræ’), adorned with Bacchic subjects; candelabra in the neo-Attic style; capitals; Greek inscriptions; busts and heads, among which should be noted, in the middle, a well-preserved Aphrodite; torsos and statuettes.

We return to R. VI and descend five steps into—

ROOM XIII, an octagonal *Domed Chamber (formerly the bey’s bedroom), with four side-rooms richly adorned with stucco and tiles (once occupied by his four favourite wives). In the centre, A 10. Roman mosaic from Bir-Chana, with the gods of the seven days of the week and the signs of the zodiac. In the right wing, *A 266. Roman mosaic from Susa, Virgil writing the Æneid. In the wing opposite the entrance, C 4. Torso of a Satyr pouring out wine (after Praxiteles). In the left wing, *C 969. Ceres, from Carthage, with traces of painting; also C 970, C 971. Two draped female statues.—In the corner-room on the right, without number, Large alabaster vase from Carthage with haut-relief (head of Bacchus with vine-wreath).—In the corner-room on the left are terracotta figurines from Susa.

In the GALLERY of R. VI (p. 341) are a relief-map of Carthage, models of buildings in Carthage, Dougga, Le Kef, Oudna, Sbeïtla, and Djorf Bou-Grara; also photographs of Tunisian monuments.

From the staircase (p. 341) we enter the =Musée Arabe=. In ROOM I, tastefully decorated in stucco, are mural tiles from Tunis, Nabeul (p. 365), and Morocco, and knotted carpets from Kairwan. The side-rooms contain metal-work, enamelled vessels, wood-carving, weapons, etc.

In the COURT (patio) are mural tiles; in the small side-rooms on the left, costumed figures, national garbs, and models in stucco.

In ROOM II, furniture (incl. a sumptuous bed) and embroidery (incl. haïtis, velvet hangings with gold and silver embroidery). In the side-rooms are Tunisian (from Djerba and Moknine) and Algerian trinkets; also beautiful Kairwan carpets.

Behind the Bardo is =Kassar-Saïd=, a château of the bey (no admittance). Here, in 1881, was concluded the Bardo Treaty, which ended the independence of Tunisia.

The highroad goes on, past the Hippodrome of Kassar-Saïd (races in spring), to (2½ M.) =La Manouba= (rail. station, see p. 329; tramway No. 5, see p. 330), a group of decayed Moorish country-houses with fine orange-gardens. The Palais de la Manouba (now cavalry-barracks) was once the country-seat of Hamuda Bey (p. 336). The kubba of Lalla Manouba attracts many pilgrims.

From Tunis to Dougga, see R. 55; to Zaghouan, Le Kef, and Kalaâ-Djerda, see R. 56; to Rades, Hammam Lif, and Susa, see R. 57; to Bizerta, see R. 54; to Malta, see R. 63; to Tripoli (Syracuse), see R. 64.

53. Carthage.

An ELECTRIC TRAMWAY starts from Tunis Terminus, Ave. Jules-Ferry (Pl. E, 4), near the Casino, for Carthage and (¾ hr.) Marsa-Plage. The chief stations on this line are La Goulette, for the little town of Goletta; Carthage, for the castle-hill (St. Louis de Carthage), for the plateau of the Odéon, and for the cisterns at the Bordj el-Djedid; Ste. Monique, for Damous el-Karita; and Sidi Bou-Saïd, for the lighthouse. The terminus, Marsa-Plage, close to the shore, is connected by a branch-line (½ M.) with Marsa-Ville, which is the terminus of another electric tramway running from the Ave. de Paris (Pl. E, 3) at Tunis viâ El-Aouina.—Uniform fares from Tunis to Goletta, Carthage, Marsa-Plage, or Marsa-Ville single 1 fr. 20 or 65 c., return 1 fr. 75 c. or 1 fr.

A DRIVE (carr. 15 fr.) from Tunis to Sidi-Daoud, La Malga (amphitheatre and cisterns), La Marsa, Sidi Bou-Saïd, Carthage (cisterns at Bordj el-Djedid, theatre, and museum), Goletta, Maxula-Rades (p. 363), and back to Tunis is recommended. Luncheon (brought from Tunis) may be taken beside the lighthouse at Sidi Bou-Saïd or at Carthage. Good carriages are to be had also at Goletta and the stations of Carthage and Marsa-Ville (2 fr. per hr.; but the fare should be fixed beforehand).—In cool weather, especially in the forenoon, the WALK from La Marsa viâ Sidi Bou-Saïd to Carthage is very enjoyable.

HOTELS at Carthage: Hôt. St. Louis de Carthage, on the castle-hill, tolerable, déj. or D. 3–3½ fr., wine dear; Pavillon Beau-Séjour, R. 3, B. 1¼, déj. 2½, D. 3 fr.; Hôt. des Citernes Romaines, near the cisterns of Bordj el-Djedid (p. 350), plain but good.

For a short visit to the ruins the following description will suffice. For further study the traveller is referred to the Carte archéologique et topographique des Ruines de Carthage (Paris, 1907; three sheets, scale 1 : 5000) and to ‘Carthage autrefois, Carthage aujourd’hui’ (2½ fr.; to be had at the Musée Lavigerie), a full description, but partly out of date. Comp. also the chapters on Carthage in Cagnat’s book mentioned at p. 289.—The guides and beggars are very importunate. Native vendors offer spurious antiquities (cameos, coins, etc.), ‘just dug up’. It should be noted that the ruins abound in awkward cavities and fissures, and that, in summer especially, scorpions lurk under the loose stones.

The ELECTRIC TRAMWAY (see above) to Carthage and Marsa-Plage runs to the Harbour (p. 333), crosses its N. entrance by an embankment, and follows the N. bank of the ship-canal across Lake Bahira (comp. p. 129), skirting the passing-place of the steamers. On the left is the islet of Chikly (p. 129).

6¼ M. Arrêt du Bac, station for the Goletta steam-ferry mentioned at p. 363.—7 M. La Goulette, on the W. side of the little town of—

=Goletta=, or La Goulette (Hôt. de la Gare, unpretending; pop. 5000, chiefly Sicilian and Maltese fisher-folk), the former little harbour of Tunis, deserted since the opening of the ship-canal. It was strongly fortified by Kheireddin (p. 221) in 1534 and transformed into a great naval station, but was soon captured by the Spaniards and formed the base whence they kept Tunis in check (1535–74).

On the island between the ship-canal and the two narrow inlets to the harbour are the Dâr el-Bey, an old palace of the beys, and the disused Marine Arsenal founded by Ahmed Bey (1837–55). On the shore, beyond the old harbour-mouth, which is only 6½ ft. deep, rises the Kasba, now barracks.

From Goletta to Maxula-Rades, see p. 363.

Between old Goletta and the ancient harbour of Carthage stretches a tongue of land, the ancient Taenia or Ligula, between Lake Bahira and the open sea, where bathing-places abound: 7¼ M. La Goulette Neuve, with a long row of humble lodging-houses, chiefly patronized by the poorer Jewish families from Tunis; 8 M. Khéreddine, where the old palace of Khéreddine, once the all-powerful minister of Bey Mohammed es-Saddok (1859–82), is now a casino; 9 M. Le Kram, another favourite Jewish resort, on the small Baie du Kram.

The next station is (9¾ M.) Salambo, a new colony of villas named after Flaubert’s novel; near it is the ‘Lazaret‘, an old palace of the beys’ harem, on the shore, between the two ancient harbours of Carthage (p. 345), used as a cholera hospital in 1884 (now barracks). 10 M. Douar ech-Chott, on the E. side of this picturesque native village (comp. p. 345).

10¼ M. Dermèche, station for El-Kheraïb (‘the ruins’), supposed to have been once the market-place of Carthage (p. 345), on the S. side of the Kothon, and also for the Palais de Dermèche, once the palace of the minister Mustapha ben-Ismaïl, and now the property of the bey.

10½ M. =Carthage= (hotels, see p. 343), station for the road to the castle-hill and abbey-hill of Carthage (pp. 346, 349). 11¼ M. Ste. Monique, between the convent of that name on the right and Damous el-Karita (p. 349) on the left.

Passing Briqueterie, we ascend to (13 M.) Sidi Bou-Saïd (p. 351).

13¾ M. Arrêt de l’Archevêché, for the archiepiscopal palace; Arrêt de la Corniche, the last halt. We then descend to the N.W. to (14½ M.) La Marsa-Plage (p. 351).

* * * * *

=Carthage=, once the proud queen of the seas, lay 10 M. to the E. of Tunis on a low range of hills culminating in Cape Carthage (p. 351). The cape was originally an island, but was probably united with the mainland by the deposits of the Medjerda before the foundation of the city (comp. p. 129). The neck of land between Lake Bahira on the S. and the Sebkha er-Riana on the N., where the army of Regulus was annihilated in 255 and where Scipio encamped in 146, was, according to Polybius, only 3000 paces (ca. 1½ M.) wide, but is now 3 M. at the narrowest part. In the middle ages Douar ech-Chott (p. 344; ‘village on the salt-lake’) lay on Lake Bahira. Carthage possessed two harbours. The outer or commercial harbour lay between the Baie du Kram (p. 344) and Bordj el-Djedid (p. 350), where considerable remains of its quays are preserved for a distance of nearly a mile. The inner or naval harbour (Kothon) was an artificial inland basin, probably on the same site as the two modern lagoons, with a rectangular entrance-basin and a circular main harbour. On an islet in the latter lay the naval arsenal.

Between the two harbours ran the triple town-wall, which on one side extended from the Bordj el-Djedid to the plateau between the Odeon and Damous el-Karita (p. 349), and on the other side enclosed the castle-hill (see below) on the S. and W. sides. The market-place (p. 344), on the N. side of the naval harbour, was connected with the castle-hill by three narrow streets, the chief scene of contest during the storming by Scipio. To the N.W. of the city-wall, as early as the Punic period, lay the villa-suburb of Megara or Magalia (now La Malga).

HISTORY. Carthage was founded about 880 B. C. by Phœnicians from Tyre, under the leadership, according to tradition, of Dido, adjacent to Kambe, a colony from Sidon. Under the name of Kart-hadasht (‘new town’) it extended gradually from the dale on the N.E. side of the Bordj el-Djedid up to the castle-hill. Thanks to its most advantageous site near the Sicilian straits and on the sea-route between Egypt and Spain, and to its proximity to the valleys of the Medjerda and the Oued Miliane (p. 363), the richest in the land, it soon surpassed Utica (p. 353) and the smaller Phœnician seaports in wealth and power. From the 6th cent. onwards Carthaginian fleets contended with the Greeks and with the Etruscans, from whom they wrested Corsica and Sardinia, for the mastery of the W. Mediterranean, and in 480 their army of mercenaries, in alliance with Xerxes, even attacked the Greeks of Sicily. After a great struggle of more than two centuries for the possession of Sicily, during which Agathocles (p. 163) carried the war into his enemies’ country (310–307), the intervention of Rome led to the three Punic wars (264–241, 218–201, and 149–146), to the occupation of Spain by the Carthaginians, and to the capture and destruction of Carthage, after a heroic resistance, by Scipio in 146 B. C. On its ruins, in 122, C. Gracchus attempted to found a Roman colony, but it was not till the year 44 that the far-seeing policy of Cæsar led to the firm establishment of the Colonia Julia Carthago. The despatch by Augustus of a colony of veterans and the erection of the city into the capital of the province in place of Utica (29 B. C.) paved the way for the renewed glory of Carthage, which soon became the greatest Mediterranean seaport next to Alexandria and the third-greatest city in the Roman empire. Far and wide its schools of rhetoric and philosophy were famous. Passionate champions of Christianity, like Tertullian (160 to about 245), founder of the sect called after him, and Cyprian (d. 258), who protested against the claim of Rome to precedence in the church, were residents in Carthage, the chief bishopric in N. Africa. In numerous councils (from 393 onwards) the dogmas of the Catholic church were here discussed and settled, and at the synod of the Gargilian Thermæ in 411 St. Augustine with fiery eloquence combated the doctrines of the Donatists (p. 322) and the Tertullianists.

Genseric (p. 322) converted the old palace of the proconsuls into his royal residence and made Carthage the capital of the Vandal empire, and a little later the city became the residence of the Byzantine governors. After Hassan ibn en-Nôman (p. 322) had destroyed the city in 698, almost as completely as Scipio had done, and after he had even caused the harbours to be filled up, the ruins were used for centuries as a quarry for the building of Kairwan (p. 372), Tunis, Goletta, and the small towns around, while many of the Roman and Byzantine columns were carried off by the Moors to Cordova and by the Italians to Palermo, Amalfi, Pisa, and Genoa. The attempts of the Hafsides (p. 323) to resuscitate Carthage met with little success. To that dynasty belonged El-Mostanser-Billah, against whom Louis IX., the Saint, directed his last crusade. It was on the castle-hill of Carthage that Louis died of the plague in 1270, and it was from Carthage that Emp. Charles V. led his expedition against Tunis in 1535. Modern builders have again been busy, at the cost of the ancient ruins, since the time of Card. Lavigerie (1825–92), who made the Missions d’Afrique (see below) the centre of the catholic missions in N. Africa and succeeded in 1884 in obtaining the restoration of the old archbishopric.

After all this endless havoc, and owing to constant alterations in the earth’s surface, it is now very difficult to trace the plan either of the Punic or of the Roman Carthage, which seems to have been laid out in chessboard fashion. Yet the beauty of the scenery and the wealth of historical memories amply compensates for the deplorable state of the ruins. The valuable yield of recent excavations is now preserved in the Musée Lavigerie (see below), in the Bardo Museum (p. 340), and in the Louvre.

The =Byrsa= (194 ft.), the ancient castle-hill of Carthage, 660 yds. from the sea, was the site in the Punic period of a temple of Eshmun, and in the Roman period of a temple of Æsculapius and of the palace of the proconsul. It is now called the Colline de St. Louis de Carthage and is occupied by the chapel of St. Louis, the seminary, and the archiepiscopal cathedral. The terrace on the side next the sea, adjoining the Hôtel St. Louis de Carthage (p. 343), commands a delightful *View of the gulf of Tunis and the site of ancient Carthage.

The Grand Séminaire de Carthage, founded in 1875 by Card. Lavigerie as a mission-house and seminary for the Pères Missionnaires d’Afrique (commonly called Pères Blancs from their white semi-Arab garb), contains the *=Musée Lavigerie=, dating from 1875, where the yield of the excavations made by Père Delattre, the learned principal of the seminary, is preserved. Adm. on Mon., Thurs., Frid., and Sat., 2 to 5.30; on Sun. and holidays 2–3 and 4 to 5.30; probably also before 11, and on other afternoons, on application (closed in Holy Week after Wed.). Visitors make a donation to the offertory-box. No catalogue.

In the SEMINARY GARDEN, below the small Chapelle de St. Louis, built in 1845 to the memory of King Louis the Saint (see above), are preserved eight barrel-vaults, with semicircular niches, relics of some ancient edifice of unknown character. On the terrace in front of the chapel is a large Roman sarcophagus in marble. Around it are placed numerous Punic cinerary urns. In the grounds lie fragments of ancient buildings. Along the garden-walls are ranged Roman mosaics, inscriptions, and fragments of sculpture.

The COLONNADE of the seminary is adorned with three colossal figures of Victory in high-relief, of the time of the proconsul Q. Aurelius Symmachus (373–5), one of the last champions of expiring paganism.—The VESTIBULE contains two sadly mutilated early-Christian reliefs, the Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Adoration of the Magi, from Damous el-Karita (p. 349).—To the left, in the SALLE DE LA CROISADE, are Punic, Roman, and early-Christian inscriptions.—On the right is the—

PUNIC ROOM, containing the most valuable collection, almost exclusively from Punic rock-tombs (8th–2nd cent. B.C.), unrivalled except in the museum of Iviza. In the 1st Case in the middle of the room are Egyptian scarabs and amulets, trinkets (some Egyptian), and weights. 2nd Case: lamps and vases in clay, gold trinkets, beautiful Greek ivory carving (swan bearing a goddess), an Etruscan inscription (the only one yet found in Africa), Egyptian signet-rings, etc. 3rd Case: necklaces composed of amulets, glass amulets with faces of iridescent glass, gold signet-rings with engraved figures, fragments of painted ostrich-eggs, toilet articles in lead, Cupid in terracotta resembling the Tanagra figurines, a Greek work. 4th Case: bronze mirrors and ‘little axes’ or razors, probably amulets.—In the wall-presses, on the left of the entrance, Punic vases and terracotta masks, iron and bronze weapons. By the left side-wall are statuettes in clay in the Egyptian and Cyprian style, Corinthian and Attic vases, an Etruscan vase (toilet scene), two bronze jugs with fine figures as handles. By the back-wall are terracottas.—At the end of the right side-wall, in the window-niche, cinerary urn of the priest Baalchelek, also that of another priest with a beautiful relief of the deceased. By the last window but one, on the right side, are five cinerary urns; in front of them stands a sarcophagus with two skeletons. Then, at the end of the room, are four anthropoid *Sarcophagi in the Greek style (end of 4th cent. B.C.); two bearded priests in the attitude of prayer (one of them a cast); a priestess, with remarkably well-preserved painting, holding a dove and a situla.

Lastly we enter the ROMAN-CHRISTIAN ROOM from the garden. By the end-wall on the left are early-Christian mosaics and lamps. By the back-wall, Roman mosaics (incl. Autumn and Winter); marble sculptures (Ceres, bust of Apollo, etc.). By the right end-wall are Roman terracottas, *Lamps with figure-compositions, and three reliefs in stucco from the tomb of a lady of rank. By the entrance-wall, Roman and Byzantine weights.—The 1st Case in the middle of the room contains early-Christian relics from the abbey-hill (p. 349), mostly of the Vandal period. 2nd Case: a bronze lamp and the clay statuette of an organ-player (upper part broken off). 3rd Case: Roman bronzes and glasses; rolls of lead inscribed with curses, from the burial-ground of the Officiales (p. 348); Byzantine and mediæval coins. 4th Case: coins of the Phœnician down to the Byzantine periods.

The =Cathedral= (Primatiale de St. Cyprien et de St. Louis), a basilica with nave and two aisles, built in 1884–90 by Abbé Pougnet, in the Byzantine-Moorish style, contains (in the choir) the archiepiscopal throne and the tomb of Card. Lavigerie (p. 346). Over the high-altar is the valuable reliquary of St. Louis, executed by Armand Caillat, a goldsmith of Lyons. Adm. from 5 to 11.15 and 12.30 to 5.30 (in summer 6.45).

The limestone blocks on the S.W. side of the cathedral, near the small eucalyptus grove, are remains of the stylobate of a Roman Temple. From the brow of the hill we obtain a good survey of the site of the ancient naval harbour (p. 345) and of the Roman circus (see below). The view of Lake Bahira is charming at sunset.

Between the brow of the hill and the road descending to Douar ech-Chott (p. 344) Père Delattre’s excavations have brought to light a number of buildings a thousand years apart in date. Above, on the margin of the hill, is an interesting Punic Necropolis with rock-tombs; lower down are remains of the Town Walls, hastily restored under Theodosius II. (p. 541) in 424, and traces of the Roman Road leading to the harbour; then Punic tombs again, and below them the foundations of a Byzantine Dwelling House (a room here contains early-Moorish tombs).

Below the S. angle of the castle-hill we come upon ancient fortifications. Farther down is a wall or buttress composed of thousands of early-Roman earthenware amphoræ; also a rock-hewn Chapel (key at the Seminary) with remains of wall-paintings (saint bestowing a blessing) in the style of the catacomb frescoes.

Time permitting, we follow the Sidi-Daoud road to the N.W. from the castle-hill, cross the Goletta and La Marsa highroad, and reach (¼ hr.) the Roman =Amphitheatre=, which has been broken up only since the 16th cent., and which Edrisi, the geographer (1154), has described as one of almost matchless splendour. All that is left of it consists of a few remains of substructures deeply imbedded in rubbish, several underground passages, and in the centre of the arena (where a chapel with a cross recalls the martyrs Perpetua and Felicitas, p. 350) three underground chambers, probably for the machinery used in theatrical performances.

To the S., not far from Douar ech-Chott (p. 344), are a few vestiges of the Roman Circus. It measured 770 by 110 yds.; the Spina, or partition round which the racing chariots passed, was 380 yds. long.

Scarcely a hundred paces to the N.W. of the amphitheatre, near a farm-building, is a Burial Ground of the Officiales (1st–2nd cent.), the imperial freedmen and slaves employed in the proconsul’s office (tabularium).—Beyond the amphitheatre the road passes a second Burial Ground of the same kind on the right and the foundations of the Villa of Scorpianus (identified by the inscription ‘Scorpianus in adamatu’) on the left.

To the W. of the highroad, 12 min. from the castle-hill, lies the dirty village of =La Malga= (82 ft.), which swarms with begging children. On the N.E. side of the village are scanty ruins of Roman Thermae. The CISTERNS in the middle of the village, 15 (originally 24) barrel-vaults now in a very ruinous condition and partly used by the natives as dwellings or stables, once formed the chief reservoir fed by the Roman Aqueduct (pp. 329, 353, 358), begun under Hadrian in 117, but not completed till 163. The whole city was supplied thence by means of leaden pipes.

A Roman Road leads almost in a straight line from La Malga, to the N.E., close past Damous el-Karita (p. 349) and past the Basilica Maiorum (p. 350), to the Arrêt de la Briqueterie (p. 344).

From La Malga we follow the road to the S.E., past the Croix de St. Cyprien, a memorial of the famous bishop (pp. 345, 346), along the course of the old ‘Conduit Souterrain’, to the =Abbey Hill= (171 ft.), often groundlessly called Colline de Junon, rising to the N.E. of the castle-hill. Here are situated the Monastère du Carmel, a Carmelite nunnery, and the Petit Séminaire, the original mission-house of the White Fathers, now an orphanage presided over by the Sœurs Missionnaires d’Afrique, a sisterhood also instituted by Card. Lavigerie. On the roadside, between these buildings, remains of Roman Houses and Cisterns have been excavated.

On the slope of the =Odeon Plateau= (181 ft.), the N.E. continuation of the abbey-hill, near the bridge of the electric tramway, and 3 min. to the left of the upper Carthage and Sidi Bou-Saïd road (p. 350), are relics of the Roman Theatre, including several rows of the seats of the cavea (p. 293) and parts of the stage-building. After the partial restoration of the theatre a grand performance took place here in 1908 and similar representations will be occasionally repeated.—A few paces to the S.W. of the stage we come to the foundations of a small Roman Temple Circulaire. To the N.E. of the theatre, on the S.E. slope of the plateau, are the more considerable remains of Roman Houses, but these have recently been threatened with demolition.

On the plateau itself, about a hundred paces above the theatre, in the midst of a Punic Necropolis (3rd cent. B.C.), are relics of pavement and several underground passages marking the site of the Odeon, a roofed theatre (theatrum tectum) for concerts, built under the proconsul Vigellius Saturninus (about 212 A.D.). Both the theatre and the odeon are said to have been destroyed by the Vandals in 439.

Outside the old town-wall (p. 345), about 135 yds. to the N. of the Odeon, and 3 min. to the W. of station Ste. Monique (p. 344), lies an extensive early-Christian cemetery, in the centre of which lie the ruins of =Damous el-Karita= (domus caritatis?), a great basilica. This church, 71 by 49 yds., was built at different periods. The oldest basilica with its ten aisles (4th cent.) was orientated to the S.E., and the second, with eight aisles, probably of the Vandal period, was turned towards the S.W. A third building, again with ten aisles, evidenced by its reduced size the decline of Carthage in the Byzantine period, as it consisted only of the old transept converted into a nave and of the four N.W. aisles of the second basilica. Within the oldest nave, in the axis of the first choir-recess, a new apse was erected. The =⟙=-shaped building thus resulting, with its very short and many-aisled body, seems to have been the model on which Hassan ibn en-Nôman built the Kairwan mosque, as well as the source of much of its material (comp. pp. 374, 376).

Adjoining the basilica on the N.E. is a vast semicircular Atrium (see p. 316), belonging to one of the two earlier churches, with remains of the fountain of purification and of a trefoil-shaped memorial-chapel (comp. p. 317) built into the colonnade. On the S.W. side of the basilica lie the foundations of a Baptistery with an octagonal font.

On the outskirts of a small olive-grove, reached either across the fields from Damous el-Karita (in 8 min.) or to the W. from the Arrêt de la Briqueterie (2 min.; p. 344), is the =Basilica Maiorum=, excavated in 1907. In the Vandal period this was the church of the Arian bishop. In the Confessio (10½ by 10¼ ft.), according to an inscription, the martyrs Perpetua and Felicitas (d. 203; see also below and p. 348) were buried. In the contiguous early-Christian cemetery bishops’ tombs and a cistern have been discovered.

We conclude our visit with a glance at the ruins in the PLAIN by the sea.

On the slope of the Odeon plateau, between the two roads to Sidi Bou-Saïd, extends a large =Punic Necropolis= (Nécropole de Douïmès), containing many rock-tombs of the 7–5th centuries. Near it are remains of Punic Pottery Kilns and the foundations of the Basilica of Dermèche, a Byzantine church with double aisles and traces of a baptistery with its octagonal font. A few paces to the N. we come to a Roman Cistern, 85 ft. deep, and vestiges of an Early Christian Monastery (St. Stephen’s?).

Close by are the *=Cisterns of Bordj el-Djedid=, on a side-branch of the lower road, the largest in the ancient city after those of La Malga, whence they were supplied. They were restored in 1887 and utilized for the new waterworks of Tunis (p. 339). The building, once dreaded by the natives as the ‘devil’s cavern’ (Douames ech-Chiatinn), forms a rectangle of 147 by 44 yds., with seventeen parallel barrel-vaults of 33 by 8 yds., two filtering basins, and broad side-passages (keeper ½ fr.).

Close to the sea, a little to the S.E., perhaps on the site of the harbour of Kambe (p. 345), lie the shapeless ruins of the =Thermes d’Antonin=, or Baths of Dermèche, re-erected under Antoninus Pius about 145, once perhaps the largest at Carthage.

Between the baths and the ruinous Turkish fort Bordj el-Djedid (49 ft.) lie the foundations of the superb Roman Stairs (Escalier Monumental) which once ascended from the quay to the Platea Nova, one of the largest squares in Roman Carthage. Their marble blocks were used in the building of the cathedral in 1884.

An underground Roman building, with a flight of twenty-five steps, to the N.E. of the Bordj el-Djedid, formerly called Fanum Cereris, but now termed Carcer Castrensis, is said to have been the prison of the martyrs Perpetua and Felicitas (see above).—Near it is a Roman Tower resembling a bastion, half in the sea.

On the new road from Bordj el-Djedid to station Ste. Monique (p. 344) is the ‘Kubba Bent el-Re‘, a number of underground chambers of unknown object, formerly called ‘Baths of Dido’.

A picturesque rock-path skirting the abrupt coast, besides the two roads named on p. 350, leads from Carthage to =Sidi Bou-Saïd=, about 2¼ M. from the Byrsa. This wealthy and highly picturesque village, almost entirely Mohammedan, with the bey’s summer residence, a fine beach for bathing, and the shrine of the local saint (much frequented on Fridays), lies at the E. end of Cape Carthage or Cartagena (423 ft.; Arabic Râs Sluguia), which has kept its Punic name throughout the ages. From the entrance to the village (station and cab-stand) we ascend straight to a small square with several Arab cafés, then by a path in steps to the left, again to the left, and lastly to the right, to the round lighthouse (Phare; ½–1 fr.). From the top we enjoy an exquisite *View, which is finest by morning light, of the site of Carthage, the whole of the bay stretching to Cape Farina (p. 129), and Lake Bahira with its mountain background.

From the lighthouse a beautiful path leads past the Poste Optique and behind the vineyards of the Archiepiscopal Palace, to the Arrêt de la Corniche (p. 344) and (½ hr.) =La Marsa= (Hôt. de la Régence), a village in the fertile plain between Cape Carthage and Jebel Khaoui (see below), with many country-houses and a bathing beach (dangerous currents). About halfway between the two stations (p. 343) is the Palais du Bey, where the present prince (p. 323) usually resides. (Adm. to the stables only, containing the state-carriages; fee 1 fr.)

To the N.W. of La Marsa extends =Jebel Khaoui= or Kraoui (345 ft.; ascent from La Marsa and back viâ Kamart ca. 2½ hrs.). On the top and the N. slope are many rock-tombs, remains of the Jewish Necropolis of Roman Carthage. Fine view, to the S. to Tunis, and to the N.W. over the Sebkha er-Riana to the Medjerda delta as far as Utica (p. 353). On the N. side of the hill, on the reddish Cape Kamart, lies the picturesque, palm-girt village of Kamart, with the ruined Bordj Ben-Aïed.

54. From Tunis to Bizerta.

61 M. RAILWAY. Express on Wed. only (back on Sat.), corresponding with the steamers of the Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (R. 21), in 2½, ordinary trains in 2½–3¾ hrs. (11 fr., 8 fr. 35, 5 fr. 90 c.).—The HIGH ROAD (37½ M.) is recommended in the cool season only, as the Medjerda flats are malarious.

From Tunis to (15 M.) Djedeïda, see p. 329. The train diverges here to the N. from the main line to Algeria.

19 M. Chaouat; 24 M. Sidi-Athman, near the Garaa Mabtouha, backed by the offshoots of Jebel Kechbata (p. 354). We then run through hilly country, to the W., to (31 M.) Aïn-Rhelal.

40½ M. =Mateur= (Rail. Restaurant; Hôt. de France, etc.; pop. 5000, incl. 1600 Italians), a small town nearly 1 M. from the station, lies pleasantly on a hill beyond the influx of the Oued Tine into the Oued Jemine or Joumine, and is still enclosed by its old walls, built partly out of the ruins of the Roman Oppidum Matarense. It is the corn and cattle market for the fertile Plaines de Mateur, which were densely peopled in ancient times, and for the Berber tribes of the Bejaoua and Mogod Mts.

A railway runs from Mateur viâ (17 M.) Jefna, in the Nefza Mts., to Djebel-Abiod (p. 328), whence it is being extended to Tabarca (p. 327).—Another line connects Mateur with Béja (p. 328).

The train crosses the plain, to the N., towards the Garaet Ichkeul or Achkel, the Sisara Lacus of the ancients, a freshwater-lake abounding in fish, but very shallow and rapidly filling up. On the S. side is a marshy tract where within the last few decades a large herd of half-wild Italian buffaloes has sprung up. Above it towers Jebel Ichkeul (1667 ft.), noted for its marble, the chief landmark of the bay of Bizerta.

50 M. Oued-Tindja (Hôt. de la Gare) lies on the strip of land, barely 2 M. broad, between Lake Ichkeul and the =Lac de Bizerte= (Arabic Garaet Tindja). The latter, the ancient Lacus Hipponensis, ca. 30,000 acres in area and 40 ft. deep at places, is now the chief French naval harbour on the Mediterranean next to Toulon.

A strategic railway and a road (omn. 20 c.) lead to the E. from Oued-Tindja to (2 M.) =Ferryville= (Hôt. de l’Amirauté; Hôt. de l’Arsenal; pop. 3000, largely Italian dock-labourers), the youngest town in Tunisia, named after Jules Ferry (p. 333), and to (2¾ M.) the small bay of Sidi-Abdallah, on which, 9½ M. from the open sea, a Naval Arsenal, with five large dry-docks, was built in 1899–1908.

The train crosses the Oued Tindja, the sinuous effluent of Lake Ichkeul, and rounds the marshy W. bank of Lake Bizerta. 55½ M. Sidi-Ahmed, opposite Djezira el-Kebira, the largest island in the lake.

59 M. La Pêcherie, on the Goulet, a narrow arm of the sea to the N., which, with the new harbour-canal (p. 353), connects the dockyard with the open sea. On the small Baie Ponty, now used as a torpedo-boat station, rise the Arsenal de la Défense-Mobile and the handsome Amirauté.

A road leads to the S. from the station through olive-woods to (½ M.) the =Barrage des Pêcheries=, two fish-dams about 1000 yds. long, adjoining the S.W. end of the Goulet (here 55 yds. across), where the fish descending from the lakes to spawn in the sea are caught in great numbers. The yield, a few years ago ca. 580 tons, but now much reduced, is sent to Tunis and Marseilles.

We pass the Baie de Sebra, the inner harbour of Bizerta, as yet little used, and the Artillery Arsenal, intersect the new S. wall of the town and the garden-suburb of Bijouville, and reach the station of (61 M.) Bizerta, on the harbour-canal.

=Bizerta.=—Railway Restaurant.—HOTELS (comp. p. 324). *Grand-Hotel, Place d’Europe, in an open site near the station, R. 3–6, B. 1, déj. 3, D. 3½, pens. 10–12, omn. ½ fr.; Hôt. de la Paix, Hôt. de France, etc.—CAB. Drive 30, for 3 pers. 40, with pair 50 c.; hour 1–1¼ or 1½–2 fr.; ½ day (6 hrs.) 4, 5, or 7 fr.; whole day (12 hrs.) 6, 7, 12, or 14 fr.

BRITISH VICE-CONSUL, Hon. T. Bourke, Rue de Provence.

Bizerta, Fr. Bizerte, Arabic Bent-Zert (pop. 17,300, of whom 9500 are Moslems, 5100 Italians and Maltese), a town strongly garrisoned with 7000 men, the ancient Hippo Diarrhytus (Zarytus), was one of the earliest Phœnician settlements on the Tunisian coast. It lies on the W. shore of the Bay of Bizerta, between a range of hills on the N.W., culminating in Jebel Kebir (900 ft.), and a strip of land (once bounding the Bizerta Lake, and also fortified), to the S.E., beyond the harbour-canal.

The old town, to which many Moors flocked after the fall of Granada (p. 75), and which was occupied for a short time by Charles V. on his way back from Tunis in 1535 (p. 323) and was to a great extent destroyed by a Venetian fleet in 1785, rises on the hill-side between the ruined Kasba and the Fort d’Espagne, both originally built by the Spaniards. The Old Harbour, unimportant in ancient times, became in the 16th cent. a favourite haunt of pirates, but is now used by fishing-boats only. Of the Old Harbour Canal, completely choked up with the mud of centuries, the mouth alone now exists. The new town, with its busy market (Tues. and Thurs.), is still in embryo.

The Avant-Port, 215 acres in area, constructed by the Compagnie du Port de Bizerte in 1890–5, is sheltered by two piers, the Jetée du Nord (1337 yds. long) and the Jetée du Sud (1041 yds.), and by a new mole or breakwater (670 yds.). The commercial harbour consists of the New Harbour Canal, 1 M. long, 263 yds. broad, and 33 ft. deep, the entrance to the Goulet (p. 352), and also of the Baie de Sebra (p. 352). Two steam-ferries (bacs à vapeur; passage free) cross to the N.E. bank of the canal, where there are large coal-stores near the village of Zarzouna.

The HIGH ROAD FROM TUNIS TO (37½ M.) BIZERTA diverges to the N., between the Bardo (p. 339) and Kassar-Saïd (p. 342), from the road connecting Tebourba with Medjez el-Bab (p. 328), intersects the Roman *Aqueduct of Carthage (p. 348), which was here restored in the 16th cent., and ascends through olive-woods to the saddle (269 ft.) between the hills of Ariana (p. 338), on the right, and Jebel Ahmar (1060 ft.), on the left.

10 M. La Sebala lies on the S. edge of the marshy Medjerda delta (p. 129), now called Sebala. 16 M. Fondouk el-Kantara, a caravanserai on the right bank of the Medjerda, near the old seven-arched bridge.

Just beyond (19½ M.) Oued Cherchara a road branches off, to the N.E., past the spurs of Jebel Menzel Roul (541 ft.), once a cape, to (2 M.) the ruins of =Utica=, the earliest Phœnician settlement in this region. Before the rise of Carthage it was the richest trading town in Barbary, and from 146 to 29 B.C. it was the capital of the province of Africa and seat of the Roman proconsul. It was here that the younger Cato committed suicide (46 B.C.) on the overthrow of Pompey’s party in the civil war against Cæsar. The harbour, entirely silted up since the middle of the 3rd cent., lay between the cape and a small island off the coast. The sea is now 5½ M., and the mouth of the Medjerda, near the Porto-Farina lagoon (p. 354), is nearly 10 M. distant. The Roman town was destroyed by Hassan ibn en-Nôman (p. 322) in 698, at the same time as Carthage. The ruins, now called Henchir Bou-Chateur, consist chiefly of the aqueduct and cisterns, a theatre, a vast amphitheatre, and large thermæ.

Beyond Jebel Menzel Roul the Bizerta road traverses a desolate plain, strewn with Roman ruins. On the S.E. side of Jebel Kechbata (1370 ft.), and also in the marshy plain beyond it, roads diverge to the right (one 12½, the other 15 M.) to =Porto-Farina= (pop. 1400, incl. 320 Europeans, mostly Maltese), the Ruscinona of antiquity, a notorious pirates’ harbour in the Turkish period. In 1665 it was destroyed by an English fleet, but it was restored and fortified by Ahmed Bey (1837–55). Potatoes are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. The Lac de Porto-Farina, on the S. side of Jebel Nadour (883 ft.), once abounding in fish, has been filled up by the deposits of the Medjerda since the middle of last century.

Beyond the dunes of Aïn Bou-Ras, where the new water-conduit of Bizerta, 8½ M. long, has its source, our road runs close to the lake of Bizerta, passes (34½ M.) Menzel Djemil, and ends on the old neck of land on the harbour-canal of (37½ M.) Bizerta (see p. 353).

55. From Tunis to Dougga (Le Kef).

Excursionists to Dougga usually start from the station of Medjez el-Bab (Hôt. des Colons; p. 328), 41 M. by train from the S. Station at Tunis (in 1¼–2½ hrs.; fares 7 fr. 40, 5 fr. 60, 3 fr. 95, return 10 fr. 35, 7 fr. 85, 5 fr. 55 c.). Thence by motor-omnibus (starting every morning; 5 fr.) to Dougga direct. Or we may take a carriage (30 fr.; ordered in advance at the Hôt. des Colons) or the diligence (6 hrs.; 2½ fr.) from Medjez el-Bab to (28 M.) Teboursouk, whence we go on to (3¾ M.) Dougga by carr. (5–6 fr.) or on mule-back (3–4 fr.).—The journey may be made also from the station of Pont-de-Trajan (p. 327; 66½ M. by railway in 2¾–4 hrs.; fares 12 fr., 9 fr. 10, 6 fr. 40 c.); ride thence (mule being ordered beforehand at Béja, p. 328) viâ Henchir Maâtria to (17½ M.) Teboursouk; or from the station of Gaffour (p. 360; 75 M. in 4½–5½ hrs.; fares 13 fr. 55, 10 fr. 30, 7 fr. 25 c.); ride thence across Jebel Sidi Abdallah Ben-Cheid to (19 M.) Teboursouk.

The excursion from Tunis to Dougga and back, in one day, is far more easily made by motor-car (p. 330). Motoring parties are occasionally formed at the tourist offices (p. 331).

From Tunis to (41 M.) Medjez el-Bab by railway, see pp. 329, 328.—The two roads from Tunis to Medjez el-Bab, one direct (35½ M.) viâ Bordj el-Amri, the other, passing the station and running viâ Djedeïda and Tebourba (p. 329), unite on the left bank of the Medjerda, near the bridge (p. 328).

Our road leads from Medjez el-Bab in the same direction as the Roman road from Carthage to Tebessa (see p. 328), to the S.W., generally a little apart from the Medjerda, past a good many Roman ruins. 9 M. Slouguia (299 ft.; the ancient Chidibbia), a village with a slender minaret, lies on a hill on the right bank.

The road then leads through olive-woods and vineyards to (12 M.) =Testour=, on the site of the Roman Tichilla, now a little town of 3500 inhab., mostly descendants of Andalusian Moors, with thriving potteries and a large Friday market.

We cross the Oued Siliana, not far from its influx into the Medjerda, and then ascend in long windings above the valley of the Oued Khalled, a tributary of the Medjerda.

18 M. Aïn-Tounga (821 ft.; no inn), on the N. slope of Jebel Tounga (1575 ft.), the site of the small Roman town of Thignica, has the ruins of two triumphal arches, a temple of =Mercury= (170 A.D.), and a Byzantine fortress.

We descend, in sight of Teboursouk and the distant capitol of Dougga, into the valley of the Oued Khalled. We pass through many side-valleys, cross the river, and then ascend a branch of the road to the right, soon joining the Gaffour road (p. 360).

28 M. =Teboursouk= (1378 ft.; Hôt. International, R. 3½) B. ½, déj. 3, D. 3½, pens. 10 fr., quite good, but charges should be agreed upon beforehand; Hôt. de la Poste, humble; pop. 3000, (incl. 300 Europeans) has a fine open site on the olive-clad slope of Kef Teboursouk, high above the valley of the Oued Zebbès. Into the walls of the narrow and picturesque streets are built many fragments from the ruins of the once considerable town of Thubursicum Bure. We note also the Byzantine Fortress (with remains of a Roman triumphal arch in its N. wall) and the Neo-Punic Burial Ground, to the S.W. of the town. A superb distant view is obtained at the ruined tower at the upper end of the town.

The rough, hilly road from Pont-de-Trajan (p. 327) to Teboursouk leads through the rugged hill-region to the S. of the Medjerda, and passes (12½ M.) Henchir Maâtria, the ruins of the small Roman town of Numluli or Numiulis (foundations of the capitol of 170 A.D., early-Christian chapel in quatrefoil form with four apses, and Byzantine fort). It ends at the N. gate of (17½ M.) Teboursouk.

The ROAD TO DOUGGA, 3¾ M. from Teboursouk, leaves the Le Kef road (p. 357) after ½ M. and ascends to the S.W. over a plateau thinly overgrown with scrub.

=Dougga= (about 1970 ft.), a poor Berber village on the S. margin of Kef Dougga, is the ancient Thugga, one of the oldest and most important places in the heart of Tunisia. The site of the ruins, which vie with those of Gightis (p. 392), is the most beautiful in the whole country. The name is of Berber origin (thukka, pasture). It appears to have been the seat of a Berber dynasty allied with Carthage. It then belonged successively to the Carthaginian dominions and to those of Masinissa (p. 321), and attained its prime about the end of the 2nd cent. A.D. The grand late-Roman ruins, partly excavated since 1891, the venerable olive-woods on Kef Dougga, and the view of the Oued Khalled valley and of the N. Tunisian hills, stretching far away to Jebel Zaghouan and Jebel Bou-Kornin (p. 363), combine to form a fascinating picture. On the N.W. horizon is Jebel Gorra (3160 ft.), famed ever since ancient times for its lead and zinc mines.

Comp. ‘Thugga’, by Dr. Carton (Tunis; 2½ fr.).

The old Porte de l’Est, where a branch of the Tebessa road ended, and the Thermae near it are entirely ruined.

From that gate we walk along the S. slope of the hill to the *=Mausoleum= of a Berber prince (5th or 4th cent. B.C.), probably the oldest existing Punic-Libyan monument of the kind.

Built in the style of the Egyptian and Syrian tombs of kings, the mausoleum, originally about 55 ft. high, consisted of a pile of huge limestone blocks. The substructure, resting on a foundation of six steps, is adorned with narrow corner-pillars and three blind windows. The middle part, which is square, rises above three steps and has two portals flanked with Ionic mural columns and an Egyptian concave moulding instead of a cornice. Three more steps, once embellished at the angles with figures on horseback, bore a small pyramid crowned with the figure of a lion. The upper part was unfortunately destroyed in 1842 by natives employed by Sir T. Reade, with the bey’s permission, to remove the inscription in the Phœnician and the Libyan language, which is now in the British Museum. The monument, however, has been recently completely restored The tomb-chamber is probably underneath the monument.

Passing through the village, to the W., we come to the ruins of other Thermae and the so-called Dâr el-Acheb, a Roman building of some kind, of which the steps and façade alone remain. We ascend thence to the N.E., past the foundations of Roman Houses, to the hill of the Capitol.

The *=Capitol= (comp. p. 288), the conspicuous landmark of Dougga, is one of the finest ruined temples in Tunisia, vying with the three temples of Sbeïtla (p. 371). It is a Corinthian pseudo-peripteros, with a lofty flight of eleven steps and a portico of six columns, 43 ft. high and 24 ft. deep, the whole consisting of great limestone blocks. The square cella, 15 by 14 yds., has been destroyed, with the exception of the portal and the stone-panelled back-wall, with its semicircular niche in the centre and two square side-niches for images. The inscription on the frieze of the portico, of the time of Marcus Aurelius (166–9 A.D.), names two citizens of Thugga as the founders. In the Byzantine period the temple formed the nucleus of the citadel.

The **=Roman Theatre=, on the hill-side a little to the E. of the Capitol, is not only the best-preserved in N. Africa but is unique in the richness and beauty of its embellishment. The twenty-five tiers of seats in the Cavea, or auditorium, are almost intact, except that the upper colonnade has fallen into the orchestra. The stage (pulpitum) still has the old pavement, the front-wall, articulated like similar structures in Algeria, and the superb rear wall, with its three niches and remains of rich columnar decoration. The founder of the building, as recorded by the inscription now lying on the ground, was the flamen perpetuus L. Marcius Quadratus.

Of the Forum and of the street connecting it with the Capitol fragments of the pavement only have been unearthed.

The *=Temple of Cælestis=, in the olive-wood to the N.W. of the Capitol, is the strangest ruin at Dougga. The crescent-shaped court represents the half-moon, the symbol of the Punic goddess Tanit, or Astarte, whose name was Latinized in the Roman period.

The ruin stands on the hill-side, supported by huge substructures. The court terminated in a rectangular antechamber, 46 by 20 yds. The two entrances, with dedicatory inscriptions, lay at the sides, preceded by square chambers (or towers). The semicircular wall of the court (57 yds. in diameter), in concrete, is partly preserved. A large hall here, with two corner-pillars and twenty-three Corinthian columns, formed along with the antechamber the meeting-place of the congregation. The temple itself, in the centre of the court, which was probably planted with trees, was a rectangle of 18½ by 10½ yds., but its foundations alone survive. The flight of steps and the two semicircular apses at the back of the cella date from a restoration in the Byzantine period. The inscription names a wealthy citizen of the time of Alex. Severus as the founder (222–35).

We next walk through olive-wood to the E. to the Roman Cisterns, once fed by the partly preserved aqueduct of Aïn el-Hammam (S.W. of Dougga), and then, past the ancient N. gate of the town, the Arch of Alexander Severus, called by the Arabs Bâb er-Rûmia (‘gate of the Christian woman’), to the ruins of the Numidic Citadel and the Roman Hippodrome. Near this is the ancient Berber Burial Ground, containing several dolmens.

On the steep slope of a bare hill to the N.N.E. of the Theatre, and once no less conspicuous than the Capitol, was enthroned the =Temple of Saturn=, founded by a rich citizen in 195 A.D. The ruin probably stands on the site of a Punic temple of Baal Hâman. The peculiar ground-plan is reminiscent of the Phœnician temples, whose open colonnaded courts contained altars for burnt offerings.

The pronaos or vestibule, resembling a corridor, to which there was an approach at the S. end only, had a portico of four Corinthian columns facing the E., high above the Oued Khalled; but of all this there are but scanty traces. From the pronaos a small gate admitted into a quadrangle, paved with limestone slabs, and enclosed on three sides by Corinthian colonnades. On the W. side these were divided by partitions into three sections, forming ante-rooms to the three cellæ. The raised central cella, once railed in, was the chief shrine, richly adorned with wall-paintings and reliefs in stucco.

* * * * *

THE HIGH ROAD (FROM MEDJEZ EL-BAB) TO LE KEF, which is joined by the road from Teboursouk 3 M. to the S. of the latter, runs high above the Oued Khalled, and soon passes (32 M. from Medjez el-Bab) Aïn-Hedja (about 1300 ft.), below the ruins of Agbia (Byzantine fortress, etc.). Farther on, leaving the zinc-mines of Jebel Fedj el-Adoum on one side, we traverse the hill-country to the N.W. of the Plaine du Krib (p. 360).

38 M. Aïn-Rharsalla (about 1600 ft.), below the Byzantine castle of Aunobaris. 39 M. Kubba Sidi Abd er-Rehou, not far from Henchir Mest, the ruins of Mustis (including two arches on the Tebessa road, one being a triumphal arch of Gordian III.).

46 M. Bordj Messaoudi, a large caravanserai, with Friday market for the peasants of the Krib, adjoins the ruins of the small town of Thacia, near which the Roman road to Le Kef diverged from the road to Tebessa. We descend into the valley of the Oued Tessa, a tributary of the Oued Mellègue (p. 327), and then, on the N. slope of Jebel Kebouch (2723 ft.), pass a Roman Bridge and the ruins of Ucubis.

The road now skirts the Dyr el-Kef (3570 ft.; ‘rock-plateau’), with its Poste Optique, and in the plain of Bled Zafran (p. 360) joins the road from Maktar (p. 360) and, a little farther on, that from Souk el-Arba (p. 326).

70 M. Le Kef, see p. 360.

56. From Tunis to Le Kef and Kalaâ-Djerda.

FROM TUNIS TO LE KEF, 125½ M., railway, two trains daily in 8¼–9 hrs. (fares 22 fr. 60, 17 fr. 15, 12 fr. 10 c.); also local trains from Tunis to Pont-du-Fahs and Gaffour.—FROM TUNIS TO KALAÂ-DJERDA, 146 M., two trains daily in 10–11 hrs. (fares 26 fr. 30 c., 20 fr., 14 fr. 10 c.); also a local train between Gaffour and Kalaâ-Djerda.—Railway Restaurants at Gaffour and Les Salines only.

Tunis, see p. 329. Our line diverges, to the S.E., near Bab Alleoua (p. 339), from the Algeria and Bizerta line (RR. 51, 54) and skirts Lake Bahira below the Zaouïa Sidi Bel-Hassen (p. 339).

2½ M. Djebel-Djelloud, close to the Jebel Djelloud (138 ft.) is the junction for Susa (R. 57) and has railway-works, large quarries, and lime-kilns.

The train now runs to the N.E. to (5 M.) Bir-Kassa.

BRANCH LINE TO LA LAVERIE (17½ M. from Tunis, in ca. 1¾ hr.; 2 fr. 80, 2 fr. 10, 1 fr. 40 c.; many stops). Beyond (6 M. from Tunis) Bordj-Gourbel the Oued Miliane (p. 363) is crossed. On the right bank is the fertile, olive-clad Plaine du Mornag. 13 M. Haut-Mornag-Crétéville, at the S. base of Jebel Bou-Kornin (p. 363). Crétéville lies on the road from Tunis to Grombalia (p. 364), near the grand Khanguet el-Hadjadj (‘pilgrim-pass’), a deep ravine between Jebel Bou-Kornin and Jebel Ressas (see below), through which formerly passed the traffic between the interior and the harbours on the E. seaboard. In this defile, now clothed with vineyards, lay the little town of Neferis, which was destroyed by the Romans at the same time as Carthage. 17½ M. (from Tunis) La Laverie (377 ft.) is a village of Italian miners, at the W. foot of Jebel Ressas (2608 ft.; ‘lead-mountain’), where lead-mines were already worked in Roman times.

Beyond (8 M.) Nassen we cross the Miliane. 12½ M. Khledia.

15 M. =Oudna.= In the hill-country, ½ hr. to the S.E., is the large Ferme Ducroquet, situated among the ruins of Uthina, one of the wealthiest towns of N. Tunisia in the Roman age. Of the public buildings nothing remains but the Cisterns and scanty traces of the Theatre and Amphitheatre. Among the ruins of private houses is the Palace of the Laberii (end of 3rd cent. A.D.), a fine specimen of a sumptuous African-Roman dwelling, with a large peristyle as its centre (comp. p. 290) and numerous mosaics (now mostly in the Bardo Museum). The adjoining Balineum (baths) was long used, from the 5th cent. onwards, as a potter’s workshop. Fine view from the highest hill (407 ft.); on a lower hill is a Byzantine Fortress.

Beyond Oudna the line intersects the Roman *Aqueduct of Carthage (p. 359), in a landscape bright with flowers in spring.

17½ M. Bou er-Rébia, on the Tunis and Zaghouan road (p. 359).

22½ M. Djebel-Oust lies at the N. base of Jebel Oust (1800 ft.), on which are noteworthy remains of two large piscinæ, Roman irrigation-works, and marble quarries, worked since ancient times.

30½ M. Smindja or Depienne (450 ft.), a village of ‘colonists’ in the Plaine de Smindja, a dale, containing numerous ruins, at the foot of the Zaghouan hills.

BRANCH LINE TO ZAGHOUAN (8 M., in ½ hr.; fares 1 fr. 45, 1 fr. 10 c., 75 c.; return-ticket from Tunis 9 fr. 75, 7 fr. 35, 5 fr. 20 c.). At Moghrane (525 ft.), the only intermediate station, the two Roman aqueducts and the modern conduits (p. 339) from Jebel Zaghouan and Jebel Djouggar unite.

The ROAD FROM TUNIS TO ZAGHOUAN (34½ M.) leads past the Abattoirs (beyond Pl. E, 7) and the Sebkha es-Sedjoumi (p. 332) to (8 M.) La Mohamédia, a poor village, with the decayed residence of Ahmed Bey (p. 344). It crosses the Oued Miliane near the arches of the Roman aqueduct, here 66 ft. high, and beyond Bou er-Rébia (p. 358) leads along the E. slope of Jebel Oust to (34½ M.) Zaghouan. A branch of the road from La Mohamédia, passing Oudna (p. 358), also leads to Zaghouan.

=Zaghouan= (821 ft.; Hôt. de France, déj. 3 fr., plain but quite good, orders should be given in advance; pop. 1200, incl. 530 Europeans, mostly Ital.), Arab. Zaghwân, a charming place, specially in spring, lies amidst olives, oranges, and cypresses on a terrace at the foot of Jebel Zaghouan (see below), ¼ hr. above the station. The Roman Triumphal Arch, at the entrance to the village, is the sole relic of the small town of Onellana (?); the columns of the nymphæum now adorn the Chief Mosque.

We may thence walk in ½ hr. to the Prise d’Eau (902 ft.), the reservoir of the new conduit which supplies both Zaghouan and Tunis with water from the Aïn Ayed. The direct route leads from the station past the barracks of the tirailleurs; or we may follow a rough but romantic path from the little town, through a secluded valley, where numerous nightingales nest among the oleander-bushes by the bed of the stream. From the Prise d’Eau a rocky path leads to the S.W. to the (12 min.) *NYMPHÆUM (Temple des Eaux; Arabic Henchir Aïn-Kasba, ‘ruined castle of the fountain’), the well-house of the Carthage aqueduct (p. 348), shaded by groups of splendid old trees. Near the basin are two flights of steps leading to the semicircle of the fountain-shrine, with its colonnade, twenty-four empty niches for statues, and a domed central chamber, the ante-room of the cella.

*=Jebel Zaghouan= (4245 ft.), the ancient Mons Ziquensis, the finest mountain in Tunisia, offers from the summit, called Râs el-Kasa, a superb panorama of the greater part of N. Tunisia and of the E. coast as far as Susa. It is ascended from the Nymphæum path in 4 hrs., past the kubba of Sidi Sala Bou-Ghobrin (2264 ft.) and the zinc-mines (with their humble canteen), and lastly by rough and toilsome paths. Less extensive, but also very grand, is the view near the Poste Optique (3199 ft.), 2 hrs. above the Prise d’Eau (bridle-path; mule 2–3 fr.).

Our train, running to the S.W. with a fine view of Jebel Zaghouan on the left, now intersects the Smindja plain and reaches the Fahs er-Riah, the fertile upper basin of the valley of the Oued Miliane, which is here formed by the Oued Jarabia and the Oued el-Kébir. Its inhabitants are of the Riah tribe, descendants of the Beni Hilal (p. 323).

40 M. Pont-du-Fahs (574 ft.). The village (Hôt. Calega, poor), occupied by immigrants, lies ½ hr. to the N.E., on the left bank of the Miliane. Behind it, on the spurs of Jebel Djaffar (1185 ft.), are the extensive ruins of Henchir-Kasbat (702 ft.), the ancient Thuburbo Majus; in the forum are two ruined temples, one of them, dedicated to Mercury, dating from 211 A.D.; there are also triumphal arches, thermæ, and a Byzantine fortress.

On the right rises the curiously shaped Jebel Klab (1204 ft.). We cross the Oued el-Kébir and run to the W. through the Jarabia valley to (48½ M.) Tarf ech-Chena, 3 M. to the N.W. of Apisa Majus. Farther on almost the only habitations visible are the tents and gourbis (twig-huts) of nomadic tribes.

Beyond (55½ M.) Bou-Arada we cross the watershed between the Oued Miliane and the Oued Siliana (p. 354).

65 M. El-Aroussa, station for Ksar Hellal, which has an early-Christian chapel of trefoil form. 70 M. Sidi-Ayed, on the Oued Siliana. We then ascend the winding valley to the S.W.

75 M. =Gaffour= (about 1080 ft.; Rail. Restaurant, with rooms), with its railway-works, is the station for the large estate of the Société Foncière de Tunisie, 72,500 acres in area, where extensive corn-fields are seen in spring. From Gaffour a road, tolerably fit for driving in dry weather, leads over Jebel Sidi Abdalla Ben-Cheid (2070 ft.) to Teboursouk (Dougga; comp. p. 354).

82 M. El-Akhouat, in the valley of the Oued Soufi, near the zinc-mines on Jebel el-Akhouat (2061 ft.); 86½ M. Le Krib, on the S. edge of the fertile Plaine du Krib.

93 M. Sidi Bou-Rouis, on the Oued Tessa (p. 357), which here forms a wide bend to the E. round Jebel Maïza (2920 ft.). To the left rises the chain of Jebel Massouge (3019 ft.). 103 M. Le Sers, on the N. margin of the broad dale of that name (Arabic Bled es-Sers), one of the most fertile inland districts in Tunisia.

106 M. =Les Salines= (Rail. Restaurant), junction for Kalaâ-Djerda (see p. 361), lies on the highroad from Le Kef to Souk et-Tléta and on a rough road to (19 M.) Maktar.

=Maktar= (3117 ft.; inn), the Maktarium of the Libyans and the Ælia Aurelia Augusta Mactaris of the Romans, to the W. of the richly wooded Hammada Kessera, is now a small village of ‘colonists’ with a fortified bordj (Contrôle Civil; containing an epigraphical collection), and is the administrative centre for the district of the Ouled Aoun and Ouled Ayar. Extensive orchards and Sunday market. Among the antiquities are numerous dolmens, Roman ruins (arch of Trajan of 116 A.D., mausolea, an aqueduct, etc.), and an early-Christian basilica.

The train next ascends to the N.W., between Jebel Maïza, on the right, and Jebel Lorbeus (2641 ft.), on the left, and crosses the Oued Lorbeus, up whose valley once lay the Roman Lares, later Lorbeus, a small town destroyed in 1048 by the Hilalides (p. 323).—118 M. Zafran, on the spurs of Jebel Zafran. Traversing the bleak mountain plain of Bled Zafran we soon have a fine view of Le Kef and the barren Dyr el-Kef (p. 357).

125½ M. =Le Kef= (2477 ft.; Hôt. Dalban, Milano, etc., very plain; pop. 7000, incl. 1400 Europeans, 900 of them Italians), superbly situated near an abrupt rocky slope, the S.W. spur of Dyr el-Kef, was down to modern times the chief town in W. Tunisia. In its earliest period it was famed for its temple of Astarte. After the first Punic war the discontented mercenaries (p. 332) were banished hither. Under Augustus the town became a Roman colony named Sicca, with the cognomen of Veneria derived from its temple of Venus. Under the later Roman empire it was of great strategic importance, lying at the junction of the roads to Thacia (p. 357), Theveste (Tebessa), Thagaste (p. 313), and Simitthu (p. 326); by the Arabs it was even regarded as the key of Algeria. During the Turkish period fierce battles were fought under its walls (in 1694, 1705, and 1807) between the beys of Tunisia and Algeria, and during the French advance in 1881 Le Kef was hardly a less important objective than Tunis itself. Since then the mosques have been open to visitors (tickets at the Contrôle Civil).

From the station (omnibus) we ascend through the new European quarter, with its red-tiled roofs, to (20 min.) the Boulevard de Tunis, once the rampart on the N.W. side of the town, where we have an extensive view. The only Roman ruins are the basin of Aïn el-Kef and the Thermae at the W. angle of the old town.

The old town, still enclosed on three sides by the mouldering Turkish wall, consists of narrow and irregular streets built partly out of Roman and Byzantine ruins. The old Dâr el-Bey is now the Hôtel de Ville. The Chief Mosque (Djamâa el-Kebîra) is built into the ruins of an early-Christian basilica (?).

The early-Christian *CHURCH OF ST. PETER (Arabic Dâr el-Kuss) was a small columnar basilica of the early 5th cent, with nave and aisles (23 by 10½ yds.); but the narthex (vestibule, now used as a church) and the fine choir-recess have alone been left standing. Many Roman sculptures, mostly from a temple, have been built into the walls of the aisles, which were originally vaulted. The nave, which once had a timber roof, retains relics of its old mosaic pavement.

The zaouïa of Sidi Kaddour el-Mizouni, one of the three largest Tunisian establishments of the widely diffused Mohammedan brotherhood of the Kadria (p. 183), enjoys a high reputation. The zaouïa of Sidi Salah ben-Aïssa, belonging to the Rahmania, contains a fine modern cenotaph of the saint.

Steep lanes and passages in steps connect the old town with the Turkish Kasba (now barracks).

Outside the town is a third early-Christian church, the so-called Kasr el-Ghûla (‘castle of ghosts’). The Roman Cisterns to the N. of the Kasba are still used.

From Le Kef to Souk el-Arba, see p. 326; to Tunis, see R. 55.

* * * * *

The RAILWAY TO KALAÂ-DJERDA runs to the S.W. from Les Salines (p. 360) through the pass of Khanguet Fras to (112 M. from Tunis) Les Zouarines, in the plain of the Bled Zouarine.

119 M. Ebba-Ksour is the station for the ruins of Ebba, the Obba of the Carthaginians and Romans, destroyed by the Hilalides (p. 323) in 1048, and for the village of Ksour (2164 ft.), on the N. edge of the rocky upland plain of Ouartane, the site of a Libyan-Phœnician town.

We cross the Oued Medeïna below the ruins of Medeïna, the Roman Althiburus (with theatre, capitol, triumphal arch, etc.). 125 M. Aïn-Mesria; 128½ M. Fedj el-Tameur, junction for (19½ M.) the mines of Slata.

The train next passes over the saddle between the lofty plateau of Khremensa, rich in phosphates, on the right, and Jebel Ayata (3480 ft.), on the left, and then descends past Jebel Zrissa, on the right, with its iron-mines, into the valley of the Oued Sarrath, the chief feeder of the Oued Mellègue (p. 327).

138½ M. Oued-Sarrath (ca. 1900 ft.), on the right bank.

BRANCH LINE from Oued-Sarrath (18½ M., in 1¼–1¾ hr.) down the left bank of the Sarrath viâ Majouba to =Kalaât es-Senam= (Hôt. de Jugurtha), the station for the great phosphate deposits of the Comp. des Phosphates du Dyr on the Jebel Kalaât es-Senam (4111 ft.). The top of the huge mountain, conspicuous far and wide, consists of a tableland, occupied by a deserted Berber village and an old Byzantine fort, accessible only by steep paths with steps.

The train skirts the Sarrath and then ascends the side-valley of Oued Haidra. On the left, Jebel Bou el-Hanèche (4040 ft.).

146 M. =Kalaâ-Djerda= (about 2130 ft.; hotel), near the rich phosphate mines of an Italian company on the hills of that name (2886 ft.).

A most interesting excursion may be taken to (11 M.) =Haidra= (about 2790 ft.), the Tunisian frontier custom-house, on the site of Ammaedara (Colonia Augusta Emerita Ammaedara), founded perhaps by Vespasian as a Roman colony of veterans, and in the later Roman age no less important than Tebessa. Originally a frontier-fortress it was, like Timgad (p. 289), a model Roman camp. The Carthage and Tebessa road formed the Decumanus Maximus and the Kasserine and Gafsa road the Cardo Maximus. On the left bank the ruins have partly fallen into the bed of the Oued Haidra. The much smaller suburb lay on the right bank. The castellated *Byzantine Fortress of the time of Justinian (p. 541), the largest in N. Africa, was built to guard the passage of the stream. Within the vast enclosure, 219 by 120 yds., are remains of a Byzantine basilica, cisterns, etc.—The imposing *Triumphal Arch of the time of Septimius Severus (p. 407) was used by the Byzantines as a fort also. Near it are an early-Christian Basilica, with aisles and extensive Byzantine additions (curious, unexplained holes in the masonry; comp. p. 317), and a second Basilica with double aisles and numerous tombstones. A column, 33 ft. high, is the sole relic of a Roman Temple, the only one of which there is a trace. High above the stream, almost intact, rises a Roman *Mausoleum, with an open loggia on the upper story.—From Haidra over (10½ M.) Jebel Kouïf to (26 M.) Tebessa, see p. 318.

A ROAD leads from Kalaâ-Djerda to Kasserine (43 M.; diligence to Thala daily, thence to Kasserine on Tues. and Frid. only) over the central Sahara Atlas (p. 320) and through the valley of the Oued Hathob (p. 320), by which of old the Arabs invaded Algeria. (From Kasserine to Feriana, see p. 371.) The only village on the route, as in the time of Marius (p. 384) it was the only settlement between Lares (p. 360) and Gafsa, is (8¾ M.) Thala (3337 ft.; Hôt. Recli, Hôt. Gros, both rustic; pop. 800, incl. 80 Europeans), which holds market (Sat.–Mon.) for the Arab-like Berber tribes of the Fraichich (the Frexes of Ptolemy) and Madjeur. It lies on the N.E. slope of Jebel Char (4321 ft.), 40½ M. to the N.E. of Tebessa (p. 315). The Roman antiquities of the town, which was most prosperous under Diocletian, are uninteresting. Near the Esplanade, in the centre of the Roman town, are traces of a temple of Cælestis (p. 356).

57. From Tunis to Susa.

93 M. RAILWAY, two trains daily in 4½–5 hrs. (fares 16 fr. 80, 12 fr. 75 c., 9 fr.); also local trains between Tunis and Hammam-Lif (return-fares 3, 2, 1 fr., or, in summer, 2 fr. 40, 1 fr. 60 c., 80 c.); also a train to Bir Bou-Rekba (Nabeul). Views on the left.—Railway Restaurants at Bir Bou-Rekba, Enfidaville, and Kalaâ-Srira.—STEAMERS to Susa, see R. 64.

From Tunis to (2½ M.) Djebel-Djelloud, see p. 358. Our train turns to the E. to (3¾ M.) Mégrine, a station amidst vineyards. Pretty views of Tunis, behind us, to the left.

6¼ M. Maxula-Rades, in a marshy site, at the S. end of the tongue of land between Lake Bahira (p. 129) and the open sea. On a height, ¼ hr. to the S. of the station, lies the picturesque little town of =Rades=, which, like Sidi Bou-Saïd (p. 351), is a favourite summer residence of the wealthy Moslems of Tunis. Near the Fort (184 ft.) behind the town we have a splendid view of Lake Bahira, the hills of Carthage, the bay of Tunis, and the fertile Mornag (p. 358).

To the N. of the station lies Maxula, a colony of the villas of European families in Tunis, on the site of the Roman town of that name. A road leads thence to (1¼ M.; tramway in summer) the bathing-beach on the bay of Tunis.

A ROAD, enlivened by many vehicles, especially on Sundays and holidays, leads from Maxula to (3½ M.) Goletta (p. 343). It runs to the N. through the isthmus, past swamps and fig-gardens, and, on the left, past large salt-ponds, where in summer salt is obtained by evaporation, and finally it skirts the sea. About an hour’s walk brings us to the steam-ferry (bac à vapeur; free) across the new Bahira Canal (p. 129), opposite the station of the electric tramway to Carthage (p. 343).

We cross the Oued Miliane (p. 358), below a five-arched bridge (1749; not visible from the train) and close to the shore, which is here marshy at places.

10½ M. =Hammam-Lif= (Hôt. de Paris, near the sea, plain; Terminus Hôt., near the station, humble; pop. 1000, incl. 650 Italians), formerly oftener called Hammam el-Enf, the ancient Naro, is prettily situated at the N. base of Jebel Bou-Kornin (see below). On the wooded slope, to the right of the railway, where the hot salt-springs rise (117–120° Fahr.), is the old Dâr el-Bey, a palace now converted into barracks, on the foundations of the Roman baths Aquae Persianae, so called from the founder, C. Julius Perseus. Near it is the ‘Fondouk‘, the modern unpretending bath-house. Of the late-Roman Synagogue (3rd cent.), discovered here in 1883, scarcely a trace is left.

To the N.E. of the station is (¼ M.) the Bathing Beach, with a summer casino. Fine view of Goletta, the Carthage hills, and the peninsula of Cape Bon.

The *=Jebel Bou-Kornin=, or Bou-Kournine, so named from its two ‘horns’, the W. (1890 ft.) and the E. (1626 ft.), separated by a deep hollow, commands a splendid panorama of N. Tunisia. The W. peak, once crowned with a temple of Saturnus Balcaranenis (Saturn-Baal of Mt. Karnaïm), the most famous shrine of Baal in the land, is ascended by a new bridle-path on the E. slope or by a steep old path on the W. margin of the N. spur (925 ft.).

A little farther on we pass between the eucalyptus groves and vineyards of the estate of Potinville, where many negroes are employed, to (15 M.) Bordj Cédria. To the left we sight Jebel Korbous (see below).

The train next runs to the N.E. across the Plain of Soliman (see below), a depression between the main chain of the Sahara Atlas (p. 320) and the hills of the peninsula of Cape Bon, passing at first through a steppe where browsing camels are often seen.

18 M. Fondouk Djedid, a village of immigrant settlers on the wooded spurs of Jebel Zaïana.

FROM FONDOUK DJEDID TO MENZEL BOU-ZELFA, 8½ M., branch-line in ¾ hr. (through-carr. from Tunis to Soliman by the morning train; return-fares 5 fr. 80, 4 fr. 15, 2 fr. 55 c.). Also from Tunis (Auto-Palace, p. 330) motor-omnibus Sun. and Thurs. at 8.30 a.m., in 1½ hr. (fare 8, return 10 fr.). The only intermediate station is =Soliman= (145 ft.; Hôt. Zammit, humble; pop. 2200, incl. 150 Europeans; Frid. market), a picturesque little town founded by Andalusian Moors in 1616, with a lofty minaret. Thence through venerable olive-woods to Menzel Bou-Zelfa (or Zalfa; 197 ft.), famed for its luxuriant orchards, with a zaouïa of the Kadria brotherhood and an important cattle-market (Thurs.).

A ROAD FROM SOLIMAN, where a hotel-omnibus from Korbous meets the morning train (fare to Korbous 2, there and back 3, luggage 1 fr.; other vehicles also), leads at first to the N.E. through pleasant olive-groves, and then, beyond the Oued Bezirk, runs behind the low coast-dunes to Mraïssa, the ruins of the little Roman town of Carpis. At (7½ M.) the kubba of Sidi Raïs, near which are seen fragments of walls of the harbour of Carpis, begins the new coast-road to Korbous. This skirts the rocky slopes of Jebel Korbous (1375 ft.), being strongly buttressed at places, and affords a delightful view, especially in the morning, of Tunis, the Carthage hills, and the W. shore of the bay as far as Cape Farina (p. 129). 11 M. =Korbous= (Hôt. des Thermes, R. 2–6, B. 1, déj. 3½, D. 4, pens, from 10 fr.), a small watering-place, and of late a winter resort also, has hot springs (alkaline and saline, 111–151° Fahr.), an old palace of the beys situated on the shore and now used as a bath-house, and scanty ruins of the Roman baths (Aquae Carpitanae).

22 M. Khanguet, for Khanguet el-Hadjadj (p. 358); 23½ M. Grombalia (154 ft.), a village of colonists; 30 M. Bou-Arkoub (236 ft.). We then cross the watershed between the bay of Tunis and the Gulf of Hammamet.

37½ M. =Bir Bou-Rekba= (Rail. Restaurant), at the foot of bare hills, 10 min. to the W. of Kasr ez-Zit, the ruins of Siagu (early-Christian basilica, Byzantine fort, etc.).

FROM BIR BOU-REKBA TO NABEUL, 11 M., branch-line in about ¾ hr. (1 fr. 90, 1 fr. 45 c., 1 fr.). The only intermediate station is (2½ M.) =Hammamet= (82 ft.; Hôt. de la Plage, on the shore, R. 2 fr., B. 60 c., déj. or D. 2, pens. 5–6 fr., quite good; pop. 6000, incl. 200 Europeans; Wed. market), most picturesquely situated on a small headland, ¼ hr. to the S. of the station. The ramparts of the ruinous Kasba (now partly a Poste Optique) afford a charming view of the bay as far as Hergla (p. 365). Pretty bathing-beach. The coast between Hammamet and Nabeul has unfortunately been entirely denuded of wood, but the climate in winter is the mildest and healthiest in Tunisia next to that of Djerba (p. 393). The lemons, mandarins, oranges, and other fruits are considered the best in the land. The finest *Fruit Gardens, some of them shaded by groups of old cypresses, lie to the W., in the direction of the ruins of Pupput, now called Souk el-Abiod, and also on the Nabeul road.—Beyond Hammamet the train crosses numerous torrents.

11 M. =Nabeul= (43 ft.; Hôt. de France, R., déj., D. 2½ fr. each, omn. ½ fr., good; Hôt. des Voyageurs; carr. to Hammamet 5–6 fr.; pop. 11,900, incl. 2000 Jews and 400 Europeans; Frid. market), with its small Souks (p. 335) and pretty gardens, is the chief town on this part of the coast. Its famed old pottery is again thriving. Fayence with geometrical patterns, after Punic and late-Roman models, and porous, unglazed water-jugs (gargoulettes) are the chief products. The small Poterie Artistique (Tissier’s), behind the church, is worth seeing. Pleasant walks are to the N.E. to (20 min.) Dar-Chabane, a purely Moslem village; to the S. to the small anchorage near the kubba Sidi Slîmân, or to the ruins of Neapolis, now largely submerged; a little seaport destroyed at the same time as Carthage (146 B.C.), to which Nabeul owes its name and much of its building-material; to the E. to (3¾ M.) El-Mamoura, near the caverns in the Râs Mamoura, the N.E. boundary of the bay of Hammamet; to the N. to the (½ hr.) Râs Tefal, where the potters dig their clay.

The SUSA TRAIN turns to the S.E., quitting the highroad, on which, beyond Pupput (see above), is the so-called Kasr Menara, a large Roman circular building resembling the tomb of Cæcilia Metella, the only monument of the kind in Barbary. We approach the spurs of the Sahara Atlas. All around is scanty underwood, with occasional tents of nomads and many pasturing cattle. To the left we have a glimpse of the N. coast of the bay as far as Nabeul (see above). To the W. towers Jebel Zaghouan (p. 359).

Beyond the Oued er-Rebia, at (49 M.) Bou-Ficha, begins the =Enfida=, an estate of 300,000 acres owned by the Société Franco-Africaine, the ancient granary of central Tunisia, but a wilderness for centuries after the irruption of the Beni Hilal (p. 323). Among the farm-labourers are many Sicilians. There are still, however, great desolate tracts, dotted with Roman ruins and old irrigation-works, inhabited only by the nomadic Oulad Saïd, descendants of the Hilalides.

54½ M. Aïn-Hallouf, near the ruins of Aphrodisium, now Sidi Khalifa and Henchir Fradiz, close to the salt-marshes of the Sebkha Djiriba, which are 19 M. long.

62 M. =Enfidaville= (131 ft.; Rail. Restaurant; Hôt. d’Enfidaville, déj. 2½ fr., well spoken of; pop. 6700, incl. 500 Europeans), a rising town of colonists, the largest in the Enfida, is a pretty oasis of trees and vegetable-gardens. Alfa (p. 171) is largely exported. Near the station is a village of nomad-tents.

Above the Zaghouan road (p. 359), about 4 M. to the W. of Enfidaville, on Jebel Takroun (657 ft.), is perched the interesting Berber village of Takrouna (pop. about 500), not easily accessible.—In the valley of the Oued Boul, 7½ M. to the W. of Enfidaville, on Jebel Garci, rises the chalybeate spring of Aïn-Garci, on the site of the Roman Aggersel.—Some 9½ M. to the S.E. of Enfidaville lies Hergla (reached also by a branch of the road from Sidi Bou-Ali; see p. 366), the ancient Horrea Caelia, the corn-mart and export-harbour of the Enfida.

The steppe-like character of the landscape again asserts itself. Wild asparagus abounds. To the right in the distance are the bare hills of central Tunisia behind Kairwan (p. 372). 71 M. Menzel Dar el-Bouar, not far from the Sebkha Halk el-Menzel. On the road, to the N.E. of the station, is an ancient Berber cemetery, with numerous dolmens (p. 324), mostly ruined of late.

76½ M. Sidi Bou-Ali, a smiling oasis, with olive and fruit-trees and a few date-palms. We again traverse a stony hill-region, dotted with stunted olive-trees, and then descend into the thickly peopled Sahel (see below), with its many thriving little towns.

85 M. Kalaâ-Kebira (161 ft.; pop. 6500). To the left, farther on, we see the little town of Akouda, on a low hill; then the distant Hammam-Sousse in the valley of the Oued Laya.

88 M. Kalaâ-Srira (181 ft.; Rail. Restaurant), on the right bank of the Oued Laya, where visitors for Kairwan (R. 58) change carriages. Our train descends the Oued Kharoub Valley to the E. to the coast, with a view of the sea on the left.

93 M. =Susa.=—The STATION (Pl. B, C, 1) for Tunis, Kairwan (R. 58), Mehdia (p. 369), and for the future line to Sfax (R. 59), is in Boul. René Millet, 3–5 min. from the hotels, or 6 min. from the quay.

ARRIVAL BY SEA (comp. R. 64). The steamers of the Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (office, Banque de Tunisie, see below), the Società Nazionale (agent, Rue Villedon), and the Comp. de Navigation Mixte (Rue Jules-Ferry 4) all moor at the N. quay (Pl. D, 2). Harbour-tax 4 or 3 fr.—Cabs, see below.

HOTELS (comp. p. 324). Grand-Hôtel (Pl. a; D, 2), Cours de la Marine, R. 4–7, B. 1½, déj. 3½, D. 4, pens. 11–15 fr.; Hôtel de France (Pl. b; C, 1), Avenue Krantz, R. 3–6, B. 1, déj. 3, D. 3–3½, pens. 10–12 fr., well spoken of; Hôtel du Sahel (Pl. c; D, 1), Rue Jules-Ferry, unpretending.

CAFÉS. Brasserie, at the Grand-Hôtel; Glacier, Place Pichon; Bellevue, Place de la Marine.—Casino Municipal (Pl. 8; C, 1), with a hall for balls and theatrical performances, etc.

POST & TELEGRAPH OFFICE (Pl. C, 2), Place Pichon.—BANKS (comp. p. 174). Comp. Algérienne, Rond-Point de la Douane; Banque de Tunisie, Rue du Marché; Crédit Foncier et Agricole d’Algérie, Place Colonel Vincent.—BOOKSELLERS. Petit, Place Pichon; Berra (Imprimerie Rapide), Rue Jules-Ferry.

BRITISH VICE-CONSUL, W. Galea, Rue Général-Logerot (cor. of Rue de l’Eglise).—LLOYD’S AGENT, D. Cattan.

CABS (stand, Place Pichon). Drive ¾ (outside town 1) fr.; hour 1¾ (or 2), day 15–20 fr.; after 7 (in summer 9) p.m. one-half more.—MOTOR CARS at Auvin’s, Ave. Krantz.

HALF-DAY. Visit to the Museum (p. 367), the Souks (p. 368), and the Kasba (p. 369).

Susa, French Sousse, Arabic Sûssa, (pop. 25,000, incl. 2800 Italians, 1500 French, and 900 Maltese), which has been since ancient times the chief seaport in the Gulf of Hammamet (p. 364), is now the most important in Tunisia after Tunis and Sfax. It is also the capital of the Sahel (p. 320). This coast-region, 20–25 M. in breadth, famed in the Roman age for its olive-oil, yields corn also, like the inland plain of Kairwan, although its rainfall is slight. According to the latest statistics the Sahel has 6 million olive-trees, 212,000 acres of barley, and about 4000 date-palms, which here, however, mostly yield date-wine (‘lagmi’) only. As yet the manufacturing industries are practically limited to the oil-mills and soap-works in the suburbs close to the sea; there are also several salt-works on the coast between Susa and Mehdia.

Susa, the Roman Hadrumetum, is one of the oldest Phœnician colonies on the coast of Tunisia. It appears for the first time in history at the end of the second Punic war, when it was Hannibal’s base of operations, and, after the battle of Zama (B. C. 202), his place of refuge. It escaped the fate of Carthage in 146 B. C., and it was again spared a century later, although it had sided with Pompey in the civil war. Under the later Roman empire Hadrumetum was remarkably prosperous, being the great outlet for the produce of the numerous and thickly peopled inland colonies as far as Tebessa. The fertility of its environs is indicated by the name given to it when re-colonized under Trajan (Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Frugifera Hadrumentina). At that period the whole coast from Hadrumetum to El-Alia and Chebba (p. 370) was bordered with sumptuous country-houses. After its conquest by the Arabs (in 665, and again in 689) Susa, whose present name is said to date from the 8th cent., was outstripped by Kairwan and Mehdia. It afterwards suffered severely from the irruption of the Hilalides (p. 323) and its conquest by the Normans (1135), and in more modern times from its bombardment by the Spaniards (1537 and 1550), the French (1769), and the Venetians (1783).

The HARBOUR, 35 acres in area, constructed in 1886–9, is tolerably sheltered by two moles and by the Grande Jetée (737 yds.), the end of which is a splendid point of view. The Digue Sud (Pl. D, 4, 5), where new harbour-works are in progress, is occupied by storehouses for the phosphates from Aïn-Moularès (p. 372).

Between the N. mole and the dunes of Bou-Jaffar, near the Punic-Roman harbour (Kothon), of which scarcely a trace is left, lies the new town, dating from 1881. The busy parts of it are the Rond-Point de la Douane (Pl. D, 2), near the steamboat-quay, and the PLACE PICHON (Pl. C, D, 2), from which the Boul. René Millet leads to the station.

Between the two small public gardens here is the *=Museum= (Pl. C, 2), a valuable collection of Punic, Roman, and early-Christian antiquities, mostly excavated of late in the Sahel. Adm. daily, except Mon., 8–11 and 2–4 (from 1st July to 15th Oct. 7–11 only). No catalogue. Curator, M. E. Gouvet, the town architect.

The chief treasures of the museum are the numerous mosaics from Roman villas. In the centre of the hall is a large pavement from El-Alia, already freely restored in ancient times, representing an inundation of the Nile, with two-storied houses, a hippopotamus, a crocodile, etc.; by the entrance-wall, Neptune in a chariot with sea-horses, ducks, and fish; by the back-wall, procession of Bacchus, fishing scenes, a gazelle among edible animals and fruits (from a dining-room), the rape of Ganymede, a Nile scene, a basket with fish and lobsters; by the end-wall to the left, a peacock. By the right end-wall, an early-Christian mosaic, with the signature of the artist (Theodulos).

By the back-wall are relics of wall-paintings and the marble statuette of a negro boy. By the entrance-wall, fragments of Roman reliefs in stucco: head of a bearded man, from El-Djem (2nd cent. A. D.); bust of Athena and female head in profile, from Susa (2nd cent.). By the left end-wall, a large relief, from Susa, of the triumphal procession of a Roman emperor, with a fettered warrior behind the chariot.

The central presses contain (on the left) *Terracotta Figures from Susa (mother and child, Venus, female harpist, rider on a camel, etc.) and fine vessels in clay; (on the right) ancient coins; a fine bust in bronze and leaden rolls inscribed with curses (comp. p. 341), from Susa; bronze utensils, trinkets, implements in bone; Punic, Roman, and early-Christian lamps; mosaic of Virgil writing the Æneid.

The old town, an irregular quadrilateral almost unspoiled by modern improvements, contains no buildings of outstanding importance, but its Oriental streets are strikingly picturesque. The many-towered *Town Wall, with its gallery of defence and its crowning battlements, was erected by the Aglabides (p. 323) in 827.

From the Place Pichon we first visit the Place Bab el-Bahar (Pl. C, 2), named after the old ‘sea-gate’, almost always enlivened by a dense and busy throng. The main streets of this quarter are the Rue de France and Rue Général-Logerot, between which rises the Chief Mosque (Pl. C, 2), built in the Aglabide period on a =⟙=-shaped plan (p. 376), with forecourts like the Gâmia Ibn Tulûn at Cairo (p. 451).

In the secluded streets to the N.W. of the chief mosque, which are best reached from the Hôtel de Ville (Pl. 3, B, C, 2; new building in course of construction in the Ave. Mougeot, in front of the harbour) by the Rue Général-Riu and Rue du Kasr, rises the so-called =Kasr er-Ribât= (Pl. 5, C, 2; ‘castle-convent’), originally a Byzantine fortress, but used since the Aglabide period as a fortified monastery (Kasr al-Morabitîn, castle of the marabouts) for defenders of the faith against the infidels. It is now a humble medersa (p. 228). The building, modernized in the Turkish period, was originally square, with four round corner-towers and four at the sides. The domed vestibule contains fragments of the Byzantine edifice. In the interior (no admittance) there is a small mosque.

The Rue Général-Sabatier on the W. side of the chief mosque, and the Rue de Paris, its continuation to the S., lead to the Rue el-Mar (Pl. B, 3, 4). Here, at the corner of the Rue de la Kasba (p. 369), rises a fine Minaret. At the end of the street is an interesting old Dwelling House, thoroughly restored in 1906, with horseshoe and multifoil arches.

In the Rue de la Soffra (Pl. B, 3), above the Rue el-Mar, are the Roman Cisterns, which have been repeatedly restored since the middle ages (keys at the town architect’s; see p. 367).

To the W. of the Rue de Paris are the picturesque =Souks= (p. 335). Immediately to the right, adjoining the Souk el-Rbâ (Pl. B, 3), the vaulted lane in the middle, and at the entrance to the Rue Bin el-Kaoui, is the Kahwât el-Kubba (Pl. 4, B, 3; ‘domed café’), a small early-Moorish building with an interesting dome, four wall-niches, and windows partly built up.

The Souk el-Caïd, continuing the Souk el-Rbâ, ascends to the Bâb el-Gharbi (Pl. A, 3), the old Moorish W. gate.—In the Rue Dâr el-Bey, between the Souk el-Caïd and Rue de la Kasba, is the Dâr el-Bey (Pl. 1; B, 3), an old palace of the beys of Tunis, now the Contrôle Civil and office of the caïd (driba).

The Rue de la Kasba, or from Bâb el-Gharbi the boulevard outside the town, leads to the =Kasba= (Pl. A, B, 4; 131 ft. above the sea), the Moorish-Turkish citadel, built partly on the foundations of a Roman temple, now the barracks of the tirailleurs (adm. on presenting visiting-card; a sergeant acts as guide). The ‘Salle d’Honneur’ contains neo-Punic and Roman antiquities from the Camp Militaire (see below), including valuable mosaics (victorious racehorses, etc.) and early-Christian objects from the catacombs (see below). From the N. terrace of the Kasba, or from the tower (now lighthouse; not always open), there is a splendid *View of the town and harbour, of the Sahel, the whole bay of Hammamet, and of the inland Tunisian hill-country as far as Jebel Zaghouan.

From the Bâb el-Gharbi a road leads to the W. to Kalaâ-Srira (p. 366) through the Camp Militaire (Pl. A, 3, 4), whose huts stand partly on the ancient Punic burial-grounds. About ¾ M. from the gate are remains of a Roman Burial Ground; also, on a road diverging to the left a little before, extensive early-Christian Catacombs (adm. 1 fr.), 3 min. to the S. of the highroad.

FROM SUSA TO MEHDIA, 39½ M., railway in 3¼ hrs. (7 fr. 5, 5 fr. 35, 3 fr. 80 c.). The line runs, a little apart from the Sfax road (R. 59), at first to the S.W., through the beautiful hill-country of the Sahel, to (6 M.) M’Saken (p. 378). 11 M. Ouardenine, where the new line to Sfax (see p. 378) diverges to the S. Our line sweeps round to the E. to (16 M.) Djemmal.—22 M. =Moknine= (181 ft.; Café-Restaurant de la Gare; pop. 9000, incl. 700 Jews and 70 Europeans) is noted for its Jewish goldsmiths’ work in an antique style like that of Djerba (p. 394). On the road to Monastir (p. 405), 3¾ M. to the N.W. of Moknine, are the ruins of the very ancient Phœnician-Roman seaport Leptis Minor, now Lamta or Lempta (remains of the old quays, cisterns, etc.), near which is the Punic necropolis Henchir Meskhal.

The train skirts the Sebkha de Moknine. 27½ M. Teboulba (146 ft.; pop. 2900), a small town amidst pretty orange and mandarin gardens, on the S. shore of the Bay of Monastir (p. 405). Farther to the S.E. we come to (30 M.) Bekalta (pop. 3400), a little town with the ruins of the seaport of Thapsus, famed for Cæsar’s victory (p. 322; large Roman cisterns, amphitheatre, quay of the Punic-Roman Kothon, Punic rock-tombs).

39½ M. =Mehdia= or Mahdia (66 ft.; Hôt. de France, Grand-Hôtel, both very humble; Brit. cons. agent, G. Violante; pop. 10,000, incl. 600 Europeans), the ancient capital of Ifrikia (p. 322), founded in 916 as Mahedia by the Fatimite Obeïd Allah el-Mahdi, on the site of the Phœnician-Roman Zella (Africa?), is now a poor little seaport-town with hardly a trace of its former renown. Being centrally situated on the E. coast of Tunisia, on the narrow and once strongly fortified headland Râs Mehdia, the Cape Africa of earlier writers, Mehdia, after the destruction of Kairwan (p. 372), developed into the most prosperous town and important harbour of Tunisia, but suffered severely from the transference of the seat of government to Tunis (p. 332). In war also it was often sorely tried. It was conquered by a Pisan fleet in 1087, occupied by the Normans in 1148–60, and captured by the knights of Malta in 1530, by Kheireddin’s (p. 221) former general Dragut in 1540, and in 1550 by the Spaniards, who on their retreat after the naval battle of Djerba (p. 394) blew up its fortifications.

The chief sights are the picturesque ruins of the Town Walls and the Grande Mosquée of the 10th cent., formerly connected with a college, with its many arcades and a fine gateway-tower, resembling the Bâb Lella Rejana at Kairwan (p. 375). To the S.E. of the headland are remains of the Kothon, the Punic-Roman harbour, which in the middle ages was defended by two towers. The new harbour, the centre of the Sicilian allache (kind of sardine) fishery, lies to the S.W. of the headland. Near the town are large Salt Marshes. The Necropolis, 2 M. to the W., with several well-preserved Punic and neo-Punic rock-tombs, deserves a visit. About 1 M. from the town are extensive early-Christian Catacombs (adm. 1 fr.).—Off Mehdia, in an ancient sunken ship, beautiful works of art, now at the Bardo Museum (see p. 344), have been recently discovered.

A road (carr. 15 fr.) leads to the S.W. from Mehdia viâ (8 M.) Ksour-Essaf to (26 M.) El-Djem (p. 379).

In the olive-clad hill-country to the S. of Mehdia, on the road to Sfax (p. 380), lie the ruins of the ancient seaport of Sullectum (now Salakta), of Acholla (p. 398; now Biar el-Alia), both with Punic burial-grounds, and of Uzalis (now El-Alia). Farther on, beyond the Râs Kapoudia (or Râs Khadidja), the ancient Caput Vada, where Belisarius (p. 322) landed in 533, lies the small seaport of =Chebba=, noted like El-Alia for its Roman mosaics. Near it are the ruins of Ruspae (now Henchir Sbia).

From Susa to Kairwan, see R. 58; to the ruins of central Tunisia and to Metlaoui, see R. 58; to El-Djem and Sfax, see R. 59.

58. From Susa to Kairwan.

36 M. NARROW GAUGE RAILWAY in 2¼–2½ hrs. (6 fr. 50, 4 fr. 95, 3 fr. 50 c.; return 9 fr. 10, 6 fr. 95, 4 fr. 90 c.). Passengers from Tunis (return-fares 30 fr. 25, 22 fr. 95, 16 fr. 25 c.) change at Kalaâ-Srira (Rail. Restaurant).

From Susa to (5 M.) Kalaâ-Srira, see p. 366. The line runs, nearly in the same direction as the Susa and Tebessa (p. 315) Roman road, to the S.W., on the right bank of the Oued Laya (p. 366), to the (8 M.) Réservoir of the Susa waterworks.

At (10 M.) Oued-Laya, a small oasis of fruit-trees and vegetables, the olive-zone of the Sahel ends. 17½ M. Kroussiah-Sahali. 23 M. Sidi el-Hani, not far from the ruins of Vicus Augusti (?).

To the left, farther on, we obtain a glimpse at the Sebkha Sidi el-Hani, 25 by 12½ M., the largest salt-lake of central Tunisia. To the right, a little farther on, beyond a chain of flat hills, is revealed a striking view of the vast Plain of Kairwan, enclosed by distant mountains, with the town of Kairwan in the background. The low ground, through which the Oued Hathob (p. 320), Oued Merguellil, and many smaller streams descend from the Sahara Atlas and its plateaux to the Lac de Kelbia (p. 320; not visible from the train), is often flooded after the winter rains. It is inhabited almost exclusively by the Arab-like nomadic tribes of the Djlass or Zlass. The train runs through plantations of Indian figs.

30½ M. Aïn-Ghrasesia.

FROM AÏN-GHRASESIA TO METLAOUI, 182 M., railway in 13 hrs. (fares 32 fr. 85, 24 fr. 95, 17 fr. 55 c.; from Susa 38 fr. 35, 29 fr. 10, 20 fr. 50 c.). This new railway, diverging here to the S.W., affords the easiest access to the ruins of Sbeïtla, Kasserine, Thelepte, and Feriana in central Tunisia. It runs over a low saddle between the Sebkha Sidi el-Hani (see p. 370) and the marshy plain of the Oued Hathob, and across the bleak plain of Kairwan, to the S.W. borders of the Sahara Atlas, which it reaches at the foot of Jebel Touila, with its zinc and lead mines.

47½ M. Hadjeb el-Aïoun, the ancient Masclianae, on the Oued Zourzour, is the chief market (Tues.) for the Oulad Sendassen, a branch of the Djlass tribe (p. 370), and, like the following stations, possesses an alfa-depot. Branch-line to Sbiba, the ancient Sufes, projected.

Farther on we pass the foot of Jebel Hadjeb el-Aïoun to (58½ M.) Djilma (1152 ft.), the Roman Cilma, on a tributary of the Hathob, here called Oued Djilma, We now enter, to the W., the valley of the Oued Menasseur, at the foot of Jebel Mrilah (4508 ft.) and Jebel Sbeïtla, inhabited by the Madjeur tribe (p. 362).

76 M. =Sbeïtla= (1762 ft.; hotel), near the extensive ruins of Sufetula, on a plateau on the right bank of the Oued Sbeïtla, as the Oued Menasseur is named here. It was a poor castellum in the time of Augustus, but after the 2nd cent, became one of the most important junctions of different routes, and in the 5–7th cent. attained its prime under the Vandals and the Byzantines. In 645 it became the residence of Gregory, the governor, who had rebelled against Byzantium; it was soon after attacked by the Arabs under Abdallah ibn Saâd (p. 322), and in 648 it was entirely destroyed. The chief boast of Sbeïtla is the *Capitol (comp. p. 288), rising in the midst of the ruins. The temple-court, once used by the Byzantines as a fortress and now destroyed save a few fragments of the limestone pavement, was entered by a three-arched propylæum, bearing an inscription in honour of Antoninus Pius (138–61). The chief temple was pseudo-peripteral, with composite columns; there are still traces of the steps up to it and of the portico. The three cellæ are well preserved, especially at the back, and have a transverse wall, instead of a semicircular apse, adjoining the Corinthian smaller temples. We may note also a fine Triumphal Arch of the time of Constantine, the remains of a Byzantine Church incorporated with a temple, to the N. of the capitol, a Chapel built into a smaller temple, to the E., and the Aqueduct across the Oued Sbeïtla. Higher up is the spring of the new water-conduit, 103 M. long, which supplies the town of Sfax.

Passing many other ruins we come to the Plaine du Foussana (about 2650 ft.), one of the upper districts of the Oued Hathob, here called Foussana, at the S. foot of Jebel Semmama (4307 ft.; with the zinc-mines of Aïn-Khamouda on its N. side). Then a descent to (95 M.) =Kasserine= (2382 ft.), the ancient Cillium, a flourishing town from the 2nd cent. A.D. under the name of Colonia Cillitana, now a poor village with a caravanserai on the Thala and Feriana road (see p. 362 and below), not far from the chalky limestone masses of Jebel Chambi (5217 ft.; p. 320). We may here visit the ruins of the Roman Arch and of the Tomb of the Petronii, and above all the interesting Mausoleum of T. Flavius Secundus, of the time of Trajan. This is a kind of tower in three stories, in the Phœnician fashion, terminating in a pyramid; the 110 bombastic lines of the inscription correspond with the number of years attained by the deceased. A little to the S., on the Oued Derb, are remains of a Roman Barrage,—The landscape farther on, where Roman ruins still abound, assumes more and more the Sahara character.

116 M. =Thelepte= (hotel) is the station for the ruins of the ancient town of that name, now called Medinet el-Khedima (‘the old town’), which in the 2nd–4th cent. A.D. was the chief place on the road between Tebessa (p. 315) and Gafsa (p. 383). Large thermæ, ruins of early-Christian basilicas, and a Byzantine fortress with many towers are to be seen here. The extensive Roman Quarries are interesting.

118½ M. =Feriana= (2628 ft.; Hôt. Hostelier; Restaurant Bernard; pop. 1200), an oasis of corn, fruit, and vegetables on the Oued Feriana, in the midst of a sandy plain, has a new and pretty mosque.—Thence we cross the Plateau de Msila (2930 ft.), overgrown with alfa, and descend to (134 M.) Maâjen Bel-Abbès, with the ruins of a Roman town, 28 M. to the N.W. of Gafsa. 141 M. Sidi Bou-Beker.

153½ M. Henchir Souatir (about 1640 ft.). A short branch-line diverges hence to Aïn-Moularès (1806 ft.), a caravanserai near the great beds of phosphate on the Algerian frontier.

166 M. Tabeditt is connected by railway with (9½ M.) Redeyef, which has rich phosphate deposits.—Beyond Tabeditt the train runs through the valley of the Oued Seldja (p. 386), here inhabited by the Oulad Sidi-Abid nomads, to (183 M.) Metlaoui (p. 386).

The KAIRWAN LINE runs to the W. over the bleak steppe, often passing the tents and the browsing camels and cattle of the Djlass (p. 370). We cross the Oued Hathob, here called Zeroud.

To the right, especially in the afternoon, we have a delightful *View of the white houses of Kairwan, with its countless domes and towering minarets. Nearing the station we see extensive fields of cactus and large alfa-stacks.

36 M. =Kairwan.=—HOTELS (comp. p. 324). Splendid Hotel (Pl. a; C, 5), R. 3, B. 1, déj. or D. 3, omn. ½ fr.; Hôt. de France (Pl. b; C, 5), R. 2½–4, B. ¾, déj. or D. 3, pens. 7½ fr.; both in the Place Carnot, tolerable.—Café de France, Rue Massicault.—POST & TELEGRAPH OFFICE (Pl. C, D, 4), Rue de la Poste.—PHYSICIAN. Dr. Santschi (a Swiss), Grande Rue, near the Bâb Djelladin.

In HALF-A-DAY, if pressed for time, we may visit the Grande Rue, the Souks, the Sidi Okba Mosque, and the Mosquée du Barbier. Tickets for the mosques are obtained at the office of the Contrôle Civil (p. 373) or at the hotels. The overseers of the mosques mostly speak Arabic only. The guides, who are quite unnecessary, are very importunate.

Travellers in haste should endeavour to secure a cab (as yet only one), drive to the Contrôle Civil, the Barber’s Mosque, and back to the Porte de Tunis (p. 377), and there begin their inspection of the town.

Kairwan or Kairouan (243 ft.; pop. 22,000, incl. about 800 Europeans), the oldest capital of Ifrikia, is a town of purely Arabian type, the most curious in Tunisia. The old town is an irregular rectangle, enclosed by a wall 33 ft. high and 2 M. in length; the large W. suburb, also purely Oriental, is the Faubourg des Djlass, called after the nomadic tribe of that name (p. 370); to the S. is a new suburb near the station. The numerous mosques and zaouïas date mostly from the Turkish period. The town holds market for the extensive plain of Kairwan, and the souks are still important, though manufactures have declined. The climate (p. 321) is extremely hot in summer.

Kairwan was founded by Sidi Okba ben-Nâfi (p. 322) in 671, and was appointed by the caliphs to be the seat of the governors of Ifrikia. As the capital of the great Aglabide empire (p. 323) and the seat of the oldest high school in N. Africa, it was hardly less important than Cordova (p. 68), and the sumptuous mosque of Sidi Okba rapidly became the favourite goal of pilgrims from E. Barbary. After the Hilalides (p. 323) had destroyed the greater part of the town in 1048 it was for centuries almost deserted, notwithstanding the favour shown to it by Abd el-Mûmen (p. 95), the Hafsides, and the Merinides (p. 95). In the early 16th cent. several quarters still lay in ruins. It was not till the Turkish period that the sacred town, ‘one of the four gates of Paradise’, which neither Christian nor Jew durst enter, again became the religious centre of the land. To spend one’s last days within its walls, and to be buried in hallowed earth outside its gates, seemed to believers the height of bliss. Its sacred character, which however did not prevent the beys of Tunis from bombarding and partly destroying the rebellious town, was finally lost when the mosques were desecrated by the entry of the French troops in 1881.

In the centre of the S. suburb, almost exclusively inhabited by Europeans, is the PLACE CARNOT (Pl. C, 5), with its small Jardin Public. On its W. side the Rue du Contrôle, with the building of the Contrôle Civil (Pl. C, 5; see p. 372), leads to the N. to the Place Mérabet (Pl. C, 4) and the S. gate of the town-walls, which were largely rebuilt after the bombardment of 1740.

On emerging from the Rue du Contrôle we see immediately to the left the Zaouïa Sidi ben-Aïssa (Pl. C, 5), where the hideous castigations of the Aïssaoua sect, originally Moroccan, are held on Friday afternoons. A little to the N.E., in the Rue de la Poste, is the M’sala Darb et-Tamar (Pl. D, 4; no admittance), a large open place of prayer for great Mohammedan festivals, with an underground cistern for rain-water.

The main street of the old town, between the Bâb Djelladin (Pl. C, 4; ‘Porte des Peaussiers’), or S. gate, now partly demolished, and the N. gate, the Porte de Tunis (p. 377), is the GRANDE RUE (Pl. C, B, 4, 3), officially called Rue du Général-Saussier, enlivened by a picturesque crowd and numerous small shops.

In the Rue Sidi el-Guerian, the second side-street on the right, is the zaouïa of =Sidi Abid el-Guerian= (Pl. C, 4), an elegant building of the Turkish period (16th cent.?). The handsome portal, with the black and white striped decoration so often recurring in the other buildings, leads into a vestibule with tiled walls and stucco decoration, beyond which are a fine colonnaded court in two stories (with the sumptuous tomb of the saint on the left) and a small mosque. Adjacent on the left is the court of the Medersa (p. 228), where the capitals of the columns are remarkable for their richness and variety.

Farther on in the Grande Rue are several mosques of little architectural interest. The gateway on the right, halfway between the two town-gates, leads to the =Souks= (Pl. C, 3, 4). The vaulted main street here, the Souk des Selliers and Souk des Cordonniers, is intersected by two vaulted side-streets, the Souk des Parfums and Souk des Tapis. The latter, for the sale of carpets, woollen rugs (margums), etc., has declined since the vegetable dyes have been superseded by the aniline. The farther part of the main street is the Souk des Gandourahs, ending at the quiet Place Finot (Pl. C, 3).

To the S.E. from the Place Finot the short Rue Moulei-Taïeb leads to the—

=Djamâa Tleta Biban= (Pl. C, D, 3; Mosquée des Trois-Portes), in the Rue Hassin Lalenni. It dates from the time of Obeïd Allah el-Mahdi (p. 369), being the only early-Moorish building in Kairwan besides the Sidi Okba mosque, but was much altered in 1440 and 1509. The peculiar façade in three sections, with blind arcades (possessing Byzantine capitals) on the lower story, is composed above of older slabs with geometrical ornamentation. The interior is uninteresting.

We follow the Rue de la Mosquée des Trois-Portes to the N.E., then the Rue Zoughar to the right, and at the end of it a street to the left to the town-wall. To the left, in 2 min. more, we reach the Place de Sousse, with the Bâb el-Khoukha (Pl. D, 2, 3), the E. town-gate, an interesting double gateway, with two fine Byzantine capitals on the inner archway. From the N. end of the Place de Sousse the broad Rue de la Grande-Mosquée leads to the—

*=Sidi Okba Mosque= (Grande Mosquée; Pl. D, 1, 2), one of the oldest in the world, and, next to the Kairwin mosque at Fez, the most important in Barbary. After the mosques of Mecca and Medina and the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem (p. 477), this has ever been deemed the greatest sanctuary of Islam. The poverty of the oldest building, founded by Sidi Okba ben-Nâfi in 671, is evidenced by the mud-built walls of the old mihrâb (p. 377). A new building was first erected in 703 by Hassan ibn en-Nôman (p. 322), the conqueror of Carthage. The plan seems to have been suggested by that of the oldest Egyptian mosques (such as the mosque of Amru, p. 460), combined with that of the Damous el-Karita (p. 349), while the ruins of Carthage, Susa, and Sbeïtla (p. 371) supplied the building-materials. Of a second new building by the governor Bichr ibn Safuan, in 724, the fortress-like lower story of the minaret still exists. A further extension was made in 821 by the Aglabide Sijadet Allah I. The central story of the minaret, the arcades of the quadrangle, the Bâb el-Behou (p. 376), and the last enlargement of the sanctuary itself are due to the Aglabide Ibrahim ibn-Ahmed (d. 875), who erected also the fine dome of the mihrâb, caused the mihrâb-wall to be decorated by Bagdad artists, and presented the superb Friday pulpit. The present maksûra (seat of the caliph) dates from the time of the Zirite Abû Teminn el-Muizz (p. 443). The decay of the mosque after the irruption of the Hilalides seems to have been first arrested by Abd el-Mûmen and the Hafside El-Mostanser Billah (p. 332). The latter, in 1284, caused most of the outer gateways to be rebuilt. At a later period we hear of restorations by Mohammed Murad Bey (p. 335) and Hussein Ali ben-Turki (p. 323). In 1828–42 the insecure state of the mosque necessitated the rebuilding of the external walls on the N.W. and N.E. sides and the restoration of the minaret, the Bâb el-Behou, and the arcades of the court. In 1872 the nave and its two adjoining aisles also were restored, but with little taste, and since 1895 the French government has bestowed its attention on the transept and the side-portals.

The immense edifice, an irregular quadrilateral of 136 by about 78–82 yds., covers an area of over 2¼ acres. The fortress-like OUTER WALL, with its huge buttresses, has four doors on both its longer sides. These have lost their bronze mountings and some of them their cupolas. Above the S.E. wall rises the dome of the mihrâb chapel and above the N.W. wall the minaret.

We first walk round the whole enclosure. From the Rue de la Grande-Mosquée a short street leads to the right, past the new Court of Ablution (comp. p. 63), to a large open space adjoining the S.E. end of the mosque, where there are numerous underground silos or granaries. From the walls here project the buildings of the mihrâb chapel and the maksûra, with the Bâb el-Imâm (p. 377).

A few paces farther, at the beginning of the ‘Boulevard Ali Bey’, a poor street on the N.E. side of the precincts, is the massive square gateway tower of *Bâb Lella Rejana, adjoined by the insignificant domed tomb of that saint. The front half of the gateway, restored in 1828, is painted like the minaret with ‘giant-spiders’ to ward off snakes and scorpions, and is adorned below the battlements with blind horseshoe arcades. The perforated stucco decoration of the arch-recesses of the side-portals is one of the earliest examples of such work. The long inscription over the door extols caliph El-Mostanser-Billah (p. 374), the builder.

Passing the next three gates we come to the N. angle of the precincts, where their fortress-like character is most apparent. Beside the embrasures of the minaret (p. 376) are seen cannon-ball marks made during the bombardments of the 18th century.

The S.W. wall of the mosque, in the Rue de la Grande-Mosquée, which we now regain, is most in conformity with the original plan. Most noteworthy here are the first gateway-tower, near the N.W. angle, and the Bâb es-Sultân, the last gate, through which led the shortest way from the caliph’s palace to the maksûra (comp. p. 377). The domes, now adorned with the Turkish crescent, still possess their girdle of battlements and have their old cornice of bricks placed crosswise.

The present ENTRANCE GATEWAY (visitors knock) is one of the small middle gates beside the Bâb es-Sultân. We descend a few steps to the court (now below the level of the street), where the irregular plan of the building is most distinctly seen.

The *COURT is bordered on the N.W. side by a single colonnade and on the other sides by double arcades, which on the S.E. side form the porch of the sanctuary. In contrast to the orange-court at Cordova (p. 70), it is much larger than the sanctuary itself. The marble pavement is modern. The perforated stone in the centre of the court conducts the rain-water from the gutters on the flat roofs into a filtering-apparatus and into three Cisterns below. The old Court of Ablution (Ancienne Mida; comp. above), near the W. angle, and the rooms adjoining the minaret are now used as lumber-rooms.

The Minaret, 128 ft. high, an extremely massive tower in three stories, rises in the centre of the N.W. wall, and not in the central axis of the building as is usual. The substructures have been built of Roman stones and the doorway framed with antique decorative slabs. The square lowest story and narrower middle story are crowned with peculiar battlements with small embrasures. Above the three metal balls (p. 195) of the present dome is perched the Turkish crescent.

The *ASCENT OF THE MINARET (127 easy steps) should not be omitted. On the lower platform we note the muezzin’s hut (p. 180). The upper platform commands a superb survey of the many-domed town, of the Barber’s Mosque (p. 378), of the large cemeteries to the W., and of the great plain of Kairwan, bounded by Jebel Trozza and other distant hills.

In the centre of the porch of the sanctuary is the square Bâb el-Behou (‘pavilion-gate’) with a great horseshoe archway and pinnacled summit. The drum and dome, formerly resembling the dome of the mihrâb, were rebuilt in 1828. The timber ceiling of the adjoining arcades is now partly replaced by brick-vaulting.

The *Main Door of the sanctuary, in cedar-wood, also was renewed in 1828 by wood-carvers from Sfax (p. 380). The wings are beautifully enriched with network, rosettes, and arabesques (p. 445). Over the door are a frieze with an inscription and another adorned with mashrebîyeh or lattice-work, and above these is a pediment decorated with charming scroll-work. The side-doors, also in cedar-wood, and partly modern, have a simpler geometric ornamentation, resembling that of the maksûra screen (p. 377).

The *INTERIOR of the sanctuary, in the form of a so-called Egyptian cross (=⟙=), with a broad transept at the back, has a nave and sixteen aisles, with eight rows of arcades. In the axis of the Bâb el-Behou, above the intersection of the nave and transept, rises the dome of the mihrâb-chapel, in front of the mihrâb-recess. The timber ceilings of the aisles, dating from different centuries, still retain interesting traces of their old painting. The effect of the nave is marred by the new braces and the clumsy modern stucco-decoration of the upper walls. The candelabra are ancient, but of little artistic value. The old pavement has disappeared and so too have the tapestries once used for festivals. The somewhat colourless aspect of the interior is compensated by the beauty of the columns, which here, as well as in the court, merit careful study. The shafts, as at Cordova, are of surprisingly various materials: white and coloured marble, onyx, granite, porphyry, and variegated breccia. Besides the few Moorish capitals in the more modern parts of the mosque, we note Roman, early-Christian, Byzantine, and even Punic-Ionic forms. Owing to their unequal lengths some of the columns have been raised while others are partly buried in the earth.

The *Mihrâb Chapel, unfortunately thickly whitewashed, is specially noteworthy for its sumptuous decoration and the peculiar construction of its dome. The chief enrichment of the wall consists of *Fayence with gold lustre, the oldest mediæval relic of this art-industry, the origin of which seems to be indicated by the name of ‘tchini’ (China tiles) given to it by native writers. The two beautiful Byzantine columns which bear the archivolts of the mihrâb are said to have come from Carthage. Through the marble screen of the niche, now disfigured by painting, we obtain a glimpse at the ancient mihrâb of the time of Sidi Okba (p. 374).

The **Mimbar, or Friday pulpit, unfortunately very tastelessly restored in 1907, adjoining the mihrâb-recess on the right, is one of the earliest and most beautiful creations of early-Moorish art. On the model of the Byzantine ivory carving, its rectangular sections are most charmingly enriched with a great variety of scroll-work and arabesques. The material is sycamore-wood.

The present *Maksûra (see p. 71), to the right of the pulpit, seems to be now enclosed with fragments of an older screen of the caliph’s maksûra and parts of the wooden screen of a former maksûra for the ladies of the court (to the left of the pulpit). The central sections, destroyed in part, with their plain geometric decoration, are framed with graceful arabesques. The long Cufic inscription under the pinnacles of the summit records the name of the founder (p. 374) amidst verses from the Koran.

At the back of the Maksûra is a *Door, framed with late-Roman marble ornamentation and tastefully embellished with iron nails and two knockers, leading into a corridor. The side-room on the left, with another fine old door, contains a few relics of the once famous Kairwan Library. The small door in the external wall is the Bâb el-Imâm (‘gate of the preacher’).

We now return by the Rue el-Kadraouine (Pl. D, C, 2, 3) to Place Finot (p. 373) and the Souks; or we follow the town-wall, through the Rue Sidi Abd el-Kader (Pl. D, C, 2) and past the zaouïa Sidi Abd el-Kâder el-Djilâni (p. 183) and the Kasba (Pl. B, C, 2; barracks), and so regain the Grande Rue.

At the N. end of the Grande Rue is the new Porte de Tunis (Pl. B, 3; adjoining the fine old gateway, adorned with antique columns), leading into the PLACE DE TUNIS, the outer market-place, a haunt of reciters and jugglers, with a large Fondouk (see p. 281).

From the Place de Tunis we may now walk to the N., past the pretty park of the Pépinière (Pl. B, 1), to the (10 min.) Bassins des Aglabides, two round reservoirs, the smaller of which was once used for filtering purposes. Both have been utilized since 1885 for the conduit of Cherichera, 18¾ M. long.

A road, much used by caravans, leads from the Place de Tunis, past the dilapidated Feskia du Saïd (Pl. A, 2; a rain-water basin), of the time of Sijadet Allah I., and between cactus-hedges, to the N.W. to (¼ hr.) the so-called—

*=Mosquée du Barbier= (beyond Pl. A, 2), the finest building of the Turkish period. This mosque, which has long been regarded as the second great sanctuary of Kairwan, lies most picturesquely among low hills and is surrounded with white tombs of saints and Moslem cemeteries. It is dedicated to Abû Zemaâ el-Beloui, the traditional friend (sahâb) and barber of the prophet.

The extensive group of buildings, with several medersas annexed, dates chiefly from the 17–19th centuries. The outer gate leads into a low forecourt. In the corner, between the two main entrances, rises the handsome minaret (*View), in four stories, with blind arcades in the two lower, and crowned with pinnacles and the muezzin’s turret. The large W. portal, adorned like the minaret with Byzantine columns, opens into the first inner court, on whose W. side rises the plain mosque itself with its nave and two aisles. A remarkably beautiful domed chamber leads into the second *Inner Court, a perfect gem, with its slender little marble columns, old wall-tiles, rich stucco-decoration, and modern soffited ceilings. A superb marble portal of Italian workmanship (18th cent.) leads to the alleged tomb of Sidi Sahâb, which is railed in and surrounded with valuable old Kairwan carpets besides much European frippery. From the domed chamber a *Colonnade to the left and another ante-room, also embellished with fine mural tiles, lead us back to the outer court.

The large Moslem Cemeteries, which extend round the Faubourg des Djlass (p. 372) from the Barber’s Mosque all the way to the S. suburb, still contain some very old tombstones. They afford a beautiful view of Kairwan, especially by evening light.

The =Djamâa Amor Abeda= (Pl. A, 3, 4; popularly called Mosquée des Sabres), whose five huge domes of mediæval type dominate the poor streets of the Faubourg des Djlass, was built by the saint of that name (d. 1871), formerly a smith, with alms collected for the purpose.

59. From Susa to Sfax.

Till the opening of the new railway (81½ M.) in 1911, which diverges from the line to Mehdia at Ouardenine (p. 369), this excursion must be made by ROAD (79½ M.). Motor-omnibus or the Bône-Guélma Co., starting from the station, in 6½ hrs. (in the reverse direction 7 hrs.), fare 7 fr. 50 c.; at El-Djem, halfway (fare 3 fr. 75 c.), the ½ hr. allowed for visiting the amphitheatre barely suffices. Seats should be secured beforehand; outside (impériale) preferable in fine weather. Diligence at night, in 14 hrs., fare 12 fr. 90 c. (to El-Djem in 6½ hrs., 6 fr.), uncomfortable.—STEAMERS to Sfax, comp. R. 64.

Susa, see p. 366. The road leads round the town on the side next the sea. It then ascends through the new industrial and villa quarters, and past the Jewish and the Christian Cemeteries (on the left), to the hill-country of the Sahel (p. 366).

A little to the left lie the thriving villages of Zaouïet-Sousse and Ksiba, and to the right Messadine. The soil is extremely fertile; the road is bordered with huge olive-trees and tall cactus-hedges.

To the right, also off the road, lies (7½ M.) =M’Saken= (154 ft.; Hôt. de France; pop. 10,000), a station on the Mehdia line (p. 369), whence a road leads to Kairwan (p. 372).

The country beyond M’Saken, one of the most fertile parts of central Tunisia in ancient times, has become a mere desert since the Arab irruptions. In the midst of the dreary steppe, scantily overgrown with alfa, appear a few corn-fields and olive-plantations, the first signs of renewed colonization. Here and there are seen Arabs with their camels, belonging to the Souassi tribe, now partly settled on the land, descendants of the Hilalides (p. 323).

In the distance to the right, beyond Bourdjine, the only village before El-Djem, appears the Sebkha Sidi el-Hani (p. 370). 23 M. Col de Koudiat el-Goulal (525 ft.), the highest point on the road.

We are now in sight of the amphitheatre of El-Djem, whose enormous pile dominates the landscape for miles around.

40 M. =El-Djem= (361 ft.; Hôt. de l’Amphithéâtre, R. 2–3, B. ¾, déj. 3, D. 3¼ fr., humble, charges should be ascertained), a poor Arab village with a few olive and cactus plantations, is the site of Thysdrus, which in the late-Roman age was one of the most thriving towns near the E. coast and the junction of seven roads.

About ¼ M. from the inn and the post-office (halting-place of the motor-omnibus) is the **Amphitheatre, the grandest Roman structure in Barbary (first half of the 3rd cent.), noted in history also as a fortress. Here in 689, after the defeat of the united Byzantines and Berbers by Zoheir ibn Kaïs (p. 322), the prophetess (kahina) Damia, the legendary leader of the Berbers, is said to have still defied her enemies. In 1685 the building, still almost intact, where many a rebel had sought refuge, was blown up on the W. side by order of Mohammed Murad Bey (p. 335). Since then it has served the villagers of El-Djem as a quarry. The topmost story, consisting of an attica with Corinthian pilasters, the tiers of seats, and the stone steps have gradually disappeared. The ascent (not without the Arab keeper; ½ fr.) is very toilsome.

The remaining three stories are 108 ft. high; the groundfloor is now buried 10 ft. below the surface. The arches (once 60) of the lower and upper stories are adorned with Corinthian mural columns; the central story has composite capitals. The axes are 164 and 136 yds. respectively; the arena where the gladiators and wild beasts fought, unearthed in 1909, with its huge substructures (comp. p. 348), measures 71 by 57 yds. (This is the fifth in size of Roman amphitheatres: Colosseum 205 by 170, the Capuan 186 by 153, that of Italica near Seville 170 by 147, and that of Verona 167 by 134 yds.).

Recent excavations outside the village, whose dirty streets flank the amphitheatre on two sides, have revealed vestiges of Thermae (about 10 min. to the N.W.), of Cisterns, a Circus, and a small older Amphitheatre. In the forecourt of a kubba, 6 min. to the S.W., are placed several large Roman capitals.

Road from El-Djem to Mehdia, see p. 370.

We again traverse a very monotonous region, without a single village. On the left is the Sebkha m’taa el-Djem, a salt-lake. Beyond it lies the hill-country of the Arab Metellit tribe, belonging to the Terres Sialines (see below).

Beyond (61½ M.) Ste. Juliette we enter the olive-zone of Sfax. 71½ M. Kubba Sidi-Salah, on the Oued Sidi Salah, which flows largely underground and now partly supplies Sfax with water. Lastly the road leads between garden-walls built of mud and fringed with Indian figs and through the suburb of Moulinville to—

79½ M. =Sfax.=—The RAILWAY STATION (Pl. C, D, 2), for Metlaoui (R. 60) and for the new line to Susa (see p. 378), is close to the sea, ¼ M. from the hotels or from the quay. Here at present the motor-omnibus from Susa stops.

ARRIVAL BY SEA (comp. R. 64). The steamers of the Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (office, Boul. de France 13), the Società Nazionale (office near Douane), and the Navigation Mixte (office, Rue Emile Loubet) moor at the quay. Harbour-dues 4 or 3 fr.; cabs, see below.

HOTELS (comp. p. 324). Hôt. de France (Pl. a; B, 3), Rue Victor-Hugo 4, R. 3–6, B. 1, déj. or D. 3, pens. 9–10 fr., plain; Hôt. Moderne (Pl. b; B, 3), same street, No. 6, R. 3–5, B. 1, D. 8, pens. 7½–10 fr.—CAFÉS. Cristal and Glacier, Boul. de France.

POST & TELEGRAPH OFFICE (Pl. 6; C, 3), Avenue de Paris.

BANKS (comp. p. 174). Banque de l’Algérie, Rue Michaud; Comp. Algérienne (No. 32) and Comptoir d’Escompte de Paris (No. 15), Ave. de Paris.—BOOKSELLERS. Chabert, Rue de la République 51; Revol, same street, No. 17.

BRITISH VICE-CONSUL, S. Leonardi.—LLOYD’S AGENT, E. Carleton.—ENGLISH PHYSICIAN, Dr. P. Buckwell.

CABS (stands near the Marché aux Céréales, p. 381, and in the Rue de Thina, Pl. B, C, 3). Drive within a radius of 2 kilomètres (1¼ M.) from Bâb Diwân, ½ fr.; with two horses, ¾ or 1 fr.; per hr. (one horse) 1 fr. 30, (two horses) 1 fr. 50 or 1 fr. 70 c.; half-day (6 hrs.) 5½, 7, or 9 fr.; day (12 hrs.) 9, 12, or 15 fr.

DILIGENCE OFFICE (p. 173) in the theatre (Pl. C, 3).—MOTOR CARS, for excursions, at Garage Pasquier, Rue Lamoricière (100–150 fr. per day); Central Garage, Rue Charles-Quint.

The SIGHTS may be visited in 2–3 hrs.

Sfax, Arabic Sfakês (pop. 70,000, incl. 6400 Europeans, of whom 3100 are Italians and 1300 Maltese), the second-largest town in Tunisia, is also its chief seaport next to Tunis. It lies on the shallow N. shore of the Gulf of Gabes, adjacent to the Kerkenna Banks and opposite the Kerkenna Islands (p. 405). Many of the natives live in small houses outside the town, amidst the beautiful orchards which girdle Sfax for nearly 10 M. around. Beyond the gardens lies the olive-zone, like them artificially irrigated, covering some 500 acres, and numbering three million trees. It lies chiefly in the Terres Sialines, a region named after the Siala family, but now owned by the state. After the Arab incursions it became a mere desert, but modern cultivation has restored its ancient prosperity. Sfax owes its rapid rise to the export of olive-oil, almonds, figs, and vegetables from the interior, dates from the Djerid (p. 386), alfa from the steppes, of which cables are made in the Kerkenna Islands, and above all to its trade in the phosphates of Metlaoui (p. 386) and Redeyef (p. 372). It is important also as a fish-market and as a mart for the sponges of the bay, especially from the Kerkenna banks. In the sponge-fishery Greeks, Maltese, and Sicilians vie with the Kerkenna islanders.

Sfax, the ancient Taparura, which was one of the smallest seaports on the bay of Gabes, is of little historical note. In the first half of the 12th cent. it fell, along with Mehdia (p. 369), into the hands of the Normans (p. 323), and in 1539 it was occupied for a time by the Spaniards, who possessed also the Kerkenna Islands. Its harbour was much benefited by the French occupation of Algeria, as the caravans from the Sudan thereafter went to Sfax, Gabes, and Tripoli (p. 406). It was not till 1832 that Christian merchants were allowed to settle outside the Bâb Diwân, the sea-gate. When the French arrived in 1881 Sfax, like Kairwan, was a camp of the warlike nomads of central and S. Tunisia, owing to whose resistance the town had to suffer a bombardment and to pay a war-indemnity of 15 million francs. For that disaster and for the decline of its trade with inland Africa the colonization of the environs and the improvement of the harbour (1895–7) have since made amends.

From the open roads at the end of the Kerkenna inlet, where larger vessels formerly had to anchor, a Harbour Canal, 2952 yds. in length and 44 in breadth, now leads into the =Bassin= (Pl. D, E, 4) of 25 acres, adjoining which is the Bassin des Torpilleurs (Pl. C, D, 4). On the quay bordering the town, 492 yds. long, are the Douane and two large warehouses. On the N.E. quay are the stores of the phosphate railway, whence ships are loaded by means of a long shoot. The Chenal pour petits Bateaux connects the main harbour with the small Darse (Pl. B, 4), the harbour for fishing-boats.

The mud-banks between the new harbour and the old quay (now Boul. de France) have been artificially raised and converted into an area of 50 acres for building. The projected new quarter, with its straight and shadeless streets, has made little progress as yet. Between it and the older suburb, built since 1832, are the Avenue de Paris and the palm-avenue of the BOULEVARD DE FRANCE (Pl. B, C, 3), where most of the public buildings are situated.

In the Ave. de Paris are the Contrôle Civil (Pl. 1; C, 3), the Post Office (Pl. 6; C, 3), and the Hôtel de Ville (Pl. C, 3). The last has a small museum (open daily except Sun.) containing Roman antiquities, mostly from Thænæ (p. 383). Among the mosaics are fishing scenes, Arion on the dolphin, and Pugilists.

Beyond the E. end of the Boul. de France and the Place Carnot (Pl. C, 2) lies the Jewish Quarter. The Boul. de France leads to the W., past the Rue de la République, the chief business street of the new quarters, to the Marché aux Céréales (Pl. B, 3), which may be reached also by the Rue Victor-Hugo. Near this, adjoining the harbour of the fishing-boats, is the Marché (Pl. B, 3, 4) for pottery, where the large ‘jarres d’huile’, made chiefly by the Metellits (p. 380), resemble the ancient amphoræ.

The picturesque but not over-clean old town is still enclosed by its battlemented *=Town Walls=, with their numerous towers and bastions. The fortifications next the sea, the Kasba (Pl. A, 3; barracks, no admittance) and the Bordj en-Nar (Pl. C, 2), were the chief objects of attack by the French ships and troops in 1881.

The old town is entered by the Bâb Djedid (Pl. A, 3), the Bâb Diwân (Pl. B, 2), at the end of the Rue de la République, and the new Porte Delcassé (Pl. B, 2; 1903). Its main streets are the Rue de la Grande-Mosquée, the shortest way to the Souks (see below), and the RUE DU BEY (Pl. B, 2, 1).

In the Rue des Aïssaouas (No. 12), a few paces to the right of the Rue du Bey, is the Zaouïa Sidi ben-Aïssa (p. 373), with its fine portal. The castigations practised by the sect may be seen here on Fridays, from 2.30 to 5 p.m.

In the Rue de la Driba, the third street to the right off the Rue du Bey, No. 4, on the left, is the Driba (Pl. 2; B, 2), a fine type of an aristocratic mansion, with a picturesque colonnaded court on the first floor (fee ½ fr.). Opposite, at No. 5 Rue Régulus, one of the Portals has the geometric ornamentation so common in every part of the town.

At the end of the RUE DE LA GRANDE-MOSQUÉE rises the venerable Chief Mosque (Pl. B, 2), with its square whitewashed minaret, whose upper half is of the 13th century. The main façade recalls Syrian types (Kalat Simân), and the ten arcades of the interior are like those of the Sidi Okba mosque (p. 374).

Just beyond the mosque are the =Souks=, or markets. Their centre is the vaulted Souk des Etoffes (Pl. B, 2), with a large assortment of ‘gadrouns’, the chief garment of the people of Sfax, blankets from Gafsa, etc. Its continuation, the Rue des Teinturiers, leads to the Bâb Djebli (Pl. A, 1), the picturesque N.W. gate.

To the right the town-wall is skirted by the Rue des Forgerons (Pl. B, 1), with its balconies. To the left, Rue Abd el-Kader 62, is the law-court of the Ouzara (Pl. A, 1; sits Wednesday and Saturday forenoons), with a pretty court.

Outside Bâb Djebli is the bustling cattle-market, enclosed by fondouks or caravanserais, where we have a pretty view of several saints’ tombs and palm-shaded gardens.

A pleasant glimpse of the country and its inhabitants is afforded by a drive to the Toual el-Chridi (tariff, see p. 380; but bargain advisable). Beyond the Bâb Djebli we pass the large Feskias, or rain-water reservoirs, and then numerous Nasrias or small cisterns. The *Orchard Zone extends about 5 M. inland. Passing through olive-groves and flanked with straight rows of trees the road ascends to the (13½ M.) =Toual el-Chridi= (433 ft.), a hill with a geometric signal, a kind of pyramid in steps, where we have an extensive view stretching to the sea.

On the road to Gabes (p. 389), beyond the S.W. suburb of Picville and the Rond-Point, is the Jardin Public, watered by large basins, with the Jardin d’Essai, or botanic garden.

In the sea, nearly 1 M. outside the harbour, is a Biological Station for the promotion of the sponge-culture (comp. p. 381).

From Sfax to Gafsa and Metlaoui, see R. 60; to Djerba, see R. 62; to Tunis by sea, see R. 64; to Tripoli and Malta, see R. 64.

60. From Sfax to Metlaoui viâ Gafsa.

151 M. NARROW GAUGE RAILWAY (Comp. des Phosphates et du Chemin de Fer de Gafsa), in 9¾–10¼ hrs. (27 fr. 20, 20 fr. 65, 14 fr. 60 c.); to Gafsa, 127 M., in 8–9 hrs. (22 fr. 95, 17 fr. 45, 12 fr. 30 c.; return-ticket, valid for 5 days, 32 fr. 15, 24 fr. 40, 17 fr. 20 c.). Railway Restaurant at Graïba only; it is advisable to take provisions.

Sfax, see p. 380. The train skirts the inland side of the town and then runs to the S.W., near the coast. To the left rises the lighthouse of Râs Tina (p. 405), near the ruins of Thaenae, once the chief harbour for the export of olive-oil from the interior.

18 M. Oued-Chaffar. 22½ M. Maharès (pop. 1000), a fishing village and market for the Mehadla Tribe, is the last fruit-tree oasis to the S.W. of Sfax. Above it rises an old fortified Bordj. On the left, close to the shore, near the Gabes road (R. 62), is seen the castle of Ounga, with its eight towers, which is said to have been built by the knights of Malta (p. 398).

Leaving the coast the train runs to the W., through an almost uninhabited sandy waste, to (39½ M.) Graïba (Rail. Restaurant), from which a diligence plies to Gabes (p. 389).

In the distance appears the bare S. Tunisian hill-country, with Jebel Bou-Hedma (2559 ft.). On the left lie the flats of the large Sebkha en-Nouaïl.

61 M. Mezzouna, at the N. base of Jebel Mezzouna (1329 ft.), where alfa abounds. 76½ M. Maknassi (hotel), a village of colonists, with olive-groves, and an important alfa station, lies in the Bled Maknassi, a monotonous plain on the N. spurs of Jebel Maknassi (1332 ft.). To the N.W. appears Jebel Majora (2871 ft.).

98 M. Sened (1575 ft.), the highest point on the line, with large alfa-stacks, is the station for Sened (1706 ft.), a village 5 M. to the S.E., on the olive-clad slope of Jebel Biadha (3248 ft.).

We now descend through cactus plantations, and in spring through corn-fields, to the Bled el-Hamra, a lofty plain to the N. of Jebel Oum el-Alleg (3839 ft.), in the territory of the great nomadic tribe of the Hamama. 110½ M. Aïn-Zannouch, the only station with good drinking-water. On the right are extensive dunes, formed by disintegration.

The train rounds Jebel Orbata (p. 385) and then enters the valley of the Oued Baïech.

127 M. =Gafsa.=—The STATION (about 1000 ft.) lies on the left bank of the stream, 2¼ M. to the S.E. of the old town (diligence twice daily in ½ hr.).

HOTELS. Hôtel de France, Place de la Kasba, R. 3–5, B. ¾, déj. or D. 3, pens. 8–10, omn. 1 fr., plain; Buffet-Hôtel, at the station.

POST & TELEGRAPH OFFICE, Place de la Poste.

CARRIAGES (limited in number), 20–25 fr. per day; to Tebessa (p. 315) or to Kairwan (p. 372) 120 fr.—DILIGENCE to Tebessa, see p. 318.—HORSE or MULE (3–5 fr. per day), best obtained through the Contrôle Civil, where tickets for the mosques also are obtained.

Gafsa (1067 ft.; pop. 4500, incl. about 1000 Jews and 360 Europeans), the ancient Capsa, is a peaceful little oasis-town, with two hot springs (88–91½° Fahr.) and several cold, rising in or near the river-bed. The old town lies on the edge of the plateau, on the right bank of the Oued Baïech, which almost everywhere else is dry. It has formed a valley about 3 M. broad, between Jebel Orbata (3839 ft.; p. 385), on the E., and the spurs of Jebel Bou-Ramli (3609 ft.) on the N.W., this being the only considerable pass between the S. Tunisian steppe and the shotts (p. 320). The town is sheltered by Jebel Ben-Younès (3002 ft.) and Jebel Assalah from the cold N.W. and N. winds, and like El-Kantara (p. 276) is a portal of the desert. Its mild climate and beautiful oasis render it a fine winter residence for persons of moderate requirements.

Capsa is said to be one of the oldest towns in the interior of Tunisia. Owing to its remote situation in the extreme southern part of his dominions Jugurtha (p. 321) made it one of his headquarters and his treasury; but one morning at dawn, after a nine days’ march from Lares (p. 360), so graphically described by Sallust, it was surprised by Marius and razed to the ground in 106. Under Augustus the town was still in ruins, yet in the 2nd cent. it vied with Thelepte (Feriana, p. 371) as one of the wealthiest towns in S. Tunisia. Through Capsa ran the important caravan-routes between Tebessa and Gabes, those to Feriana, Sbeïtla, and Susa, and viâ Tozeur to the Limes Tripolitanus (p. 412). With the exception of the Piscinæ (see below) all the Roman structures have been demolished for modern building purposes. The town-walls were rebuilt by Solomon (p. 315) in Justinian’s reign, and in the Moorish period were succeeded by a triple mud-built wall, of which scarcely a trace is left. The Byzantine citadel, built of Roman materials, was succeeded by the Moorish Kasba, which the French have now converted into barracks. Since the entry of the French troops in 1881 the mosques have been regarded as desecrated.

From the new Gafsa-Gare quarter a street leads to the Oued Baïech, crosses it, where native washerwomen and thirsty camels often present an entertaining scene, and ascends on the border of the oasis (p. 385) to the old town, dominated by groups of palm-trees and two minarets.

The large Champ de Foire and the Fondouk (p. 281), on the E. side of the town, are full of life when caravans arrive with their dates from the Djerid (p. 386). The corn-market in the Halle aux Grains also is of some importance.

From the Place du Marché (market on Wednesday), at the S. end of the Champ de Foire, the Rue du Gén.-Philebert leads through the town to the Place de la Kasba. Here, on the W. side, rises the Kasba, with its towers and white pinnacled walls, once the chief sight at Gafsa, but now the barracks of military convicts. View from the Poste Optique (adm. on application). The Jewish Quarter with its narrow streets, lies to the N.E. of the Place de la Kasba, on the N. side of the town.

The dilapidated Roman PISCINÆ (Arabic Termid, from ‘thermæ’) are still used as baths. The Jewish Bath is fed by the Kasba spring. The largest basins, supplied by the hot spring outside the Kasba and chiefly used by the Moslems, are in the Dâr el-Bey, to the S.E. of the Place de la Kasba. The men’s bath (Termid er-Rayel), where the children love to dive for sou-pieces, is worth seeing. In the beautifully clear water tiny fish (Chromis, occurring also in the underground waters of the Sahara), little black snakes, and small tortoises disport themselves among the bathers.

A little to the S. of the Piscinæ are the Souks. Foremost among their wares are bright-coloured blankets (frechias), burnouses, and carpets (guétifs), mostly made by the Hamamas (p. 383).

The Sidi Yakûb Mosque (Grande Mosquée), to the S.W. of the Dâr el-Bey, one of the oldest in Tunisia, is noteworthy for its interior with nave and eighteen aisles, in the style of the Sidi Okba mosque at Kairwan (p. 374). The minaret, especially towards evening, affords a charming *View of the town and the oasis, and of the finely shaped hills and the yellow desert to the S.

The **=Oasis=, nearly 4 sq. M. in area, the richest and greenest palm-oasis in all Barbary, offers many delightful walks. Most of the paths conveniently overlook the little gardens lying below them, watered by numerous runlets from the Piscinæ.

In the shade of the palms grow apricots, peaches, figs, pomegranates, quinces, almonds, pears, and olives, and here and there oranges and lemons. The vine, with its vigorous and picturesque tendrils, climbs up the palm trees or the nettle-trees (Celtis australis) planted for its support, yielding ripe grapes as early as June. Below all these trees the soil is carpeted, in the cooler season, with vegetables, melons, wheat, and barley. The W. margin of the oasis, however, where water is scarce, yields olives only.

Fine points of view are the hill of Sidi Bou-Yahia, crowned with a kubba, on the N.W. margin of the oasis, the Ksour Nala, a spur of Jebel Ben-Younès, and, separated from the latter by the depression of the Foum el-Maza, Jebel Assalah, whence we survey also the steppe stretching to the N. to Jebel Sidi Aïch.

From Gafsa to Maâjen Bel-Abbès (Feriana), see p. 372; viâ Feriana to Tebessa, see p. 318.

A ROAD leads to the S.E. viâ the olive-oasis of El-Ksar to (3¾ M.) Leïla, a charming little palm-oasis; then, aside from the Sebkha d’el-Guettar, to (12½ M.) =El-Guettar= (952 ft.; two caravanserais; pop. 1800), a palm and olive oasis at the S. base of Jebel Orbata (3839 ft.; fine view from the Poste Optique; ascent by bridle-path 2½–3 hrs.). The route from El-Guettar to (83 M.) Gabes (p. 389), leading almost all the way through an arid wilderness, is fit only for those who are used to fatigue and privations. (Poor quarters at Bir Saâd and El-Haffey only.)

Beyond Gafsa the train crosses the Oued Baïech and beyond the oasis it enters the sandy and stony waste between the salt-marsh Garaet el-Oglal (on the right) and the chain of Jebel Rosfa (1411 ft.) and Jebel Jellabia (1346 ft.; to the S.). Beyond the dry bed of the Oued Melah the long range of Jebel Tarfaoui (p. 388) appears far to the left.

We skirt the S. base of Jebel Stah (2953 ft.), Jebel Tarfai (2166 ft.), and Jebel Metlaoui (1805 ft.), all rich in phosphates. These hills, overgrown with alfa-grass only, are, like those near Gafsa, a favourite haunt of the gazelle; the maned sheep (p. 277) also occurs.

151 M. =Metlaoui= (643 ft.; Hôt. Rey, R., déj., D., 3 fr. each, quite good), Arabic Metlâwi, on the S. slope of Jebel Seldja, not far from the Oued Seldja (p. 372), lies in the heart of the S. Tunisian phosphate-region, which extends to Redeyef (p. 372), to Aïn-Moularès (p. 372), and to Jebel Mrata on the Algerian frontier. The phosphate is detached from the hill-sides by blasting (foudroyage) and then spread out to dry on the ground, where it is turned over several times by ploughs. The works employ about 5000 hands, mostly Italians and natives, and yield about 800,000 tons per annum. Adm. to the ‘Grande Recette’ of the works by leave of M. Bursaux, the manager.

Interesting walk or drive to the (3 M.) *=Gorges du Seldja=, a wild rocky defile (about 4½ M. long) between Jebel Seldja and Jebel Alima (2559 ft.).

For the new railways to Henchir Souatir, Redeyef, and Aïn-Moularès, see p. 372.

61. From Metlaoui to the Djerid.

ROAD viâ (35½ M.) Tozeur to (51 M.) Nefta (railway to the former under construction). A carriage may be hired at one of the inns at Metlaoui, but as the road is bad a mule is preferable. It is best to ride direct to Tozeur (carrying provisions, wine, etc.). Nefta may be visited from Tozeur, El-Oudiane best on the way back from Tozeur to Metlaoui (early start required).

The *=Djerid= (Arabic Belad el-Jerid), the narrow isthmus between the Chott Djérid (65–80 ft. above the sea), the largest salt-marsh in Barbary, and the Chott Rharsa (65 ft. below sea-level), with its four picturesque oases of Tozeur, Nefta, El-Oudiane, and El-Hamma (du Djérid), is the largest date-palm region in N. Africa. The number of palm-trees is estimated at about a million, but nearly half belong to the ‘hakhana’, an unfruitful species. The yield of dates is 12½–15,000 tons annually, of which 500 tons only are of the transparent variety. They are exported chiefly viâ Gafsa and Sfax. The mildness of the climate (p. 321) adapts Tozeur in particular for winter residence, but malaria is prevalent in summer. The population (about 30,000), which is said to have included scattered remnants of Christian communities down to the 18th cent., is chiefly of Berber origin, but with the Arab nature fully developed.

Metlaoui, see above. The road leads to the S.W., through an almost bare waste, at first near the left bank of the Seldja and then down its dry bed.

15½ M. Bordj Gouïfla (269 ft.; no drinking-water), a deserted caravanserai, lies at the junction of the Gafsa road, beyond the influx of the Oued Seldja into the Oued Melah (p. 387). We then skirt the spurs of Jebel Tarfaoui (p. 388). The road to El-Oudiane (p. 388) branches to the left.

Not far from the delta of the Oued Melah we near the Chott Rharsa, which in the hot season is reduced to a few streamlets and pools, and next reach the E. border of (30 M.) the oasis of =El-Hamma du Djérid= (164 ft.; Bordj, quarters 1 fr.). This oasis, the smallest in the Djerid, with 900 inhab., about 54,000 palms, and a few olive-trees, has of late had mud-walls (tabias) built to shelter it from sand-drift. The Hammâm, a piscina in a kind of palm-hut, whose water (109° Fahr.) is in high favour with the natives, is of Roman origin.

The road crosses the (32½ M.) downs of Drah Tozeur or Drâht en-Nadour (269 ft.), and reveals a striking *View of the green oasis of Tozeur and the glittering surface of the Chott Djérid.

35½ M. =Tozeur= (197 ft.; Hôt. Bellevue, R. 3, B. ½, déj. or D. 3 fr., unpretending, with attentive landlady; pop. 10,000, incl. 65 Europeans), the ancient Tusuros, Arabic Tûzer, is the seat of the authorities of the Djerid. The houses, mostly one-storied, built of crude (tobs) and burned bricks, have a peculiar geometric ornamentation in brick network, which differentiates them from most of those in the other oases. The Souks are less important than those of Nefta (see below). Interesting *Views are obtained from the minarets of the Zaouïa Sidi Abid and the new Sidi Mouldi Mosque (tickets at the Contrôle Civil).

The *OASIS, which is hardly inferior to that of Gafsa in richness and variety of vegetation (p. 385), contains about 420,000 palms. Several hours may be pleasantly spent in riding to the chief points of interest. Leaving the town we ride to the W., viâ Chabia village, with its curious huts of palm-logs, to the Râs el-Aïoun, where 194 springs unite to form the Oued el-Mechta. We then skirt the S.W. border of the oasis and descend viâ the villages of Zaouïet-Sahraoui, Djehim or Djem, and Abbas or Abbès to the kubba of Sidi Ali Bou-Lifa, near the shott, with a huge and venerable lotus-tree. Thence we should return to Djehim and ride to Bled el-Adhar, a village in the W. half of the oasis. The interesting mosque here, the oldest in the Djerid, stands on the site of a Roman temple, which is said to have been converted into a Christian basilica. The *Mihrâb, or prayer-niche, unfortunately whitewashed, dating from 1194, is most elegantly decorated in stucco. We return thence to Tozeur, where the half-dead lotus-tree and the little mosques present a picturesque bit of scenery.

A ROAD, with fine points of view, leads from Tozeur to the W., viâ Chabia (see above) and along the S. margin of the dunes of Koudiat Oum el-Arouah (558 ft.), to (51 M.) =Nefta= (200–300 ft.; Djerid Hotel, R. 3–4, B. 1, déj. or D. 3–4, pens. 8–10 fr., quite good; carr. at the Khalifa’s only; pop. 14,000, incl. many Jews but only a few Europeans), the Roman Aggarsel Nepte. The houses resemble those of Tozeur in style, but blocks of gypsum from the vicinity also have been used as building-material. We are struck with the great number of small mosques and zaouïas, among which is the zaouïa of the Kadria (p. 361), the most important in S. Tunisia and a religious house of the Rahmania order. The souks, which are much patronized by the Sahara caravans, offer all the products of the Djerid, such as white frechias (p. 385), burnouses (‘djeridi’), silk haiks, etc.

Before riding through the *=Oasis= (2–3 hrs.; mule with guide 3–4 fr.), the finest in the Djerid, with its 187,000 palms, we proceed from the souks to the so-called *Corbeille (Arabic Kasr el-Aïn, ‘castle of the springs’), a grand gorge in the middle of the town, where the copious springs (152, it is said) unite to form a brook. We then ride to the N.W., past the Zaouïa of the Kadria (p. 387) and along the mud-walls (p. 387), to the Parcelle Forestière (fine view), or to the Poste Douanier, another good point of view. We then return, past the mosque of Sidi Merzoug and the palm-garden of Ghitane ech-Chorfa, to the Barrage, a Roman dam below the Corbeille (at the weir, a little lower, good bathing-place), and visit the elegant kubba of Sidi Bou-Ali, in the heart of the oasis.

=El-Oudiane=, the eastmost oasis of the Djerid, with 6000 inhab. distributed among six villages, lies 6¼ M. to the N.E. of Tozeur and 3 M. to the E. of El-Hamma (p. 387), on the slope of Jebel Bou-Hellal (624 ft.), the W. offshoot of Jebel Tarfaoui (1821 ft.). This oasis, 4½ M. long, watered by a number of small springs, possesses about 185,000 palms and 25,000 olive-trees, while numerous orange and lemon trees add a special charm. The chief village is Deggach (180 ft.; pop. 3000), built partly of stone. Thence we ride past Zaouïet el-Arab, with its minaret (fine view), and Kriz, on the slope of Jebel Nadour (519 ft.), to the walled village of Cedadda (230 ft.). At Guebba, a village adjoining Kriz, close to the shott, are some Roman ruins.

The Trik el-Oudiania, a caravan route once used by the Romans but sometimes impassable after heavy winter rains, leads from Kriz across the Chott Djérid, to the S.E., to the Caïdat du Nefzaoua, a part of the S. Territories (p. 390) between the shott and the Erg Oriental (p. 285). The first oasis beyond the salt-marshes is (30½ M.) Debabcha, on the peninsula of that name. 43 M. Telmine, the ancient Turris Tamaleni, was the westmost frontier-fortress on the Limes Tripolitanus (p. 412). 47 M. =Kebilli= (quarters in the Bordj), the ancient Vepillium (?), is now the chief town in the Nefzaoua, with 5000 inhab., a market well attended by the Sahara caravans, and the finest palm-oasis in this region.

ROADS lead from Kebilli: (1) To the N.E., through the waterless sandy waste between the Chott el-Fedjedj (p. 389) and Jebel Tebaga (1608 ft.) and past (9½ M.) Limagues and (34½ M.) Oglet Nakhla, to (53 M.) =El-Hamma= (quarters at the Bordj), the ancient Aquae Tacapitanae, with hot springs (118° Fahr.) and a charming palm-oasis; then past the S. base of Jebel Dissa (492 ft.; Poste Optique) to (74 M.) Gabes (p. 389).—(2) To the S.E., through the desert on the S. side of Jebel Tebaga (see above), past Henchir Bou-Garfa and Tamezred, to (about 68 M.) Matmata-Kebira (p. 391).

62. From (Sfax) Graïba to Djerba viâ Gabes and Médenine.

HIGH ROAD from Graïba viâ (52 M.) Gabes to (101 M.) Médenine. Diligence to Gabes, in 9 hrs. (starting at 11.30 p.m., returning at 5.15 p.m.); thence to Médenine, in 8 hrs. ROADS from Médenine to the two starting-points for the island of Djerba: one viâ (37½ M.) Zarzis to (52 M.) Marsa el-Kantara; the other viâ (17½ M.) Djorf Bou-Grara to (30 M.) Marsa el-Adjim.—ROADS from El-Kantara (15½ M.) and El-Adjim (14 M.) to Houmt-Souk.

A motor-car should be hired from Sfax (p. 380) to Médenine, or all the way to Marsa el-Kantara. Or we may drive thither from Graïba, by carr. previously ordered from Gabes. At Médenine it is advisable to telegraph to Houmt-Souk for a carr. to meet the traveller at El-Kantara (or El-Adjim, as the case may be).—Houmt-Souk is a steamboat-station between Tunis and Tripoli (comp. R. 64).

From Sfax to Graïba (39½ M.; railway in ca. 2 hrs.; fares 7 fr. 5, 5 fr. 35, 3 fr. 80 c.), see p. 383.

The ROAD leads to the S. from Graïba to (5½ M.) Archichina, a caravanserai on the W. side of the Sour Kenis Bay, where we join the main road from Sfax. It then traverses a desolate sandy waste on the W. side of the Gulf of Gabes (p. 405), inland from the little seaport Skira (for the alfa trade).

On the (28 M.) Oued Akarit we enter the province of Arad. Between Jebel Roumana (564 ft.) and Jebel Dissa (p. 388), offshoots of the hills around the shott region, extends the flat Isthmus of Gabes, 12½ M. broad, bridging the space between the bay and the Chott el-Fedjedj (76 ft. above sea-level), the E. continuation of the Chott Djérid (p. 386). In 1873 Ferd. de Lesseps (p. 437) suggested that, by cutting a canal through the isthmus, the whole of the shotts, as far as the Chott Melrir (p. 284), might be converted into a great inland sea; but several of them lie much above the sea-level.

34 M. Domaine de Oued-Melah, an olive and palm oasis (10,000 palms), on a brook generally dry, is partly watered by the oldest artesian wells in Tunisia (1885).

To the right, a little off the road to Gafsa (p. 383), lie the palm-oases of Oudref and El-Methouia, and to the left Ghennouch. Near the (49½ M.) poor oasis of Bou-Chemma we join the road from Kebilli (p. 388).

Our road leads through the palm-oasis of Gabes (p. 390) and past Djara (p. 390) to (52 M.) Gabès-Port.

* * * * *

=Gabes.=—ARRIVAL BY SEA (comp. R. 64). The steamers anchor in the open roads (at low-tide over ½ M. from the fishing-boat harbour). Landing or embarking, especially in summer, in N.E. or E. wind, is often impossible.

HOTELS (comp. p. 324; sometimes crowded with motorists in spring). Grand-Hôtel, Hôt. des Voyageurs, both at Gabès-Port, ½ M. from the pier.

CAB from the pier to Gabès-Port 40 c. (for several pers. 20 c. each); one hour 1½ fr., each addit. ¼ hr. 25 c.; day of 10 hrs. 10–12 fr.; carr. and four horses, for long excursions, 20 fr. a day.

BRITISH CONSULAR AGENT, C. Calleja.

Gabes or Gabès (Europ. pop. 900, mostly Italians and Maltese; total, incl. oasis, 10,200), the ancient Tacape, the chief harbour on the stretch of coast called Emporia by the Greeks and a rival of Leptis Magna and Tripoli (comp. p. 407), is now the capital of the Arad and headquarters for the S. Territories, which are still under military rule. It is the only harbour of importance on the S. coast of the Gulf of Gabes (p. 405). The chief exports are the sponges of the bay, alfa or esparto grass, dates, and woollen goods. In the war annals of 1881 the bombardment of Gabes from Menzel (see below) and the protracted resistance of the inland tribes are memorable. It was here that Gen. Logerot intercepted the tribes of the E. coast who tried to pass through the Arad to Tripolitania.

The small Harbour, for fishing-boats only, at the mouth of the Oued Gabes, protected by two stone piers, is exposed to every wind and choked with sand.

To the N.W. of the estuary, on the border of the oasis, which is here protected from sand-drift by palisades, rise low dunes; to the S.E., near the lighthouse, is an admirable bathing-beach.

The modern GABÈS-PORT, adjoining the Camp Militaire, contains no attraction except the garden of the Cercle Militaire. It is garrisoned with 160 native horsemen (Spahis or Cavaliers du Maghzen), who guard the Tripolitanian frontier of the S. Territories. The tradespeople are mostly Jews.

Beyond Gabès-Port, also on the barren right bank of the river, lie the large Berber villages, partly built of Roman materials, of DJARA (Grand-Djara; pop. 3500) and MENZEL (pop. 4500, incl. about 1000 Jews). The market-place of Djara, a square enclosed by primitive arcades with shops, is frequented chiefly by the S. Algerian caravans.

Almost the only sight of Gabes is the beautiful, but in summer malarious *=Oasis=, once somewhat over-praised by Pliny, which extends 3¾ M. up the left bank of the river and is 1–1¼ M. in breadth. Among the remarkably tall and well-grown date-palms (about 200,000) are many bananas and other fruit-trees. The river and the small channels, often enlivened by women washing or carrying water, are crossed by numerous bridges of palm-logs. A walk or ride to the most interesting spots takes 3–4 hrs. (mule 2–3 fr.). From Menzel we go upstream to the Barrage du Sidi el-Bey (1894), and past the remains of a Roman Dam, built of huge blocks, to the Râs el-Oued (213 ft.), a hill at the W. end of the oasis often covered with clouds of dust, where the principal feeders of the river, 30 in all, form a number of waterfalls. Turning here, we follow the largest irrigation-conduit to the village of Chenini (pop. 1000) and cross the Sfax road (p. 382) to the N.W. half of the oasis, where many of the palms are overgrown with vines.

The *=Monts des Ksour= (p. 320), bordering the Sahara on the S. side of the Arad, are well worth visiting from Gabes or from Médenine (p. 391; carr. tariff, see p. 389; an ample supply of food and rugs advisable; comp. also p. 278). These barren hills culminate in Kef Toudjane (p. 391), which is almost everywhere conspicuous from the coast, and Jebel Smerten (each about 2100 ft.), and in Kef Demeur or Jebel Demmer (2460 ft.). The inhabitants, the Troglodytes of antiquity (see p. 320), are, in the N.W. part, the Matmatas, on the plateau of that name, and, in the S., members of the Ouerghamma League, Berber tribes which for centuries withstood the attacks of the Arabs and the predatory Sahara nomads. They still often live in caverns, with a court resembling a shaft as the centre of their dwelling, and cavities used as side-rooms or offices. The gardens, laboriously irrigated by dams and cisterns, yield olives, dates, and figs; in the valleys grain, chiefly barley, and vegetables are cultivated. The Matmatas often go to Tunis as porters or artisans but always return home in their old age.

A glimpse of this region is obtained by driving from Gabes to (28 M.) Matmata-Kebira or Kalaâ-Matmata (1838 ft.; p. 388; quarters at the Kaïd’s), on the Matmata plateau, whence an excursion (on mule-back) should, if possible, be taken to the picturesque rock-village of Hadege. A new but very hilly road leads from Matmata-Kebira through the mountains viâ (12½ M.) Toudjane (919 ft.), a village grandly situated on the slopes of Kef Toudjane (2090 ft.), direct to (37½ M.) Métameur (see below).

* * * * *

The MÉDENINE ROAD (diligence, see p. 388) now leads to the S.E. through a steppe-like hill-country, fringing the Monts des Ksour (p. 390) and intersected by many valleys, passing the small oases of Menara (200 ft.) and (55 M.) Teboulbou (artesian wells; much olive-culture). Next come the valleys of the Oued Merzig and Oued Ferd, with the small oasis of (56 M.) Ketena.

74 M. Mareth (Bordj), a large palm-oasis on the Oued Mareth. We then cross the Oued Zigraou to (77 M.) Aram. Beyond the spurs of Jebel Touati and Jebel Souinia rises the main range of the Monts des Ksour (p. 390).

Beyond the valleys of the Oued Zeus and Oued Hallouf the road rounds Jebel Tadjera (968 ft.; Poste Optique). 97½ M. Métameur, formerly a ‘camp militaire’, on the brook of that name, below the small oasis and (½ hr.) Berber village of Ksar Métameur (391 ft.), whose storehouses (rhorfas), with keel-arched vaulting, recall very ancient buildings in Asia Minor.

101 M. =Médenine= (361 ft.; Médenine Hôtel, R. 2½, B. ½, déj. 2½ fr., good; pop. 1000, incl. 100 Europeans), capital of the Ouerghamma (see above), the league of the Berber tribes Khezour, Touazine, Ouderna, and Accara. The high-lying Camp Militaire, with its garrison of Spahis (p. 390) and Infanterie Légère d’Afrique (‘Joyeux’), is the largest on the Tripolitanian frontier.

The deserted and ruinous *Ksar, in a small palm-oasis, consists of a great number of the old storehouses of the League, some of them in four or five stories, now replaced by retbas or rabtas (p. 338). They are dug deeply in the hill-side, and are accessible only by stairs of mud or stepping-stones.

Travellers used to privations and content with such poor quarters as the natives can offer may, after consulting the military authorities at Médenine, visit the S. part of the Monts des Ksour (p. 390). The best centre there is (34 M.) =Tatahouine=, the seat of the military and civil authorities, with an important market, well attended by caravans on their way from the Sahara and the Sudan by way of Ghadâmes in Tripolitania (p. 285). The chief villages of the cave-dwellers (Ksûr) near this are Tlalet, formerly Talalati, a frontier-fortress on the Limes Tripolitanus (p. 412), Beni-Barca, *Chenini, and *Douirat (2090 ft.).

The ZARZIS ROAD (37½ M.) descends to the E. from Médenine through the sandy coast-plain to (15½ M.) Aïn-Mader, near the saline marshes of that name on the S. bank of the Mer de Bou-Grara (see below), and then traverses the hill-region of the Accara tribe (p. 391), between the sea and the large Sebkha el-Melah.

To the left, a little off the road, 4 M. from Zarzis, are the ruins of the little Roman town of Zita, now Zian, where the small forum is still enclosed with the remains of its colonnade.

37½ M. (or from Graïba 138½ M.) =Zarzis= (accommodation at the Bordj), on the site of the Roman seaport Gergis, amidst extensive olive-groves famed for their oil, has two artesian wells and a small harbour for fishing-boats. Important sponge-fishery.

A road (the chief route to the island of Djerba) leads to the N.W. from Zarzis across the Péninsule de Zarzis or des Accara to (14½ M., or, from Graïba, 153 M.) Marsa el-Kantara, a village near the Râs Marmor, on the S. side of the E. entrance (1¼ M. wide) to the Mer de Bou-Grara (see below). The dilapidated Roman dam which crosses the strait here to El-Kantara is still used by camel-caravans at low tide (6½ ft. below high-water), but it is better to cross by fishing-boat. From El-Kantara to Houmt-Souk, see p. 394.

The DJORF BOU-GRARA ROUTE to Djerba is shorter (30 M.) and will repay antiquarians. The rough road (mule preferable to carr.) leads from Médenine to the N.E. viâ Bir Saâdou, and then past some small salt-marshes, to the Mer de Bou-Grara, a large landlocked bay between the mainland and the island of Djerba, accessible for large vessels by the Canal d’Adjim only (not quite 1 M. across; see p. 393). This bay, in which fish abound, and Lake Bizerta (p. 352) are the best natural harbours in Tunisia.

17½ M. (or from Graïba 118½ M.) =Djorf Bou-Grara= (no inn) is near the site of *Gightis, a small Punic-Roman seaport, which attained great prosperity in the 2nd cent. A.D. The harbour, which was always shallow at low tide, is now entirely silted up. Excavations begun in 1896 have revealed the ruins of curiously cramped and irregular streets, with various public buildings, villas remarkable for their coloured incrustation and rich mosaics, and Byzantine houses built of Roman materials.

A broad street ascends from the harbour to the Macellum, with fountain and exedra similar to those at Timgad (p. 295). The small Forum, 60 by 44 yds., has on the E. side an archway, the Curia, and the Market Basilica, with the tribunal, while the Severus Arch on the N. side formed a lateral entrance. On the S. side rises the Capitol (see p. 288), in the style of the capitol or ‘Jupiter temple’ at Pompeii.

The Temple of Mercury, to the S. of the forum, has columns in its peribolos, or outer wall, with curious capitals adorned with cables, in allusion to the occupation of the founder. The building is curiously planned, having several small rooms or ‘sacristies’ behind the cella; it is adjoined by a chapel of Mercury and one of Minerva.

A Temple of Isis (?), a Temple of Hygiea, the Thermae, and a late-Punic Cemetery also have been unearthed.

If a fishing-boat is available at Djorf Bou-Grara we may sail direct to Adjim (p. 394; 13½ M. in ca. 1½ hr.). If not, we must go 12½ M. farther to (30 M., or from Graïba, 131 M.) Marsa el-Adjim at the Râs el-Djorf, the N. point of the peninsula, opposite Adjim (1⅓ M. distant; boat in ¼ hr.).

* * * * *

The =Island of Djerba= (highest point 118 ft.), 17½ by 14 M., is the largest on the N. African coast. From the lotus-tree (Zizyphus Lotus; Arabic nebga, Fr. jujubier), which thrives here, Homer called it the island of the Lotophagi. It was later named Meninx and was the birthplace of the Roman emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianus (251–3). It is now one of the most fertile and prosperous regions in Tunisia. Secure in their insularity against the attacks of the nomadic Arabs, the inhabitants (about 40,000), mostly Berbers of the Kharijite sect (p. 323), have retained their old language and customs. They vie in industry with their kinsmen the Mozabites (p. 216) and go forth as traders to all the seaports of the Orient. Agriculture also thrives. There are 1,300,000 date-palms, 500,000 olive-trees, and as many orange, lemon, and peach trees; early vegetables too are now largely grown. The sponge, polypus, and other fisheries and the oyster-beds in the Canal d’Adjim (p. 392) are very productive.

Djerba has four harbours, Houmt-Souk, Adjim, El-Kantara, and Aghir. The only towns are Houmt-Souk, Hara-Kebîra, and Hara-Serîra; the villages are merely local markets for their districts. The countless little mosques have white domes like most of the houses, but are distinguished by conspicuous slender minarets of the Turkish type, resembling lighthouses. The farm-houses (menzel) scattered throughout the island often have a castellated appearance. In the entire absence of brooks the soil is irrigated from cisterns and wells, among which are two very copious artesian wells. The winter climate (p. 321) is the mildest in Tunisia, but gales are frequent. For excursions there are few carriages available (20 fr. per day); the usual conveyance is an araba or country-cart; for a mule the charge is 4–5, for a donkey 3 fr. per day. The tourist should beware of the countless scorpions, especially in the warmer season.

=Houmt-Souk= (Hôt. de l’Oasis or Crolet; Hôt. de France; Brit. cons. agent; pop. 5900, incl. 560 Maltese, French, Italians, and Greeks), the capital of the island, lies on the sandy N. coast, ½ M. from the sea and 5 M. from the anchorage of the steamers (comp. p. 405). The dilapidated Bordj el-Kebîr on the shore recalls the time of the Spanish domination. Near it is the Christian Cemetery, where repose the bones, collected in 1848, of the 18,000 Spaniards who were massacred here in 1560 after the naval victory of Dragut (p. 370) and Ochiali Pasha, and yielded trophies for the ghastly Bordj er-Rious (tower of skulls).

In the interesting Souks (Mon. and Thurs.) are seen all the products of the island. Among the numerous religious buildings may be named the Mosquée el-Gheriba and the Mosquée des Turcs.

A road leads to the S. from Houmt-Souk to the Jewish villages of (¾ M.) Hara-Kebîra (pop. 3500) and (4½ M.) =Hara-Serîra= or Hara-Sghîra (pop. 1500), where numerous goldsmiths make silver-gilt trinkets of antique and Byzantine patterns, with enamel and jewels (mostly imitation). The Gheriba, the synagogue of Hara-Serîra, where, according to an old tradition, one of the tables of the law of Moses was once found, is a great resort of Jewish pilgrims from S. Tunisia and Tripolitania, and is much revered by Moslems and Catholics also.—From Hara-Serîra the road leads to the S. to (14½ M.) =Guallala=, the centre of the pottery-manufacture carried on in Djerba ever since ancient times (oil-jars, porous water-jugs, vases, etc.). Near it is the hill of Dahrat-Guallala, which yields the clay.

A road leads to the S.E. from Houmt-Souk viâ Hara-Kebîra (see above) and (10⅓ M.) Cedouikeche (potteries) to (15½ M.) =El-Kantara=, the seaport for Zarzis (p. 392), not far from the extensive but unimportant ruins of Meninx, the ancient capital of the island.—Another road leads to the S.W. to (14 M.) =Adjim=, a rising little seaport and market (Wed.), with an artesian well 760 ft. deep. To Djorf Bou-Grara (and Gightis), see p. 392.

Near the E. coast of the island, on the roads to the Râs Taguermess (p. 406) and the small summer harbour of Aghir, lie the villages of =Midoune= (Frid. market) and Mahboubine, with many villas of the merchants of Houmt-Souk, situated amid palm and olive groves and charming *Fruit Gardens, where the oranges and lemons blossom in March. On the road to Midoune is the Mausolée de Borgho, the only intact Roman monument in the island.

VIII. SEA ROUTES IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN.

Route Page 63. From Tunis to Malta (Syracuse) 396 64. From Tunis to Syracuse viâ Sfax, Tripoli, and Malta 404 65. From Tripoli to Alexandria viâ Benghazi and Derna 412 Leptis Magna, 412.—The Cyrenaica, 413. 66. From Tripoli to Constantinople viâ Derna and Crete 415 67. From (Marseilles, Genoa) Naples to Alexandria and Port Said 417 68. From Venice or Trieste to Alexandria and Port Said viâ Brindisi 418 Miramar. Divača, 427. 69. Alexandria 431 70. Port Said 436 71. From Alexandria or Port Said to Cairo 437 Cairo 439 History, 443.—History of Art, 444.—a. Northern Quarters (The Ezbekîyeh Garden, the Muski, Gâmia el-Azhar, Muristân Kalâûn, Gâmia el-Muaiyad), 445.—b. The S.E. Quarters (The Arab Museum, Gâmia Ibn Tulûn, Gâmia Sultân Hasan, Citadel, Gâmia en-Nâsir, Gâmia Mohammed Ali), 450.—c. The New Town (The Ismaîlîyeh and Tewfîkîyeh Quarters, Egyptian Museum, Gezîreh), 454.—d. Environs (The Mameluke Tombs, Heliopolis Oasis, Heliopolis-On, Old Cairo, Pyramids of Gîzeh, Memphis, and Sakkâra), 458. 72. From Alexandria or Port Said to Beirut (Smyrna, Constantinople) viâ Jaffa 466 From Haifa to Nâbulus; to Damascus viâ Derât (Nazareth, Tabarîya), 468. 73. From Jaffa to Jerusalem 470 From Jerusalem to Bethlehem, 480. 74. Beirut. Excursion to Damascus 481 75. From Beirut to Smyrna (and Constantinople) 489 76. From Alexandria to Athens and Smyrna (and Constantinople) 491 77. From (Marseilles, Genoa) Naples to Athens (and Constantinople) 493 78. From Venice or Trieste to Athens (and Constantinople) viâ Brindisi and Patras 496 Corfu, 496. 79. Athens 502 History, 505.—a. Walk from the Palace round the S. side of the Acropolis (The Olympieion, Stadion, Monument of Lysikrates, Theatre of Dionysos, Odeion, Areopagus), 508.—b. The Acropolis (The Temple of Nike, Propylæa, Parthenon. Erechtheion, Acropolis Museum), 512.—c. Walk from the Palace to the Theseion. Dipylon. Hill of the Nymphs. Pnyx. Monument of Philopappos, 520.—d. The Modern Quarters (Academy of Science, University, Library, Polytechnic Institute), 525.—e. The National Archæological Museum, 526.—f. Walks (Lykabettos, Kolonos, New Phaleron), 528. 80. From Athens viâ Smyrna to Constantinople 529 81. Constantinople 536 History, 541.—a. Galata and Pera (Galata Tower, Petits Champs, Dolma Bagcheh Palace, Top Haneh), 542.—b. Stambul (Yeni Valideh Jami, Seraglio, New Museum, Chinili Kiosque, Aya Sophia, Mosque of Ahmed I., Great Bazaar, Mosques of Bayazid, Suleiman the Great, and Mohammed II., Land-Wall), 545.—c. The Golden Horn (Eyub, Sweet Waters), 555.—d. Scutari, 556.—e. The Bosporus, 557.

=63. From Tunis to Malta= (Syracuse).

258 M. STEAMERS (agents at Tunis, see p. 331; at Malta, see p. 400). =1.= Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (Marseilles, Tunis, and Malta line, R. 21) on Wed. (returning Thurs.) afternoon, in 18 hrs. (55 or 40 fr.).—=2.= Hungarian Adria (R. 22) once a month (cabin, without food, 25 fr.).—Other steamers calling at Malta (P. & O., German Levant cargo-boats, etc.) are mostly bound for distant ports. Embarking and landing, comp. p. 399.—English money is the currency at Malta, but French and Italian gold are in general use.

The steamers follow the Palermo and Naples course (comp. R. 26) as far as Cape Bon, and then steer to the E.S.E. into the Straits of Pantelleria or Sicilian Straits (p. xxx).

The island of Pantelleria (p. 154), which is sighted in clear weather off Cape Bon, is passed by the French steamers at night. The lighthouse of Spadillo (68 ft.), on the N. E. point of the island, long remains in sight. The distant Linosa (610 ft.; ancient Æthusa), with a lighthouse, is visible only in very clear weather.

In the early morning the abrupt coasts of Gozo (p. 403) and Malta (p. 399) appear in the distance. The vessel rounds the island of Gozo, whose lighthouse on the Giurdan Hill (499 ft.) on the N. side, is visible for 27 M.

Beyond Râs el-Kala, the E. point of Gozo, we sight the narrow Straits of Flieghi or Comino Channels, lying between Gozo and Malta, and named alter the island of Comino (p. 397).

On the N. E. coast of Malta, above which soon appears the huge dome of Musta (p. 403), we pass the Baia di Melleha or Mellieha Bay, with the pilgrims’ resort of that name in the background, the St. Paul’s Bay (p. 403), and Salina Bay, with its salt-works.

Next appear the village of St. Julian (San Giuliano), on the bay of that name, and the town of Sliema (p. 400). We then pass Fort Tigné (p. 401; lighthouse) and the entrance to the Marsamuscetto Harbour (p. 399). The entrance of the Grand Harbour, the chief harbour of Valletta, between Fort St. Elmo (p. 400; lighthouse) and Fort Ricasoli (p. 401; lighthouse), is protected against N.E. gales by the new St. Elmo and Ricasoli Breakwaters.—Arrival, comp. p. 399.

* * * * *

The =Maltese Islands= (Isŏle Maltesi), composed of tertiary rock formation, were considered by earlier geographers to belong to Africa, but are now assigned to Europe. They lie halfway between the Straits of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, on the chief route from the Atlantic to the Levant and to India. The principal island is Malta, with the capital Valletta and many small towns and villages (casal). It is 20 M. long, 9¾ M. broad, and, at its culminating point, 847 ft. in height. The island is much over-peopled. So is the island of Gozo (600 ft.), which measures 10¼ by 5¼ M.; but Comino (248 ft.), 1¼ by 1 M., is uninhabited. The mean temperature of the year is 66½° Fahr., of January 53½° (almost the same as that of Djerba and Tripoli), of August 79½°. Gales, particularly the dreaded N.E. wind (Gregale), often make a winter residence in Malta uncomfortable, while the Sirocco (p. 321), here very moist, is specially trying in autumn.

At first sight the islands seem destitute of vegetation, the fields and gardens being enclosed by lofty walls, while the growth of trees is prevented by the violent winds. By means of laborious tilling and artificial irrigation about a third of the area of the islands has been converted into luxuriantly fertile arable land. After the corn and hay harvest in May and June the land is sown a second time, mostly with cotton, afterwards manufactured in the interior. Among other valuable products are early vegetables and potatoes, which yield two crops in the year. The oranges are excellent but other fruits are scarce. Cattle, poultry, and eggs are largely imported from Turkey, Tunisia, Tripolitania, and Barca (p. 412).

The population of Malta (96½ sq. M.), is ca. 184,000, apart from the garrison (nearly 9000 soldiers); that of Gozo (27 sq. M.) is 21,200. The British and foreign residents number about 10,000. The natives, especially in the seaports, Phœnician in origin, are partly descended from the various races that have here held sway. The lingua Maltese is akin to Arabic, but has borrowed much from the Sicilian dialect of Italian, and of late from English also. The educated classes speak Italian which is used also in the law-courts. The language of commerce is English. The faldetta, the peculiar black head-dress of the women, is the sole relic of the old national costumes.

The Maltese are much attached to the church of Rome, and nowhere in so small a community are the churches so numerous and gorgeous. About one-third of the soil is said to belong to the clergy. The Maltese are well-known throughout the Mediterranean as enterprising mariners, merchants, and fishermen. Their island being the most densely peopled region in the Mediterranean next to Monaco, an immense number of the inhabitants have emigrated during the last century. From 1807 onwards they settled largely in the Tunisian seaports, from Tabarca to Zarzis, where they formed the bulk of the Christian population, but of late they have had to contend against the growing competition of the Sicilians and other Italians. In Algeria they have formidable rivals in the Italians and Spaniards. Within the last few decades the stream of emigration has flowed chiefly to Tripolitania, Barca, Egypt, and even to Zanzibar and Delagoa Bay.

Malta is supposed to be identical with the island of Ogygia described by Homer, where Odysseus is fabled to have been enslaved by the nymph Calypso, whose alleged cavern is still pointed out on the N. coast of Malta, and also in the island of Gozo. Between 3000 and 2000 B.C. a prehistoric race (Hamitic?), probably from Libya, settled in Malta. Of their stage of civilization, which lasted a thousand years, traces are still found in the massive stone structures in the cyclopean style, which reveal, especially in their circular ground-plan, an affinity with the sesi of Pantelleria, the nuraghi of Sardinia (see p. 145), and the megalithic monuments of Barbary, S.E. Spain, and the Balearic Islands, and fall within the sphere of influence of pre-Mycenæan (‘insular’) and Mycenæan culture. Later the Phœnicians of Sidon founded a colony here, which soon became important enough to send forth settlers to Acholla (p. 370) on the Tunisian coast. Next, in 736 B. C., came Greek immigrants, and two centuries later the Carthaginians, who took possession of the island. They now called it Melita and had a capital of that name (now Notabile), but they in their turn were ousted by the Romans in 218 B. C. It was on the N. coast of Melita that St. Paul was wrecked in 62 A. D. (Acts, xxvii. xxviii). He was received and courteously lodged by Publius, the governor, and founded a Christian community in the island before resuming his voyage. Four centuries later came the Vandals (p. 322), and after another century the Byzantines, who in 870 were driven out by Moors from Tunis. Under the Moors the island was infested with pirates. At length when the Normans under Roger conquered Sicily in 1090, Malta also fell under their sway, and thenceforward it shared the fortunes of Sicily until 1522. In that year arrived the Knights of St. John, banished from Rhodes by the Turks, and to that Order in 1530 Malta, Gozo, and Tripoli were granted by Emp. Charles V. The knights then took the name of Knights of Malta and gallantly defended their island, which became one of the great bulwarks of Christianity, against the repeated attacks of the Turks. The most fearful siege they sustained was that of Borgo (Vittoriosa, p. 400) in 1565, when they were attacked by the whole forces of Suleiman the Great under Dragut (p. 370), Mustapha, and Piali. In consequence of that event the Grand Master Jean de la Valette founded and fortified the new town of La Valette (Valletta), which became the capital and was deemed impregnable. In 1798 Bonaparte, when on his way to Egypt, gained possession of the town by treachery and stratagem; but on 8th Sept. 1800, after a siege of two years by the Maltese, assisted by British and Neapolitan troops, the French garrison was compelled to capitulate and leave the island. Since the treaty of Paris (1814) Malta has belonged to Britain.—The present governor of the island is Lt.-Gen. Sir H. M. Rundle, K. C. B.

The island of =Malta= presents an undulating and richly varied N.E. coast, but on the rocky S.W. side it rises abruptly from the sea. The Grand Harbour and the Marsamuscetto Harbour, the two grand natural harbours of Valletta, originally valleys hollowed out during the tertiary period, form one of the most important of British war-harbours and the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. Owing to its central position Malta is also a great coaling-station, vying with Gibraltar, Algiers, and Genoa. In 1908–9 the harbour was entered and cleared by 3212 vessels of 4,036,752 tons of burden.

=Valletta.=—ARRIVAL. The great British liners lie to in Sliema Creek (p. 400); the French, Italian, and German steamers anchor in the Grand Harbour, near the Custom House, or, during N.E. gales, in the sheltered Marsa Creek. Boat to or from steamer 6_d._, with baggage 9_d._ (at night 1_s._). Passports may sometimes be useful at custom-house, post-office, etc.

=Hotels= (all more or less in the English style). =1.= At Valletta: HÔT. D’ANGLETERRE, Strada Stretta 34, with a fine fresco-painted dining-room (17th cent.), pens. 9_s._, good; ST. JAMES’S HOTEL, Strada San Paolo 226, pens. 9_s._, well conducted; HÔT. ROYAL, Strada Mercanti 30, pens. 10_s._; WESTMINSTER, Strada Reale 11; IMPERIAL, Via Santa Lucia 134; QUEEN’S, Strada Mercanti; HÔT. D’AUSTRALIE, Strada Stretta 53, pens. 8½ fr.; HÔT. CENTRAL, Strada Stretta 44, pens. 8½ fr., good cuisine, commercial house. Also the family hotels, OXFORD (No. 29), GREAT BRITAIN (No. 67), and OSBORNE (No. 50), all in Strada Mezzodì, quiet and pleasant.—=2.= At Sliema (p. 400), for some stay: *NEW IMPERIAL, Strada Ridolfo; SAVOY, Strada Imrabat 6, with garden, pens. (with bath) 6–8_s._, good; these two in an open site.

=Restaurant.= National Restaurant, Strada Reale 253.—CAFÉS. Risazza, near the Exchange Buildings; Regina, Piazza Tesoreria; Anglo-Maltese (Engl. beer), Commerce, both in Strada Reale; Express.

=Post Office=, Strada Mercanti 4.—=Telegraph Office=, Strada Reale 38.

=Banks.= Anglo-Egyptian, Strada Reale 233; Banco di Roma; Anglo-Maltese and Banco di Malta, Exchange Buildings, Strada Reale.—MONEY CHANGERS. Coppini, Strada Mercanti 58; Thos. Cook & Son, Strada Reale 308.—BOOKSELLER. J. Critien, Strada Reale, and others.—NEWSPAPERS. Daily Malta Chronicle, Malta Herald, Gazzetta di Malta, etc.

=Shops.= LACE at the Malta Lace School, Strada Mezzodì 28; Borg, Strada Reale 269; Mifsud, Strada Santa Lucia.—FILIGREE WORK at Amabile’s.

=Theatres.= Royal Opera, Strada Reale, at the corner of Strada Mezzodì (Nov.–April, Ital. opera); Teatro Manoel, Strada Teatro, built by Grand Master Manoel de Vilhena (p. 401) in 1731, for operas and varieties.—VARIETIES at the Alhambra.

=Cabs.= Within Valletta and Floriana, incl. the Marina 4_d._ (luggage according to bargain); to Sliema 1_s._ 2_d._, to Burmola, Senglea, or Vittoriosa 1_s._ 8_d._, to Musta 2_s._, to Notabile or Krendi 2_s._ 6_d._, to Boschetto 3_s._, to Mnaidra or St. Paul’s Bay 4_s._—By time: ¼ hr. 6_d._, ½ hr. 1_s._, 1 hr. 1_s._ 6_d._, each addit. ¼ hr. 4_d._

=Lift= from the harbour to the Upper Barracca (p. 402), 1_d._

=Tramways= from Porta Reale (1) viâ Marsa and Casal Paula (2_d._) to Burmola, (2) viâ Curmi to Zebbug, (3) viâ Hamrun to Birchircara.

=Steam Ferry= across the Grand Harbour to Senglea (½_d._); across Marsamuscetto Harbour to Sliema (½_d._); to Pietà and Misida (1_d._); in summer to St. Julian’s also (2_d._).—STEAMER TO GOZO every week-day at 7, on Sun. at 8 a.m.; on Sun., Tues., Thurs., Sat. at 1 p.m. also; returning at 10.30 or 4.30; return-fare 1_s._; dep. from Grand Harbour; to or from steamer 4_d._

=Malta Railway= (station between Royal Opera and Porta Reale), 24 trains daily (more on Sun.) to Attard 3_d._ or 1½_d._, to Notabile (Città Vecchia) 7_d._ or 3½_d._

=Steamboat Offices.= Peninsular & Oriental, Worcester, Strada Mercanti 41; Cunard, Lowe, Strada Stretta 81; Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (p. 396), Vadala, Strada Reale 292; Società Nazionale (R. 64), Civitelli, Strada San Paolo 225; German Levant, P. Cutajar & Co.; Hungarian Adria Co. (RR. 22, 23), Kohen, Piazza Regina 6.

=United States Consul=, J. O. Laing; vice-consul, James A. Turnbull.—LLOYD’S AGENTS, Gollcher & Sons, Strada Zaccaria 21.

=Sights.= Cathedral before 8 and from 10 to 10.30 a.m.; also after 2 p.m.—Library on week-days, 9 to 3.30.—Governor’s Palace daily, 9–12 and 1–5, 6_d._ (guide unnecessary).—Valletta Museum on week-days 9–1 (in June-Sept. 3–6 also), 6_d._, Sat. 3_d._ ; Sun. 9–12 free.

ONE DAY. Visit to Cathedral, Palace, and Museum (p. 401), and view from Barracca Superiore (p. 402) in the forenoon; in the afternoon, trip to Notabile (p. 403; cathedral, bastions, museum), or to Gozo (p. 403).

Valletta or Valetta (197 ft.; pop. 25,000, or incl. Floriana 32,000), the capital of Malta, is the seat of the Governor (see p. 399), of the Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Forces (Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton), and of a University founded in 1769. It lies in 35°34′ N. lat. and 14°31′ E. long., at the extremity of the peninsula, formerly called Monte Sceberras, 1½ M. long and ½ M. broad, between the Grand Harbour (to the S.E.) and the Marsamuscetto Harbour (to the N.W.). Enthroned above its harbours, with its grand fortifications partly hewn in the rock, the model of a 16th. cent, fortress, it presents a very striking appearance when approached from the sea.

Opposite Valletta, on the three central creeks of the Grand Harbour, lie the ‘Three Cities’ of Borgo (Malt. Birgu; pop. 6200), the oldest seat of the Maltese Order, also called Vittoriosa since the great Turkish siege, Sénglea (pop. 8100), and Búrmola or Cospicua (pop. 14,100), with the naval arsenal. In the Marsamuscetto Harbour lies the island of Jezira, with the Lazzaretto, beyond which, on the Sliema Creek, rises the town of Sliema (pop. 12,000).

The =Fortifications= were an object of ceaseless attention under the rule of the Order. The oldest part of them is Fort St. Angelo, originally built by the Moors in 870 and renewed in 1530, which in the siege of 1565 proved the chief bulwark of Borgo. Fort St. Elmo, originally built in 1488 but now entirely altered, fell into the hands of the Turks in 1565. The town-wall of Borgo was built in 1530 and that of Sénglea in 1554. The *Town Walls of Valletta, with their thirty bastions, deep moats, drawbridges, and casemates, date chiefly from the time of the foundation of the town (1566–71). The outworks of Floriana are of 1635. The older ramparts of Vittoriosa, Senglea, and Burmola, called the Firenzuola Lines, were strengthened by the addition of new outworks in 1668 called the Cottonera Lines. The later harbour-forts are Fort Ricasoli, of 1670, Fort Manoel in Jezira, of 1732, and Fort Tigné, of 1792. All these works are supplemented by the British Harbour Batteries.

The streets ascend steeply from the two harbours, many of them by means of long flights of steps. The main business streets are the STRADA REALE, leading on the top of the peninsula from Fort St. Elmo to Porta Reale (over ½ M.), and the Strada Mercanti. From the latter the Strada Cristoforo descends past the University, established in an old Jesuit college (Strada San Paolo 109), to the Lower Barracca Gardens, a bastion affording a good survey of the mouth of the harbour and the ‘Three Cities’.

The plain PALACE, once the seat of the Grand Master and now that of the governor of Malta (see p. 399), was erected in 1573–7 by Girolamo Cassar in the Strada Reale and Piazza Tesoreria, in the centre of the town. The garden court on the left is adorned with a bronze statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna; in the court on the right rises a huge Araucaria excelsa. Adm., see p. 400; entrance by the green gate in the upper court.

The chief attraction is the PALACE ARMOURY on the first floor, containing armour, weapons, flags, and trophies of the Order (catalogue 5_s._). The principal hall, 88 yds. long, contains also state-coaches in the pseudo-classical style and charters of Pope Paschalis II. (1113) and Charles V. (1530; investiture of the Order). On the walls of the adjacent corridor are painted views of old Malta. The Council Room on the left is hung with superb Gobelins, designed by Franç. Desportes (1703). The wall-paintings represent naval battles fought by the Order.

An inscription on the Doric portico of the Main Guard, opposite the N.W. façade of the Palace, records the cession of Malta to Great Britain. A band often plays in the square in the evening. In the Piazza Tesoreria, opposite the S.W. façade of the Palace, is the Public Library of 56,000 vols. (adm., see p. 400; entrance under the arcades).

The CATHEDRAL OF SAN GIOVANNI (St. John’s), to the left in the second side-street in the direction of the Porta Reale, built in 1573–7 by Girol. Cassar, and lavishly decorated in the interior, was the Order’s temple of fame. Adm., see p. 400.

INTERIOR. The oil-paintings on the barrel-vaulting are by Mattia Preti (‘il Cavaliere Calabrese’; 1613–99). On the floor are about 400 slabs of coloured marble, tombstones of the knights. The chapels dedicated to the nine nations of the Order are lined with a number of tombstones of Grand Masters, mostly in the baroque or rococo style. In the Portuguese chapel (2nd on the right) are those of Ant. Manoel de Vilhena (1722–36) and Manoel Pinto de Fonseca (1741–73), the founder of the university.—In the Crypt, below the high-altar (of 1686), repose, among others, L’Isle Adam (1530–4), the first Maltese Grand Master, and Jean de la Valette (1557–68), the gallant defender of Borgo (see p. 398).

Sumptuous Brussels tapestry (1697–1701), after designs by Rubens and Mattia Preti, is hung up in the church on festivals.

The *VALLETTA MUSEUM, Strada San Giovanni 38, opposite the façade of the Cathedral, affords an admirable survey of the history of Maltese art and culture from the prehistoric age down to the close of the Knights’ period. Adm., see p. 400; no catalogue; curator, Dr. Themistocles Zammit.

ENTRANCE ROOM. On the left the ‘sacred stone’ from the Torre dei Giganti (p. 404); Roman inscriptions from Gozo (about 140 A. D.); a fine Norman capital, Norman and Cufic (early Arabic) inscriptions, etc.; also models of stone balconies and of a Norman window at Victoria (p. 404).

FIRST FLOOR. Prehistoric objects from Egypt (the Faiyûm); the Lord Grenfell collection of Egyptian antiquities; Greek vases from Benghazi and Cyrene; Arabian glass, etc.

SECOND FLOOR. In the Ante Room are Roman sculptures.—The Chief Hall contains prehistoric, Phœnician, Punic, and Roman objects from tombs in Malta and Gozo. By the entrance-wall is a large collection of vases arranged in types. In the last case are potsherds from various neolithic stations. By the back-wall are prehistoric finds from Hal-Saflieni (see below) and Hagiar Kim (p. 403), vases, amulets, projectiles, flint implements, seven seated stone figures, etc.; adjacent, on the left, is the unique Phœnician-Greek dedicatory inscription in which Phœnician characters were for the first time deciphered (on the right, cast of a similar inscription in the Louvre). By the window-wall are copies and models of the so-called chief temple of Hagiar Kim and of Phœnician tombs; also an Arabian tombstone (1173), with a long Cufic inscription. In the first case in the centre is Phœnician glass; in the fourth, a Phœnician terracotta sarcophagus, with the recumbent figure of the deceased. The Second Room contains memorials of the period of the Order.—In the Passage are drawings of the Roman house at Notabile (p. 403) and its mosaics.—The Third Room contains old plans, maps, and views of Malta of old; model of a state-galley of the Grand Masters; a collection of coins from the Phœnician age to the present day.

Each of the nine nations of the Order had its own ‘auberge’ or house of assembly. Most of these were built by Girol. Cassar. The Auberge d’Aragon is in the Piazza Celsi. At the upper end of the town are the Aub. de Provence, at the corner of the Strada Reale and Strada Britannica, the Aub. d’Italie (1574), in the Strada Mercanti, opposite the post-office, and the handsome Aub. de Castille (1574; altered in 1744), in the Piazza Regina.—A few paces from the Piazza Regina are the Upper Barracca Gardens (laid out on the large bastion of Barracca Superiore; lift, see p. 400), embellished with numerous statues, and affording a fine view of the Grand Harbour, especially by evening light.

Through the Porta Reale (P. R. on the map) we reach the plateau between Valletta and the suburb of FLORIANA. Near the gate is the tramway-station (p. 400). On the right, farther on, is the Parade Ground. In the middle of the plateau, beyond the bronze statue of Ant. Manoel de Vilhena (p. 401), runs the long narrow Maglio Garden, enclosed by high walls. Farther on we come to the bastions of Floriana, on which are situated the Argotti or Botanic Garden, belonging to the university, and the Sarrìa, a handsome church of the Maltese Order (1678).

At Casal Paula or Paula, 2 M. to the S. of Floriana, beyond the Creek of Marsa, lies the prehistoric Hypogaeum of Hal Saflieni, containing circular caves, some of them richly decorated, of the period of the neolithic civilization. Entrance (6_d._) in Catacomb Street, 5 min. from the tramway-terminus (p. 400).

RAILWAY (p. 400) from Valletta to Notabile (carr., see p. 399). After the long tunnel under Floriana come the stations of Hamrun, Misida, Birchircara, and (4½ M.) Attard (Alb. Melita). About 10 min. to the N. of Attard is the Palace of Sant’Antonio (1625), once the summer seat of the Grand Master (visitors admitted to the fine garden). The road in front of the palace goes on to (2 M.) Musta, with a remarkable church, whose huge dome, 118 ft. in diameter, was constructed in 1853–64 without the aid of scaffolding.

7 M. =Notábile= or =Città Vecchia= (Hôt. du Point-de-Vue, with fine view, pens. 7–8_s._; pop. 7500), still popularly called Medina (Arabic for ‘town’), the seat of the bishop, was the old fortified capital of the island as far back as the Roman age.

From the Notabile station a road leads to the Piazza Sakkaya, on the hill between the old town and the S. suburb of Rábato. Thence we pass through the Porta dei Greci to St. Paul’s Cathedral (San Paolo), before whose portal are planted cannons as in the time of the Order. The sumptuous interior contains many marble tombstones of Maltese bishops. Fine choir-stalls of 1480. The Strada dei Bastioni behind the church commands an extensive view.

In Museum Road, not far from the Piazza Sakkaya, is a Roman house, excavated in 1881, now converted into a Museum, containing mosaic pavements, statues, bronzes, and glass (fee 3_d._).—The adjacent Esplanade affords a fine view of Musta, the town-walls of Notabile, and the pleasant green valley at the foot of the Imtarfa Hill, with the barracks and the Museum Station (terminus of the railway, which goes through a tunnel under Notabile).

The parish church of San Paolo, in the Piazza Parrocchiale of the suburb of Rabato, stands over a cavern, in which, according to the legend, St. Paul dwelt during his three months’ stay in the island in the year 62. From the church the Strada San Cataldo and Strada Sant’ Agata soon lead to the Catacombs of St. Paul and the Cemetery of St. Agatha, both pre-Christian in origin but used in Christian times (fee 3_d._).

To the N.W. of Notabile rise the Bingemma Hills (784 ft.), with Phœnician rock-tombs and a fort on the coast.—About 2 M. to the S.W. of Notabile, near Casal Dingli, is the Naval Signal Station (847 ft.), the highest point in the island, whence we overlook the whole group of islands and the surrounding sea.—Some 2 M. to the S. of Notabile lies the Boschetto, a large public garden (carr., see p. 399), adjoining the Verdala Palace (1586), once a summer seat of the Grand Masters (now that of the governors).—To the S.E. is (4½ M.) Casal Krendi (carr., see p. 399), near the luxuriantly wooded gorge of Makluba, 132 ft. deep, probably formed by an earthquake. We may visit (20 min. to the W.) the prehistoric ruins of Hagiar Kim, buildings of huge blocks of stone without mortar. About 7 min. farther to the W. are the similar ruins of Mnaidra.

St. Paul’s Bay (Baia di San Paolo; carr., see p. 399) on the N. side of the island, 5½ M. to the N. of Notabile, with the islet of Selmun (colossal statue of the apostle), is the supposed scene of St. Paul’s shipwreck.

The sister island of =Gozo= (p. 397), to the N.W. of Malta, the ancient Gaulos, Maltese Ghaudex, which also was once fortified by the Maltese Order, is more fertile and varied than the main island. The coast is precipitous all round. The small local boat (p. 400) crosses in 1½ hr., affording a fine view of the N.E. coast of Malta, and, on the way back, of the caves on the W. shore of Comino. We land in Migiarro or Miggiar Bay (Malt. Mjiar), on the S. coast of Gozo, below Fort Chambré (1750), where carriages are in waiting (to Victoria and back 3_s._, whole day 5_s._).

Victoria (299 ft.; Duke of Edinburgh Hotel, and others; pop. 5000), called Rábat down to 1887, the capital and episcopal residence of Gozo, lies in the centre of the island, 4 M. to the N.W. of the landing-place. The streets show a good many relics of mediæval architecture (comp. p. 402). The neglected Citadel dates from 1600. The women of Gozo are much occupied with lace-making.

A branch of the road from the harbour to Victoria leads to the village of Sciarra (486 ft.; Maltese Casal Xaghra). Below Sciarra, on a height covered with fruit-trees, rises the Torre dei Giganti (Malt. Ggantija), similar to the ruins of Hagiar Kim (p. 403; adm. by leave of the proprietor, Marquis Cassar Desain).

64. From Tunis to Syracuse viâ Sfax, Tripoli, and Malta.

BETWEEN TUNIS AND TRIPOLI, 544 M.: =1.= Società Nationale, Line XIX (Linea Circolare della Tunisia e Tripolitania, see p. 142) from Tunis Wed. aft., from Susa Thurs. foren., from Sfax Frid. night, arr. at Tripoli Sun. morn. (in the reverse direction leave Tripoli Thurs. aft., arr. at Tunis Mon. morn.). Fare 103 or 75 fr.—=2.= Comp. de Navig. Mixte (p. 128) leave Tunis Frid. even., Susa Sat. noon, Sfax Sun. midnight, Gabes Mon. noon, Djerba Mon. even., arr. at Tripoli Tues. morn. (in reverse direction leave Tripoli Tues. aft., arr. in Tunis Sat. evening). Fare 100 or 75 fr.—From Tunis to Susa viâ Sfax and back, also steamers of the Comp. Gén. Transatlantique (p. 128; leave Tunis Sun. aft., Sfax Mon. aft., Susa Tues, aft., regaining Tunis Wed. morn.).—Between Algiers and Tripoli direct, or viâ Malta, there are also the cargo-steamers of the German Levant Line.—At Gabes, Djerba, and Tripoli gales sometimes make landing impossible; passengers are then landed at the next port and sent back free, paying for their extra food only.—Agents at Tunis, see p. 331; at Susa, see p. 366; at Sfax, see p. 380; at Tripoli, see p. 406.

BETWEEN TRIPOLI AND SYRACUSE, 325 M.: Società Nazionale, Line XX (Linea Circolare, see above), also Line VIII (Catania, Syracuse, Benghazi, Constantinople; R. 66). The vessels of the principal line leave Tripoli Sun. aft., Malta Mon. night, arr. at Syracuse Tues. morn. (returning from Syracuse Mon. night, from Malta Wed. foren., arr. at Tripoli Thurs. morn.); steamers of the other line usually leave Tripoli every second Wed. aft., Malta Thurs. night, arr. at Syracuse Frid. morn. (returning from Syracuse every second Frid. night, from Malta Sun. foren., arr. at Tripoli Mon. morn.). Fare 74 fr. 50 c. or 51 fr.—From Malta to Tripoli there is a fortnightly steamer of the Banco di Roma and occasionally a cargo-boat of the German Levant Line.—Between Malta and Syracuse the Hungarian Adria (p. 132) plies daily except Mon. (from Malta after midnight, from Syracuse in the afternoon; in 8 hrs.; fare without food 25 or 15, return 37½ or 22½ fr.).—Agents at Malta and Syracuse, see p. 400, 162.

From Tunis to Cape Bon, see p. 153. Our steamer, generally at night, next skirts the steep E. coast of Cape Bon, passes Râs el-Mirh, and off Râs el-Mustapha steers to the S.S.W. for Susa. On the latter headland lies the little town of Kelibia, the ancient Aspis or Clupea, whose castle-hill is crowned with a lighthouse. The flat coast of the Gulf of Hammamet (p. 364) recedes from view; beyond it, in the background, are the distant Jebel Zaghouan (p. 359), Jebel Zeriba (2412 ft.), and Jebel Fadloun (1306 ft.).

Nearing =Susa= (p. 366), we have a pleasant view of the olive-clad hills of the Sahel, while the town itself presents a most striking picture with its great expanse of white houses.

Leaving the coast, where the low dunes conceal the salt-marshes of the Sebkha de Sahline, we steer to the E.S.E. towards the Pointe de Monastir, the S. limit of the bay of Hammamet.

The little town of =Monastir= (82 ft.; Hôt. de Paris, Hôt. de France, both primitive; Brit. vice-cons., A. B. Geary; pop. 9000, incl. 600 Europeans) lies superbly on the olive-clad headland. It owes its name to a monastery, which in early Moorish times still existed as the sole relic of the Roman seaport of Ruspina.

From the steamer we first sight the white pinnacled town-wall and the numerous shrines outside of it. Then, as we pass between the headland and the three islets off the coast (Djezira Sidi el-Rhedamsi or Ile Egdemsi, etc.), appears the dilapidated Moorish Kasba with the tower of En-Nadour. To the E. in very clear weather we descry the lighthouse on the distant Kuriat Islands.

After a short stay in the Bay of Monastir, on the S. side of the town, we steer to the S.E., past the Dahar Cliffs (on the left), and across the bay; then, beyond the Râs Dimas, along the coast to =Mehdia= (p. 369), where the steamer seldom stops long enough to admit of our visiting the town.

Next (generally at night) we pass Râs Kapoudia (p. 370), the N. limit of the Gulf of Gabes (the ancient Syrtis Minor), where the discrepancy between flow and ebb (6½ ft.) is greater than in any other part of the Mediterranean. Avoiding the silted Kerkenna Passage, the vessel steers round the Kerkenna Islands (Ile Chergui and Ile Gharbi, the ancient Cercina and Cercinitis).

The steamer usually arrives at =Sfax= (by way of the harbour-canal, p. 381) early in the morning. Beyond Sfax the vessel skirts the uninteresting coast as far as Râs Tina (p. 383), and then steers to the S.S.W. across the bay to =Gabes= (p. 389), where it generally allows time for a short visit to the oasis.

Leaving Gabes we may in clear weather descry the Monts des Ksour (p. 390) bounding the horizon. We then steer to the E. to the sandy N. coast of =Djerba= (p. 393), and anchor in the open sea off Houmt-Souk (p. 393). The process of going ashore and returning takes so long that it is hardly ever possible to visit the place.

After losing sight of the lighthouse of Râs Taguermess (or Turgoeness), the E. cape of Djerba, we steer for a long time to the E.S.E., at some distance from the sandy coast with its salt-marshes, where the Râs Adjir marks the frontier of Tripolitania.

The monotonous sandy coast, with its numerous oases, with the little port of Sansur, and the watch-tower of Gergârish (p. 411), is scarcely visible till we are nearing Tripoli. The Lighthouse, rising above the abraded terrace on the N.W. side of the town, and the ruinous Spanish Fort (1510) at the end of the headland are the chief landmarks. Numerous reefs make it difficult, and in a N.W. gale sometimes impossible, for vessels to enter the harbour.

* * * * *

=Tripoli.=—ARRIVAL. The steamers anchor in the inner roads, more than ½ M. from the pier, and are at once boarded by the hotel-agents (charges should be asked). Landing or embarking 50 c., but with baggage 1–1½ fr. according to distance and bargain. Dogana at the pier (Pl. B, 1; comp. p. 537). For a prolonged stay a passport visé by a Turkish consul is necessary, but otherwise a ‘permis de voyage’ (1 fr.) from the Contrôle Civil at Tunis, or even a visiting-card, may suffice. The services of the importunate Jewish guides should be declined.

=Hotel.= HÔT. MINERVA (Pl. a, B 2; Maltese landlord; bargain advisable), déj. 2½, pens. 6–8 fr., tolerable.—CAFÉ-RESTAURANT: Circolo Militare (p. 409; Maltese host), near the Bâb el-Khandek. Many small Arab cafés on the quay (Marina), near the clock-tower (Orologio), etc.; small cup of coffee (gâhua) 5 c., very sweet ‘hlu’, slightly sweetened ‘gídgid’; cup of tea (shâi) 10 c.; no gratuities.

=Moorish Baths= (comp. p. 175), tolerable; the best is the Hammôm (bagno árabo) in Strada del Bagno (Pl. B, 2); Europeans pay 3 fr. or more according to their rank.

=Post Offices.= Italian, at the Ital. consulate (Pl. 7; B, 2), Strada del Consolato Italiano; French, at the French consulate (Pl. 4; B, 1), Strada del Consolato Francese; Turkish, on the quay (Marina). Poste Restante letters should bear the name of the office where they are to be found.—=Telegraph Office.= Eastern Telegraph Co. (Pl. 10; B, 2), on the quay; payment must be made in gold or in Turkish money.

=Consulates.= BRITISH (Pl. 5; B, 1): consul-general, J. C. W. Alvarez; vice-consul, A. Dickson.—UNITED STATES (Pl. 9; B, 4): consul, J. L. Wood; vice-consul, A. E. Saunders.

=Steamboat Offices= (comp. p. 404, and RR. 65, 66): Società Nazionale, Labi, Strada del Bagno; Comp. de Navigation Mixte, Fratelli Farrugia, Strada del Consolato Italiano; German Levant Line, Sûk el-Harrâra (Pl. B, 2; near Sûk et-Turk).

=Banks.= Banco di Roma (Pl. 2; B, 2), in the Piazza (p. 409); Ottoman Bank (Pl. 1; B, 2), on the quay; Labi, see above. Government offices accept Turkish money only, but Tunisian silver and copper, and in the town even Italian copper, besides 10 and 20 fr. gold pieces, are in general circulation.

=Carriages= (stand on the S.E. side of the Serâi, p. 409) 1½–2½ fr. per hour according to the quality of the vehicle; drive round the oasis 3–5 fr.; as few of the drivers speak Italian it is best to get a resident to make the bargain and specify the route.—DONKEYS (at the Sûk el-Khobsa, p. 410), ½ day 1–2, day 2–3 fr.—ROWING AND SAILING BOATS at the pier; about 2 fr. per hour.

The LANGUAGE of the natives is an Arabic dialect, interlarded with Berber and Italian words; many of the officials, however, speak Turkish only. In the European colony Italian predominates. This is largely due to the fact that the Italian state supports several schools, which are attended by Jewish and Maltese children as well as Italian. There are three French schools also.

ONE DAY should be devoted to a walk of 2–3 hrs. through the town and to an excursion to the oasis (p. 410). One must be very careful not to enter mosques, saints’ tombs, or Moslem cemeteries (comp. p. xxv). It should be observed also that the military authorities, dreading spies, are jealous of visitors near the fortifications (comp. p. 175). Otherwise the public safety is well provided for in the town and environs. For excursions in the interior the leave of the Sublime Porte must be obtained.

Tripoli in Barbary (Ital. Tripoli di Barbería, Fr. Tripoli de Barbarie or d’Afrique, Arabic Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. ‘Tripoli of the West’, to distinguish it from the Syrian Tripoli), the ancient Oëa, is the capital of the Turkish vilayet of Tripolitania, presided over by the Vali or governor-general. The town lies in 32° 54′ N. lat. and 13° 10′ E. long., on a triangular peninsula, which consists of quaternary dune-sandstone resting on tertiary limestone rock. A series of rocky islets and reefs, 1¼ M. long, running out from the peninsula, form a roomy but much silted harbour. The mixture of nationalities converging at Tripoli, as one of the chief portals to inland Africa, is unparallelled except in Egypt. Of the 46,000 inhab. two-thirds are Berbers (p. 94), Arabs, Moors (p. 171), and Turks; there are 10,000 Jews, 2000 Maltese, 800 Italians, 150 Greeks (besides many Greek sponge-fishers in summer), 200 other Europeans, and lastly some 2000 negroes, descendants of slaves from the Sudan. Negroes are to be found also among the very numerous officers of the garrison of 6000 men.

The town with its white houses, its slender minarets of the Turkish type, its green gardens and groups of palms, the reddish-yellow dunes of drift-sand from the Sahara, and the deep-blue sea, all bathed in dazzling sunshine, present a most fascinating picture.

HISTORY. The three Phœnician seaports between the Syrtis Minor and Major, Leptis Magna (p. 412), Oëa, and Sabratha, together called Tripolis by the Sicilian Greeks, were even in the Punic age connected by caravan routes with inland Africa and by a coast-road, 512 M. long, with Carthage. After their annexation to the Roman province of Africa on the fall of Jugurtha (p. 321) the ‘three cities’ flourished anew. To them, as also to Tacape (Gabes), the Garamantes, or Libyan (Berber) inhabitants of Phazania (now Fezzan), brought from the Sudan ostrich-feathers, gold-dust, ivory, ebony, elephants, and black slaves, to be exported thence to Carthage, Rome, and the chief seaports of S. Europe. This region yielded also large supplies of corn, while the productive olive-trees were deemed the most abundant on the Mediterranean. To the Roman emperors Septimius Severus (193–211) and Alexander Severus (222–35), natives of this district, the three towns owed much improvement and embellishment. The Punic language and the Greek, which was that of the educated classes, were then still so prevalent that Alexander Severus, for example, was unacquainted with Latin till his arrival in Rome. Sept. Severus made Oëa the capital of his Provincia Tripolitana, and when the artificial harbours of the two sister towns fell into decay Oëa succeeded to their trade and their joint name.

After the Vandal period (p. 322) and after the domination of the Byzantines, who succeeded only in 567 in Christianizing the Garamantes, the repeated irruptions of the Arabs (p. 322) brought ruin and misery to the whole country. From 670 onwards, apart from the short periods of occupation by the Normans (1140–59), the Spaniards (1510–30), and the Maltese Knights (1530–51), Tripolitania remained for centuries under Arab or Berber sway, sharing the fortunes of Tunisia (comp. p. 322), while from 1216 onwards the Genoese had a monopoly of the coast-trade of Tripolitania and Barca. In 1551 the corsair Dragut (p. 370), driven out of Mehdia, founded a new Turkish tributary state at Tripoli. From that time down to 1816 the inhabitants took an active part in the depredations of the ‘Algerian pirates’, bringing down upon them the sanguinary reprisals of an English fleet in 1663 and of French fleets in 1685 and 1728, which caused the almost entire destruction of the town. In 1804 Tripoli and in 1805 Derna (p. 414) were stormed by the Americans. The native dynasty of the Karamanli, founded in 1714, was overthrown by the Turks in 1835, after which Tripoli became a usual place of exile for Turkish civil and military offenders and again lapsed into decay. At length, in 1899, the partition of the inland regions between Great Britain and France stimulated the Turks to renewed activity and defensive measures. In spite, however, of these, and of the very favourable situation of the town, the caravan trade with the interior is on the decline and the local industries are inconsiderable.

The OLD TOWN, a pentagon, is still enclosed on four sides by the mouldering Spanish Town Wall, 40 ft. high at places, built of sandstone from Gergârish (p. 411), and consists of three different quarters. Near the harbour, and behind the Marina (Pl. B, 1, 2) skirting it from the Dogana or Custom House (Pl. B, 1) onwards, lies the quarter of that name, inhabited chiefly by the Christians, and therefore the least Oriental in appearance. To the W. is the Hárra (Kebîr, the great, and Serîr, the little), the Jewish quarter, with its crooked and dirty streets. The purely Mohammedan S.E. Quarter contains the main business streets, which lead to the outer markets and the new town (p. 409). The principal streets are paved and are lighted at night with petroleum lamps, but many others, especially in the Jewish quarter, being unpaved in Oriental fashion, are almost impassable after rain and pitch-dark at night.

In the narrow Strada della Marina (Arabic Bâb Bahr, sea-gate), leading from the Dogana and the fish-market to the S.W. to the Jews’ quarter, rises on the right the Roman Triumphal Arch (Pl. B, 1), built by the consul C. Orfitus in the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) but in 163 rededicated to that emperor’s successors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.

The arch, 41 ft. broad and 33 ft. deep, has four fronts (‘quadrifrons’; comp. pp. 315, 316), showing that it stood over cross-streets. Among the sadly mutilated sculptures are still seen statues of Victory, figures of animals, and trophies. The back, with the inscription, is half covered, and the fourth side is almost entirely built over. The lower half is buried in the ground. The interior is used as a shop. The vaulting of the passages is lacunar. The central space is covered with a flat dome, rising from an octagonal cornice.

We next come to the Gurji Mosque (Pl. B, 1), with an octagonal minaret, and to the main street of the Hárra Kebîr (see above), with its numerous workshops, where curious gold and silver trinkets are sold by weight.

From the British Consulate (Pl. 5; B, 1) we follow the Church Street to the S.E. to the Italian Gothic church of Santa Maria degli Angeli (Pl. B, 2), completed in 1846, belonging to an Italian Franciscan monastery. By leave of the superior we may ascend the tower, whose gallery (141 ft.) is a fine point of view.

From the Piazza (Pl. B, 2; Arabic Mussâiya) near the church the Strada del Consolato Italiano leads to the S. to the Sûk el-Harrâra (Pl. B, A, 2, 3), the chief thoroughfare between the Marina (p. 408) and the W. gate, Bâb el-Jedîd (Pl. A, 3; ‘new gate’), opened in 1860. This sûk contains the shops of the cloth and silk weavers and several curious antiquated Bakeries, with millstones turned by camels.

A road from the W. gate leads to the W., past several wells (p. 410), to the (8 min.) extensive Jewish Cemetery; another, to the N., to the ancient Necropolis (Pl. A, 2), on the abrupt coast (82 ft.), not far from the town-wall, containing many rock-tombs and cisterns.—The Greek and the Catholic Cemeteries (Pl. A, B, 1) lie between the Lazaretto and the lighthouse.

The busiest streets in the S.E. quarter are the Zanga Sûk et-Turk (Pl. B, 2, 3) and, diverging from it at the Piazza dell’Orologio, the Sûk el-Khadra or Sûk Urba (Pl. B, C, 3). The tasteless three-storied Torre dell’ Orologio, Arabic Sâa (Pl. B, 3), which tells Turkish time, was built in 1870. In front of the Arab cafés here auctions are held on Friday forenoons.

The SÛKS (p. 335) consist here in part only of vaulted passages; many have wooden roofs with vine-trellises. The wares are mostly Tunisian or European, and therefore seldom worth buying here. A side-entrance adjoins the Jâma el-Bâsha (Pl. C, 3), the chief mosque.

The massive pile of buildings by the sea, a few paces to the E. of the clock-tower, is the Serai (Pl. C, 2, 3; Arabic Kasba), originally the Spanish citadel. It now contains barracks, many courts, several prisons (habbês), partly underground, and the government offices. The terrace next the sea affords a fine view of the harbour and towards the oasis.

Outside the S. gates, Bâb el-Khandek and Bâb el-Menshia or el-Mnshîa (Pl. C, 3; oasis gate), rises the Fontana Maggiore, an elegant well-house in the Turkish rococo style. Near it is the Circolo Militare (Pl. C, 3; p. 406), a fashionable resort, especially when the military band plays (Sun. and Frid., 5 or 8 p.m.). The pretty little garden, whence we survey the Moslem cemetery (p. 411), contains four fine antique statues in marble, all of them torsos from Leptis Magna (p. 412).

Outside the S. gates lies the featureless NEW TOWN (Città Nuova), in which among other buildings are situated the Town Hall (Beledîa; Pl. C, 3), the Azizia (Pl. C, D, 3, 4), erected under Abdul Aziz as a residence for the commandant, the new Vali’s Residence (Pl. C, 4), and the Technical School (Pl. D, 4). The Sûk el-Khobsa or bread-market (Pl. C, 3), with its fondouks (inns), is worth seeing in the early morning.

The sandy beach, nearly ¾ M. long, is the scene, early on Tuesday mornings, of a great *WEEKLY MARKET (Sûk et-Tlett; Pl. D, E, 3, 4), attended also by camel caravans from the interior. Among the many products of the country offered for sale here are fruit and cereals from the oases (see below), olive-oil (Arabic zeit), henna (see below), alfa or esparto, reed-mats, pottery, leather goods (such as the girbas, water-skins in goat-leather for journeys in the desert, made at Ghadâmes). It is a market also for pack-camels (Arabic jemél), donkeys (hmâr), sheep, and goats.

Beyond the market are a barracks quarter (Kishla) and the suburb of Dahra, inhabited by Turks, Arabs, and Maltese, with a strange-looking mosque and a Catholic nunnery-orphanage. A little to the S., on the road to Másri (p. 411), is a Negro Village with conical reed-huts.—To the E. of the market, close to the sea, lies the Giardino Pubblico (Pl. E, 3, 4; bands on Frid. and Sun.).

The =Menshia= or Mnshîa (pop. about 14,000, mostly Berbers), the coast-oasis of Tripoli, once far more extensive, stretches 7½ M., with a breadth of 1–2½ M., as far as the dunes bordering the Jefâra Steppe. In spring it is one sea of blossom. To the S. of the steppe rise the limestone hills fringing the Sahara (Shára, desert), commonly called the Jebél (mountain; 1300–1650 ft. high). The deep ravines, filled with considerable streams during the winter rains (14 in. per annum at Tripoli, but considerably more in the Jebél), continue to send down a supply of water underground even during the dry season. This water is obtained from countless draw-wells (sânia), bordered with white walls, and generally shaded by tamarisks (Arabic âtel). Day and night oxen or donkeys toil at the drawing of the water, which is then collected in reservoirs and conducted thence to the fields.

In spite of this imperfect mode of irrigation and the primitive wooden agricultural implements used by the natives the excellent soil is wonderfully productive. Beneath the fruit-trees of every variety, olive-trees, mulberry-trees, and alcanna-shrubs (henna, Lawsonia inermis; p. 108), which thrive under the tall overshadowing date-palms, the soil still gives sustenance to barley (Arabic shaîr), wheat (gammah), maize, lupins, tobacco (dokhàn), madder, rose-geraniums, red pepper (filfil ahmar), onions, tomatoes, spinach, beans, melons, etc. The excellent early potatoes are sent to Europe under the name of ‘Malta potatoes’. The fields and gardens are enclosed by mud-walls 3–7 ft. high, overgrown with Indian figs (prickly pears; Opuntia Ficus indica; Arabic ‘hind’), which prevents them from collapsing in wet weather. It is harvest all the year round. From April to June almonds, apricots, and corn are gathered in, then in July and August peaches (khûkh), from July to September figs and luscious grapes, from October to December dates and olives, from November to April excellent oranges, and at almost any season lemons. In autumn the nomadic Arabs of the steppe pitch their dark goats’-hair tents (beit shâar, house of hair) in the vacant fields in order to gather the fresh yellow dates. The dates of the coast are, however, inferior in flavour to those of the Sahara oases and unsuitable for exportation.

The following EXCURSION takes about 2 hrs. (best to drive or ride; see p. 406). From the Sûk el-Khobsa (p. 410) the road leads to the S.W., cutting through a Moslem cemetery destroyed by an inundation in 1904, to (1¼ M.) Bumeliâna, where a pumping-station supplies several public fountains in the town. It then runs to the E. to (1 M.) Másri, with its large artillery and cavalry barracks, where the dunes command a fine view of the steppe, visible in clear weather as far as the distant Jebél. Turning to the S.E., and passing the mud-built fort, Gasr el-Hâni, we come to (2½ M.) the road leading to the N. to the (¾ M.) official house of the Sheikh of the Menshia (Hôsh esh-Skiûkh; fine view towards the sea from the balcony). About 1¼ M. to the N.E. are the Sûk el-Jêma (Friday market) and the extremely dirty village of Amrûs, inhabited by about 600 Jews, mostly smiths. Thence back to Tripoli 3 M.

On the Sherrashhet, the road leading from Dahra (p. 410) near the coast, are several country-houses and (about 2 M.) the largest Mohammedan Cemetery, containing two dilapidated domed tombs (of the Karamanli dynasty, p. 408), visible from Tripoli. Near it, close to the sea, is the Protestant Cemetery, where we have a charming view of Tripoli. About 7½ M. farther, on the caravan-route to Lebida (p. 412), are the village of Mélaha and the oasis of Tajûra, with its colonnaded mosque.

The W. end of the Menshia is 1½ M. from the town. We may thence cross the undulating steppe, past several mud-built forts, to the small oasis of (4½ M.) Gergârish, with its old sandstone quarries and ruined watch-tower (Gasr Jehalî, tower of the ignorant), originally Roman.

* * * * *

From Tripoli the steamer proceeds to the N.N.E. to =Malta= (p. 399). Off the abrupt S. coast of the island, with its numerous caves, lies the uninhabited rocky islet of Filfola, which forms a target for the artillery practice of the British Mediterranean fleet (p. 399). Farther on we obtain a striking view of the barren E. coast, with the bay of Marsa Scirocco, bounded by Benhisa Point and Delimara Point. On a height rises the old Fort St. Lucian.

Beyond St. Thomas’s Bay, with the old castle of St. Thomas and the bay of Marsa Scala, the steamer rounds the Ponta tal Zonkor, the N.E. point of the island, and soon reaches the entrance to the Grand Harbour of Valletta (comp. p. 399).

The VOYAGE TO SYRACUSE is performed at night. We steer to the N.N.E. towards Cape Passero (the ancient Promontorium Pachynum), the fissured headland at the S.E. point of Sicily, with its lighthouse and two small harbours (Porto d’Ulisse and Porto Palo).

Next, on the E. coast of Sicily, stands forth the Penisola della Maddalena (177 ft.), once a coast-island but now joined to the main island by the deposits of the Ciani and Anapo. It ends in the Capo Murro di Porco, with a lighthouse on the top.

Entrance to the harbour of Syracuse, see p. 162.

65. From Tripoli to Alexandria viâ Benghazi and Derna.

STEAMBOATS (agents at Tripoli, see p. 406; at Alexandria, see p. 432). =1.= German Levant Line (cargo-boats), three times monthly (80 marks).—=2.= Steamers of the Banco di Roma (p. 406) fortnightly viâ Malta, Benghazi, Derna, and Solum.—Between Tripoli, Lebida (occasionally), Mesurata, Benghazi, and Derna there plies a fortnightly steamer of the Società Nazionale (comp. R. 66).

Tripoli, see p. 406. Skirting the flat, sandy coast, with its numerous oases, including that of Tajûra (p. 411), we pass the small Râs Sotara, Râs el-Hamra (‘red cape’), and Râs Ligata.

In the fertile undulating plain to the E. of the small port of Ligata (lighthouse; sailing-boat from Tripoli in about 7 hrs. if the wind is favourable) lies Lebida, Lebda, or Khoms (pop. 3500; Brit. vice-cons.), in its oasis, a poor little seaport (for alfa) with open roads, relics of old fortifications, and an Italian school.

About 2 M. to the S.E. of Lebida lies the site of =Leptis Magna=, which fell into decay after the first irruption of the Arabs. In ancient times it was one of the richest trading towns in N. Africa. It was the starting-point of the coast-road to Carthage (see p. 407) and also of the Limes Tripolitanus, the Roman frontier-wall, which down to the conquest of the Garamantes (p. 407) and the Gætuli in the 2nd and 3rd cent. A.D. protected the province of Africa against the Sahara tribes. The ancient harbour, with its massive quays, at the mouth of the Kinyps, which was a copious stream in the Roman age (now a scanty brook, the Oued Lebda), is completely choked with sand. The once famous oasis and the grand ruins of the time of Septimius Severus (p. 407) also, except the triumphal arch (comp. pp. 315, 316), are almost entirely buried in sand.

On the rocky coast, which here endangers navigation, we next pass the Râs et-Tabia, adjoined by the little port of Marsa Ugra, and then, situated in the oasis near the Râs es-Sahal, Slîten or Zelythen (pop. 7000), a seaport for alfa. Beyond the Râs el-Ihûdi we sight Cape Mesurata, the ancient Promontorium Trikeron (‘triple horn’) or Cephalus, a striking landmark.

The small port of =Mesurata= or Misrâta (pop. 3000), in its little oasis of palms, fruit, and olives, is noted for its carpets and woven stuffs.

Leaving the coast we now steer to the E. across the Syrtis Major, or Gulf of Sidra, the largest on the N. African seaboard.

The town of =Benghazi= or Bengâsi (Albergo Maffei, near the harbour, Italian; Brit. consul, J. F. Jones; pop. 20,000, incl. 1200 Europeans, mostly Maltese and Greeks, and 2500 Jews; garrison 3000) is the capital of the Turkish province (mutessariflik) of Benghazi or Barca, which was separated from Tripolitania in 1869. Its dazzling white houses extend beyond the isthmus of the Sebkha or salt-lake (with its large evaporating grounds) and over the broad corn-growing coast-plain bordering the plateau of Merj (p. 414). The large Gasar or castle, now the seat of the governor (mutessarif), with barracks, together with the lighthouse and a windmill, form the chief landmarks as we make for the harbour.

The harbour, much silted up and very imperfectly protected by an unfinished breakwater, is sometimes rendered inaccessible for months in winter by the prevailing W. gales. The steamers have to lie to, under steam, some 3 M. off the coast, and passengers are landed in lighters or in rowing-boats.

The chief sight is the Market Quarter, where caravans from the interior are sometimes met with. The minarets, as at Tripoli, are in the Turkish style. The European colony is mainly Maltese, Greek, and Italian. The Italian School is attended chiefly by Jewish children. A branch of the Banco di Roma (p. 406) and an Italian Post Office have been recently established.—To the E. of the town is a beautiful Palm Grove.

To the N.E. of Benghazi lie the ruins of Euhesperidae, or Berenice, as the town was called after the wife of Ptolemy III. Euhesperidæ, famed in Greek myth for the gardens of the Hesperides, was the westmost seaport-town of Barca, the ancient =Cyrenaica=, a fissured hill-region rising in terraces from the sea, which was colonized in the 7th cent. B.C. by Greeks, mostly Dorians from Thera (p. 417) and Crete (p. 415). From its loftily situated capital Cyrene (p. 411), one of the richest and most brilliant cities in the Greek world, Greek culture spread rapidly over the whole coast-region, where the numerous seaports acquired also great wealth through the caravan-traffic with the interior. For a time (about 400–330 B.C.) the Cyrenians succeeded in repelling the attacks of the Carthaginians with their mighty fleet, but in 322 they succumbed to Ptolemy I. (p. 433), who united the different parts of the district under the name of Pentapolis (‘five cities’). In 96 B.C. this region along with the Marmarica (p. 415) fell into the hands of the Romans, and it was united by Augustus with Crete as a Roman province. In the great revolt of the numerous Jews who had settled in Egypt and Barca in the Ptolemaic age, 200,000 Greeks and Romans are said to have perished in Trajan’s reign. This terrible disaster was followed by the irruption of Berber tribes and of Arab marauders, and later (after 1551) by the misgovernment of the Turks. The ruin of the country was completed by a gradual subsidence of the coast which seriously prejudiced navigation. Though well supplied with rain, extremely fertile, and not too hot in summer, this region is now but thinly peopled (about 500,000), and the only towns of any size are Benghazi, Merj (p. 414), and Derna (p. 414). The highlands are occupied by hordes of nomadic Arabs, who often defy the Turkish authorities, and who are largely under the influence of the fanatical brotherhood of the Senussîyeh. The convents of the sect serve also as caravanserais. European goods are conveyed by the caravan-route to Kufra, the headquarters of the sect, and thence to equatorial Africa. Fire-arms are frequently smuggled into the country, especially from Greece. The chief exports are cattle (to Malta, Syracuse, etc.), goatskins, barley (to England), wool (to Marseilles and Genoa), and butter (to Constantinople). Large flocks of sheep are driven overland into Egypt.

Beyond Benghazi the steamer rounds Râs Adrian; whose name recalls the town of Adrianopolis founded by Hadrian. On a height, farther on, appears Tokra, a poor village near the ruins of the Greek twin-towns of Tauchira (Teuchira) and Arsinoë.

The next place on the coast, at the foot of a chain of high hills overgrown with brushwood, is Tolmeita (Ital. Tolemáide), the ancient Ptolemais or Tolometta, now the site of imposing *Ruins (Greek, Roman, and early-Christian). The Greek Kothon was the harbour of =Barca=, a thriving Greek colony on the margin of the plateau, about 15 M. inland, founded about 540 B.C. and temporarily destroyed by the Persians in 510. The town was still a place of some importance in the middle ages as a military station and a resting-place for Mecca pilgrims, but now, under the name of Merj or Medinet el-Merj, which has been given to the whole province, it has become a poor little Turkish garrison-town, inhabited by Arabs and Jews. No trace of its ruins is left.

Passing the rocky islet of Sarat and Râs el-Hamâma, the ancient cape Phycus, we reach the bold Râs Sem, the northmost point of Barca, about 10 M. to the N.W. of Cyrene (see below).

In a small plain on the coast, between the Râs Sem and Râs el-Hilil (the ancient Naustathmus), lies the poor seaport of Marsa Susa, recently colonized by Moslems from Crete. Near it are the ruins of Apollonia (later Sozopolis), once the harbour of Cyrene, but destroyed by the silting up of the coast.

From Marsa Susa a mule-track ascends to the S.W., through valleys with luxuriant vegetation and venerable olive-groves, past several ancient rock-hewn Granaries, and past a *Necropolis with countless rock-tombs, to (3–4 hrs.) the ruins of =Cyrene= (2002 ft.; now Krennah or Gurena), lying on the edge of a lofty plateau, with fine views all around. This was the capital of the Cyrenaica, founded near the fountain of Cyra about 620 B.C., but already spoken of in the 4th cent. A.D. as ‘urbs deserta’. The ruins have not yet been scientifically explored, but there are traces of streets, and, beneath a mantle of dense vegetation, scanty remains of the acropolis, the temples, and a Roman circus. Near them is a convent of the Senussîyeh, to which unbelievers are not admitted.

About 10 M. to the S.E. of Marsa Susa, on the caravan-route to Guba (or Mara), once lay the town of Ghermes, whose *Ruins are the best preserved in the Cyrenaica (town-wall, forum, stadium, etc.).

Beyond the bay of Marsa el-Hilil the coast is again rocky. Near a beautiful, richly wooded ravine are the ruins of Erythrum. We next steer past Râs Turba and then round the little Tsor Kersa Islands and the Râs Boasa (lighthouse).

=Derna= (pop. 4000), the Darnis or Darnae of antiquity, a small seaport to the E. of the headland, but entirely destitute of a harbour, is now the chief trading town in E. Cyrenaica. Vessels anchor in the open sea, over a mile from the landing-place. Near the Turkish fort and the custom-house are remains of American fortifications (comp. p. 408) and a wireless telegraph-station.

The town itself lies on a plateau in the finest *Coast Oasis of Barca (yielding dates, figs, almonds, tobacco, etc.). In the principal square, near which the camel-caravans from the interior encamp, is the unpretending residence of the Turkish kaimakam. The shops in the busy market-street are mostly owned by Arabs and Greeks.

Beyond the Râs et-Tîn (Gr. Chersonesos), the coast recedes far to the S. The Gulf of Bomba, with its rocky islands, here forms a large natural harbour, open towards the E. only. Beyond Menelaus Island (now Susra Mesrâta) once lay the Portus Menelai. The Platea Island near it received from Thera, about 640 B.C., the first Greek colony in the Cyrenaica.

We next skirt the Marmarica; the coast-region between the gulfs of Bomba and Solum. In the deep-set bay of Tobruk (the ancient Antipyrgos) it possesses the best natural harbour between Bizerta and Alexandria, frequented chiefly by sponge-fishers.

The featureless and inconspicuous coast of Egypt is bounded by the low white dunes near the borders of the Libyan desert. Lastly we steer across the broad so-called Arabian Gulf, between the Râs ed-Dabba and the Nile Delta (p. 418), and enter the harbour of Alexandria (comp. p. 418).

66. From Tripoli to Constantinople viâ Derna and Crete.

Between Tripoli and Constantinople there is a fortnightly service by the Società Nazionale (Line VIII: Catania, Syracuse, Benghazi, Constantinople; comp. R. 64). Dep. from Tripoli every second Mon. aft., from Mesurata Tues. morn., from Benghazi Thurs., from Derna Frid. noon, from Canea Sat. night, from Candia Sun., from Smyrna Mon. midnight, arr. at Constantinople Wed. morn. (returning from Constantinople Mon. night, arr. at Tripoli the second Wed.); fare 117 fr. 60 or 78 fr. 40 c.—From Canea to the Piræus (for Athens) there are corresponding steamers of the Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., of the Thessalian line of the Austrian Lloyd, and of Line X (p. 493) of the Società Nazionale.

For the voyage from Tripoli to Derna, see R. 65. The steamer next touches at =Crete= (Gr. Krētē, Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia), the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean (5402 sq. M.; 303,550 inhab.), formerly Turkish, but nominally independent since 1908.

Nearing the island we first sight the Aspra Vuná (Madaraes Mts., 7907 ft.), generally snow-clad, the ancient Leuka Orē (White Mts.). The vessel steers round Cape Krio, the S.W. point of Crete, and Cape Busa, the N.W. point, and passes the island of Grabusa.

We next proceed to the E.N.E., past Kisamo Bay and Cape Spada (Psakon), the N. point of the island. Beyond the cape opens the broad Bay of Canea (Gr. Chanía).

In favourable weather the steamer anchors in the open roads of =Canea= (Hôt. de France, pens. 8–10 fr.; Hôt.-Restaur. Bristol, pens. 5–8 fr.; at both it is advisable to ask charges; Brit. cons.-gen., R. Peel; pop. 21,000), the capital of Crete, on the site of Kydonia. The remains of the Venetian fortifications are interesting. Fine view from the lofty reservoir of the waterworks. Most of the consuls reside at Chalepa, the E. suburb.

In stormy weather the steamers round the broad headland of Akrotiri (once Kyamon) and anchor in Suda Bay, the only good harbour in the island. (Road to Canea.)

After leaving Canea and passing Cape Drépano we have a pleasant view of Harmyro Bay and Rethymno, Ital. Rétimo (pop. 9300), the ancient Rhithymna, now the third-largest town in Crete. In the heart of the island tower the Psiloriti Mts., the ancient Ida, often snow-clad, culminating in the Stavros (8065 ft.).

Farther on we pass Cape Stavros, an important landmark. We then steer to the S.E., between Cape Panaghia and the barren island of Dia, Ital. Standia (870 ft.), where vessels seek refuge from northerly storms, into Candia Bay and anchor in the roads a little off the quay (lighthouse).

=Candia= (Hotels, both near the landing-place: Cnossos, pens. 9–15 fr., with restaurant; Angleterre, rooms only, unpretending; advisable to ask charges at both; Brit. vice-cons., A. Calocherino; pop. 22,480), Gr. Herákleion, formerly Megalókastron, the seat of the Metropolitan of Crete, is said to have been founded by the Moors on the site of Herakleion, the port of Knossos. Here also the fortifications were built by the Venetians, and were bravely defended by their admiral Franc. Morosini against the Turks for three years until he had to capitulate in 1669.

We walk from the landing-place through the main street and past a handsome Venetian palace to the chief square, with the Morosini Fountain. Straight on we come, at the E. end of the town, to an open space, at the N.E. angle of which is the—

*Museum, containing the splendid antiquities excavated at Knossos and elsewhere, illustrating the peculiar development of art in Crete at its prime. The oldest objects belong to the so-called island culture (3rd millenary B.C.) of the bronze period, or early and middle Minoan periods, as they are now called after Minos the legendary king of Crete. To the bronze age belong also the pre-Hellenic antiquities, those namely of the so-called Mycenæan or late Minoan period (middle of 2nd millenary B.C.), which are hardly surpassed by the creations of Greece at its zenith. Particular notice should be taken of the wall-paintings, fragments of a procession, stone vases with reliefs, ivory statuettes of bull-baiters, and the two fayence figures of a goddess grasping a snake.

From the old S. gate of Candia a road (horse 3–4 fr.) leads in less than an hour to the site of Knossos, the ancient capital of the island. The *King’s Palace, excavated here since 1898 by Mr. Arthur Evans, dates from the second or middle Minoan period, but was already half burned down in the Mycenæan period.

The steamer next crosses the Cretan Sea, to the N.N.E., to two islands of the Cyclades (p. 492): Anaphe (1349 ft.) and Santorin or Thira (1857 ft.), the ancient Thera. Close to Cape Oia (lighthouse) on the beautiful island of Santorin, which is the relic of an old crater (p. 492), are seen the ruins of Thera, the ancient capital.

Next, on the left, we sight the island of Iós or Niós (2408 ft.). We then pass through the strait between Amorgós (1233 ft.; lighthouse), the eastmost island of the kingdom of Greece, and the small island group of Eremonisia, flanking Naxos on the S.E. side.

The high mountains of Naxos (3289 ft.), the largest of the Cyclades, remain in sight long after we have passed the islet of Donusa (1600 ft.). The islands of Delos, once the religious and economic centre of the Cyclades, and Mykonos (1194 ft.) are only visible in the far distance in very clear weather.

The ship presently nears the W. coast of Nikaria (p. 492), an island belonging to the S. Sporades (p. 490), and then (as do also the steamers from the Levant) passes through the Strait of Chios (p. 492) and across the Gulf of Smyrna (comp. p. 530).

Smyrna, and thence to Constantinople, see pp. 530, 533–536.

67. From (Marseilles, Genoa) Naples to Alexandria and Port Said.

1174 or 1278 M. STEAMERS (agents at Marseilles, see p. 120; at Genoa, p. 114; at Naples, p. 137; at Alexandria, p. 432; at Port Said, p. 437). =1.= North German Lloyd: (a) from (Marseilles) Naples to Alexandria, in Jan.-April, on Frid. at noon (from Marseilles on Wed. aft.) in 4 days; returning from Alexandria Wed. aft. (from Naples Sat.); fares from Naples 240–480 or 140–180 marks (from Marseilles 280–520 or 160–200 marks); (b) E. Asiatic Line. (R. 24), from (Algiers, Genoa) Naples to Port Said every second Frid. night (returning Frid.), in 4 days; fare 242 or 176 marks; (c) Australian Line (R. 21), from (Genoa) Naples to Port Said every fourth Wed. night (returning Frid.), in 3–4 days; fare 242 or 176 marks.—=2.= German E. African Line: E. circular tour (RR. 17, 23) from (Marseilles) Naples to Port Said every third Mon. in 4 days; W. circular tour (RR. 4, 17, 23) from Port Said to Naples every third Sat.; fare 242 or 176 marks.—=3.= Rotterdam Lloyd, Batavia Line, from Marseilles every second Thurs. direct to Port Said (returning Tues.) in 5 days.—=4.= Nederland Royal Mail, Batavia Line, from Genoa direct to Port Said in 5 days.—=5.= Messageries Maritimes, S. Mediterranean Line, from Marseilles direct to Alexandria (Port Said, Jaffa, Beirut, R. 72), every Thurs. noon (returning Frid. aft.), in 4 days; fare 315 or 240 fr.; return-ticket (‘interchangeable’), available also for the quick boats of the Austrian Lloyd (R. 68), 603½ or 433¼ fr.—=6.= Società Nazionale, Line V (Genoa to Alexandria), from (Genoa, Leghorn) Naples on Thurs. aft. to Alexandria (returning Thurs. aft.), in 4 days; fare 252 or 172½ fr.

The great liners of the P. & 0., Orient Royal, Royal Mail, White Star, Bibby, and other British companies are almost exclusively for through-passengers from Gibraltar or Marseilles to Port Said, India, Australia, etc.

From Marseilles and Genoa to Naples, see RR. 23, 24; from Naples to the Straits of Messina, see R. 27.

On the left, beyond Messina, are seen the ruins of Reggio (p. 159), at the foot of the Aspromonte, the S. point of Calabria.

Leaving the Straits of Messina, we steer across the Ionian Sea, to the E.S.E., in a direct line for Egypt. Mt. Ætna (p. 159) remains long in sight. For two days we lose sight of land. The mountains of Crete (p. 415) are visible on the voyage to Alexandria only in perfectly clear weather; but on the voyage to Port Said we pass within a few miles of Crete and near the island of Gavdos, Ital. Gozo (1063 ft.; lighthouse), which flanks Crete on the S.W.

On the ALEXANDRIA VOYAGE, nearing land, we overlook the long isthmus of Lake Mareotis (p. 432), from the sand-hill near Abusîr, on the E. shore of the Arabian Gulf (p. 415), to Ramleh (p. 436) and Fort Abukîr on the W. shore of that gulf. The chief landmarks are the lighthouse of Râs et-Tîn (p. 434) and Fort Cafarelli or Napoléon (p. 434).

We pass through the strait of Boghaz, amidst the chain of cliffs between Râs et-Tîn and the fortified Marabout Island, and sight the two lighthouses of El-Meks in succession. Lastly we steer through the outer harbour, with its breakwater, and past the New or Gabbari Mole (Môle aux Charbons), 1000 yds. long, into the inner harbour of Alexandria (comp. p. 434).

* * * * *

On the PORT SAID VOYAGE the flat coast of Egypt is generally approached at night. We first sight the lights of Damietta, on the E. bank of the Damietta branch of the Nile, the ancient Phatnitic Arm. This and the Rosetta arm are now the only mouths of the river, which had seven in ancient times.

A conspicuous landmark is Fort Jemil, between the former Mendesian and Tanitic mouths. It rises on the low downs flanking Lake Menzaleh (970 sq. M.), the largest lagoon in the Nile delta.

The entrance to Port Said (p. 436), 766 yds. in breadth, is marked by a lighthouse, several minor lights, and a number of buoys. On the W. pier (r.) rises the Lesseps monument (p. 437).

68. From Venice or Trieste to Alexandria and Port Said viâ Brindisi.

BETWEEN VENICE AND ALEXANDRIA (1423 M.), Società Nazionale (Line VII: Venice, Alexandria, Port Said) on the 14th and 28th of every month (returning 1st and 15th), viâ Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi, in 5–6 days; fare 280 fr. 95 or 191 fr. 30 c. (from Brindisi 195 fr. 25 or 132 fr. 15 c.). Agents at Venice, see p. 420; at Brindisi, p. 429; at Alexandria, p. 432.

BETWEEN TRIESTE AND ALEXANDRIA (1383 M.), Austrian Lloyd, two lines: 1st. Quick steamer from Trieste on Thurs. noon (from Brindisi Frid. aft.), in ca. 4 days (returning from Alexandria Sat. aft., from Brindisi Tues. foren.); fare 360 or 245 fr. (from Brindisi 300 or 200 fr.). 2nd. Trieste and Syria Line (R. 72), on Sat. foren., viâ Gravosa (occasionally) and Brindisi, in 5 days (returning Thurs. aft.); fare 250 or 175 fr. (from Brindisi 200 or 135 fr.). Agents at Trieste, see p. 425; at Brindisi, p. 429; at Alexandria, p. 432.

BETWEEN TRIESTE AND PORT SAID, Austrian Lloyd, Syrian Line, see above; also the Bombay steamers (usually 1st and 16th of every month; to Port Said in 4 days), the Calcutta steamers (12th and 25th of each month; 6 days), and the Japan steamers (27th of each month; 6 days). Agent at Port Said, see p. 437.

From Brindisi to Port Said, P. & O. on Sun. morn., corresponding with Calais and Brindisi express, chiefly for through-passengers to India.

=Venice.=—At the RAILWAY STATION (Pl. C, D, 3; Restaurant, good), where care of heavier luggage may be left to the hotel porters, are a gondola station and two piers for the local steamers (see below).—Agents for sleeping-cars, Thos. Cook & Son and P. Faerber (see p. 420).

ARRIVAL BY SEA. The steamers anchor in the Canale di San Marco, opposite the Punta della Salute (Pl. G, 6). Custom-house examination on board. Gondola tariff, see below.

=Hotels.= HÔT. ROYAL DANIELI (Pl. a; H, 5), on the Riva degli Schiavoni with its fine views, R. 7–30, B. 2, déj. 4, D. 7–10, pens. 15–25 fr.; *HÔT. DE L’EUROPE (Pl. b; G, 6), on the Canal Grande, entrance Calle del Ridotto, R. 5–8, B. 2, déj. 5, D. 7, pens. 14–18 fr., frequented by American and French travellers; GRAND-HÔTEL (Pl. o ; F, 6), on the Canal Grande, entr. Via Ventidue Marzo, Ramo Minotto 2322, R. 7–30, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 7 fr.; *GR.-HÔT. BRITANNIA (Pl. c; G, 6), also on the Canal Grande, entr. Corte Barozzi, similar charges; four high-class houses.—Less pretending: *GR.-HÔT. D’ITALIE (Pl. h; G, 6), in Campo San Moisè and on the Canal Grande, R. 3½–15, B. 1½, déj. 3½, D. 5–6 fr., often full; *GRAND CANAL HOTEL & MONACO (Pl. l; G, 6), on the Canal Grande, entr. Calle Vallaresso, R. from 5, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 6 fr.; *HÔT. REGINA (Pl. t; G, 6), also on the Canal Grande, entr. Calle Traghetto, R. 5–18, B. 1½, déj. 3½, D. 5 fr., frequented by English and American travellers; HÔT. DE MILAN & BRISTOL (Pl. u; G, 6), also on the Canal Grande, entr. Calle Traghetto, R. from 4, B. 1½, déj. 3–3½, D. 4½–5 fr.; HÔT. BEAU-RIVAGE (Pl. r; H, I, 5), Riva degli Schiavoni, R. from 4, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5 fr., patronized by English and American travellers.

=Restaurants.= *Bauer-Grünwald, Via Ventidue Marzo, adjoining the Gr.-Hôt. d’Italie; Pilsen, in the Moderne Hôt. Manin, N.W. corner of the Piazza of St. Mark.

=Cafés.= Florian, Aurora, Quadri, all in the Piazza of St. Mark.—TEA ROOM. Ortes, Via Ventidue Marzo 2288.

=Gondolas=, the famous and picturesque boats which are the cabs of Venice, have their chief station on the Molo (Pl. H, 6; p. 422). Tariff: in the town, per hour, 1–2 pers. 1½, 3–4 pers. 2, 5–6 pers. 2½ fr. (after dusk ½ fr. extra); half these charges for each addit. ½ hr.; from the Molo to the sea-going steamers, or the reverse, 20 c. each passenger; trunk 20, small packages 5 c.—A boat with two gondolieri costs double. (As a rule one, ‘basta uno’, is enough.) In case of dispute with the boatmen, often insolent and especially towards ladies travelling alone, a vígile municipale (policeman) may be applied to.

The =Local Steamers= (Vaporetti Comunali), which do not carry luggage, ply (except in fog) on the main line through the Canal Grande every 10–15 min., from 6 a.m. till midnight; fare 10, to the Lido 20 c. (money changed on board; fare paid on landing). The chief landing-stages (Pontoni), beginning from the station, are: 1. Scalzi (Pl. D, 3), near the exit from the station; 2. Cerva, Riva del Carbón (Pl. G, 4), for the Rialto bridge (p. 421) and streets (p. 421) leading to St. Mark’s; 3. San Tomà (Pl. E, 5), for the church of the Frari (p. 422); 4. Accadémia (Pl. E, 6), for the picture-gallery (p. 422); 5. San Marco (Pl. G, 6; near the Calle Vallaresso), for St. Mark’s; 6. San Zaccaria (Pl. H, 5), for the Riva degli Schiavoni and St. Mark’s; 7. Giardini Pubblici (Pl. L, 7); 8. Lido (p. 424; April-Oct. only). In the reverse direction the steamers call at the Riva del Carbón (Pl. G, 4) instead of Cerva, and at Santa Lucia, close to the entrance to the railway-station (see above), instead of Scalzi.

A minor line connects the Riva degli Schiavoni (comp. Pl. H, 5, 6) with the islands of San Giorgio Maggiore (Pl. H, I, 7; p. 424) and Giudecca; in April-Sept. every ½ hr., in winter hourly.

A third line plies from the Riva degli Schiavoni (dep. near the Ponte della Paglia, Pl. H, 5, 6) direct to the Lido, every 20–30 min. Ticket 15, return 25 c.; or, incl. adm. to bath-house 40 c., incl. bath 1 fr. 30 c.

=Post Office.= Fóndaco dei Tedeschi (Pl. G, 4; p. 421), near the Rialto bridge, 8 a.m. to 9 p.m.; poste restante in the court, on the left.—=Telegraph Office= (Pl. G, 6; also branch post-office), Bocca di Piazza, behind the W. side of St. Mark’s Piazza.

=Banks.= Banca Commerciale Italiana, Via Ventidue Marzo 2188; Società Bancaria Italiana, San Marco, Bocca di Piazza 1239; Guetta (American Express Co.), Campo San Moisè; Thos. Cook & Son, see below.—BOOKSELLER. Istituto Veneto di Arti Gráfiche, Piazza San Marco 40.

=Tourist Agents.= Thos. Cook & Son, Piazzetta dei Leoni 289 (N. side of San Marco); P. Faerber, in Hôt. d’Italie (p. 419), also town-agent for the railway.

=Steamboat Agents.= North German Lloyd, Piazza San Marco 118; Hamburg-American (for winter pleasure-cruises by ‘Meteor’), P. Faerber, see above; Società Nazionale, Campo Morosini 2802; Austrian Lloyd, for the Venice and Trieste Line (p. 425), in the Piazzetta (p. 423); Hungarian Croatian Co., Thos. Cook & Son (see above).

=Consuls.= British, E. de Zuccato, Traghetto San Felice, Grand Canal.—United States Consul, J. V. Long, Campiello Querini Stampaglia 5257.

=Churches.= English (St. George’s), Campo San Vio 731; Presbyterian, Piazza of St. Mark 95.

ONE DAY may suffice for a hurried glance, but a week or more should if possible be devoted to this unique city. Sail through the Grand Canal; inspection of the piazza and the church of St. Mark and the Doges’ Palace (p. 423).—Of the Churches St. Mark’s (p. 423) is open throughout the day, Santi Giovanni e Paolo (p. 424) and Frari (p. 422) save from 12–2 (adm. in the afternoon, till their restoration is completed, 50 c.). The Doges’ Palace is open on week-days, 9–3 (adm. 1 fr., or incl. visit to the Archæological Museum and the Prigioni 2½ fr.), on Sun. and holidays 10–2, free. Academy (p. 422) on week-days 9–4 (adm. 1 fr.), on Sun. and holidays 10–2, free.

Venice, Ital. Venezia, once the most brilliant commercial city in the world, now a provincial capital, with 148,500 inhab., of whom one quarter are practically paupers, is a commercial and naval port. It lies 2½ M. from the mainland in the lagoons, a shallow bay 25 M. long by 9½ M. broad, separated from the Adriatic by narrow sandy strips of land (lidi). The city is built on piles, on 117 islets, and is intersected by over 150 canals, which are crossed by 378 bridges. The interior of the town consists of a labyrinth of narrow streets and lanes, some of them scarcely 5 ft. wide. The centre of traffic is the Piazza San Marco (‘la Piazza’), with the adjacent Piazzetta. The other open spaces are called campi or campielli. The local name for a street is calle or salizzada, and for a narrow canal rio.

The tribe of the Veneti, the ancient inhabitants of N.E.Italy, were of Illyrian race, but became Romanized in the 3rd cent. B. C. The havoc committed on the mainland by the barbarian Huns compelled the inhabitants of the coast to seek refuge in the islands of the lagoons, where in 697 they formed the Venetian League, headed by a doge (dux). In 811 Rivoalto (now Venice) became their capital. Aided by its close connection with the Byzantine Empire (p. 541), the town rose to be a rival of Genoa in its important traffic between East and West. In its art also Venice was under Oriental influence throughout the middle ages. After the conquest of Constantinople by the great doge Enrico Dandolo in 1204, the lion of St. Mark laid his mighty talons on the coasts and islands of Greece and Asia Minor. On the Italian continent also the republic gradually extended its conquests to Bergamo.

The 15th cent. saw the zenith of the republic’s glory, when her fleet commanded the whole of the E. Mediterranean. But after their capture of Constantinople in 1453 the Turks began to menace the Venetian supremacy. The discovery of America and of the new sea-routes to India carried the world’s traffic into new channels, while her continental possessions involved her in the wars between the rival powers of France, Austria, and Spain. Her protracted conflicts with the Turks led in 1718 to the final loss of all her Oriental possessions, and in 1798 her political independence was destroyed by the French. From 1814 to 1866 Venice belonged to Austria, and since 1866 has formed a part of the kingdom of Italy, under whose auspices her trade has somewhat revived.

The *=Canal Grande= or Canalazzo, the main artery of Venice, intersects the city from the Railway Station (Pl. C, D, 3) to the harbour (Canale or Bacino di San Marco, Pl. G-K, 6, 7), from N.W. to S.E., and resembles an inverted S in shape. The voyage through it by steamer (p. 419; 25 min.) or by gondola (p. 419; 1 hr., preferable) conveys a most striking impression of the magnificence of mediæval Venice. The canal is bordered with fine old guild-houses, sumptuous churches, and stately palaces of the 12–18th cent., and each of its bends reveals a new and picturesque vista.

LEFT. │ RIGHT. │ Chiesa degli Scalzi (Pl. D, 3; │ church of the barefooted friars), │ in the highly ornate baroque style │ (1649–89). │ │ │Fóndaco dei Turchi (Pl. E, 3; │‘trade hall of the Turks’), a late │Romanesque edifice (11th cent.), │restored in 1861–9, now the _Museo │Civico_. *Palazzo Vendramin-Calergi (Pl. │ E, F, 3), the most beautiful │ early-Renaissance palace in Venice │ (1509), in which Richard Wagner │ died in 1883. │ │ │Palazzo Pésaro (Pl. F, 3), the │most brilliant example of │late-Renaissance (1679), now the │Gallería d’Arte Moderna. *Cà Doro (Pl. F, 3), the most │ elegant Gothic palace (15th cent.).│ │ Fóndacodei Tedeschi (Pl. G, 4; p.│ 420), once the warehouse of the │ Germans (1505). │

The *Ponte di Rialto (Pl. G, 4; ‘Rivo Alto’, the ancient name of Venice; comp. p. 420), is a marble arch of 29½ yds. span and 74 ft. in breadth, flanked with shops (1588–92).

Near the bridge are the │ steamboat-piers of Cerva and Riva │ del Carbón (p. 419), whence the │ Mercería (Pl. G, 4, 5), a street │ of shops, and the Calle dei Fabbri │ (Pl. G, 5) both lead in 5 min. to │ St. Mark’s. │ │ Pal. Loredan (Pl. F, 5) and _Pal.│ Farsetti_, once Dándolo, both │ Romanesque (12th cent.). │ │ *Pal. Grimani, high-Renaissance, │Pal. Papadópoli (16th cent.). Sanmicheli’s masterpiece (16th │ cent.). │ │ │Pal. Pisani (a San Polo), │Gothic (15th cent.). │ Pal. Corner-Spinelli, │Pal. Grimani, high-Renaissance early-Renaissance, in the style of │(16th cent.). the Lombardi. │ │ │Near it is steamboat pier San Tomà │(Pl. E, 5; p. 419), for the old │Franciscan church *Frari (Pl. E, │5; adm., see p. 420; ticket valid │also for San Tomà), in the Gothic │style (1380–1417), the │resting-place of many eminent │Venetians, with admirable │altar-pieces by Giov. Bellini and │Titian (temporarily in San Tomà, │close by; adm. 9–5, ticket 50 c. │admitting also to the Frari │church). │ │*Pal. Fóscari (Pl E, 5), Gothic │(15th cent.). │ │Pal. Rezzonico (Pl E, 6), built │in 1680. Robert Browning died here │in 1889.

Between the Campo San Vitale (Vidal) and the Campo della Carità is the Ponte di Ferro or dell’Accadémia (Pl. E, 6).

│Near the bridge is steamboat pier │Accadémia (p. 419) for the │*Accadémia di Belle Arti (Pl. E, │6), containing admirable Venetian │pictures (G. Bellini, Carpaccio, │Titian, P. Veronese). Adm., see p. │420. │ Pal. Cavalli (Pl. E, 6), now │ Franchetti, Gothic (15th. cent.).│ │ Pal. Corner della Cà Grande (Pl. │ F, 6), by Jac. Sansovino (1532). │ │ Pal. Contarini-Fasan (Pl. F, G, │*Santa Maria della Salute (Pl. F, 6), Gothic (14th cent.). │G, 6), by Bald. Longhena (17th │cent.); fine pictures by Titian in │the sacristy. │ │Dogana di Mare (Pl. G, 6), │custom-house (1676–82), on the │point between the Grand and the │Giudecca canals. │ Giardino Reale (Pl. G, 6), or │ royal garden, behind the Procuratie│ Nuove (p. 423). │ │ Molo (Pl. H, 6), adjoining the │ Piazzetta (p. 423). │

From the Molo, or from one of the steamboat-piers (p. 419) of San Marco (Pl. G, 6) or San Zaccaria (Pl. H, 5), we next visit the **=Piazza di San Marco= (Pl. G, 5), the centre of the traffic of the city. Even now this far-famed piazza (182 yds. long, 100 yds. wide at the E. end, 61 at the W. end; paved with slabs of trachyte and marble) conveys an admirable idea of the ancient glory of Venice.

On the N. and S. sides of the piazza rise the PROCURATÍE, once the residences of the nine procurators or highest officials of the republic. The Procuratíe Vecchie, on the N. side, were erected in 1480–1517. The Procuratíe Nuove, now used along with the adjacent old Library (see below) as a royal palace, were begun by Vinc. Scamozzi in 1584. The Atrio or Nuova Fábbrica, on the W. side, dates only from 1810. The groundfloors of these buildings, flanked with arcades, are now occupied by cafés (p. 419) and shops.

The old CAMPANILE DI SAN MARCO, at the corner of the Old Library, collapsed in 1902, but has been rebuilt. The top of the tower (adm. 15 c.) commands a fine and extensive *View. The Torre dell’ Orologio, a clock-tower built in 1496–9, adjoining the Old Procuratie, forms the entrance to the Mercería (p. 421).

The church of **=San Marco= (Pl. H, 5), which is said to contain the bones of St. Mark, was begun in 830, rebuilt after a fire in 976, and restored after the middle of the 11th cent. in the Byzantine style. The ground-plan (83½ yds. long, 56¾ yds. broad in front) is in the form of a Greek cross (with equal arms), crowned with five domes. The front arm of the cross is flanked with a colonnade. Outside and inside the church is adorned with over five hundred marble columns, mostly Oriental, and with mosaics, chiefly of the 10–16th centuries. The Gothic additions to the façade (15th cent.) enhance its fantastic charm. Over the main portal are four antique bronze-gilt horses from Constantinople.

The INTERIOR is wonderfully impressive. The beauty of the outlines and the magnificence of the decoration are equally striking. The priceless Pala d’Oro, which forms the altar-piece, from Constantinople (1105), is shown on week-days (11–2; ticket, 50 c., admits also to the Tesoro in the right transept, 11–2).

Adjoining the Piazza of St. Mark, on the side next the lagoon, is the *=Piazzetta= (Pl. H, 5, 6). The *Librería Vecchia, or old library, now part of the royal palace (see above), by Jac. Sansovino (1536–53), is one of the most beautiful secular buildings in Italy. The adjacent Zecca (mint) now contains the famous library of San Marco. On the opposite (E.) side of the square rises the—

**=Doges’ Palace= (Palazzo Ducale; Pl. H, 5), which is said to have been founded in 814 as the residence of the first doge. It was rebuilt after the fires of 976 and 1105, and has since been repeatedly restored and altered. The Gothic exterior is flanked with two superb arcades with pointed arches; the W. front dates from 1423–8; the S. front, next the lagoon, is of the 14th century.

The Porta della Carta, the late-Gothic chief portal, next to the church, leads into the quadrangle of the palace, where the façades, though still partly Gothic, show the influence of the new Renaissance style. In the interior (adm., see p. 420) we visit the central and upper floors, containing the state-apartments which were redecorated after the fires of 1574 and 1577, a brilliant example of the Venetian late-Renaissance and rococo art. The countless pictures by Titian, Paolo Veronese, Jac. Tintoretto, and other masters, proclaim the ancient glory of Venice. (Guide unnecessary. Catalogues for public use on week-days.) The groundfloor contains the Archaeological Museum (antiques, Renaissance sculptures, etc.).

At the E. end of the Molo (p. 422) the Ponte della Paglia (Pl. H, 5, 6), which crosses the Rio di Palazzo, affords a good view of the ‘Bridge of Sighs’ (Ponte dei Sospiri; Pl. H, 5), specially interesting to readers of Childe Harold. The latter bridge connects the Doges’ Palace with the Prigioni di San Marco.

The contiguous =Riva degli Schiavoni= (Pl. H, I, 5; ‘quay of the Slavonians’) forms the sunniest promenade in the town. To the left, nearly opposite the Monument of Victor Emmanuel II., a narrow lane leads to the church of San Zaccaria (Pl. H, I, 5; adm. in the afternoon 50 c.), built in 1458–1515. Over the second altar on the left is a Madonna by Giov. Bellini (1505).

A few paces to the W. of the church is Campo San Provolo. The street of that name to the right, the first bridge to the left, and then the Calle Corte Rotta and the Ruga Giuffa (Pl. H, 5) lead to Santa Maria Formosa (Pl. H, 4; knock at W. portal; gratuity 25–30 c.), with the famous *St. Barbara by Palma Vecchio.

From the Campo Santa Maria Formosa we follow the Calle Lunga to the E., and near the end of it the Calle Bragadin to the left (N.) to the—

Campo Santi Giovanni e Paolo, with the *Monument of Colleoni (Venetian condottiere, d. 1475), the grandest equestrian statue of the Italian Renaissance, by the Florentine Andrea Verrocchio.

The church of *Santi Giovanni e Paolo (Pl. H, 4; adm. see p. 420), once the church of the Dominicans and the burial-church of the doges, erected in the Gothic style in 1330–90, is quite a museum of Venetian sculpture. The finest monument is that of Andrea Vendramin (d. 1478; in the choir, on the left), by Tullio and Ant. Lombardi and Al. Leopardi.

On the S. side of the Canale di San Marco (p. 421), reached by ferry from the Molo (‘traghetto’, 1–2 pers. 15, 3–4 pers. 20, 5–6 pers. 30 c.), or more quickly by steamer from the Riva degli Schiavoni (see p. 419), are the island and the Benedictine church of =San Giorgio Maggiore= (Pl. H, 7; if closed, ring on the right), built by Palladio (1565) and Ant. Palliari. The Campanile, 197 ft. high (ascent to the left of the choir; easy wooden stairs), offers a superb **View of the city, the lagoons, and the sea, embracing in clear weather the Alpine chain far away to the N. (finest in the early morning or just before sunset).

The =Lido=, the most fashionable sea-bathing place in Italy (height of season July and Aug.), is reached either by the direct steamers or by those coming from the railway-station (p. 419, 420). An electric tramway connects the pier with the Bath Establishment (café-restaurant) and with the large hotels on the shore.—See also Baedeker’s Northern Italy.

* * * * *

=Trieste.=—=Railway Stations=, 1. Stazione Meridionale (S. Station; Pl. B, C, 2; buffet), 10 min. to the N. of the Piazza della Borsa, for Vienna, Abbazia and Fiume, and Cervignano (Venice).—2. Stazione dello Stato or di Sant’ Andrea (State Railway Station; Pl. A, 6), at the S. end of the Old Harbour (p. 426), 15 min. to the S.W. of the Piazza della Borsa, for the Tauern Railway, and for Assling and Vienna. Cabs, see below; hotel-omnibus 1 K.

=Arrival by Sea.= The Austrian Lloyd steamers anchor in the New Harbour (p. 426), at Moles I-III, near the Dogana (Pl. B, 2, 3) and the S. Station, or at the Molo San Carlo (Pl. B, 4; excursion-steamer ‘Thalia’).

=Hotels.= GRAND-HÔTEL, Riva dei Mandracchio, adjoining the Lloyd Palace (p. 426), a first-class house, to be opened in 1911; HÔT. DE LA VILLE (Pl. a; C, 4), Riva Carciotti, with first-class restaurant, high charges, variously judged; HÔT. VOLPICH ALL’ AQUILA NERA (Pl. d; C, 4), with good café-restaurant, R. 3–8 K, B. 1 K 20 h, D. 3 K, HÔT. TONIATO (Pl. h; C, 4), R. 3–10 K, both Via San Nicolò, good; HÔT. BALKAN (Pl. c; C, 3), Piazza della Caserma, R. from 3 K, B. 70 h, D. 2 K 80 h; HÔT. VANOLI (Pl. k; B, 4, 5), Piazza Grande 2; HÔT. DELORME (Pl. b; C, 4), Via del Teatro 5; HÔT. CENTRAL (Pl. f; C, 4), Via San Nicolò 15, R. from 2 K 50–4 K 50 h, B. 1 K 20 h.

=Cafés.= Caffè degli Specchi, Caffè al Municipio (in the town-hall), Orientale (in the Lloyd Palace), all in Piazza Grande; Stazione, Piazza della Stazione.

=Restaurants= at the hotels. Also, Restaurant Dreher, Via della Cassa di Risparmio (Pl. C, 4), near the Old Exchange (p. 426); La Cooperativa, Piazza San Giovanni 5 (Pl. D, 3, 4).

=Cabs.= From or to the stations 1 K 60 h (9 p.m. to 6 a.m. t2 K); in the inner town per drive with one horse 1 K (at night 1 K 20 h), farther out 1 K 40 or 1 K 60 h; by time: ½ hr. 1 K 20 h, at night 1 K 60 h, ¾ hr. 1 K 60 or 2 K 20 h, 1 hr. 2 K or 2 K 80 h, each ¼ hr. more 50 or 60 h (with pair, 1 K 40 or 1 K 60 h; 2 K 20 or 2 K 40 h; 2 K 80 or 3 K 20 h; 70 or 80 h). Trunk 50 h; small articles carried inside free, outside 20 h.

=Tramways= from the Boschetto (beyond Pl. E, 2) viâ the Piazza della Borsa and Passeggio di Sant’ Andrea (p. 427) to Servola (p. 427); from the S. Station to Barcola (p. 427), etc.—ELECTRIC HILL-TRAMWAY (views on left, best to sit backward), from the Piazza della Caserma (Pl. C, D, 3) viâ (2½ M.) Obelisco (80 h) in ½ hr. to (3¾ M.) the rail, station of Opčina (p. 427; 1 M. to the S.W. from the S. Station).

=Motor Omnibus= in the forenoon, on week-days only, every hour to Miramar (p. 427; return-fare 3 K).

=Steamboat Lines.= Austrian Lloyd (offices in Lloyd Palace, Pl. B, 4) to Venice (daily in summer, in 4–6½ hrs.; in winter Tues., Thurs., Sat., returning Mon., Wed., and Frid.); quick boats to Alexandria; other lines to Syria and to Port Said (comp. p. 418); quick boats to the Piræus (for Athens) and Constantinople (R. 78), etc.; Cunard Line (agents, Schröder & Co.), viâ Fiume, Palermo, Naples, and Gibraltar to New York (R. 16); Austro-American Line (office Via Molin Piccolo 2) to Buenos Ayres, to Almeria, Cadiz, and Las Palmas, to New York, and to Patras (R. 78) and Palermo; German Levant Line to Tunis, Algiers, and Oran; Hungarian-Croatian Co. (agent, Maule, Riva dei Pescatori 16) and Croatian Steamboat Co. to Fiume.—LOCAL STEAMERS (from Molo San Carlo, Pl. B, 4) to Barcola (p. 427), half-hourly in summer, and to Miramar (p. 427) twice daily.

=Post & Telegraph Office= (Pl. 12; C, 3), Piazza delle Poste.

=Consuls.= British Consul-General, J. B. Spence; vice-consul, _N. Salvary_.—United States Consul, M. G. Hotschick; vice-consul _O. Demartini_.—LLOYD’S AGENT, R. Greenham, Via San Lazzaro 15.

=English Church Services=, in the Via San Michele 1714, every Sun. at 11 a.m. and 6 p.m.

Trieste (pop. 221,000, Italians, Slovenians, and Germans; in 1758 about 6400 only), the Roman Tergeste, the chief seaport of Austria and in the E. Mediterranean, lies on the E. shore of the Bay of Trieste, at the head of the Adriatic and at the foot of the Karst or Carso Plateau (1945 ft.), which is often visited by N.E. gales (Bora). Having become the heiress of Venice Trieste was a free harbour from 1719 to 1891; in 1833 it became the seat of the Austrian Lloyd, the oldest and one of the greatest of the steamboat companies in the Mediterranean. The harbour is entered by ca. 12,000 vessels annually (imports 573, exports 508 million florins). The new Tauern Railway, completed in 1909, the direct route to the Baths of Gastein, the Tyrol, and thence to Germany, is expected to give a new impulse to the trade of the city.

The =Harbour= comprises the Porto Vecchio (Pl. A, B, 4), sheltered by the Molo Santa Teresa (Pl. A, 5; lighthouse) of 1756, the Porto Nuovo (Pl. A, 1–3), with its four moles and a breakwater 1186 yds. long, constructed in 1867–83, and the Porto Nuovo di Sant’ Andrea or Francesco Giuseppe Primo (Pl. A, B, 7). The last, in the Bay of Muggia, was completed in 1910. Between the Porto Nuovo and Porto Vecchio is the Canal Grande (Pl. C, 4), completed in 1756, for small vessels only.

Near the old harbour are the two busiest squares in the town, the PIAZZA GRANDE (Pl. B, C, 4) and the PIAZZA DELLA BORSA. In the Piazza Grande are a marble Statue of Charles VI. and the Maria Teresa Fountain (1751). On its E. side rises the Municipio or town-hall (Pl. C, 4). Next to the sea are pleasure-grounds; at the S. end of these is the Lloyd Palace (Pl. B, 4); at the N. end is the Luogotenenza (or governor’s residence; Pl. 7, C, 4).

To the N. of the Piazza Grande are the Theatre (Teatro Comunale Giuseppe Verdi, Pl. C, 4) and the Tergesteo (Pl. 13; C, 4), the new exchange, built in 1852. The Borsa, or old exchange (Pl. C, 4), is now the seat of the chamber of commerce.

The VIA DEL CORSO (Pl. C, D, 4), the main street of Trieste, running to the E. from the Piazza della Borsa, separates the new town from the streets of the old town, which ascend the castle-hill. The old Castello (Pl. D, 5) now contains the barracks. Fine views are obtained from the terraces of the Convento dei Cappuccini (Pl. D, 4, 5) and of the CATHEDRAL (Basilica San Giusto; Pl. 3, D, 5; closed 12–3), which is composed of three early-Christian churches (6th cent.), united in the 14th century.

Between the cathedral and the Piazza Grande are the open-air Museo Lapidario (Pl. 9; C, 5), Via della Cattedrale 9, and the Arco di Riccardo (Pl. 1a; C, 5), the remains of a Roman arch.

In the Piazza Lipsia, to the S.W. of the Piazza Grande, rises the Commercial and Nautical Academy (Pl. 1; B, 5), containing the Museo Civico of natural history and antiquities. Near it is the Piazza Giuseppina (Pl. B, 5), with a bronze monument by Schilling to the Archduke Maximilian (d. 1867; see below).

ENVIRONS. By the Passeggio di Sant’ Andrea (Pl. A-E, 6, 7), past the Stabilimento Tecnico (Pl. B, 7) and Lloyd Arsenal (Pl. C, D, 7), to (2½ M.) Servola (tramway, p. 425).—By hill-tramway (p. 425) to *=Obelisco= (1125 ft.; Hotel), with terrace; walk thence to the N.W. along the foot of the Karst to the Belvedere (1303 ft.; fine view; best in the evening).

The *Excursion to Miramar is best made in the afternoon; the traveller should ascertain whether or not the park and château are open. The highroad (4½ M.; motor-omnibus, see p. 425) skirts the coast. We may take the train also from the S. Station to (5 M.) Miramar or to (5½ M.) Grignano and descend thence in ¼ hr. (or ½ hr.) to Miramar, or take the tramway (p. 425) to Barcola (sea-baths; Hôt. Excelsior) and walk thence to (2½ M.) Miramar (motor-omnibus 60 h). The pleasantest route, however, is that of the steamer (p. 425),—The imperial château of =Miramar=, on the beautiful Punta di Grignano, was built in 1854–6 by Archd. Maximilian. It was here that he accepted the imperial crown of Mexico (1864). The château, which has a charming park, is open to the public (10–12 and 3–5, in winter 2–4; adm. 60 h).

From the S. station of Opčina (pronounced Óptchina; see p. 425; ordinary trains only stop here) directly in ½ hr. (or from Trieste viâ Miramar, 10½ M. Nabresina, and 18 M. Opčina in 1¼–2½ hrs.) to (10 or 28 M.) =Divača= (pronounced Divátcha; 1418 ft.; Buffet, also R. 2 K 80 h, good; quarters also at the Restaurant Obersnel), station for (1 M.) Kronprinz Rudolf’s Grotto (tickets, etc. at the buffet), for the (¾ hr.) Stephanie-Warte (1428 ft.; view), and for the grand Cataracts and Caverns of St. Canzian (tickets and guides at the inn of Joh. Gombač at Matavun, ½ hr. below the Stephanie-Warte, ¾ hr. from Divača).

See also Baedeker’s Austria-Hungary.

* * * * *

The ITALIAN STEAMERS from Venice to Alexandria usually leave the lagoons to the N. of the Lido (p. 424), avoiding Chioggia and the marshy delta of the Po. They then steer down the Adriatic Sea towards Ancona. In clear weather we obtain a superb view of the Alps, of the Euganean hills to the N.W., and of the Apennines, whose offshoots come close down to the Adriatic near Rimini.

=Ancona= (Hôt. Roma e Pace, etc.; Brit, vice-consul; pop. 33,300, incl. about 6000 Jews), 140 M. to the S.E. of Venice, a strongly fortified town and the busiest seaport on the E. coast of Italy, is splendidly situated between the headlands of Monte Astagno and Monte Guasco, the N.W. spurs of Monte Conero (p. 428).

The Harbour, an oval basin open towards the W., is considered the best in Italy. The well-preserved Arch of Trajan, in marble, of 115 A.D., and a Triumphal Arch of the time of Pope Clement XII. (1730–40) recall the two founders of the N. quays. The Banchina, on the E. side of the harbour, is a modern quay (1880).

From the Dogana we may walk to the E. in a few minutes to the church of Santa Maria della Piazza, with its lavishly decorated façade (1210), and to the late-Gothic Loggia dei Mercanti (Exchange; 1454–9). A little to the E. is the Prefettura (15–16th cent.), with its fine quadrangle and a superb Renaissance archway.

The Via del Comune, near this, leads to the N., past the Palazzo del Comune (of 1493, but much modernized), to the *Cathedral (San Ciriaco; closed 12 to 4.30), on Monte Guasco, a fine point of view. The church, in which Byzantine and Romanesque forms are mingled, dates from 1128–89; the fine porch is of the 13th century.

The STEAMERS round the N. pier, and beyond Monte dei Cappuccini (lighthouse) pass Monte Conero (1877 ft.; the ancient Promontorium Cunerum), crowned with a Camaldulensian monastery. This limestone mass does not form part of the Apennines, in front of which it lies, and geologically considered is perhaps, like Monte Gargano (see below), a relic of the great Dalmatian limestone tableland (p. 429).

The coast recedes. In clear weather we sight in succession the summits of the Central Apennines, snow-clad till July: Monte Vettore (8130 ft.), the highest of the Monti Sibillini, the Gran Sasso d’Italia (9561 ft.) in the Abruzzi, and the Maiella, with Monte Amaro (9170 ft.).

After some time we pass the four low Trémiti Islands, the mythical Insulae Diomedeae, and then the rocky island of Pianosa (ancient Planasia), beyond which we sight Monte Gargáno (3464 ft.; Mons Garganus), once, as late as the tertiary age, an island separated from the mainland by a strait.

Off the lighthouse of Vieste, on the E. side of the peninsula, we steer away from the Bay of Manfredonia and due S.E. to—

=Bari= (Hôt. Cavour, Corso Vittorio Emanuele; Caffè del Risorgimento, at the hotel; Brit. vice-cons. and U. S. cons. agent; pop. 73,400), the ancient Barium, a provincial capital and the largest trading town in Apulia. As in the time of Horace, this is the part of the Adriatic where fish are most abundant.

From the Porto Nuovo, on the N.W. side of the old town, Monte Gargano, often cloud-capped, is visible even in rainy weather. The small Porto Vecchio, on the E. side, admits small craft only.

The sights of the old town are the Castle, once that of the Hohenstaufen, dating from Emp. Frederick II. (1223; now barracks and signalling station), the Cathedral, a Romanesque church of the 12th cent. modernized in 1745, and the church of San Nicóla, dedicated to St. Nicholas of Bari. San Nicola and the small church of San Gregorio near it date from the end of the 11th century.—The old town and the new (Borgo) are separated by the broad Corso Vittorio Emanuele, which ends in pleasant promenades.

Beyond Bari we skirt the coast, where in the seaports of Mola di Bari, Polignano a Mare, and Monopoli, with their white houses, we see the first signs of the Orient. The Faro di Penna, the lighthouse on Capo Gallo, and the lighthouses in the islands of Sant’ Andrea (see below) and Le Petagne mark the approach to (475 M.) Brindisi (see below).

The AUSTRIAN LLOYD STEAMERS, on leaving Trieste (p. 425), steer to the S.W. through the Bay of Trieste, avoiding the numerous bays of the N.W. coast of Istria; then, beyond the lighthouse of Salvore, the ancient Silvium Promontorium, they keep in sight of the hilly, olive-clad W. coast of Istria. We pass the small coast-towns of Umago, Cittanuova, and Parenzo (ancient Parentium), then the lighthouse on the Marmi Bank, the Canal di Leme, a kind of fiord, backed by Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and the harbour of Rovigno, sheltered by cliffs (scogli).

Beyond the cliff of San Giovanni in Pélago (lighthouse) we pass the Isŏle Brioni, where the Venetians once quarried stone for their palaces and churches. Fine view of the deeply cut bay of Pola, the chief naval seaport of Austria, used also by the Romans of the imperial age as a naval harbour.

Beyond Cape Promontore (ancient Polaticum Promontorium), the flat S. extremity of Istria, with a lighthouse on the Porer Cliff, a delightful view in clear weather is revealed of the Dalmatian islands, relics of the ancient Dalmatian limestone plateau, now submerged in the Adriatic. The most conspicuous are Lussin (Apsorus Insula), culminating in Monte Ossero (1929 ft.), and to the E., overtopped by it, Unie and Sansego with their lighthouses.

We pass the large islands of Lunga or Grossa and Incoronata (Celadussae Insulae), lying off the coast near Zara. A good way farther on we sight the rocky islet of Pomo, midway between Dalmatia and the E. coast of Italy; then the islands of Sant’ Andrea (1001 ft.), Busi (788 ft.; containing the Spelonca di Ballon, resembling the blue grotto of Capri), and Lissa (1920 ft.; ancient Issa), where the Austrian fleet defeated the Italian in 1866.

Between the islands of Cazza (797 ft.) and Lagosta (1368 ft.; ancient Ladesta) and the Italian island-group of Pelagosa, we may descry Monte Gargano (p. 428) to the S.W. in clear weather.

We now steer straight towards the Faro di Penna (p. 428).

=Brindisi.=—The QUAY is on the N.E. side of the town; the STATION, on the S.W. side, is ¾ M. from the quay. Between them runs the Corso Garibaldi, continued to the W. by Corso Umberto Primo.

HOTELS (charges should be agreed upon beforehand). Grand-Hôt. International, at the quay, R. 5–10, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 6, omn. 1½ fr.; Albergo Europa, Corso Garibaldi 147, R. from 2 fr.; Alb. Centrale, Corso Garibaldi 67, near the harbour; these two, with restaurants, fairly good.—Café Caprez.

CAB (bargaining necessary) from station to quay 60 c., 2 pers. 1 fr., 3 pers. 1 fr. 20 c.; ½ hr. 2, 1 hr. 3 fr.; at night 20 c. more; trunk 20 c.

=Post & Telegraph Office=, Corso Umberto Primo and on the quay.

BRITISH CONSUL, S. G. Cocoto.

STEAMBOAT OFFICES. Società Nazionale, Via Margherita 32; Austrian Lloyd, Thos. Cook & Son, Strada Marina.—The steamers are generally moored at the quay; otherwise, landing or embarkation 60 c.—LLOYD’S AGENT, Sig. Nervegna.—ENGLISH CHURCH SERVICE in winter.

Brindisi (pop. 22,000), a quiet town, the seat of an archbishop, has been ever since ancient times an important starting-point for the East. In the middle ages its harbour was often sought by the Crusaders, and hosts of travellers now pass through it on their way to or from Egypt, India, Australia, etc. The inner harbour, sheltered from every wind, consists of two natural creeks formed by erosion; in the southmost, the Seno di Ponte Piccolo, 492 yds. long, the large steamers are easily berthed. The channel connecting the inner harbour with the outer had become choked with sand in the later middle ages, but was reopened in 1755 and lined with masonry in 1866. On the island of Sant’ Andrea, outside the harbour, rises a castle of the 15th cent., now a quarantine station.

The town offers few sights. On a height close to the quay stands a Column, 62 ft. high, with a rich capital containing figures of gods. Adjacent is the base of a second column. The unfinished inscription on the first mentions Lupus Protospatha, a Byzantine governor, who restored the town in the 10th cent. after its destruction by the Saracens. These columns are said to have marked the end of the Via Appia which led from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, and they perhaps bore a beacon-fire. The Gothic Castle, with its huge round towers, on the N. creek, to the W. of the town, built by Emp. Frederik II. about 1235 and strengthened by Charles V., now contains a bagno for galley convicts. The baptistery of San Giovanni al Sepolcro (11th cent.), with its fine portals and frescoes, is now a museum of antiquities. The Cathedral, in its present form, is of the 18th cent.; at the corner of a street opposite is a mediæval house with an elaborate balcony. The Norman church of San Benedetto (early 13th cent.) has an interesting side-portal and fine cloisters. Santa Lucia has a crypt with relics of Byzantine frescoes.

Leaving Brindisi the STEAMER next passes through the Straits of Otranto, the entrance to the Adriatic, about 47 M. in breadth, within sight at first of the flat and marshy coast of Apulia, with the lighthouse of San Cataldo. To the E., on the coast of Albania, rise the Acroceraunian Mts. (p. 496).

Far away to the left appear the Othonian Islands (p. 496), belonging to Greece, and the W. coast of Corfu (p. 495).

Steering through the Ionian Sea we near the W. coast of Kephallenía (p. 500) and Zante (p. 502). Off the Strophades (p. 502) we sight the Messenian Peninsula, with Mt. Ægaleon (p. 502).

Beyond the Œnussae Islands (p. 493) we proceed to the E.S.E. till at length we pass the W. coast of Crete (p. 415) and the island of Gavdos (p. 418). We then lose sight of land until near Alexandria or Port Said (comp. p. 418).

69. Alexandra.[6]

ARRIVAL. Most of the steamers are berthed at the quay in the inner harbour (otherwise the fare to or from the steamer is 2 pias., at night 3 pias., each trunk 1 pias.). After the formalities of the sanitary authorities are concluded, the care of heavier baggage is entrusted to one of the Arabian hotel porters, or to Cook’s agents (p. 432), who wear an official cap or badge. The inclusive charge to the hotel or to the railway-station is 15–20 pias., which through-passengers to Cairo may sometimes pay in advance at one of the tourist agencies before starting on their journey. The custom-house examination is usually lenient.

Footnote 6:

MONEY. The Egyptian Pound (£E, ‘livre égyptienne’) contains 100 Piastres (pias.) of 10 Millièmes (mill.) each. The Arabic for piastre is kirsh, pl. kurûsh (pronounced in Cairo ’irsh and ’urûsh), but the European name is known everywhere. Petty traders often distinguish between the ‘great piastre’ of 10 mill, (kirsh sâgh) and the ‘little piastre’ of 5 mill. (kirsh tarifa). In the following data the ‘great’ is always understood.

The Egyptian pound is worth ca. 20_s._ 6_d._, the piastre nearly 2½_d._ Egyptian gold coins are rare, their place being taken by the sovereign (ginê inglîsi, 97½ pias.), the French 20 fr. piece (bint, 77 pias.), and the Turkish pound (mejidîyeh, 87½ pias.), which are all legally current.

The silver coins are riyâl masri (20 pias.), nusse riyâl (10 pias.), rub’a riyâl (5 pias., 1_s._ ¼_d._, often called a ‘shilling’ at Cairo), kirshen (2 pias.), and kirsh or kirsh sâgh (1 pias.). Nickel: nusse kirsh or kirsh tarifa (½ pias.), 2 mill. (⅕ pias.), and 1 mill. (ca. ¼_d._). Copper: ½ and ¼ mill.

Eastern European time, which is about 2 hrs. in advance of Greenwich, is observed in Egypt.

=Railway Station.= GARE DU CAIRE or BAB EL-GUEDID (Pl. G, 5; buffet), near the old Porte Moharrem Bey.

=Hotels= (English style). SAVOY PALACE (Pl. g; H, 4), Rue de la Porte de Rosette 35, R. 40–70,. B. 10, déj. 20, D. 30, pens. 80, omn. 5 pias.; METROPOLE HOTEL (Pl. k; F, G, 3), Rue Avéroff, near the E. harbour, R. 20–30, B. 6, déj. 15, D. 20, pens. 40–60, omn. 5 pias., well spoken of; EXCELSIOR HOTEL (Pl. a; H, 4), Rue de la Porte de Rosette 15; GRAND-HÔTEL (Pl. b; F, 4), Square Ste. Catherine, R. from 25, B. 6, déj. or D. 20, pens. 60–80, omn. 5 pias.; WINDSOR HOTEL (Pl. d; G, 3), Rue Avéroff 7, near the E. harbour, R. from 17, déj. 15, D. 20, pens. from 50 pias.; HÔT. BRISTOL (Pl. i; G, 4), Rue de la Gare de Ramleh; HÔT. DES VOYAGEURS (Pl. f; F, 4), Rue de l’Eglise Ecossaise 4, pens. 11 fr.; HÔT. BONNARD (Pl. e; F, 3), Rue Champollion 7, pens. from 42 pias.—=Hôtels Garnis.= HÔT. DU NIL (Pl. h: F, 3), Rue de l’Ancienne Bourse 11; HÔT. CONTINENTAL (Pl. c; F, 4), Rue de France 2.

=Cafés= (cup of Arabian coffee 1 pias.). Several in Place Méhémet Ali (Pl. F, 4), etc.—CONFECTIONERS. Confiserie Albengo, Rue Chérif Pacha 17; Groppi, same street, No. 33; Zola, Rue Toussoun Pacha 3; Sault, Rue Chérif Pacha 26.

=Restaurants.= Ristorante Firenze, Rue de la Poste 14 (Pl. F, 3, 4); Restaurant Universel, Rue de l’Ancienne Bourse 9 (Pl. F, 4); same street, Nos. 3 and 6, Old Bourse Bar and Spathis; Castelli, Rue Chérif Pacha 1.

=Tramways= (see Plan), all diverging from Place Méhémet Ali. Uniform fare, 1st cl. 10, 2nd cl. 5 mill., with right to one change of car.—Electric line to Ramleh (p. 436) every 5 min. till midnight (dep., see Pl. G, 3).—There are in addition several services of MOTOR OMNIBUSES plying within the town and to the suburbs.

=Cabs= (Arabic arabîyeh). In the town, drive of 10 min. 2 pias., with two horses 3 pias.; 20 min. 2½ or 4 pias.; ½ hr. 3 or 5 pias.; hr. 6 or 9 pias.; each addit. ¼ hr. 1½ or 2 pias.; from steamer to railway-station 3 or 5 pias. (See tariff in vehicle as to suburbs). The aid of a friend who speaks the language is desirable in bargaining for long drives.

=Post Office= (Pl. F, 3), open 7–12 and 2 to 9.30. Postage, see p. 441. France has its own post-office, Rue de la Gare de Ramleh 2.—=Telegraph Offices.= Egyptian, Rue Tewfik Premier 1; British, Rue du Télégraphe Anglais 5 (Pl. F, 4).

=Consulates.= British (Pl. 6; H, 3), Rue de l’Hôpital Egyptien: consul-general, D. E. Cameron; vice-consul, E. H. Mulock.—United States, Rue Chérif Pacha 21; consul, D. R. Birch; vice-consul, F. L. Romeo.

=Tourist Agents.= Thos. Cook & Son, Rue de la Porte de Rosette 2; Clark, Grand-Hôtel; Hamburg-American, Square Ste. Catherine (Pl. F, 4); F. Th. Fotiades & Co., Rue Chérif Pacha 22.

=Physicians.= Dr. Morrison, Place Méhémet Ali; Dr. Webb Jones, Rue de Stamboul; Dr. Elkins (Government Hospital); Dr. Forster (lady-doctor); Dr. Hoddad, Rue de la Gare de Ramleh 29.

=Steamboat Offices.= Peninsular & Oriental, Rue Avéroff (Haselden & Co.; ‘Box 153’); Messageries Maritimes (RR. 67, 72), Ricard, Rue de l’Eglise Debbane 5; Austrian Lloyd (RR. 68, 72), Rue de la Porte de Rosette; Società Nazionale (RR. 67, 68, 72), Capt. Baldovino, Rue Sésostris 12; Khedivial Mail Steamship Co. (RR. 72, 75, 76), Rue Centrale; North German Lloyd (R. 67) and Rumanian Mail (R. 76), Müller & Co., Rue Sésostris 16; German Levant Line (R. 72), Stross, No. 11, same street; White Star, Ross & Co., Rue de la Marine; Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (RR. 72, 75, 76), Reidemeister, Rue St. Marc 1.

=Banks= (usually 9–12 and 3–5). Ottoman, Place Méhémet Ali 5 (Pl. F, 4); National Bank of Egypt, Rue Toussoun Pacha 4 (Pl. G, 4); Anglo-Egyptian, Rue Chérif Pacha 7; Crédit Lyonnais, same street, No. 4; Bank of Egypt, Rue Tewfik 4; Deutsche Orientbank (Pl. F, 4), Rue Adib 4.

=Photographs.= Reiser & Binder, Rue de l’Ancienne Bourse 6 (also art-dealers); Lassave, Rue de l’Eglise Debbane 7; Fettel & Bernard, Rue Toussoun Pacha 1. Photographical requisites at Delmar’s, Rue Tewfik Premier.

=Theatres.= Zizinia (Pl. G, 4), Rue de la Porte de Rosette, often closed; French and Italian operas, alternating after 1st Jan. with Cairo.—VARIETY THEATRES (all with gardens): Alhambra (Pl. G, 4); Nuovo Teatro Alhambra, cor. of Rue Misalla and Rue de la Gare de Ramleh (Pl. G, 3).—Jardin Rosette, Rue de la Porte Rosette (Pl. H, 4).

=Churches.= English (St. Mark’s; ‘Egl. anglicane’; Pl. F, 4), Place Méhémet Ali; chaplain, Ven. Archdeacon Ward, M. A.; services on Sun. at 8, 11, and 6.15 o’clock.—Presbyterian (St. Andrew’s; Pl. 1, F, 3, 4), Rue de l’Eglise Ecossaise; service on Sun. at 10.30 a.m.—American Mission (‘Egl. améric.’; Pl. G, 4), Rue Sidi el-Metwalli.

ONE DAY, when time is limited. Forenoon, Place Méhémet Ali (p. 434), the Arab and Turkish Quarters (p. 434); tramway or cab to Pompey’s Pillar (p. 435); *Catacombs of Kôm esh-Shukâfa (p. 435). Afternoon, Rue Chérif Pacha (p. 435) and Museum (p. 436). A ‘billet cumulatif’ obtained at the Museum (8 pias.) admits also to Pompey’s Pillar and the Catacombs.

Alexandria, called by the Arabs and Turks Iskanderîeh, the second town of Egypt, strongly fortified, and one of the most important trading places on the Mediterranean, lies in 31° 11′ N. lat. and 29° 53′ E. long., at the W. end of the Nile Delta (p. 418), on a strip of land separating Lake Mareotis from the sea. The population is about 377,000, incl. 48,000 Europeans (‘Franks’), chiefly Greeks and Italians, but many French and Austrians and a lesser number of English and Germans. The Moslems live mostly in the N. and W. quarters (comp. p. 434), the Europeans chiefly in the E. quarter or in Ramleh (p. 436).

Alexandria was founded in 331 B. C. by Alexander the Great, who endeavoured to blend the land of the Pharaohs with his new Greek empire. His Egyptian governor and successor, Ptolemy I. Soter (323–286), made Alexandria a centre of art and science. He founded the Museum, an institute for the promotion of science and poetry, to which the famous Alexandrine library was attached. The highly advantageous position of the town, which was connected, through Lake Mareotis, with the Nile by several navigable channels, and whose harbour (unlike the other older seaports at the mouth of the Nile) was protected by marine currents from being silted up, led to the surprisingly rapid development of its trade and prosperity under the Ptolemies. Alexandria had attained its zenith when, in 48 B. C., the Romans intervened in the quarrels between Cleopatra and her husband Ptolemy XIV. Both Caesar, who entered Alexandria in triumph after the murder of Pompey at Pelusium, and Antony were ensnared by Cleopatra. After the defeat of Antony’s partisans Augustus founded the large E. suburb of Nicopolis. When at its prime the city is said to have had a population of half-a-million inhabitants. The Greek element predominated, after which came the Egyptian, while a Jewish community had existed here ever since the time of Ptolemy I. Christianity also took root in Alexandria at an early period, having been first proclaimed here, according to tradition, by St. Mark the Evangelist.

In the time of Trajan (96–117) the revolt of the Jews, who then composed one-third of the population, gave rise to terrible bloodshed and disaster. A century later the emperor Caracalla (211–7) paid a fateful visit to the city, and, to punish the citizens for their contumacy, ordered many of them to be massacred and the famous academy to be closed. The city suffered even more severely from the persecution of the Christians under Decius (250) and Valerian (257), from the plague in the reign of Gallienus, and from its battles with the Palmyrenes (260–8). Having become, like Carthage, a stronghold of Christian erudition, Alexandria afterwards became the chief scene of the embittered controversies between Arius (d. 336), a presbyter of the city, and the ‘orthodox’ bishops Alexander and Athanasius (328–78). Even after the victory of the Athanasians at the councils of Nicæa (325) and Constantinople (381) the Arian heresy, which admitted the divine nature of Christ but denied his identity with the Father, subsisted for centuries among the Germanic tribes.

Under Theodosius I. (379–95) paganism received its death-blow, when the patriarch Theophilus waged war against all heathen temples and monuments. But the material prosperity of the city declined at the same time. The citizens were no longer able to pay for the cleansing of the Nile and the maintenance of the canals, and they were further impoverished when the patriarch Cyril banished the Jews. In 619 the Persian Chosroes made Alexandria his base for the conquest of Egypt. The country was next overrun by the hordes of caliph Omar, whose general Amr ibn el-Âsî captured Alexandria in 641. Its importance now declined still further in the same proportion as Cairo, the new capital of the conquerors, rose to wealth and importance. In 1303 and 1326 a great part of the city, with the Pharus (p. 434), was destroyed by earthquakes. Lastly, the discovery of America and of the sea-route to India completed the ruin of its trade.

About the year 1800 the population of Alexandria had dwindled to about 5000, but Mohammed Ali (p. 414) wisely laid the foundations of a new era of prosperity. He improved the harbours and constructed canals. His great work was the Mahmûdîyeh Canal (p. 434), begun in 1819, which fertilized anew the environs of the city and again connected it with the interior of Egypt, which had long been obliged to export its produce by way of Damietta and Rosetta. Subsequent rulers also were zealous for the welfare of Alexandria. During the revolt of the national party under Arâbi Bey (1882) Alexandria was bombarded by the British fleet and the European quarter was burned down, but since then the city has resumed its steady and vigorous career of progress.

The old town of to-day lies partly on the Heptastadion, the embankment ‘seven stadia’ (about 1430 yds.) in length, which ever since the time of the Ptolemies has connected the mainland with the island of Pharos, but which in the course of centuries has been greatly widened. At the E. extremity of the island, now peninsula, rises the picturesque Fort Kâït Bey (Pl. D, E, 1), on the site of the famous ‘Pharus’, a lighthouse erected under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus by Sostratus of Cnidos, in 280–279; it was originally 400 ells (590 ft.) in height, and was deemed one of the seven wonders of the world; it is supposed to have been the prototype of the Egyptian minaret (comp. p. 445). The main or ‘great’ harbour of that period, protected by a huge embankment, is now the Port Est, the new quays of which afford a pleasant seaside walk and are being completed as a fashionable boulevard.

The Port Ouest, the ancient Eunostos (‘haven of happy return’), was little used till the later Roman age. Improved since 1871 it now consists of an inner basin of 475 acres, and a new outer harbour of 1750 acres (p. 418). From the beginning of the Gabbari Mole extend quays with warehouses along the E. side of this harbour to the Naval Arsenal (Pl. C, D, 3). Of the 2000 steamers entering the port annually more than half are under the British flag. The inner harbour is connected with the Mahmûdîyeh Canal (p. 435) by means of locks. The chief exports are cotton, cotton-seed, grain, beans, rice, sugar, onions, and tomatoes.

The Rue de la Marine (Pl. E, D, 5, 4; tramways, see p. 431) and its continuation the Rue Moutouch Pacha (Pl. D, 4, 3) form one of the chief approaches to the peninsula of Pharos (see above). Between the viceregal Palace of Râs et-Tîn (Pl. A, B, 3) and the Port Est lies the TURKISH QUARTER, with its pretty houses and a few gardens.

The RUE RÂS ET-TÎN, the main street of the N. quarters, leads past the Government Buildings (Pl. D, E, 3), to the S.E., to the ARAB QUARTER, lying on the ancient Heptastadion (see above) and containing several Sûks or markets, which present an interesting picture of Oriental life.

The Rue de France (Pl. E, F, 3, 4), the S.E. prolongation of the Rue Râs et-Tîn, leads to the =Place Méhémet Ali= (Pl. F, 4), the focus of European life, planted with trees and adorned with a Statue of Mohammed Ali (p. 444) on horseback. The chief buildings here are the Palais de Justice, the Bourse, and the English Church. The last is adjoined by St. Mark’s Building, belonging to the British community and used as a school and for official purposes. From the W. harbour the Place Méhémet Ali is reached by the Rue Bab el-Karasta (Pl. E, 5) and Rue Anastasi (Pl. E, F, 5, 4), skirting the lofty Fort Cafarelli or Napoléon (Pl. E, 5; signalling station).

A few paces to the S. of the Place Méhémet Ali lies the triangular Square Ste. Catherine (Pl. F, 4), named after the Catholic Church of St. Catharine. From this point we walk (or take a car or motor-omnibus, see p. 431) to the S.E. through the Rue Abou Dardah (Pl. F, 4, 5) and Rue de la Colonne Pompée (Pl. F, G, 6, 7), past the Sidi Amr Mosque (Pl. G, 6) and a large Cimetière Arabe (Pl. F, 6, 7), to a bare hill, on the right, covered with débris.

Here in the time of the Ptolemies rose the Serapeum, the most superb temple in the city, dedicated to Serapis, god of the lower regions. On the same site now stands POMPEY’S PILLAR (Pl. F, G, 7; adm. 3 pias.; see also p. 432), the grandest memorial of antiquity in the city. We ascend by steps to the plateau. All around are traces of recent excavations, chiefly bringing to light relics of Roman edifices. The column, composed of red granite from Assuan, is 88 ft. high including the mutilated base. It is perhaps a Christian monument of victory, dating from the time of Emp. Theodosius I. (p. 433), signalizing the destruction of the Serapeum (391). In the middle ages it was supposed to be the tomb of Pompey.

We follow the Rue Karmouss (Pl. G, 7, 8), which leads hence to the S. to the Mahmûdîyeh Canal, and diverging to the right viâ the Rue Bab el-Melouk, we pass a small mosque and reach (10 min.) the entrance (Pl. ‘E.’; F, 8) to the—

*=Catacombs of Kôm esh-Shukâfa= (Pl. F, 8; ‘hill of potsherds’), an Egyptian burial-place of the 2nd cent. A.D., hewn in the rock. Adm. from 8 a.m. till dusk (5 pias.; see also p. 432).

The tombs, discovered in 1900, consist of several stories and afford an excellent example of the characteristic Alexandrine blend of the Egyptian with the Græco-Roman style. They probably belonged to some Egyptian magnate. Around the principal chambers are plainer vaults for the domestics of the family. Modern stairs ascend to the restored entrance on the hill-top. The interior is rendered accessible by wooden bridges and lighted by electricity, but is partly under water.

A spiral staircase, lighted by a large round shaft, descends near a sarcophagus-chamber of later date to two stories. From the entrance to the upper story we enter a rotunda covered with a kind of dome. On the right are two smaller vaults with niches, sarcophagi, and shelf-tombs (loculi). On the left is a large chamber, the Triclinium Funebre, used for funeral banquets.

The stairs divide farther down, affording a survey of the principal chambers, and lead round the entrance to the *Tomb Chapel on the lowest floor, with three niches for sarcophagi. Round the chapel runs a gallery, accessible from the vestibule, with 91 shelf-tombs.

An important thoroughfare, leading to the N.E. from the Rue Abou Dardah (p. 434), is the Rue Sidi el-Metwalli (Pl. F, G, 5, 4), with its continuation the RUE DE LA PORTE DE ROSETTE (Pl. F-I, 4, 3). These streets unite at the end of the busy Rue Chérif Pacha (Pl. F, G, 4), a street of shops, coming from the Place Méhémet Ali (p. 434). This thoroughfare corresponds with the E. half of the Dromos, the main street of the ancient city, which ended at the Canopic Gate, the site of the now removed Porte de Rosette. In the Rue du Musée, a N. side-street, is the—

*=Museum= (Pl. H, 3), a building in the Greek style, which contains an extensive collection of Græco-Roman antiquities, mostly Alexandrine, found in catacombs and tombs. Adm. daily, 9–12 and 3 to 5.30, 2 pias. (see also p. 432; closed on Thurs. in summer).

From the ante-room we see the statue of Hercules in the transverse gallery between the main wings of the building (see below). The side-room contains a topographical collection. Room I (on the right). Christian antiquities, including tombstones and some of the terracotta flasks in which pilgrims brought holy oil from the tomb of St. Menas (d. 296) at Mariut.—Rooms II-V. Alexandrian coins, stamps from Greek amphoræ, etc.

Room VI. Inscriptions and tombstones. On the right, Ptolemaic *Tombstones (Nos. 83, 97, etc.), resembling those of Attica in the 4th cent. B.C.—Rooms VII-IX. Egyptian antiquities. (In Room VIII, No. 380. Fine bas-relief with a man, a harper, and singing-women.)

Rooms X & XI. Egyptian monuments and smaller sculptures. (In R. XI, No. 3704. Portrait-head in black basalt.)—Rooms XII & XIII. Portrait-busts and sculptures. (In R. XII, Case B, admirable small busts of Alexander; *66. Marble Head of Hercules or, according to others, of Zeus.)

Rooms XIV & XV. Architectural fragments. (In R. XV, No. 3, painted capitals from palaces of the Ptolemies.)—Room XVI. Sculptures.

Rooms XVII & XVIII. Small objects of art. In R. XVII glass; mummies with portraits of the deceased painted on wood (2nd cent. A.D.). In R. XVIII small clay figures of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods; among the former, *Figures of girls in the style of the Tanagra figurines.

Room XIX. A mosaic and cinerary urns from Shatbi.—Room XX. Tomb accessories.—Room XXI. Objects from tombs, including elegant bronze wreaths; terracotta figures.—Room XXII. Architectural fragments; mosaics from Canopus.

In the gallery crossing the garden is a colossal figure of Hercules.

From the Museum the Rue du Musée to the N.W., the broad Rue d’Allemagne to the left, and the Rue Missala to the right soon lead to the old Ramleh Railway Station, now used for the electric line (see p. 431) to =Ramleh= (i. e. ‘sand’), a villa suburb and sea-bathing place, inhabited in summer by wealthy Alexandrians and Cairenes. At San Stefano, the terminus, is the Hôtel Casino San Stefano, with a theatre and concert-rooms (adm. 5 pias.).

From Alexandria to Cairo, see R. 71.

70. Port Said.

ARRIVAL. The steamers moor alongside the Quai François-Joseph or in the Bassin Ismaïl. If they are not berthed at the quay the fare for landing at the Custom House (Pl. 8) is 1½–2½ piastres (trunk 2, small packages 1 pias.). The North German Lloyd provides a steam-tender in winter, which lands passengers free of charge. Heavy luggage had better be entrusted to one of the hotel-porters, or to an agent of Messrs. Cook (comp. p. 431) or of the Hamburg-American Line.

RAILWAY STATION near Lake Menzaleh (p. 418), 10 min. to the W. of the Custom House.

HOTELS. *Eastern Exchange Hotel (Pl. a), Rue Sultan Osman, pens. from 12s., English house; *Savoy (Pl. d), corner of Quai François-Joseph and Rue el-Tegara, with restaurant and bar, pens. from 62 pias. ; Hôt. Continental (Pl. b), Rue el-Tegara, with bar, pens. 10_s._ 6_d._; Hôt. de la Poste (Pl. c), Rue du Nil.

CAB from the quay to the station 4 (at night 5) pias.

POST OFFICES. Egyptian (Pl. 14) and French (Pl. 15), Rue du Nil.—TELEGRAPH OFFICES. Egyptian (Pl. 18), Rue el-Tegara; Eastern Telegraph Co. (Pl. 17), Quai François-Joseph, for Europe.

CONSULATES at the Quai François-Joseph. British (Pl. 3): consul-general, E. C. Blech; vice-consul, T. D. Dunlop.—United States (Pl. 2): consular agent, H. Broadbent.

TOURIST AGENTS. Thos. Cook & Son, Quai François-Joseph; F. C. Clark, Savoy Hotel; Hamburg-American Line, Rue du Nil.

STEAMBOAT OFFICES. All the important companies have offices on the quay. L. Saxon & Co. (Società Nazionale) are also Lloyd’s Agents.

BANKS. Bank of Egypt and Crédit Lyonnais, Rue du Nil; National Bank of Egypt, Rue Eugénie; Ottoman, Bassin du Commerce.—Money, see p. 431.

PHYSICIANS. Dr. Curling, Dr. W. Hayward (Egyptian Government Hospital); Dr. E. Cuffey (Lady Strangford Hospital); Dr. J. H. Wigham.

ENGLISH CHURCH. Church of the Epiphany (‘Eglise angl.’ on Plan), Rue el-Tegara; services every Sun. at 10.30 a.m. and 6 p.m.

Port Said (pop. 42,000, incl. 11,300 Europeans) lies at the E. end of the strip of land between Lake Menzaleh (p. 418) and the open sea, at the N. end of the Suez Canal, to which it owes its foundation. Its trade, chiefly through-traffic, is growing rapidly.

The Harbour of 570 acres has a depth of 26 ft., which is maintained by laborious dredging. It is sheltered by two massive breakwaters, the Jetée Ouest, 2460 yds. long, with a statue of Ferd. de Lesseps (1805–94), the builder of the Suez Canal (1859–69), and the Jetée Est, 1750 yds. long. The former protects it against the mud of the Nile. Between these is the Digue Nouvelle, an inner breakwater 597 yds. long, for shelter against E. winds; on the mainland opposite (to the W.) rises the *Phare, a lighthouse 174 ft. high, visible 23 M. away.

The inner harbour of 220 acres consists of the Bassin Ismaïl (with its three very shallow creeks), the Bassin des Chalands Charbonniers, and the Bassin Abbas Hilmi or Africa Basin, with the quarantine establishment.

The Rue Quai du Nord (tramway) leads to the N.W. to the Quartier Arabe.

71. From Alexandria or Port Said to Cairo.

FROM ALEXANDRIA TO CAIRO, 130 M., express in 3, ordinary train in 6–6¾ hrs.; 1st cl. 87½, 2nd cl. 44 pias.—FROM PORT SAID TO CAIRO, 145 M., express (with dining-car) in 4–4¼, ordinary in 5 hrs.; 96 or 48 pias.—As to transport of luggage, see p. 431.—The buffets at the intermediate stations are poor.

Alexandria, see p. 431. The Cairo railway, the oldest in the East (1855), rounds Lake Mareotis (p. 432), which during the Nile inundation rises at places to the permanent way. On the left is the Mahmûdîyeh Canal (p. 434).

On the right beyond (17 M.) Kafr ed-Dâwâr appear the first cotton-fields.—38 M. Damanhûr (pop. 22,100), the ancient Egyptian Timē-en-Hor (town of Horus) and Roman Hermopolis Parva, is now the capital of the province of Beheireh, which extends from the Rosetta arm of the Nile (p. 418) to the Libyan desert.

The soil becomes more fertile. Villages of wretched mud-huts and a few groups of trees appear. We cross the Rosetta Arm. 64½ M. Kafr ez-Zaiyât.

76 M. =Tanta= (Buffet; Hôt. Khédivial, etc.; Brit. cons. agent, E. Erba; pop. 80,000), capital of the province of Gharbîyeh, between the Rosetta and Damietta arms (p. 418), possesses a palace of the Khedive and an unfinished mosque of Seiyid el-Bedawi, a popular Egyptian saint, born at Fez (12th cent.). The great August fair (el-Mûlid el-Kebîr; ‘the great mûlid’, or nativity of the saint) is often attended by half-a-million persons, including a number of European merchants.

Farther on we pass several cotton-cleaning mills, evidencing the prosperity of this region, and then cross the Damietta Arm.

101 M. =Benha= (Buffet), junction of the Port Said (see below) and Suez lines, is noted for its fruit. 120½ M. Kalyûb (or Qualioub).

The Libyan hills become more prominent; so also the Mokattam Hills (p. 443) and the citadel with the slender minarets of the mosque of Mohammed Ali (p. 454). Gardens and villas appear. On the left are the site of ancient Heliopolis (p. 459; obelisk not visible), Matarîyeh with its sycamores, Kubbeh, the residence of the Khedive, and the suburb of Abbâsîyeh (p. 459).

130 M. =Cairo= (chief station), see p. 439.

* * * * *

Port Said, see p. 436. The Cairo line at first skirts the W. bank of the Suez Canal (p. 437). On the right lies Lake Menzaleh.

Beyond (28 M.) El-Kantara (‘the bridge’), the isthmus between lakes Menzaleh and Balah, traversed by the time-honoured military and caravan route from Egypt to Syria, we cross the bed of the latter lake, now largely drained.

We next cross El-Gisr (‘the barrier’), a hill 52 ft. high, between lakes Balah and Timsâh (‘crocodile’), once the most serious obstacle in the way of the canal.

49 M. =Ismaîlîya=, or Ismaïlia (Buffet; pop. 7000), junction for Suez, a quiet little town on the N. bank of Lake Timsâh.

The train now runs to the W. through the Arabian Desert, intersected here by the Wâdi Tûmîlât, and skirts the Ismaîlîyeh Canal (p. 454).

Near (85 M.) Abu Hammâd begins the well-watered and well-planted E. part of the Nile Delta. To the S. of the railway lies the Biblical land of Goshen (Gen. xlv. 10), which was miserably neglected during the Turkish period, but has now awakened to new life.

97 M. =Zakâzîk= (Buffet; Brit. cons. agent, G. Diacono; pop. 60,000), capital of the E. Egyptian province of Sharkîyeh, favourably situated at the junction of several railways and on the Muizz Canal (part of the ancient Tanite arm of the Nile, see p. 418), is a rapidly improving place. It is the chief seat of the Egyptian cotton and grain trade. The large cotton-mills give some quarters of the town quite a European look.—Near Tell Basta, ½ hr. to the S.E. of Zakâzîk, are the ruins of the ancient Bubastis (Egyp. Per-Bastē, the Pi-beseth of Ezekiel xxx. 17).

116 M. Benha, and thence to (145 M.) Cairo, see p. 438.

Cairo.[7]

=Railway Stations.= =1.= Central Station (Pl. B, 1; Buffet), for Alexandria, Port Said, and Upper Egypt, to the N.W. of the town, beyond the Ismaîlîyeh Canal, ½ M. from the Ezbekîyeh.—=2.= Pont Limûn Station, or Gare de Matarîyeh, adjoining the central, for Matarîyeh (Old Heliopolis), for the electric line to the Heliopolis Oasis (see p. 441), etc.—=3.= Bâb el-Lûk Station (Pl. B, 5), for Helwân (p. 464).—The hotel omnibuses and the porters and tourist-agents (p. 441) await the arrival of the express trains. Or an Arab porter, wearing a metal badge on his arm, may be engaged to carry luggage to an omnibus or a cab (tariff, see p. 441). Heavy luggage is taken to the hotels in separate vehicles.

Footnote 7:

A STREET is often called sikkeh or tarîk. A shâria (French chareh) is an avenue or boulevard; derb is a road (also caravan-route); hâra, a lane (also quarter of the city); atfa, a blind alley or cul-de-sac; mîdân, a square. Most of the names have been affixed, since the British occupation, in Arabic character and in English or French transliteration. It should be noted that in the Plan and in the text the English ee is replaced by the continental and more usual i or î and the French ou or English oo usually by u or û.

=Hotels= (mostly in the English style and excellent, but generally crowded in Jan.-March; advisable to telegraph for rooms from Alexandria or Port Said; closed in summer or charges reduced).

In the Town: *SHEPHEARD’S HOTEL (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Kâmel, with terrace, garden, restaurant, bar, post-office, etc., pens. from 80 pias., patronized by American and English travellers; *SAVOY (Pl. B, 4), Mîdân Suleimân Bâsha, pens. from 80 pias., with excellent restaurant (déj. 30, D. 50 pias.); *SEMIRAMIS (Pl. A, 5), Kasr ed-Dubara, on the Nile, with garden and roof-terrace, restaurant, post-office, etc., pens. from 80 pias.; *CONTINENTAL (Pl. B, C, 3), Place de l’Opéra, with terrace, restaurant, etc., pens. from 70 pias., frequented by English travellers; *HÔT. D’ANGLETERRE (Pl. B, 3), Shâria el-Maghrâbi, with terrace, etc., pens. 70–80 pias.—*NATIONAL (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Suleimân Bâsha, pens. from 50 pias.; NEW KHEDIVIAL HOTEL (Pl. B, 2), Shâria Bâb el-Hadîd, pens. from 45 pias.; EDEN PALACE (Pl. C, 3), Shâria el-Genaïneh, pens. from 50 pias., frequented by English and American travellers; VILLA VICTORIA (Pl. B, 3; private hotel), Shâria Shawarbi Bâsha, quiet and well-situated, pens. 70 pias.; VILLA NATIONALE, Shâria Shawarbi Bâsha (Pl. B, 3), also a private hotel, with garden and tennis-court, pens. 50 pias.; BRISTOL & DU NIL (Pl. C, 2, 3), Mîdân el-Khaznedâr, pens. from 65 pias., commended; MÉTROPOLE (Pl. B, C, 3), Hâret Zogheb, pens. 50–60 pias., well spoken of; HÔT.-PENS. ROSSMORE HOUSE (English), Shâria el-Madabegh 13, pens. 40–50 pias.—HÔT. DES VOYAGEURS (Pl. B, 2), Shâria Nubar Bâsha, pens. 45–50 pias., with good cuisine, patronized by the French; HÔT. ROYAL (Pl. C, 2), Shâria Wagh el-Birket, with bodega, pens. 60 pias.; HÔT. DE LONDRES (Pl. B, 2, 3), Shâria Kâmel, pens. 40 pias.; HÔT.-PENS. SUISSE, Shâria el-Genaïneh 10 (Pl. C, 3), pens. 33–40 pias.

On the Island of Gezîreh (p. 457): *GHEZIREH PALACE HOTEL, with restaurant, large gardens, daily concerts, etc., open Dec.-April, pens. from 80 pias. (electr. omnibus to station; motor to Shepheard’s and Semiramis Hotels frequently).

At the Heliopolis Oasis (p. 459): HELIOPOLIS PALACE HOTEL, a new extensive establishment of the first class, on the Metropolitan Line (p. 441), with all modern appliances, a garden, pavilion, etc., open in winter only, pens. 80–150 pias.; *HELIOPOLIS HOUSE, a first-class family-hotel, opposite the former, with a large terrace, restaurant, American bar, and concerts, pens. 40–50 pias.; PENS. BELLE-VUE, with restaurant (déj. 12, D. 16 pias.), pens. 40 pias.

Near the Pyramids of Gîzeh (p. 461): *MENA HOUSE HOTEL, with restaurant, swimming-bath, tennis-courts, golf-links, riding-track, etc., open 1st Nov. to 15th May, pens. 60–100 pias.; SPHINX HOTEL, near Kafr el-Haram (p. 463), a village 10 min. to the S.E. of the tramway-station, new, pens. from 10_s._

=Restaurants= at the hotels, with grill-rooms. Also Santi, in the Ezbekîyeh Garden, déj. 20, D. 25 pias.; St. James’s, Shâria Bûlâk, opposite the Egyptian Telegraph Office; Restaurant du Nil, Shâria Elfi Bey, déj. 14, D. 16 pias.; Hermes, Shâria Kâmel, opposite the Ezbekîyeh Garden.

=Bars & Cafés.= New Bar, Place de l’Opéra; Splendid Bar, Shâria Kâmel; Bar High Life, Shâria Wagh el-Birket 42.—European style, but not for ladies: Sphinx Bar, Shâria Bûlâk, with grill-room; Café Egyptien, opposite Shepheard’s Hotel, with female orchestra; Eldorado, Shâria Wagh el-Birket.—The Arabian cafés (kahwa’s) are small and dirty.

=Confectioners.= Lehrenkrauss, Shâria Kasr en-Nîl 34, with tearooms; Sault, Groppé, both Shâria el-Manâkh.

=Beer.= Restaurant Falck, Shâria el-Mahdi (Pl. B, C, 2, 3); Bavaria, Mîdân Kantaret ed-Dikkeh (Pl. B, 2), good restaurant (déj. 12, D. 15 pias.); Kemmler, in the street on the N. side of the Crédit Lyonnais (p. 442); Flasch, near the Ezbekîyeh Garden.

=Tramways= (fare 1 or ½ pias. unless otherwise stated; separate compartment for women). The following are the chief lines: 1. From the Atabet el-Khadra (Pl. C, 3) to Place de l’Opéra (Pl. C, 3), Shâria Bûlâk (Pl. B, A, 3), Kasr en-Nîl (Egyptian Museum), Kasr el-Aïni (Pl. A, 7), Rôda, Gîzeh Village, and the Pyramids (Mena House, see above), every 30 (aftern. every 20) min.; fare 4 or 2 pias.—2. From the Atabet el-Khadra to Bâb el-Khalk (Pl. D, 4; Arab Museum), Shâria Khalîg el-Masri, Place Seiyideh Zeinab (Pl. C, 6), Shâria Mawardi, and the Abattoirs (beyond Pl. B, C, 7), every 7½ min.—3. From the Mîdân el-Khaznedâr (Pl. C, 3) to Kasr en-Nîl, Kasr el-Aïni (Pl. A, 7), Gezîret Rôda (p. 461), Pont Abbâs II., and the Village of Gîzeh (p. 461), every 10 min.; fare 2 or 1 pias.—4. From the Mîdân el-Khaznedâr to Mîdân Bâb el-Lûk (Pl. B, 4), Mîdân Ismaîlîyeh (Pl. A, 4, 5; for the Great Nile Bridge and Egyptian Museum), Shâria Kasr el-Aïni, Fum el-Khalîg (Pl. A, 7), and Old Cairo, every 6½ min.—5. From Kasr en-Nîl (Gezîreh, p. 457) to Zoological Garden and Village of Gîzeh, every 10 min.—6. From Bûlâk (p. 454) to Shâria Abou el-Ela (Pl. A, 3), Shâria Bûlâk, Atabet el-Khadra (see above), Bâb el-Khalk (see above), and the Citadel (Place Rumeileh; Pl. E, 6), every 3 min.—7. From Zabtîyeh (Shubra), to Central Station (Pl. B, 1), Shâria Clot Bey, Atabet el-Khadra, Mîdân Bâb el-Lûk (Pl. B, 4), and Mîdân Nasrîyeh (Pl. B, 5), every 3 min.—8. From Central Station (Pl. B, 1) to Shâria Abbâs (Pl. B, A, 2, 3), Shâria Mariette Bâsha (Pl. A, 4; Egyptian Museum), Kasr en-Nîl, Mîdân el-Azhâr (Pl. B, 4; Gare de Bâb el-Lûk), every 9 min.—9. From Ghamra (to the N. of Pl. D, 1) to Mîdân ez-Zâhir (Pl. D, E, 1), Bâb esh-Sharîyeh (Pl. D, 2), Muski, Bâb el-Khalk, and thence as No. 2, every 6 min.—10. From the Atabet el-Khadra (Pl. C, 3) viâ the Place de l’Opéra, Shâria Bûlâk, Shâria Imâd ed-Dîn (Pl. B, 3, 2), Bâb el-Hadîd (Pl. B, 1), and Abbâsîyeh to the Heliopolis Oasis (p. 459), every 10 min.; in ca. 50 min.; fare 1½ or 1 pias.

=Electric Railway= (‘Métropolitain’) from the Pont Limûn Station (Pl. B, 1) every 10 min. (from 6.30 a.m. till 12 p.m.) to the Heliopolis Oasis (p. 459), in 10 min.; fares 1st cl. 2, 2nd cl. 1 pias.

=Steam Ferries= between Bûlâk (Shâria Abou el-Ela; to the W. of Pl. A, 3; corresponding with tramway No. 6) and Gezîreh (p. 457), and between Old Cairo (p. 460; corresponding with tramway No. 4) and the village of Gîzeh (p. 461).—Local Steamers from the Bûlâk Bridge (Pl. A, 4) to Bûlâk.

=Cabs= (comp. p. 431), open victorias with two horses, abound in the European quarters and tourist-resorts. Closed cabs (landaus) usually have to be ordered, and the fares are higher. The TARIFF (in cab) is for 1–3 pers. (each addit. pers. 2, trunk 1 pias.) as follows:

1. DRIVE within a radius of 4 kil. (2½ M.) from the Administration Building (Gouvernorat; Pl. D, 4), for 1 kil. 3, each addit. kil. 2 pias.; if dismissed outside the zone named, 2 pias. more per kil.; waiting, up to ¼ hr., 2 pias.

2. BY TIME (Arab, bis-sâa), in town 1 hr. 10, each addit. ¼ hr. 2 pias.; per day (12 hrs.) 70 pias.

3. LONGER DRIVES. To the Citadel 10, and back 20 pias. (incl. stay of 1 hr.); to Old Cairo 12 or 18 pias. (halt of 1 hr.); to the Pyramids 50 or 80 pias. (halt of 3 hrs.); to the Heliopolis Oasis 30 or 50 pias. (halt of 2 hrs.).

A gratuity (bakshîsh) of 5–10 per cent over the fare is usually given. Complaints, with the number of the cab and other details, should be lodged at the police-office (p. 442). During the season the demands of the cabmen are often exorbitant, but the mere mention of the dreaded word ‘karakól’ (prison) generally brings them to reason.

=Motor Cabs= (with taximeter): 3½ pias. for the first 1200 mètres (¾ M.), 1 pias. each addit. 400 mètres (¼ M.), waiting 1 pias. for each 5 min. In addition to these fares a surtax must be paid for each drive as follows: from or to the Mena House (Pyramids) 10 pias., Heliopolis 8 pias., Citadel, Gîzeh 5 pias., Gezîreh 3 pias.

=Donkeys= (Arabic homâr; per hour about 2, day 12 pias.) abound. They are pleasant on bridle-paths free from dust. The donkey-boys (hammâr) often lash the animals into a gallop, but this should be checked. Ala mahlak means ‘slow’, erbût or the English stop ‘halt’. The bakshish should be of course proportioned to the donkey-boy’s behaviour.

=Post Office= (Pl. C, 3; p. 446), corner of Shâria Tâhir and Shâria el-Baidak. The outside-offices, for the sale of stamps only, are open from 7.30 a.m. to 9.30 p.m. (inland letter ½, in postal union 1 pias.; post-cards 3 and 4 mill.). The offices inside are open from 9 to 6.30, with a short break at 12.30. Lists of the over-sea mails are exhibited in the vestibule. Notice of the arrival of registered letters is sent to the addressee, who obtains delivery by producing the notice, stamped by the hotel or signed by some well-known person. Branch-offices at Shepheard’s, the Continental, Ghezireh Palace, and Mena House. Letter-boxes at all the hotels.

=Telegraph Office.= Eastern Telegraph Co. (Pl. B, 3), corner of Shâria Imâd ed-Dîn and Shâria el-Manâkh. Egyptian (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Bûlâk, corner of Shâria Imâd ed-Dîn.—Branches at Shepheard’s, the Crédit Lyonnais, and Ghezireh Palace.

=Consulates.= GREAT BRITAIN, Shâria Gâmia esh-Sherkes (Pl. B, 4): consul-general and plenipotentiary, Sir Arthur Hardinge; consul, A. D. Alban; vice-consul R. M. Graves.—UNITED STATES, Kasr ed-Dubara: consul-general and plenipotentiary, P. A. Jay; vice-consul, L. Belrose. Also French, German, Austrian, Italian, etc.

=Tourist Agents.= Thos. Cook & Son (Pl. B, 2, 3), Shâria Kâmel 6; Lubin, Shâria Bûlâk 5; F. C. Clark, near Shepheard’s; Hamburg-American Line, Hôt. Continental (Pl. B, C, 3); _D. E. Munari_, Shâria Kâmel 5.

=Steamboat Offices.= Khedivial Mail, White Star, Union Castle, Thos. Cook & Son (see p. 441); Messageries Maritimes, Shâria el-Maghrâbi 10; Società Nazionale, Figari, Shâria el-Maghrâbi 33; Austrian Lloyd, Heller, same street, No. 2; North German Lloyd, Rumanian State Maritime Service, Sterzing, Place de l’Opéra 3; German East African Line, Fix & David, Shâria Mansûr Bâsha; Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., Alchewsky, Shâria el-Manâkh 6.—Notices of departure also posted in the hotels.

=Police Office= (Pl. D, 4; p. 450; Zabtîyeh). About 300 officials, incl. a few Europeans, chiefly Italians, obliging to strangers and well organized. Complaints against the police must be lodged at the traveller’s consulate.

=Banks.= Crédit Lyonnais (Pl. C, 3), Shâria el-Bosta; Ottoman (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Imâd ed-Dîn 13; Bank of Egypt (Pl. B, 3, 4), Shâria Kasr en-Nîl 17; Anglo-Egyptian, Shâria el-Manâkh; National Bank of Egypt, Shâria Kasr en-Nîl 35; Deutsche Orientbank (Pl. B, 3), Shâria el-Manâkh 23; Banque d’Athènes.

=Shops.= BOOKSELLERS. Diemer, at Shepheard’s Hotel; British Library, opposite the Savoy.—PHOTOGRAPHS, at Diemer’s; also sold by Dittrich, Shâria Elfi Bey; Paul, Shâria el-Manâkh 26.—EMBROIDERY, CARPETS, and various ORIENTAL ARTICLES (mostly made in Europe): Chellaram, Hôt. Continental; Madjar, at Shepheard’s; Spartali, opposite the Savoy; J. Cohen, Valliram Bros., and other dealers in the Khân el-Khalîli (p. 446).—ARABIAN WOODWORK. Parvis, next to Shepheard’s (large warehouse near the entrance to the Muski, p. 446; to the left in the court); Haloun, Sikket el-Gedîdeh (Pl. D, 3); Furino, Shâria Suleimân Bâsha.—ANTIQUITIES (genuine) at the Egyptian Museum (p. 455).

=Physicians= (addresses obtainable at the hotels, at Diemer’s, or at the chemists’). Dr. Keatinge (head of the Kasr el-Aïni school of medicine), Dr. Murison (of Victoria Hospital), Dr. Milton, Dr. Phillips, Dr. Tribe, Dr. Madden, and Dr. Richards, all English; Dr. Keichline, American.

=Chemists.= Pharmacie Anglo-Américaine, Place de l’Opéra; Pharm. Coscarelli, Shâria Abdîn 17; Pharm. Nardi, in the Muski; Anglo-German Dispensary, Shâria el-Bawaki 11; Savoy Pharmacy (Norton & Co.), Shâria Kasr en-Nîl 34; Stephenson & Co., Shâria el Manâkh 15.

=Theatres.= Khedivial Opera (Pl. C, 3; p. 446; French or Italian), boxes dear; evening dress compulsory; office open 8–12 and 2–5.—Théâtre Abbas (Pl. B, 2), Shâria Kantaret ed-Dikkeh, Ital. operas and Fr. operettas.—Théâtre Printania (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Elfi Bey.—Ex-Verdi, Shâria Bâb el-Bahari 5, Arabian and Greek.—Nouveautés, Shâria Nubar Bâsha 9; Jardin de Paris, Shâria Imâd ed-Dîn; at both varieties.—Summer Theatre, mostly Italian pieces, in the Ezbekîyeh Garden (p. 445).—EVENING CONCERTS by English military bands on Tues. and Thurs. in the Ezbekîyeh Garden (p. 445).

=Churches.= Church of England Services at All Saints Church (Pl. B, 3), Shâria Bûlâk (services at 8 and 10.30 a.m. and 6 p.m.), and at St. Mary’s (Pl. A, 5), Shâria Kasr el-Aïni.—Church of Scotland (St. Andrew’s; Pl. A, 3), Shâria Bûlâk, to the S. of the Bridge of Abu’l Eileh.—American Mission (Pl. B, C, 3), opposite Shepheard’s.—Rom. Cath. (L’Assomption; Pl. D, 3), Shâria el-Banadkiah 2, in the Muski; St. Joseph’s, in the Ismaîlîyeh quarter (Pl. A, B, 4).—Orthodox Greek (St. Nicholas; Pl. D, 2, 3), in the Hamzâwî (p. 447).—Coptic Cath. (Pl. D, 3) and Coptic Orthodox (Pl. C, 2).—New Synagogue (Pl. B, 3), Shâria el-Maghrâbi, and others.

=Collections= (closed on Frid. and Mohammedan festivals): Arab Museum (p. 450), 9 to 4.30 (May-Oct. 8–1), adm. 5 (in summer 1) pias.—Egyptian Museum (p. 455), 9 to 4.30 (May-Sept. 8.30 to 1), adm. 5 (in summer 1) pias.—Khedivial Library (p. 451), exhibition-room 9–4, free.

Visitors are admitted to most of the Mosques (p. xxv) and to the Mameluke Tombs (p. 458) daily except Frid. and at the hour of noonday prayer. Ticket (2 pias.) at the entrance. Fee of ½–1 pias. to the attendant who supplies slippers.

THREE DAYS (when time is limited). 1st. Forenoon, Muski (p. 446), Market Quarter (p. 446), *Gâmia el-Azhar (p. 447), Muristân Kâlaûn (p. 448), *Gâmia el-Muaiyad (p. 450), Bâb Zuweileh (p. 450); afternoon, Mameluke Tombs (p. 458) or Gezîreh (p. 457) or Heliopolis Oasis (p. 459).—2nd. Forenoon, Arab Museum (p. 450; closed Frid.), Medreseh Kâït Bey (p. 451), *Gâmia Ibn Tulûn (p. 451); afternoon, *Gâmia Sultân Hasan (p. 452), Citadel (p. 453).—3rd. Forenoon, *Egyptian Museum (p. 455; closed Frid.); afternoon, *Pyramids of Gîzeh (p. 461).—Intercourse with natives, see p. xxv.—Guides, touts, and beggars should be summarily shaken off.

Cairo, Arabic El-Kâhira or Masr el-Kâhira, or simply Masr or Misr (after the old Semitic name of Egypt), lies in 30° 4′ N. lat. and 31° 17′ E. long., on the right bank of the Nile, about 12½ M. to the S. of the ‘cow’s belly’, where the river divides into the Rosetta and Damietta arms (p. 418).—On the E. side of the city, which covers an area of about 11 sq. M., rise the reddish rocky slopes of the Mokattam Hills (p. 454; about 650 ft.), marking the beginning of the Arabian desert.

Cairo, the largest city in Africa and in the whole of the Arabian world, is the residence of the Khedive and of all the chief authorities. The population is estimated at 630,000, including 50,000 Europeans, chiefly Greeks and Italians. The great majority of the citizens are Egypto-Arabian, Fellah (peasant) settlers, Christian Copts (also nearly pure descendants of the ancient Egyptians), Nubians, Turks, Armenians, and (about 6000) Jews; then negroes of many different tribes, Berbers and Arabs from the N. African seaboard, Bedouins (nomadic Arabs), Syrians, Persians, Indians. The street scenes in the older quarters are very curious and picturesque.

HISTORY. In hoar antiquity a suburb of Heliopolis (p. 459) lay on the E. bank of the Nile, opposite the great Pyramids, and was called by the Egyptians Kherē-ohē, or place of combat, because the gods Horus and Seth, the tutelary deities of Upper and Lower Egypt respectively, are said to have fought there. The Greeks called it Babylon, probably in imitation of the Egyptian name of the island of Rôda, Perhapi-n-On, the ‘Nile city of On’ (Heliopolis). The Roman citadel of Babylon was garrisoned under Augustus by one of the three legions stationed in Egypt. In 611 A.D. the town was conquered by Amr ibn el-Âsî (p. 433), who founded the new capital of the country in the plain to the N. of the fortress, a city which, unlike Alexandria, was to be free from the hated Christian element. On the site of his fostât or tent he built a mosque, and the new city then took the name of Fostât. Between Fostât and the citadel and adjoining the older suburb of El-Askar (of 815) the new quarter of El-Katâi was begun by Ahmed ibn Tulûn (868–83), founder of the Egyptian dynasty of the Tulunides, but it was burned down in 905. The Cairo of to-day owes its origin mainly to Gôhar, the general of the Fatimites (p. 323), who conquered Egypt in 969 and founded a new town to the N.E. of El-Katâi and made it the residence of the caliph and head quarters of his army. At the hour when its foundations were laid the planet Mars (Arabic Kâhir, ‘the victorious’) is said to have crossed the meridian of the new city, whence it received its new name of Masr el-Kâhira or El-Kâhira, while Fostât was afterwards called, by way of distinction, Masr el-Kadîmeh or el-Atika (Old Cairo). In 973 Abû Teminn el-Muizz transferred his residence from Mehdia (p. 369) to Cairo. Two centuries later the famous Saladin comes prominently on the scene. This was the Kurd general of mercenaries, Salâheddîn Yûsuf ibn Aiyûb, who, on the death of the last Fatimite in 1171, usurped the supreme power. He built a new citadel on the slope of the Mokattam Hills and enclosed the whole city with a wall 29,000 ells long (p. 453), and Cairo soon became the most populous place in N. Africa next to Fez. Under the dynasty of the Aiyubides (1171–1250) and the Mameluke Dynasties (Bahrite, 1250–1382, and Circassian or Borgite, 1382–1517), the sultans chosen from the white body-guard, Cairo witnessed almost continuous scenes of revolution, rapine, and bloodshed. In 1302 it suffered severely also from an earthquake, and terribly in 1295 and 1492 from the plague. And yet, in spite or all these disasters, the city grew and prospered wonderfully.

After his victory at Heliopolis in 1517 the Osman sultan Selim I. (p. 542) marched into Cairo; Tûman Bey, the last Mameluke sultan, was captured and executed; and Selim caused the finest marble columns in the citadel to be removed to Constantinople. Cairo now became the seat of a bey (‘prince’), who was placed over the twenty-four Mameluke chiefs entrusted with the government of Egypt and was controlled by a Turkish pasha. Thenceforth the city was a mere provincial capital.

It was not till 1798 that Cairo again became prominent in history. After the Battle of the Pyramids Bonaparte had his headquarters for several months in the ancient city of the caliphs. From Cairo in 1799 he started on his Syrian expedition; and when he returned to France Kléber remained behind as commander-in-chief of the French troops. Kléber was assassinated in Cairo in 1800, and the following year the French garrison, hard pressed by the grand-vizier and the British troops, had to capitulate.

Under Mohammed Ali (1805–48), the new Turkish pasha, with whom begins the modern chapter in the chequered history of Egypt, and who did much to develop the resources of the country, the citadel of Cairo witnessed another tragedy in 1811, when by his order the last of the Mameluke beys were shot (comp. p. 453). His successors, particularly Ismaîl (1863–79; Khedive or viceroy from 1867) and Tewfik (Arabic Taufîk; 1879–92), greatly improved and extended the city by the construction of new quarters (Ismaîlîyeh and Tewfîkîyeh, p. 454), though to the prejudice of its mediæval architecture; and under the present Khedive Abbâs II. Hilmi (b. 1874) Cairo has expanded as far as the islands in the Nile. Since the defeat of the national party under Arâbi Bey (p. 433) in 1882 the country in general and Cairo in particular have prospered greatly. The paramount British control of the administration is more noticeable at Cairo than at Alexandria or on the Suez Canal.

A convenient short history of Cairo is ‘The Story of Cairo’, by Stanley Lane-Poole, in the ‘Mediæval Towns Series’ (2nd ed., London, 1906). Comp, also ‘Cairo and its Environs’, by A. O. Lamplough and R. Francis (London, 1909, illus.; 20_s._) and ‘The City of the Caliphs’, by E. A. Reynolds-Ball (Boston and London, 1897).

HISTORY OF ART. The Arabian architecture of Egypt is founded partly on antique, on Byzantine, and on Coptic models which the conquerors of the country found ready to their hand, and partly on Persian types, developed under the Sassanides and adopted by the Arabs with the aid of native builders. The chief Arabian edifices at Cairo are the mosques, the fountains, and the tombs. The period of their construction extends from the time of the Tulunides (9th cent.) down to the conquest of Egypt by the Turks (1517). Of the earlier buildings, known to us only from the fantastic descriptions of Arabian authors, hardly a trace is left. The later edifices, partly of Arabian-Turkish type with Egyptian-Arabian ornamentation, seldom show much artistic merit.

The oldest mosques (gâmia, or chief mosque; mesgid, smaller mosque or chapel), such as the Amru Mosque (p. 460) and that of Ibn Tulûn (p. 451), are simple in plan. A quadrangle (sahn), answering to the atrium of the Byzantine basilica, is flanked with four flat-roofed colonnades (lîwân), which on three sides are single or double, while on the fourth side, in the direction of Mecca, the chief lîwân (sanctuarium) is composed of several aisles or arcades. The cruciform medreseh (school-mosque), of Persian origin, was first introduced by Saladin the Aiyubide. The lîwâns were now roofed with massive barrel-vaulting, and in their four corners were introduced schools or lecture-rooms for the four orthodox sects of Islam (Hanefites, Shafiites, Malekites, and Hambalites). To the second Mameluke dynasty (1382–1517) Cairo owes its most beautiful specimens of Arabian architecture. In the smaller mosques the lateral lîwâns were shortened, the court reduced in size, roofed in, and lighted from above, and the transepts were again roofed with flat timber ceilings. In the Turkish period, as in the case of the mosque of Mohammed Ali (p. 454), the four lîwâns were often replaced by a single vaulted hall, preceded by a forecourt.

The minarets, always in three stories, are of the Pharos or lighthouse type (p. 434; Arabic manara, light).

Most of the mosques built since the middle of the 14th cent. have a sebîl attached. This is a public street-fountain, roofed over, with a chamber above it (kuttâb) used as an elementary school.

The tombs of sultans and emirs are always connected with the mosques. The tombs of saints or sheikhs, on the other hand, as everywhere in the East, are independent buildings, domed like the burial-chapels in the mosques. The ordinary tombs of the Moslems are underground chambers; above the vault usually stands a sarcophagus or cenotaph (tarkîbeh). Wealthy families enclosed their tombs with halls for funeral festivals, rooms for the mourners, a dwelling for the custodian, etc., collectively called a hôsh.

Of the old palaces and caravanserais a few ruins only remain. The latter (okellas; Arabic wakkâleh) served also as warehouses (khân). Of the mediæval dwelling-house the so-called Bookbinder’s House (p. 449) is a good example.

Sculpture and painting existed as independent arts under the Tulunides and Fatimites, being favoured by the Persians and the sect of the Shiites, but in the later Egyptian-Arabian art they survived only in the ornamentation of walls. The main features of this surface decoration consisted in curiously interlaced geometrical figures (entrelacs) and conventional foliage (arabesques). Both mosques and private houses often have charming kamarîyehs, or windows of perforated slabs of plaster, inlaid with coloured glass. The façades of the older houses are adorned also with picturesque oriel-windows and with mashrebîyehs, or balcony-gratings or lattice-work of beech-wood rods.

a. Northern Quarters.

The main thoroughfare here is the SHÂRIA CLOT BEY (Pl. B, C, 2; tramway No. 7, p. 440), leading from the Railway Stations and the Limûn Bridge (Pl. B, 1) to the Mîdân el-Khaznedâr (Pl. C, 3), adjoining which, between the old Arabian Cairo and the new town (p. 454), is the—

=Ezbekîyeh Garden=, the chief rallying-point of strangers. The name is derived from the Ezbek mosque which once stood here, built in 1495 in honour of a general of the sultan Kâït Bey (p. 458). The grounds (adm. ½ pias.), 20 acres in area, laid out by Barillet in 1870, contain many rare trees and plants. The open spaces are planted with Lippia nodiflora instead of grass, which does not thrive in this dry climate. Among the attractions are a café, a restaurant, a summer theatre, and evening concerts (see p. 442).

To the S. of the Ezbekîyeh Garden rises the Opera House (p. 442), between which and the Hôtel Continental is the PLACE DE L’OPÉRA (Mîdân et-Teatro; Pl. B, C, 3), with the monument of the famous general Ibrâhîm Pasha (d. 1848). From this point the Shâria Abdîn leads to the S. to the spacious Mîdân Abdîn, where the Khedivial Palace (Pl. C, 4, 5) rises on the left.

To the E. of the Place de l’Opéra, between the Ezbekîyeh and the Opera House, the Shâria et-Teatro leads to the small Mîdân Ezbek, in which are the Tribunaux Mixtes (Pl. C, 3; international law-courts). A parallel street, Shâria Tâhir, in which is the General Post Office (Pl. C, 3; p. 441), on the right, leads to the ATABET EL-KHADRA, where the principal tramways intersect (p. 440).

On the E. side of this square begins the *=Muski=, or =Mouski= (Pl. C, D, 3), which, with its continuations the Sikket el-Gedîdeh and Shâria esh-Sharawâni (Pl. E, F, 3), is 1 M. long, and forms the chief artery of the Oriental quarters, intersecting the whole of the old town. Externally these streets have lost their mediæval character, the shops appearing quite European, but the motley throng that surges through them at all hours is still quite Oriental.

At the end of the Muski, near the Sûk el-Kanto (Pl. D, 3), we enter the old =Fatimite City= (Masr el-Kâhira, p. 443), to whose second wall, dating from 1074, belonged the still existing N. gateways Bâb el-Futûh and Bâb en-Nasr (Pl. E, 2; p. 449), and the S. gateway Bâb Zuweileh (Pl. E, 4; p. 450). The old town was bounded on the W. by the old town-conduit El-Khalîg, now Shâria Khalîg el-Masri (tramways Nos. 2 & 9, p. 440).

The Gâmia el-Ashraf (Pl. E, 3), a small mosque built by Sultan Bars Bey (1422–38), at the point where the Sikket el-Gedîdeh is crossed by the old and important line of streets (1 M. long) between Bâb el-Futûh and Bâb Zuweileh, lies in the heart of the =Market Quarter=, which, though usually overcrowded, especially in the early morning, should by all means be visited.

Immediately to the left of the Shâria el-Khordagîyeh (Pl. E, 3; p. 448), which leads from the mosque to the N., is the Sûk es-Sâigh (pl. siyâgh), the bazaar of the goldsmiths and silversmiths, who keep their wares under glass in their cramped little shops, selling them by weight (but often spurious).

On the opposite (E.) side of the same street is the Khân el-Khalîli (Pl. E, 3), founded in 1400 on the site of the Fatimite tombs, and once the centre of business. Vendors of silks and carpets, of trinkets and other wares are still located here. Buyers who are judges of carpets will select those of Bagdad or Brussa, but exorbitant prices are generally asked. The silk-stuffs of Lyons and Crefeld often do duty for those of Damascus. The main street of the khân, Sikket el-Bâdistân, contains two pretty Arabian gates.

To the S. of the mosque of El-Ashraf runs the Shâria el-Ashrafîyeh (Pl. E, 3), whence the Shâria el-Hamzâwî es-Seghîr diverges to the right. This street, continued by the Shâria el-Hamzâwî el-Kebîr (Pl. D, 3), forms the Sûk el-Hamzâwî, the market of the Christian traders (Syrians and Copts). Here, immediately to the left, is the Shâria et-Tarbîyeh (Pl. E, 3), with the Sûk el-Attârîn, or spice-market (comp. p. 335).

Opposite the entrance to the Hamzâwî is the Shâria es-Sanâdikîyeh (Pl. E, 3), also called Sûk es-Sudân, for the produce of the Sudan (india-rubber, dûm-palm nuts, etc.).—The last side-street on the left, the Shâria el-Halwagî (Pl. E, 3; the direct way to the university from Shâria esh-Sharawâni, p. 446), is the seat of the Booksellers (over 20 shops).

In the Shâria el-Azhar, behind the small Mosque of Mohammed Bey Abû Dahab (1770), is the chief entrance of the—

*=Gâmia el-Azhar= (Pl. E, 3, 4; adm., see p. 442; photographing prohibited), ‘the flourishing’, the finest building of the Fatimite period. It was completed by Gôhar (p. 443) in 973, and converted into a university by caliph El-Azîz in 988, but after the earthquake of 1302 was almost entirely rebuilt by Emir Salar. The venerable edifice, whose rectangular plan is still distinctly traceable, was again materially altered by the wealthy Abd er-Rahmân Kikhya in 1759. The university is still considered the most important in the territories of Islam. In 1909 there were 10,000 students (mugâwirîn) and 319 teachers (sheikhs). The rector is called the Sheikh el-Azhar.

Adjoining the N.W. façade, erected by Abbâs II. (p. 444) in the neo-Arabian style, is the Bâb el-Museiyinîn (‘barber’s gate’), built in the time of Abd er-Rahmân, now the chief entrance, where a guide is assigned to the visitor. Adjacent to the gateway, on the right, is the Mesgid Taibarsîyeh, restored by Abd er-Rahmân, containing a superb mihrâb or prayer-recess of 1309, richly adorned with mosaics. On the left is the Zâwiyet el-Ibtighâwîyeh, also of the 14th cent., now the library.

The handsome inner portal, built along with the contiguous minaret by Kâït Bey (p. 458), leads into the sahn (p. 444), or chief quadrangle, flanked with five minarets, and always enlivened by knots of students, mostly grouped in their various nationalities. The colonnades, restored in the time of Tewfik (p. 444), have the Persian keel-arches, in special favour with the Shiites, the walls above which are tastefully decorated with medallions and niches and crowned with pinnacles. The lateral lîwâns on the N.E. and S.W. sides of the quadrangle are allotted to students of different countries and provinces as sleeping-apartments and studies (riwâk). The court of ablutions (p. 63), behind the N.E. lîwân, dates from the time of Kâït Bey.

The Chief Lîwân, or sanctuary, on the S.E. side of the quadrangle, with its 140 antique and Byzantine marble columns, forms the great lecture-room. No lectures are given on Thursdays or during the fasting-month of Ramadan. The low front half of this great hall, with its four much restored rows of arcades, belongs to the original building. The dome of the vestibule, the broad transept borne by two rows of columns, and the dome of the old mihrâb, all point to the Sidi Okba mosque of Kairwan (p. 374) as their prototype. The raised inner half of the sanctuary, with its two prayer-niches, was added by Abd er-Rahmân.

The dilapidated Okella of Kâït Bey (1496), behind the S. angle of the university, with its sebîl (p. 445), has a charming façade.

We next visit the N. half of the old city of the Fatimites. In the SHÂRIA EL-GOHERGÎYEH (Pl. E, 3), in line with Shâria el-Khordagîyeh (p. 446), we are struck with the façades (on the left) of the Muristân Kalâûn, the Medreseh Mohammed en-Nâsir, and the Barkûkîyeh, on the site of the Fatimite palaces.

The =Muristân Kalâûn= (Pl. E, 3), a great hospital begun by the Mameluke sultan El-Mansûr Kalâûn (1279–90) in 1285, shows the influence of the European architectural style which the Crusaders had introduced into Syria. The massive portal, flanked with a minaret 192 ft. high, leads into a long corridor. On the left is a small Mosque, partly restored. On the right is the *Tomb of Kalâûn, completed in 1293 by his son Mohammed en-Nâsir (1293–1340), one of the most beautiful Arabian buildings in Cairo. The square hall has a rich timber ceiling; the mosaics of the walls and central pillars are composed of marble and mother-of-pearl, and the superb prayer-niche is enriched with porphyry columns and dwarf arcades. The wards for the sick and lecture-rooms, grouped round the large quadrangle, now partly used as store-rooms and workshops, are sadly disfigured.

The adjoining *Medreseh Mohammed en-Nâsir (Pl. E, 3), dating from 1303, also is in a ruinous condition. It is entered by a Gothic church-portal brought from Acre in Syria. The fine minaret, the sanctuary (on the left), and the tomb of the founder (on the right) show remains of tasteful stucco decoration recalling the Alhambra (p. 79).

The Barkûkîyeh (Pl. E, 3), the medreseh of the Mameluke sultan Barkûk (1382–99), with its octagonal minaret, has suffered from the gaudy modern painting of the sanctuary and of the mausoleum, in which reposes a daughter of Barkûk. The dikkeh for the prayer-reciter (p. 180) is modern.

Farther to the N. in the same line of streets is the lively SHÂRIA EN-NAHHÂSÎN, in which is the market of the coppersmiths. On the right is the façade of the Dâr Beshtâk Palace (Pl. E, 3), erected by Emir Beshtâk in 1330, but now entirely altered. At the next bifurcation we come to the *Sebîl Abd er-Rahmân (p. 447), one of the finest structures of the kind. Upstairs the hall of an elementary school affords from its windows a capital view of the busy Nahhâsîn Street.

Farther on the main street is called SHÂRIA EL-MARGUSH EL-BARRÂNI. Immediately to the right is the Gâmia el-Ahmar (Pl. E, 2; ‘red mosque’), built in 1125 by the grand vizier of the Fatimite Amr ben Mustali. The fine façade, recently brought to light in part, with its high pointed niches in square framework alternating with smaller niches in two stories, shows the oldest stalactite vaulting in Cairo, and is therefore historically interesting.

Near the end of the same thoroughfare, here called Shâria Bâb el-Futûh, we come to the entrance, on the right, of the ruinous Gâmia el-Hâkim (Pl. E, 2), begun, outside the oldest town-wall, by El-Aziz (p. 447) in 990, on the model of the mosque of Ibn Tulûn (p. 451), and completed by his son El-Hâkim in 1012. The two minarets, with their heavy square setting, rise from the middle of the second town-wall (p. 446), which is here well preserved. Their superstructures, crowned with domes and resembling an Arabian censer (mabkhâra), belong to the period when the mosque was restored after the earthquake of 1302.

The two ancient gate-towers, the Bâb el-Futûh (Pl. E, 2; ‘gate of the conquests’) at the end of the street and the neighbouring Bâb en Nasr (‘gate of victory’; reached by the Shâria el-Kassasineh), which was pierced with loopholes in the time of Bonaparte, recall the late-Roman and Byzantine gateway castles. The town-wall (adm. 2 pias.) affords an interesting survey of the whole group of buildings.

We now return to the Gâmia el-Ashraf (p. 446) to complete our visit to the S. part of the old town of the Fatimites. At the beginning of the SHÂRIA EL-GHÛRÎYEH (Pl. E, 4), the continuation of the Shâria el-Ashrafîyeh (p. 446), rises the double monument of the Mameluke sultan Kânsûh el-Ghûri (1501–16), with its fine façades: on the right is the Medreseh el-Ghûri (Pl. E, 3, 4), whose minaret, 213 ft. high, is incongruously crowned with five modern dwarfed domes; on the left is the Mausoleum, with its charming sebîl. The sultan, who fell in Syria, was not, however, buried here.—A few paces to the E., in the Shâria et-Tableta which leads to the Azhar mosque (p. 447), is the Okella of El-Ghûri (Pl. E, 3, 4), now entirely disfigured.

In line with the Shâria el-Ghurîyeh, farther to the S., is the SHÂRIA EL-AKKÂDÎN (Pl. E, 4). A little to the E. of it, in the side-street Hôsh Kadam (No. 12), is the so-called *BOOKBINDER’S HOUSE (Beit Gamâl ed-Dîn; Pl. E, 4), built in 1637 by the president of the merchants’ guild, an admirable example of an Arabian dwelling-house (fee 2 pias.).

A crooked passage (dirkeh) leads into the court of the Salamlîk, the apartments of the owner, with two well-preserved façades. In the S.W. angle are stairs ascending to the Makad or reception-room, an open colonnade with two arches. Adjoining it is an oriel-window closed with mashrebîyehs (p. 445), from which the women could overlook the court. Farther on we come to the handsome Kâa, the banqueting-room of the harem, adorned with superb mosaics. In the centre of it is a lower chamber (durkâa) roofed with a wooden dome. The flat timber ceilings of the two lîwâns, or lateral rooms, are very fine.

Still farther to the S., in the same line, runs the SUKKARÎYEH (Pl. E, 4), the market for sugar, dried fruit (nukl), fish, candles, etc.—On the right rises the—

*=Gâmia el-Muaiyad= (Pl. D, E, 4), begun by the Mameluke sultan Sheikh el-Mahmûdi Muaiyad (1412–21), and completed a year after his death. In plan it resembles the convent-mosque of Barkûk (p. 458). The sumptuous portal, with its striped marble enrichment and stalactite or honeycomb half-domes, is well preserved. The *Bronze Gate, the finest in Cairo, was brought from the mosque of Hasan (p. 452). The main court and the lateral lîwâns, with their heavy modern outer walls, now form shady grounds. The sanctuary, restored in 1880, is a splendid hall of three arcades with lofty stilted arches. The decoration of the back-wall and the coloured wooden ceiling are charming. To the left of the sanctuary is the mausoleum of the sultan, and to the right that of his family. The two minarets, 167 ft. high, rise from the platform of the Bâb Zuweileh (Pl. E, 4; p. 446), or Bâb el-Mitwelli, the S. gate of the Fatimite city.

From the Bâb Zuweileh the Shâria Taht er-Rebâa leads to the W. to the Place Bâb el-Khalk (Pl. D, 4; see below); to the S. run the Kasabet Radowân, a Shoemakers’ Market, where the favourite red slippers (p. 97) are sold, and the Shâria el-Khiyamîyeh, the bazaar for gaily coloured Tent-Covers, leading to the Shâria Mohammed Ali (see below).

To the E. of the Bâb Zuweileh runs a line of streets, bending round to the S., to the Citadel (p. 453). Nearly opposite the gate, at the corner of Kasabet Radowân and Derb el-Ahmar, is the small Mosque of Sâlih Telâyeh (Pl. E, 4), dating from the reign of El-Âdid, the last of the Fatimites (1160). The sanctuary contains some beautiful stucco ornamentation in the Syrian-Arabian style.—In the Derb el-Ahmar, farther on, to the left, rises the small *=Mosque of Emir Kijmâs= (Pl. E, 4), built in 1481 by a master-of-the-horse of Kâït Bey (p. 458). The interior is a perfect gem of its kind.

Farther on this line of streets is called Shâria et-Tabbâneh. On the right rises the *=Mosque el-Merdani= (Pl. E, 5), one of the largest in Cairo. It was built by the cup-bearer of sultan Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1338–40 and after having almost fallen to ruin was recently restored. The sanctuary is still separated from the court by its old maksûra, or wooden screen. The prayer-recess and its sides are lavishly enriched with costly mosaics. The dome in front of the prayer-niche, partly restored with cement, rests on ancient Egyptian granite columns.

b. The South-Eastern Quarters.

Starting from the Place Atabet el-Khadra (p. 446) the featureless SHÂRIA MOHAMMED ALI (Pl. C-E, 3–6), 1860 yds. long, leads to the Citadel (tramway No. 6, p. 440). After 8 min. it crosses the former town-conduit El-Khalîg (p. 446). On the left is the PLACE BÂB EL-KHALK, with the Gouvernorat (government-house; Pl. D, 4; containing the Police Office, p. 442), and the superb new buildings of the Arab Museum and the Khedivial Library (1902).

The *=Arab Museum=, founded by Franz Pasha, a learned German architect, on the groundfloor of the building, contains a large and valuable collection of objects of art, mostly from old mosques and houses in Cairo. Adm., see p. 442; entrance on the E. side. Director, M. Herz Bey.

In the Vestibule is shown a chronological list of the Mohammedan dynasties of Egypt.—Room I. Tombstones.—Room II. Sculptures in stone.—Room III. Stone sculptures, casts, mosaics.

Rooms IV-VIII. Wood-carving, including pulpits (mimbar), reading-desks for the Koran and tables (kursi), movable prayer-niches and Koran-boxes from mosques, mashrebîyehs (p. 445).

Rooms IX & X. Metal-work. Fine bronze doors from the mosque of Sâlih Telâyeh (p. 450) and elsewhere; a Koran-case with brass cover and silver enrichment, candlesticks, lustres in metal, bronze candelabra (tannûr).—Rooms XI & XII. Fayence, including tiles of European make, a favourite wall-decoration in Arabian houses of the 18–19th centuries.

Room XIII. Wall-incrustations in stucco; Arabian room from Rosetta.—Room XIV. Specimens of textiles; two Koran-cases covered with leather from the Hasan mosque (p. 452).—Rooms XV & XVI. Enamelled *Mosque Lamps, the richest collection of the kind, mostly from the Hasan mosque.

The first floor of the building contains the =Khedivial Library= (Kutubkhâneh, entered from the Shâria Mohammed Ali), founded in 1870 and arranged by German savants. It consists of 68,000 vols. (about 32,000 being Oriental), including 2700 Korans. The illuminated Persian MSS. are extremely valuable. The Exhibition Room (adm., see p. 442) contains also a fine collection of the coins of the Moslem rulers of Egypt.

We now follow, to the S.W., the long SHÂRIA KHALÎG EL-MASRI (Pl. D, C, 4–6; tramways Nos. 2 & 9, p. 440) to a small square with the Gâmia es-Seiyideh Zeinab (Pl. C, 6, 7), and then turn to the S.E. into the SHÂRIA EL-MARÂSÎN (Pl. C, 7), near the end of which the Derb Tanaïfa leads to the right to the—

*=Medreseh Kâït Bey= (Pl. C, 7), in the Kalat el-Kabsh quarter of the city. Built in 1475, shortly after the sultan’s burial-mosque (p. 458), and recently restored by Herz Bey, it offers a good example of the architecture of the second Mameluke dynasty (see p. 445). The minaret is one of the most tasteful in Cairo. In the richly decorated interior we specially note the fine ornaments on the arches of the court-façades, the stalactites of the window-niches, the mosaic pavement, and the pulpit. The dome is modern.

The Shâria er-Rahaba and the winding Shâria Kalat el-Kabsh lead to the E. in a few minutes to the picturesque Shâria ez-Ziyadeh (Pl. D, 7), on the S.W. side of the—

*=Gâmia Ibn Tulûn= (Pl. D, 7), the oldest in Cairo next to the Amru mosque (p. 460). It stands near the N. border of what was once the Katâi quarter, on the rocky Gebel Yeshkûr (33 ft.). It was erected by Ahmed ibn Tulûn (p. 443) on Mesopotamian models in 876–9, immediately after the last extension of the Kairwan mosque (p. 374), and was the largest of that period in all the lands of Islam. The total area of its precincts is 30,720 sq. yds., while the mosque itself, without the courts, forms a huge square of 150 by 132 yds. The external façades, which are almost undecorated, are relieved by pointed windows and niches and with shell-shaped half-domes and are crowned with pinnacles. We first pass through the E. forecourt to the sanctuary.

The chief quadrangle, about 99 yds. square, is enclosed by double arcades on three sides, while the sanctuary has four arcades (originally five, the fifth having collapsed in 1875). The façades of the court are relieved by pointed windows and rosettes in the spandrels above the brick pillars; still higher runs a frieze of rosettes, and the whole is crowned with pinnacles. In the interior the ornamentation framing the arcades and the foliage frieze on the wall-spaces are carved in stucco, exhibiting as yet none of the intricate forms of the Byzantine-Arabian style. The old prayer-recess with its fine Byzantine capitals and fragments of Byzantine glass-mosaics is noteworthy. The dikkeh (p. 448) also dates from the earliest period. Above the dikkeh are remains of the original timber ceiling.

A prayer-recess in the fourth series of arcades dates from 1094. The pulpit, now bereft of its sumptuous incrustation, the wooden dome in front of the mihrâb, the plaster windows in the mihrâb wall, and also the dome in the court are all additions by the Mameluke sultan Melek el-Mansûr Lagîn (1296–1308).

The peculiar minaret in the great quadrangle, of which the square basement only was originally built of stone, offers a splendid *VIEW of the vast city. We look down the Nile, to the N., to the Delta, and to the W. and S.W. we see the Pyramids.

The small Medreseh Serghatmash (Pl. D, 7) in Shâria el-Khedeiri, on the N. side of Ibn Tulûn’s mosque, built by a mameluke of sultan Hasan in the style of Hasan’s mosque (see below) in 1357, is interesting on account of its original unaltered dome.

We now turn to the E., past the effective marble Sebîl of the Mother of Abbâs I. (1849–54), and through the Shâria es-Salîbeh (Pl. D, 6) and the Shâria Shekhûn (Pl. D, E, 6), to the PLACE RUMEILEH (Pl. E, 6; tramway No. 6, p. 440), the starting-place of the Mecca caravans.

To the N. of this square, and at the end of the Shâria Mohammed Ali (p. 450), rise the modern Gâmia Rifaîyeh (Pl. E, 6), of the reign of the khedive Ismaîl (p. 444), and the famous—

**=Gâmia Sultân Hasan= (Pl. E, 6), the grandest medreseh in Egypt, erected for the Mameluke Hasan en-Nâsir (1347–61) probably by a Syrian architect. It rises on a shelving rock opposite the Citadel (p. 453). The cruciform medreseh has been skilfully adapted to the precincts, an irregular pentagon, about 9470 sq. yds. in area.

The chief *Portal, 85 ft. high, whose side-pillars were originally to have borne two minarets, recall the Seljuk buildings of Konia. The façades terminate in a projecting stalactite cornice, crowned with modern pinnacles, and the walls are relieved by blind niches with round-arched windows in pairs. Over the detached mausoleum, which projects from the S.E. façade, rises a dome 181 ft. high, restored in 1616 in the Arabian-Turkish style, but said to have been originally egg-shaped. The minaret of 267 ft., at the S. angle of the medreseh, is the loftiest in Cairo, and after that of the Kutubia at Marakesh the highest in N. Africa.

INTERIOR (undergoing restoration). The old court of ablutions on the N.W. side of the building is again in use. The chief portal of the medreseh leads into a vestibule with a stalactite dome. We then pass through a second vestibule and a corridor to the main quadrangle, 38½ by 35 yds., containing the ruinous meidâ, or basin for ablutions, and a Turkish fountain (hanefîyeh), both disused. The four lîwâns, with their massive barrel-vaulting, are entered from the court by lofty marble portals, and are in this exceptional case all used as halls of prayer. The four small medresehs in the angles of the outer precincts, each with its court and lîwân, served as lecture-rooms and dwellings.

The sanctuary, 76 ft. in height, is adorned with a *Frieze bearing an inscription in Cufic (or old Arabic) characters, carved in stucco on a beautiful groundwork of arabesques. The wall of the mihrâb is richly decorated with marble. Of the once sumptuous furnishings the mimbar (pulpit), the dikkeh (reading-stand), and the wire-chains of the countless lamps (see p. 451) and candelabra are now the sole relics.

To the right of the pulpit a bronze door, inlaid with gold and silver, leads into the sultan’s *Mausoleum, a domed chamber of 23 yds. square, 92 ft. in height. The only remains of the original dome are the wooden spandrels of the stalactites. The inscriptions on the wooden frieze are in the round characters (naskhi) used since the time of Saladin.

The =Citadel= (Pl. E, F, 6; ‘El-Kala’), commanding the city but itself overtopped by the Mokattam hills (p. 454), was built by Saladin after 1166, in connection with the third town-wall (p. 444), on the model of the Crusaders’ castles in Syria. The only remains of that building are the E. outer wall and several towers in the interior. The palaces of the Aiyubides (1171–1250), already half in ruins when Selim I. entered the city (1517), have entirely disappeared. The first restoration of the fortress dates from the reign of El-Ghûri (1501–16).

The direct way to the Citadel from the Place Rumeileh is by a street beyond the huge gate-tower Bâb el-Azab (Pl. E, 6), where the Mameluke leaders were shot by order of Mohammed Ali (p. 444) in 1811. The chief approaches, ascending from the broad Shâria el-Maghar (Pl. E, 6), are the Shâria Bâb el-Gedîd and the Shâria ed-Defterkhâneh. The latter, for foot-passengers only, passes the S. side of the Defterkhâneh (Pl. F, 6; state-archives). The Bâb el-Gedid (Pl. F, 6; ‘new gate’) leads into the outer court of the Citadel. We then pass through the Bâb el-Wastâni (‘middle gate’) into the main court, where the ‘alabaster mosque’ faces us and the mosque of Nâsir rises on the left.

The =Gâmia en-Nâsir= (Pl. F, 6), built by En-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1317, later used as a military storehouse and a prison, has now been cleared out, but may be seen by leave of the British military authorities. The fortress-like façade, and the portals in particular, show traces of Romanesque influence. The peculiar minarets, with their bulbous domes, are adorned with coloured fayence in the Persian style. The finest columns in the court are Byzantine; others are antique. The sadly disfigured lîwâns still retain their old coloured fretwork ceiling. The dome in front of the prayer-niche, which has collapsed with the exception of its drum, rests on ancient Egyptian granite columns, as in the mosque of Merdani (p. 450).

The =Gâmia Mohammed Ali= (Pl. E, F, 6), known as the ‘alabaster mosque’ from the building-material chiefly used, was begun by Mohammed Ali in 1824 but completed only in 1857 by his successor Saîd. The architect was the Greek Yûsuf Boshna of Constantinople, who built it on the model of the Nuri Osmanieh mosque (p. 550) with a staff of Greek workmen. The tall and unduly slender minarets form one of the chief landmarks of Cairo. The forecourt, with its hanefîyeh (fountain with taps), is flanked with arcades. The *Sanctuary, a domed Byzantine hall, borne by four square pillars, is grandly proportioned and beautifully lighted. To the left of the entrance is Mohammed Ali’s tomb (d. 1849).

From the S.W. wall of the Citadel, opposite the Viceregal Palace, we enjoy, especially towards evening, a magnificent *View of the city with its countless minarets and domes. To the N. and W. are the windmill-hills and the green plains watered by the Nile. To the W. rise the Pyramids of Gîzeh.

The view is far grander from the **=Mokattam Hills=, or Gebel Giyûshi, a fine standpoint being the conspicuous Gâmia Giyûshi, a Fatimite mosque (1085), reached in ½ hr. from the Bâb el-Gebel (Pl. F, 6), the ‘hill-gate’ of the citadel. A side-path to the right leads to the Convent of the Bektashi (Turkish dervishes), picturesquely situated on the bare hill-side.

From the Bâb el-Attaba (Bâb el-Atabeg; Pl. F, 5), the N. gate of the Citadel, we proceed past the cemetery Karâfet Bâb el-Wezîr (Pl. F, 5) to the Mameluke tombs (comp. p. 458).

c. The New Town.

To the W. of the Ezbekîyeh Garden and the Place de l’Opéra (p. 446), to the W. also of the fashionable Shâria Kâmel (Pl B, C, 2, 3) and of the Shâria Abdîn (Pl. C, 3, 4), lie the new =Ismaîlîyeh= and =Tewfîkîyeh= quarters, extending to the Nile and the Ismaîlîyeh Canal, the latter quarter, named after Tewfik (p. 444), being the most recent. They contain several of the large hotels, most of the ministerial and consular offices, the chief banks, and many palaces of wealthy European, Levantine, and Egyptian magnates.

Ismaîlîyeh and Tewfîkîyeh are separated by the broad and busy SHÂRIA BÛLÂK (Pl. B, A, 3; tramway No. 6, p. 440), which leads from the Ezbekîyeh Garden to the Abu’l-Eileh Bridge (Pl. A, 3) and Bûlâk. From October to December the banks of the Nile present a very busy scene, the state of the river being then most favourable for the goods-traffic from Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the fertile Delta.—Steam-ferry to Gezîreh (p. 457; bridge now being built).

The direct way to the Nile is by the SHÂRIA KASR EN-NÎL (Pl. C-A, 3, 4), diverging from the Shâria Abdîn to the S. of the Place de l’Opéra. It crosses the round Mîdân Suleimân Bâsha and ends at the Mîdân Mariette Bâsha (Pl. A, 4), near the Egyptian Museum.

A little to the S. is the MÎDÂN ISMAÎLÎYEH (Pl. A, 4, 5; tramway No. 4, p. 440). On the S. side of it runs the Shâria el-Kubri, to the W., to the Great Nile Bridge (p. 457), while from it to the S. stretches the long Shâria Kasr el-Aïni (Pl. A, 5, 6). In the latter street, immediately to the left, is the free =Egyptian University= (Pl. A, 5), founded in 1908, the purpose of which, in contrast to the old Gâmia el-Azhar (p. 447), is to offer Mohammedans a liberal modern education. Farther on, to the left, opposite the handsome houses built on the site of the palace Kasr ed-Dubara, are the Ministries of Public Works and War (Pl. A, B, 5) and the building of the Sudan Agency; on the N. side of the grounds is the Geological Museum.—Still farther to the S. the street is prolonged by the Shâria Fum el-Khalîg (Pl. A, 7), leading past the native (Government) hospital Kasr el-Aïni (Pl. A, 7) and close to the narrow E. Arm of the Nile (Bahr el-Khalîg), opposite the island of Rôda (p. 461), to Old Cairo (comp. p. 460).

* * * * *

The **=Egyptian Museum= (Pl. A, 4; El-Antikkhâneh) is now housed in a new building (1897–1902) in the Shâria Mariette Bâsha, near the Great Nile Bridge. The collection, the greatest of its kind, founded in 1857 by the French Egyptologist Aug. Mariette (1821–81), consists of Egyptian and Græco-Roman antiquities found in the Nile Valley. Adm., see p. 442. Director, M. G. Maspero.

The two long colonnades adjoining the vestibule, are destined for casts. They terminate in two pavilions, containing, on the left, the Library and, on the right, the office for the sale of duplicates, photographs, and scientific publications.

The GROUND FLOOR contains the large stone monuments, including the sarcophagi in the Grande Galerie d’Honneur, beyond the vestibule.

From the W. (left) wing of the Grande Galerie we first enter, to the right, Rooms A-D, containing memorials of the Old Empire (3rd–6th Dynasties; about B.C. 2900–2350). Noteworthy among the master-works in Room B are: *74. Wooden statue of a man, known as the Sheikh el-Beled (village magistrate); 73. Statue in diorite of king Khephren (p. 463); 78. Figure of an official, writing. Case B: *114. Nofer, the brewer; 115. Wooden figure of a man in a cloak.—Room D: *163. Statues in limestone of prince Ra-hotep and his wife Nofret; 167. Statue of king Phiops I., in embossed copper, with eyes of enamel; 164, 165. Statues in limestone of the priest Ra-nofer.

Rooms E-H contain objects dating from the Middle Empire (12–14th Dynasties; about B.C. 2000–1680) and the era of the Hyksos (Syrian conquerors; 15th and 16th Dynasties; about 1680–1580). In Room F: 194 (in the middle). Wooden statue of the tutelary genius (Ka) of king Hor; 199. Limestone statue of king Amenemhêt III.—Room G: 206 (in the middle). Sacrificial chamber of Harhotep, with drawings of the furniture of the deceased; 207. Ten colossal statues of Sesostris I. in limestone.—Room H: 260. Tombstone of Prince Mentuhotep.

Rooms I-P and the large Atrium Central, or covered court, are set apart for monuments of the New Empire (17–20th Dynasties; about B.C. 1580–1090). Room I: 300 (on the right). Triumphal monument of Thutmosis III. (1501–1447); 338, 339. The goddess Hathor, as a cow, in the ancient chapel (naos); *291. Head of king Haremheb (?), in black granite; 312. Bust of the goddess Mut (?); 327. Statue of the aged Amenhotep; *334. Statue of Thutmosis II., in slate; 341. Statue of Isis, mother of Thutmosis III.—Room J: 316. Statue of the god Khons.—Room L (beyond the N. gallery): 364. Sacred barge in red granite.—Portique du Nord (beyond the covered court): 398. Memorial stones of kings Amenophis III. (‘Memnon’; 1411–1375) and Merenptab (p. 457).—Room M: 378. The famous tablet of Sakkâra (p. 464), with its list of kings; 390. Statue of the god Ptah.—Rooms N and O: Chiefly objects of the Ramesside period (19–20th Dynasties). Room N: 616. Granite head of Ramses II. (about 1292–1225), best known of all the Egyptian kings for his immense building enterprise.

Rooms Q-S: Foreign (B.C. 1090–663) and Late Egyptian (663–332) Dynasties. Room Q: 1016. Statue of the goddess Toëris in the form of a hippopotamus, an admirable work in green stone (26th Dynasty; 663–525); 667. ‘Pithom Stele’ or memorial stone of Ptolemy Philadelphus, from Pithom.—Room S: Ethiopian period (25th Dynasty; 712–663); 685. Alabaster statue of queen Amenertaïs.

Rooms T, V, and X: Ptolemaic (B.C. 332–47; comp. p. 433), Roman (B.C. 47–395 A.D.), and Coptic monuments. Room T: 719. Marble bust of a Gaul, a Greek original from Thasos; 728. The famous trilingual Decree of Canopus (B.C. 238), in sacred (hieroglyphic), popular (demotic), and Greek characters.—Room V: Coptic objects.—Room X (Case A): 688. Bust of prince Mentemhēt, and 689. Bust of king Taharka (688–663; the Tirhakah of the Bible), both with negro features.

The UPPER FLOOR contains the smaller antiquities, the objects found in the royal tombs of Thebes in Upper Egypt, and the mummies.

We begin with the Great Gallery, where the coffins and mummies of priests of Ammon are exhibited.

In the Salon Méridional, adjoining the central court, and (to the right) in Rooms A and B, are vessels, implements, toilet requisites, musical instruments, lamps, candlesticks, candelabra etc.; in Case G of the South Hall is the *Wooden war-chariot of Thutmosis IV. (1420–1411), with beautiful reliefs. Also in Room A (later to be reserved solely for Coptic objects), Coptic utensils.—Rooms C-F: Burial equipments, including figures of the dead, amulets, jars for the entrails of the deceased (so-called Canopi).

Rooms G-I: MSS. on papyrus or linen; wooden tablets, potsherds (ostraca), and slabs of limestone, used as cheap substitutes for papyrus.—Rooms J-L: Furniture and utensils.

Rooms M, N, and Gallery O (to the N.): Chiefly Greek and Roman antiquities and foreign objects. In glass-cases C and D of Room N are (Nos. 433, 434) the famous clay tablets from Tell el-Amarna in Central Egypt, with cuneiform inscriptions, being letters from Babylonian kings and the Hittite kings of Arsapi to Amenophis III. (see above).

The Salon Septentrionale, adjoining Gallery O, contains statues of gods and requisites for their cult. Case B: 886. Hair-pin in the form of a papyrus stem (Middle Empire); 888. Small bowl in the form of a dog holding a fish in its mouth; without number, Head of a woman with a wig; *891. Funerary statuette of the vizier Ptahmosē.—We now cross Gallery O to—

Room P, with its rich collection of *Trinkets, illustrating the development of the Egyptian goldsmiths’ art from the earliest age down to the Byzantine period (A.D. 395–640). Case IV, B, in a recess on the right, contains jewellery found at Abydos in Upper Egypt (bracelets from the tomb of king Zer, 1st Dyn.), dating from the earliest period, and already showing a high degree of skill. To the Middle Empire belong the *Tomb Treasures of Dahshûr (p. 464; trinkets of princess Khnumet, etc.), in the centre of the room, showing the Egyptian goldsmiths’ art in its highest perfection. Admirably executed are also the *Trinkets of queen Ahhotep, mother of king Amosis, the Hyksos conqueror (1580 B.C.; p. 455), of the New Empire (niche on the right, case IV, G-M.). The 20th and 21st Dynasties also are represented by treasures from Bubastis (p. 439; Case XII). The extensive collection of Græco-Roman and Byzantine jewellery, partly pure Greek in style, partly of ancient Egyptian pattern, also merit notice. To the former class belongs notably, in a niche to the left (stands VII, X), the *Treasure of Tukh el-Karâmûs, of the early Ptolemaic era (about 300 B.C.).

Gallery Q (continuation of Gallery O) and Rooms R-U contain *Mummies of the kings of the New Empire, from the ravine Deir el-Bahri near Thebes. In Gallery Q: 1187. Mummy of Merenptah, son and successor of Ramses II.; 1251. Gilded coffin-lid of queen Ahhotep (see above).—Room S: Furnishings from the tombs of Thutmosis III. (p. 456) and Amenophis II, (B.C. 1447–1420); wooden figures, boxes, shrouds, wigs, etc.—Room T: *Coffins and furnishings from the tomb of the parents-in-law of Amenophis III. (p. 456).

Rooms V-Z, Gallery A′, and the last Rooms B′–D′ contain requisites for the cult of the dead. Room V: Scarabæi (beetle-stones), used as amulets and as seals.—Room Y: Objects found in tombs of the Middle and New Empires; in cases D and E, 1337, 1338. Forty Egyptian soldiers and forty negro soldiers, carved in wood.—Room C′: 115–117. Coffins and mummy of Oment, priestess of Hathor and lady of the royal harem (11th Dyn.), with tattooed body.—Room D′: Relics of the earliest period, mostly from the royal tombs at Abydos (see p. 456).

The =Great Nile Bridge= (Pl. A, 5; Arabic Kubri Kasr en-Nîl), 427 yds. long, at the end of Shâria el-Kubri (p. 455), connects the new town with Gezîreh. It is usually opened from about 1.30 to 3 p.m. for the passage of vessels (see notices).

The island Gezîret Bûlâk, or simply =Gezîreh= (‘island’), is the favourite residence of the fashionable world. The *Park (café near the bridge) at the S. end is much frequented, especially in the afternoon, and is skirted by a pleasant drive shaded by lebbakh-trees. Passing the Race Course and the grounds of the Khedivial Sporting Club, we reach the N. part of the island with its handsome villas, the Ghezîreh Palace Hotel (p. 440; built by Franz Pasha in 1863–4 as a viceregal palace), and the interesting Aquarium (8.30 to 5 o’cl., 2 pias.; Frid. 5 pias.).—Steam-ferry to Bûlâk (p. 454).

From Gezîreh a road crosses the sometimes dry W. arm of the Nile, above the so-called English Bridge, and leads to the S. to the village of Gîzeh (tramways Nos. 3 & 5, see p. 440). On the right, beyond the Gîza Garden, is the Polytechnic School. Farther on, opposite Rôda (p. 461), is the—

*=Zoological Garden= (adm. ½ pias.; on Sun. afternoon, when a band plays, 5 pias.), containing many Egyptian and Sudanese animals and an aquarium. The grounds, 50 acres in area, with their superb royal palms (Oreodoxa regia) and pond for aquatic flowers, are in themselves worth seeing.

Gîzeh and the Pyramids, see pp. 461–463.

d. Environs.

=1.= The *=Mameluke Tombs=, to the E. of the old town, erroneously called the Tombs of the Caliphs (comp. F, 3, 4), date mostly from the second Mameluke dynasty (pp. 444, 445). They are most easily reached, on donkey-back (p. 441), from the Bâb en-Nasr (Pl. E, 2; p. 449).

Passing a large Moslem Cemetery (Pl. E, F, 2) we come first to the N.E. group of the tombs, all much ruined. These are the Tomb Mosque of Emîr el-Kebîr, son of Bars Bey (p. 446), the *Monastery Mosque of Sultan Melek el-Ashraf Inâl (1453–68), an irregular quadrangle of 115 by 51 yds., with a fine minaret and dome, and the cubical Tomb of an Emir of El-Ghûri (p. 449).

We now turn to the S. to visit the *Monastery Mosque of Sultan Barkûk (p. 448), partly restored of late. It forms a square of 80 yds. each way. The two handsome minarets have been deprived of their bulb-like summits. In front of the mihrâb is a small dome. Of the two mausoleums that on the N. was built in 1400–5 by Barkûk’s sons Farag and Azîz; that on the S., together with the monastery (Khânkâ), was completed by Farag in 1410.

The old chief portal, with its stalactite niche, is on the N. side. To the right of it is a sebîl with an elegant kuttâb (p. 445). On the left are the ruins of the three-storied monastery and a dilapidated hall connecting the monastery with the tomb of Barkûk’s father, Sharaf ed-Dîn Anas (d. 1382).

From the present entrance in the outbuilding at the S.W. angle we pass through a vestibule and a corridor to the quadrangle (sahn) with its fountain (hanefîyeh). The lîwâns, borne by pillars, are roofed with flat domes, some of which have fallen in. The beautifully proportioned sanctuary, with nave and two aisles, contains three plain prayer-recesses and a stone *Pulpit presented by Kâït Bey (1483; see below). Large double portals lead to the left to the mausoleum of Barkûk and his sons, and to the right to the tombs of the ladies of the family.

Within a walled court a little to the W. are the Tombs of Emirs Suleimân ibn Selîm (d. 1526) and Ahmed. The dome of the former is richly adorned with trellis-work set in lozenge-shaped meshes, and shows remains of the inscribed frieze of blue fayence.

A few minutes’ walk to the S.W., past the large flattened dome of the Turkish Mabed er-Rifaîyeh, brings us to the Hôsh of Kâït Bey (1468–96), once 330 yds. long, the largest family burial-place at Cairo, now occupied by a whole village. A dilapidated dwelling-house (rab), 86 yds. long, and trough, and the tomb-mosque still exist.

The *Tomb Mosque of Kâït Bey, the finest of all the Mameluke tombs, at once strikes the eye with its wall decoration in coloured stripes, the delicate network of the dome of the mausoleum, and the graceful minaret, 131 ft. high. Between the minaret and the railed-in sebîl is the chief portal with its trefoil arch, leading into a vestibule containing the throne of the sultan. The adjoining sanctuary, with its pavement in coloured mosaic, its two inscription-friezes, its kamarîyehs, and stained-glass windows, has been almost entirely renewed. The mimbar or pulpit also is modern. The lîwân opposite still has its fine old timber ceiling. The mausoleum, on the S.W. side of the sanctuary, also shows great wealth of colouring. A colonnade adjacent contains the tombs of the sultan’s four wives.

We now follow the Shâria es-Sultân Ahmed and (to the right) Shâria Karâfet el-Mamalik, cross the so-called Windmill Hill (Pl. F, 3), the central great mound of débris on the E. side of the old town, and thus regain the Fatimite city (Shâria esh-Sharawâni, p. 446). On the way, from the ‘Point de Vue’ marked on the Plan, we have a fine *View of the city of tombs and the Mokattam Hills behind us.

The Shâria Karâfet Bâb el-Wezîr, the S. prolongation of Shâria es-Sultân Ahmed, leads to the Citadel (comp. p. 453).

=2.= EXCURSION TO THE HELIOPOLIS OASIS AND HELIOPOLIS-ON. The new Heliopolis Oasis is most quickly (10 min.) reached from Cairo by the Metropolitan Railway (p. 441), or by railway and electric tramway viâ Palais de Koubbeh (20–30 min.; comp. below); tramway No. 10 in ca. 50 min., see p. 440; cab, see p. 441.

The =Heliopolis Oasis= or New Heliopolis (hotels, see p. 440), called by the Arabs Masr el-Gedida, i. e. ‘New Cairo’, is a new ‘suburb’, founded in 1906 by a Belgian company, about 5 M. to the N.E. of Cairo. On this healthy site an entirely modern town, consisting of villas and buildings mostly in the Moorish style, is being laid out on an ambitious scale. Broad avenues planted with trees and streets pleasantly interspersed with spacious squares intersect the town, while recreation grounds of every description and a race course provide for the residents’ entertainment.—Heliopolis Oasis is connected with Cairo by a beautiful Avenue (cab, see p. 441), the favourite promenade of the inhabitants and visitors in Cairo, which, close to the Oasis, passes the not yet completed British Barracks.

The visit to HELIOPOLIS-ON may be combined with the route just described by way of rail. station Palais de Koubbeh (tramway, see below). If, however, we make our visit from Cairo direct we go by railway from the Pont Limûn Station (p. 439; trains every ½ hr., in 21 min.; also several fast trains in ¼ hr.; return-fare 4½ or 3 pias.).

The train crosses the Ismaîlîyeh Canal (p. 438). 2 M. Demîrdash, or Demerdache, station for the villa-suburb of Abbâsîyeh. 4¼ M. Palais de Koubbeh, with the Khedivial Palace; from the station an electric tramway, in connection with the trains, runs to the S.E. to (1 M.) the Heliopolis Oasis (see above). 5 M. Ezbet ez-Zeitûn, a group of villas; 6¼ M. Matarîyeh.

At the village of Matarîyeh (hotel), in a garden to the right of the road, is the Virgin’s Tree, a sycamore marking the spot where the Holy Family is said to have resided during their exile in Egypt. A little to the E. of the station is an Ostrich Farm (adm. 10 pias.), with a belvedere.

From the Virgin’s Garden the Shâria el-Misalleh (obelisk street) leads to the N. to the site of =Heliopolis-On=, one of tho most ancient places in Egypt, famous for the cult of the falcon-headed sun-god Rē-Harakhtē. The Obelisk of red granite is the oldest in the land. Scanty fragments of the temple and of the town-wall are the only other ruins.

3. We may next visit =Old Cairo= (tramway No. 4, p. 440).

The route is by the SHÂRIA MASR EL-KADÎMEH, the continuation of Shâria Fum el-Khalîg (Pl. A, 7; p. 455). On the left, at its beginning, is a hexagonal Water Tower, which once supplied an Aqueduct (El-Kanâtir) built by El-Ghûri (p. 449), extending to Bâb el-Karâfeh (Pl. E, 7), and still traceable in its ruins, 66 ft. high.

About ¼ M. beyond the new Abbâs Bridge (p. 461) the Shâria Gâmia Amr, on the left, leads to the picturesque old Coptic convent Deir Abû Sefein and the Amru Mosque (see below).

From the tramway-terminus in the poor little town of Old Cairo (Masr el-Kadîmeh, p. 443) we follow the street to the Gîzeh steam-ferry (p. 461), turn to the left past the police-station, and in the Shâria es-Saghîr to the left again. This brings us to St. Georges, a station on the Helwân railway (see p. 439). On the E. side of the railway is the site of—

=Babylon= (p. 443), a Roman castle, of which the only remains are parts of the outer walls and a Gateway, on the S.W. side, with two projecting towers.

Within the precincts of the ancient fortress now lies Kasr esh-Shama, a village inhabited chiefly by Copts, with a synagogue, five mediæval Coptic churches (El-Moallaka, Abu Sergeh, etc.), and the Greek Convent of St. George (W. side). One of the entrances is between the convent and an old tower.

From the N.E. angle of the fortress, skirting the rubbish-mounds of Fostât (p. 443), we reach (10 min.) the Amru Mosque, surrounded by cemeteries and potteries, where the porous kullehs are made, and conspicuous by its red and white striped façade.

The =Gâmia Amr ibn el-Âsî=, commonly called the Amru Mosque by Europeans, is named after the general of caliph Omar (p. 443). It was originally a small edifice built in 642, probably of crude bricks, but it was repeatedly rebuilt or restored, as in 698 and 827, and notably by Saladin in 1172, after the invasion of king Amalarich of Jerusalem and the burning of Fostât in 1168. Other restorations took place in the three following centuries. The two minarets are modern.

The INTERIOR, a slightly irregular rectangle, 132 by 108 yds., though sadly ruinous, is of impressive dimensions. The six-aisled sanctuary contains 21 series of arcades (with pointed arches) running towards the kibla (prayer niche facing Mecca). The three outer rows of columns on each side are continued by those of the N.E. and the S.W. lîwâns, of which, however, the bases alone remain. The lîwân on the side of the quadrangle next the entrance has a single arcade only. The Roman and Byzantine columns from Memphis (p. 464), once 366 in number it is said, have been utilized without regard to symmetry or congruity.

In the centre of the court, now planted with trees, is a hanefîyeh (18th cent.). In the N. angle of the sanctuary is an uninteresting monument over the supposed tomb of Sheikh Abdallah, son of Amr, erected by Abbâs I. (1849–54). On the almost intact S.W. wall of the sanctuary are curious wood-carvings, still purely Byzantine (9th cent.).

=4.= The PYRAMIDS OF GÎZEH should be visited on a calm and clear day, as the sand-drift is most trying in windy weather. (Umbrella or dark-coloured spectacles advisable to protect the eyes from the glare.) The excursion takes at least 4 hrs., or, including Sakkâra, a whole day. Those who are pressed for time visit the Great Pyramid, the Sphinx, and the Granite Temple only. (Tramway No. 1, see p. 440; carr. in 1–1¼ hr., p. 441.)

The tramway diverges at Old Cairo (p. 460), about 770 yds. to the S. of the Water Tower, to the right from line No. 4, and crosses a branch of the Nile to the island of =Rôda= (Gezîret Rôda), at the S. end of which is the old Nilometer (Arabic Mikyâs), dating from the time of the Omaiyade caliph Suleimân (716), but often restored since.

We next cross the main channel of the Nile by the Pont Abbâs II. (opened 10–11 a.m. and 3.30 to 4.30 p.m. for the passage of vessels) to the village of =Gîzeh= (Tues. market), at the N. end of which, about 550 yds. below the steam-ferry (p. 460), our tramway joins the branch from Gezîreh (p. 457).

Leaving the Nile, and passing a station on the Upper Egyptian railway (p. 463), we still have a run of 5 M., nearly due W., to the Pyramids, the huge angular forms of which gradually become more distinct and soon stand out in clear outlines.

The terminus of the tramway is near the large Mena House Hotel (p. 440), on the N.E. border of the Libyan Desert. Adjacent is a Greek restaurant. The road then ascends in a curve to the (½ M.) plateau of the Pyramids.

Near the tramway-terminus is a station for donkeys and camels (5 pias. per hour; see also pp. 173, 174).—The plateau is open to the public and may be quite well explored without a guide. TICKETS of admittance to the monuments themselves are sold at a stall next to the Viceregal Kiosque, at the N.E. corner of the Great Pyramid. Guides (Bedouins) also are obtained here on application to their sheikh (recognizable by the rosette on his breast). Ticket for the ascent of the Great Pyramid 10 pias. (for the interior, also 10 pias.); for the other monuments 5 pias.; for the entire expedition, including the ascent of the Great Pyramid and the visit to its interior, 20 pias.—Bakshîsh optional, but it is usual to give a few piastres. No attention should be paid to beggars or to vendors of ‘antiquities’. Unofficial guides who try to thrust themselves on visitors should be repelled, with the aid of the police if need be.

The **=Pyramids of Gîzeh= form the second and most imposing of the six groups of pyramids extending along the border of the Libyan desert, in a line of about 19 M. in length. To the N.W. is the Abu Roâsh group, towards the S.E. are the groups of Zâwyet el-Aryân, Abusîr (p. 464), Sakkâra (p. 464), and Dahshûr (p. 464). The Arabs call them ahrâm (sing, háram).

The Pyramids of Gîzeh, creations of the 4th Dynasty (about B.C. 2850 to 2700), rank among the oldest monuments of human industry, and their colossal proportions extort from us to-day the same astonishment that was felt in antiquity by Greek and Roman travellers. We marvel both at the technical skill shown by the Egyptians in their construction, and at the might of the kings, who must have had the services of many thousands of their subjects at command. The pyramids are believed to have been built in layers. Each king at his accession began to erect his tomb-pyramid on a small scale. If wealthy or long-lived he enlarged the original design, and after his death the outer covering was added.

The **=Great Pyramid=, erected by Kheops or Cheops, the Khufu of the Egyptians, was called by them Yekhwet Khufu (the ‘glorious place of Khufu’). Herodotus (II, 125) states that 100,000 men were employed for three months every year in building it. The outer covering, with the exception of a few fragments on the base below the entrance, has disappeared. Each side is now 248 yds. in length (originally 255 yds.). The perpendicular height is 450 ft. (once, to the apex, 480 ft.). The sides rise at an angle of 51°50′. The solid content of the masonry, deducting the nucleus of rock and the chambers in the interior, was formerly about 3,302,500 (and is still about 3,081,100) cubic yards. This stupendous structure is composed of yellowish limestone blocks, quarried in the vicinity and containing numerous fossils, chiefly nummulites (a kind of snail-shell), while the incrustation consisted of blocks of a finer white limestone from the Mokattam quarries.

The ASCENT of the Pyramid, though free from danger, is very toilsome. The visitor is helped up the steps, mostly 3 ft. high, by three Bedouins, two holding his hands and the third pushing behind. We may reach the top, a platform of 11 yds. square, in 10–15 min., but a more leisurely ascent is advisable. The *View of the yellow sands and bare rocks of the great desert-plateau, on which rise the Sphinx, the smaller pyramids of Gîzeh, and the more distant tombs stretching as far as Dahshûr, awakens solemn thoughts of death and eternity. At our feet stretches a tract of rich arable land, luxuriantly clothed with blue-green vegetation and entirely inundated in autumn. To the E., beyond the glittering river, rise the citadel of Cairo and the warmly-coloured Mokattam hills.

The INTERIOR of the Pyramid will not interest ordinary travellers. The air in the passages, hall, and tomb-chamber is hot and stifling and makes the visit very disagreeable.

From the E. side of the Great Pyramid, where a Temple for the cult of the dead once stood, we walk past the Three Small Pyramids of relatives of Kheops to the Sphinx, which rises from the sand of the desert some 350 yds. to the S.E.

The **=Sphinx=, the most famous monument in this vast burial-ground, probably once a natural rock, has the form of a recumbent lion with the head of a king (Khephren?), wearing a head-cloth adorned with the royal serpent. In front of the breast is the image of a god, much weather-worn. The head also is sadly mutilated, the nose and beard have broken off, and the reddish tint which once enlivened the face has almost entirely disappeared. But in spite of all injuries the monument preserves a striking expression of strength and majesty. The eyes have a pensive, faraway look, the lips wear a half-smile, and the whole face is of graceful and beautiful type. The height of the monument, from the pavement on which the fore-legs of the lion rest to the crown of the head is about 66 ft.; its length, from the lion’s fore-paws to the root of the tail, is about 186 ft. On the top of the head is a cavity.

Some 48 yds. to the S.E. of the Sphinx are the remains of the *=Granite Temple=, or Sphinx Temple, a large building of hewn stone. It was once the sacred entrance through which the Pyramid of Khephren (see below) was approached from the valley below. The edifice is a fine example of majestic simplicity, and the very hard stone has been treated with marvellous skill. The exterior of the temple is buried in rubbish. The two main halls are rectangular, and the beams of their ceilings rested on granite pillars.

The CIRCUIT OF THE PYRAMID PLATEAU (1½–2 hrs.) is interesting. From the Great Pyramid we walk to the W. to the great =Burial Ground= of the relatives and officials of the royal family, as well as of the priests and officials of the temples of the dead. The square tombs (mastabas) are ranged in straight lines like streets, affording a good example of an Egyptian necropolis. On the way we pass the Tomb of Shepses-kef-onekh, dating from the 5th Dynasty (about 2700–2550 B.C.).

Through a cleft in the rock, near the Quarry which yielded the stone in the reign of Ramses II. for the temple of Heliopolis (p. 459), we descend to the artificially levelled plateau of the—

=Second Pyramid=, Egyp. Wer-Khefrē (‘great is Khefrē‘), built by Khephren (Khefrē). Standing on higher ground, it looks larger than the Pyramid of Kheops. Its perpendicular height is 447 (once 454) ft.; each side is 230 (formerly 235) yds. in length; its sides rise at an angle of 52°20′. The masonry has a solid content of 2,173,552 (once 2,445,377) cub. yds.

The foundations of the Temple of the Dead, on the E. side of the pyramid, were excavated in 1908. On the W. side of the pyramid we observe an Inscription and several Rock Tombs. Adjacent is a mummy shaft (caution advisable).

The road now leads to the S.W. to the =Third Pyramid=, Egyp. Neter-Menkewrē (‘divine is Menkewrē‘), built by Menkewrē, the Mykerinos of Herodotus. Its perpendicular height is 204 (once 218) ft., while its sides rise at an angle of 51°; each side of the base measures 118 yds. The stones are unusually large. To the S. rise Three Small Pyramids.

We next walk to the remains of the Temple of the Dead to the E. of the third pyramid and then follow the ancient paved track by which the stones were once brought up from the Nile valley. On the way, among several Rock Tombs, are the ruins of an unfinished pyramid. Passing a very ruinous family burial-place of the 26th Dynasty, called Campbell’s Tomb after its discoverer, we now descend to the Granite Temple (see above), and walk to the N.W., past the Sphinx (p. 462), to the Three Small Pyramids (p. 462) near the Pyramid of Kheops.

Lastly we may visit the Rock Tombs of the Ancient Empire, near the Arab village Kafr el-Hâram. The best-known, the ‘Tomb of Numbers‘, contains badly preserved reliefs (counting of cattle).

=5.= The EXCURSION TO MEMPHIS AND SAKKÂRA is easily made in one day. Provisions (supplied by the hotels in lieu of déjeuner), candles (obtainable also at Bedrashein), and if possible an acetylene lamp should be taken. We start early from the chief station (first train usually at 7 a.m.) by the Upper Egyptian line for Bedrashein (1 hr.; fare 16½ or 8½ pias.), where donkeys are in waiting (to Sakkâra and back 10 pias.; bargain should be made in presence of the Bedouin sheikh). The ride back takes fully 1½ hr. (train for Cairo at present 4.56 p.m.). Tickets for the monuments (5 pias.) are sold by the custodians or at Mariette’s House (p. 465).

Robust travellers may ride from Sakkâra along the margin of the desert, or viâ the pyramids of Abusîr, in 2½–3 hrs. to the Mena House Hotel (p. 461). The charge (15–20 pias.) should be agreed upon with the donkey-boy at the Bedrashein station. In the reverse direction we may go by tramway to Gîzeh (comp. p. 461), and ride thence viâ the Pyramids of Gîzeh to Sakkâra (donkey 20, camel 30 pias.; comp. pp. 173, 174). Or we may drive in a desert-car (80 pias.) from Mena House Hotel along the border of the desert to Sakkâra.

The RAILWAY, passing Bûlâk (p. 454), runs to the N.W. and crosses the Nile. 2 M. Embâbeh, noted for the ‘battle of the Pyramids’, in which Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes in 1798.—Describing a circuit the train next comes to (6¼ M.) Bûlâk ed-Dakrûr, on a Nile canal. At (8 M.) Gîzeh (p. 461) we sight the Pyramids (p. 461) on the right, and then, on the left, Old Cairo (p. 460) and the long range of the Mokattam (p. 454), continued to the S.E. by Gebel Turra. Next, on the left, is Gezîret Tirsâ, an island in the Nile.

14½ M. Abu Nemrûs. On the right rise the hills bordering the Libyan desert, with the pyramids of Abusîr. Beyond (17½ M.) El-Hawamdîyeh the step-pyramid (p. 465) is visible for a short time. To the left, at the foot of Gebel Turra, lies Helwân (Hélouan), a winter health-resort.

20½ M. =Bedrashein=, on the E. side of the railway.

From the railway-crossing we ride to the W., past the village (Wed. market), by a road through green fields, which are entirely flooded in autumn, to the (20 min.) palm-grove of Bedrashein.

In the foreground, shaded by palms, lies the site of =Memphis=, now a heap of débris, the oldest capital of Egypt, founded under the name of ‘White Walls’ about 3400 B.C. by Menes, the first historical king. The vast area of the ruins seems to have extended, down to the 12th cent. A.D., as far as Gîzeh. The chief quarters of the city probably lay on the fields of Bedrashein and Mit-Rahîneh.

The road forks 20 min. beyond Bedrashein. The SUMMER ROUTE, impassable during the inundations, leads to the left in about 8 min. to the two *Colossal Statues of Ramses II. (p. 456), both now prostrate, which once stood at the entrance to the famous temple of Ptah. The first is 25 ft., or including the crown 31½ ft., long; the second, protected by a mud-hut (adm. 4 pias.), is 42 ft. in length.

We now ride on, leaving the village of Mit Rahîneh at a little distance to the right, towards the palm-grove of Sakkâra, at the foot of the desert-plateau. On the yellow sand of the desert rise eleven pyramids. To the extreme left (S.) is the necropolis of Dahshûr, where the ‘blunted pyramid’ or ‘pyramid of the two angles’ catches the eye. To the right (to the N.W. of the huts of Sakkâra) rise the Onnos and step-pyramids (see below).

Turning to the N. near Sakkâra, ½ hr. beyond the statues of Ramses, and skirting the palm-grove, we ride towards the ruins of some mud-built houses. The WINTER ROUTE from the bifurcation mentioned at p. 464 makes a long bend to the N. and leads through the palm-grove of Bedrashein and past the ruins of the brick houses of ancient Memphis; it then crosses a sluice-bridge, passes on either side several ponds, and rejoins the summer route.

We now ascend to the sandy plateau and overlook the *=Necropolis of Sakkâra=. This vast area, about 4½ M. long from N. to S. and from 550 to 1600 yds. in breadth from E. to W., has afforded material for repeated exploration.

We ride straight to the *Step Pyramid (Arab. El-Hâram el-Mudarrag), the great landmark of Sakkâra. This was the tomb of king Zoser (3rd Dynasty, about 2900–2850 B.C.), and is still older than the pyramids of Gîzeh. It is 196 ft. high, and each step recedes about 6½ ft.

About 330 yds. to the S.W. of the Step Pyramid rises the Pyramid of King Onnos (or Unis; about 2550 B.C.), which is easily scaled. The view embraces all the pyramids from Dahshûr to Gîzeh. The central chamber and burial-vault in the interior (shown by the custodian) are full of hieroglyphic inscriptions, the oldest religious Egyptian text known.

Beyond the Step Pyramid, in the direction of Mariette’s House, we suddenly obtain a striking view of the pyramids of Abusîr and Gîzeh to the N.; in the palm-shaded Nile valley, bordered by the yellowish-grey desert, we observe in the distance the mosque of Mohammed Ali (p. 454).

When the road forks we ride to the left to the Mastaba of Ptahhotep, the tomb of the highest state-official of a king of the 5th Dynasty (about 2700–2550 B.C.). The interesting, delicately executed wall-reliefs, like those of the almost contemporaneous mastaba of Ti (p. 466), are among the finest of the Ancient Empire but are imperfectly lighted. The richest wall-decoration is in the sacrificial chamber (funeral repast, rural scenes, etc.).

We now repair to Mariette’s House, a little to the N., where the famous Egyptologist lived during the excavations. We rest and take luncheon on the terrace here. (Custodians 2½–5 pias.; Arabian coffee provided if desired.)

A few min. to the W. of Mariette’s house is the *Serapeum, with the underground rock-tombs of the sacred bulls of the god Ptah.

Apis, the sacred bull, had a temple of his own at Memphis, and after death was buried with great pomp. He represented man in a future state as identified with the god Osiris, and his tomb was a favourite goal of pilgrims. Hermits too sometimes lived in the narrow cells of the tomb. After Ptolemy I. had introduced the cult of Serapis (p. 435) into Egypt, this new god was identified with Osiris-Apis (Egyp. Oser-hapē, Gr. Osorapis).

The temple over the Apis tombs has disappeared, and so too has a second temple erected here by Nektanebos (358–341 B.C.), to which the great sphinx avenue ascended from the plain below. The main passage to the tombs, which was constructed by Psammetichos I. (663–609), is now alone accessible. In the tomb-chambers are still preserved 24 of the huge sarcophagi in which the mummies of the Apis bulls reposed.

The famous *Mastaba of Ti, to the N.E. of Mariette’s house, is still deeply imbedded in the sand. This was the tomb of the royal architect of king Nuserrē (5th Dyn.). The most beautiful of the reliefs are in the tomb-chamber, which is entered from the road through two vestibules and two passages. We note particularly, on the E. wall, Harvest and Boat-building; on the S. wall, Sacrifices to the dead; on the N. wall, *Scenes from life in the Delta marshes.

Those who do not intend to ride on to Gîzeh may, on their way back, glance at the Tomb of Merekura, of the early 6th Dynasty, and at the Street of Tombs near it, of like date (including the Tomb of Enkhmē-Hor, also called the ‘Tomb of the Physicians’, etc.)

For full details, see Baedeker’s Egypt.

=72. From Alexandria or Port Said to Beirut= (Smyrna, Constantinople) =viâ Jaffa=.

464 (or 261) M. STEAMERS (mostly small and old; agents at Alexandria, see p. 432; at Port Said, p. 437; at Jaffa, p. 467; at Beirut, pp. 481, 482). =1.= Messageries Maritimes, S. Mediterranean line (coming from Marseilles, and touching at Alexandria): from Port Said on Frid. (returning Mon. or Tues.) to Beirut, alternately direct in 1 day and viâ Jaffa in 2 days; fare from Port Said to Jaffa 35 or 25 fr., to Beirut 65 or 55 fr.—=2.= Austrian Lloyd (Trieste and Syria line; comp. R. 68; touching at Alexandria): from Port Said on Mon. aft. viâ Jaffa and Haifa to Beirut in ca. 2½ days (returning Thurs. night); fare from Port Said to Jaffa 33 or 22 K, to Beirut 75 or 52 K.—=3.= Khedivial Mail Co. (coming from Alexandria), from Port Said on Sun. aft. viâ Jaffa and Haifa in ca. 1½ days to Beirut (going on, every alternate week, to Alexandretta and Constantinople), returning from Beirut Sun. foren.; fare from Port Said to Jaffa £ 1 E 35 pias. or £ E 1, to Beirut £ 2 E 60 pias. or £ E 2.—=4.= Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (Syria and Egypt circular line; coming from Alexandria), from Port Said on Mon. or Sat. nights viâ Jaffa and Haifa in ca. 2 days to Beirut (going on to Smyrna and Constantinople), returning from Beirut Tues. or Wed. aft.; fare 60 or 44 fr. (to Jaffa 36 or 26 fr.).—=5.= German Levant Line, cargo-steamers from Alexandria twice monthly viâ Jaffa and Haifa to Beirut (comp. R. 65).—=6.= Società Nazionale (Lines VII, VII bis; coming from Alexandria), from Port Said each monthly viâ Jaffa to Beirut in ca. 2 days.

As to passports, see p. 491; Turkish money, p. 536.

Alexandria, see p. 431; Port Said, see p. 436. The flat Egyptian coast disappears soon after we leave Port Said.

Nearing Jaffa we survey the hill-country of Judaea, with the heights around Jerusalem and (to the N.E.) the mountains of Samaria, The broad coast-plain, flanked with low dunes, is the ancient Peleshet, the ‘plain’, stretching from the Egyptian frontier to Mt. Carmel (p. 468), once inhabited by the Philistines (Pelishtîm).

* * * * *

=Jaffa.=—ARRIVAL. The steamers anchor in the open roads. In winter, when a westerly gale is blowing, it is often impossible to land. Passengers must then go on to Haifa (p. 468) or to Beirut (p. 481). The arrangements for landing are unsatisfactory; in rough weather as much as 20 fr. is demanded. It is best to land in one of the boats belonging to the hotels or tourist-agents (see below; 6–7 fr. to station or to hotel, incl. baggage, on which a watchful eye should be kept), and to decline the services of other boatmen or of porters and dragomans (Arabic terjumân). The passport office and custom-house are in the S. angle of the harbour. Customs examination, see p. 537.

RAILWAY STATION to the N.E. of the town, 1½ M. from the harbour.

HOTELS (charges should be ascertained at once; advisable to order rooms beforehand in the height of the season). Jerusalem Hotel and Hôt. du Parc, both in the German colony, pens. 12½, in the quiet season 8 fr.; Hôt. Kaminitz, in Rue Boustrous, leading to the German colony; Frank, in the German colony, with restaurant.

TOURIST AGENTS. Thos. Cook & Son, opposite the Jerusalem Hotel; Clark, in the Hôt. du Parc; Dr. Benzinger, at Frank’s Hotel; Hamburg-American Line, Agence Lubin, both at the harbour.—STEAMBOAT OFFICES all on the quay, to the N.E. of the custom-house.

POST OFFICES. Turkish in Rue Boustrous (also International Telegraph); German and Austrian-Hungarian, at the N.E. end of the quay; French, farther to the N.E.; Russian, on the quay, opposite the Quarantine Station.

CONSULS. British Vice-Consul, J. Falanga.—United States Consular Agent, J. Hardegg.

PHYSICIANS. Dr. J. M. Keith (medical superintendent of the English Hospital); Dr. Lin (French); Dr. Lorch, Dr. Saad (both German).

BANKS. Anglo-Palestine Co., Banque Ottomane, both in the Gaza Road; German Palaestina-Bank, Crédit Lyonnais, both on the quay.

ENGLISH CHURCH SERVICES, on Sun. at 9.30 a.m. and 3.30 p.m.

CARRIAGES. Drive 1 beshlik (3½ pias.); ½ day 10, day 20 fr.; to Jerusalem (7–8 hrs.) in the season 50–60 fr. (single seat 10–15 fr.), to Haifa (1½–2 days), 100–140 fr., according to weather.

Jaffa, Arabic Yâfâ, Gr. Joppa (pop. 47,000, viz. about 30,000 Moslems, 10,000 Christians, and 7000 Jews), originally a Phœnician colony in the land of the Philistines, is mentioned as early as the reign of Solomon (p. 472) as the seaport of Jerusalem. The Maccabees (p. 472) brought it under Jewish domination. During the Crusades it was repeatedly wrested from the Christians, and in 1267 it was destroyed by the Mameluke sultan Beybars. In 1799 the town was stormed by the French under Kléber (p. 444).

The old town rises on a rock 118 ft. high, behind the Quay, built towards the end of the 17th century. Its streets are very dusty and in wet weather muddy.

The quay and its prolongation, the main arteries of traffic, lead in a curve towards the E. to the Market (Sûk), where the Semitic type of the inhabitants is very noticeable.

Beyond this market is a public garden with a Clock Tower erected by the town of Jaffa to commemorate the 25th year of the reign of the now deposed Sultan Abdul Hamid (1876–1909), and several Arabian cafés. The Gaza road leads thence to the right through the S. suburb. The Jerusalem road leads straight on through the new town and a number of orange-groves; after 12 min. a road diverges to the left to the Russian settlement, where we are shown the site of the house of Tabitha and her rock-tomb (Acts ix. 35). The Rue Boustrous leads to the left to the railway-station and the pleasant houses of the German Colony, founded in 1868 (about 350 inhab., chiefly of the ‘Temple’ sect).

A second colony of these Templars is Sarona, 1 M. to the N.E., behind the dunes, in the coast-plain of Sharon between Jaffa and Cæsarea, famed ever since ancient times for its fertility. The vine in particular thrives here admirably.

* * * * *

Beyond Jaffa the STEAMER soon passes the mouth of the Nahr el-Aujâ, the largest river in Palestine next to the Jordan, and then, near the N. boundary of Judæa, the site of Apollonia (now Arsûf). Farther on we sight the scanty ruins of Caesarea Palaestina (Arabic El-Kaisarîyeh), a seaport founded by Herod the Great, which in the Roman period surpassed Jerusalem.

Beyond the Nahr ez-Zerkâ (‘blue river’, p. xxxiii), the Crocodile River of Pliny, come the little town of Tantûra, the Dor of the Old Testament, which classical authors say was a Phœnician colony, and then Atlît, the Castellum Peregrinorum of the Crusaders, the seat of the Knights Templar in 1218–91, with its grand ruins.

The beautiful outlines of *Mt. Carmel (1811 ft.; Jebel Mâr Elyâs, ‘sacred mount of Elijah’) become more distinct. On the hill-side is the Carmelite Monastery (558 ft.), the original seat of the order, which extended its sphere to Europe in 1238. Below it, on the evergreen N. slope of the range, rises a Lighthouse.

Most of the steamers call at the open roads of =Haifa= or Khaifa (Hôt. Karmel or Krafft, pens. 8–10 fr.; carr. at the tourist-office of Unger & Hermann, at G. Sus’s, etc.; Brit. vice-cons., P. Abela; U. S. cons. agent, Th. Struve; pop. 16,000), a rapidly rising commercial town, beautifully situated at the N. base of Mt. Carmel and on the S. shore of the Bay of Acre, not far from the site of the Sycaminum of antiquity. The trade is chiefly in the hands of the German ‘Temple’ sect, whose settlement presents a striking contrast to the prevailing Oriental squalor.

A ROAD leads from Haifa viâ Atlît and Tantûra (see above), and then inland viâ the Jewish agricultural colony of Zammarín (Hôt. Graff) and Kakûn (410 ft.) to =Nàbulus= or Nâblus (1870 ft.; Hôt. Nablus, German,) once Sichem, the capital of Samaria. After the war of 67 A.D. (p. 472) it was re-founded by Vespasian as Flavia Neapolis. It is now a town of 27,000 inhab. (incl. 700 Christians and 170 members of the Samaritan sect). Fine view from Mt. Gerizim (2848 ft.; Arab. Jebel et-Tôr), to the S. of the town. A new road leads from Nâbulus, past Jacob’s Well (St. John, iv. 5–30), viâ El-Lubban and El-Bireh, to Jerusalem (p. 470).

FROM HAIFA VIÂ DERÂT TO DAMASCUS, 177 M., Railway. One train daily in 10 hrs.; fares, 1st cl., 142½, 3rd cl. 65½ pias. (note exchange at rail. stat.: 1 mejidieh = 19 pias.; 20 fr. = 86½ pias.; £ 1 = 109¼ pias.; £ 1 Turkish = 96 pias.). Most travellers, however, prefer the following profoundly interesting route, joining the train at Samakh (p. 469).

We drive from Haifa to (24 M.) Nazareth (1145 ft.; Hôt. Germania, pens. 8–12½ fr.), the home of Christ, whence the Christians in the Levant are still called Nazarenes (Nasâra). Then past Mt. Tabor (1844 ft.; Jebel et-Tor; fine view), the traditional scene of the Transfiguration, and Kafr Kennâ, the Cana of the Bible (St. John, ii), to (4½ hrs.) =Tabarîya= (82 ft. below sea-level; Hôt. Tiberias or Grossmann, pens. 10–12½ fr.; pop. 7500, incl. many Polish Jews), the ancient Tiberias, once the capital of Galilee, and, after the destruction of Jerusalem (p. 472), the chief seat of the Jewish nation. It lies high up on the W. bank of the Lake of Gennesaret, or of Tiberias, or Sea of Galilee (682 ft. below sea-level; 13 M. long, 7½ M. broad), through which flows the Jordan. During half of the year the climate in this profound Syrian valley is extremely hot.

From Tiberias we row down the lake in 2 hrs. to the rail. station of Samakh (610 ft. below sea-level; 54½ M. from Haifa). The train ascends the *Yarmuk Valley to (100 M.) Derât (1735 ft. above sea-level; Buffet), where it joins the main Hejâz line to Damascus (p. 484; Kadem station).—For details, see Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria.

Beyond Haifa all the steamers skirt the coast of ancient Phoenicia at some distance from land, as the cliffs here endanger navigation, but the numerous small headlands, bays, and islands adapt it admirably for settlement. It once extended, far beyond Beirut, to the river Eleutheros, now Nahr el-Kebîr.

From afar we sight the lighthouse and forts of Akka or Acre, the ancient Akko (later Ptolemais). In 1104 it became the naval station of the Crusaders. Taken by Saladin in 1187 it was recaptured by Richard Cœur-de-Lion in 1191 and for a century was a great bulwark of Christianity. Under the name of St. Jean d’Acre it was the seat of the knights of St. John (p. 475) after their expulsion from Jerusalem. Far to the N.E. rises Mt. Hermon (p. 489).

Beyond the white Râs el-Nâkûra, the ancient Scala Tyriorum, and Râs el-Abyad, the Promontorium Album of Pliny, we sight a low headland on which lies the poor little town of =Sûr=, with a ruined church of the Crusaders, ruins of their fortifications, and a lighthouse. This was the ancient seaport of Tyre, once situated on two islands, but connected with the mainland by an embankment built by Alexander during his famous siege (332 B.C.).

Farther on we pass the mouth of the Nahr el-Lîtânî (p. 483), here called Nahr el-Kâsimîyeh, and obtain a fine view of the coast-region in front of Lebanon; to the E. rise Jebel er-Rihân and Tômât Nîhâ (6070 ft.; ‘twins of Nîhâ’), snow-capped in winter, and to the N.E. the distant Jebel Sannîn (p. 483).

Beyond Sarafant (ancient Zarpath or Sarepta) opens the broad bay of =Saida=, formerly Sidon, the oldest and, next to Tyre, greatest port of the Phœnicians, now girdled by rich vegetation.

Passing the mouth of the Nahr el-Auwâlî (ancient Bostrenus) and the Râs er-Rumeileh, the N. limit of the bay of Saida, we come to the far-projecting Râs ed-Dâmûr and the Nahr ed-Dâmûr, the ancient Tamyras, which in winter is one of the most copious rivers in the Lebanon region. Near Beirut begin the mulberry and olive groves and the vineyards of the fertile coast-plain.

We round the reddish hills of Râs Beirût (p. 483), with the pigeons’ grottoes and lighthouse, and enter Beirut harbour (p. 481).

73. From Jaffa to Jerusalem.

54½ M. RAILWAY. Two trains daily in 3 hrs. 40 min. (1st cl. 70½ pias.; 2nd, inferior to good Engl. 3rd, 25 pias.). Railway rates of exchange: 1 mejidieh = 20 pias.; 20 fr. = 94 pias.; £ 1 = 124 pias.; £ 1 Turkish = 108 pias. (comp. p. 536).

Jaffa, see p. 467. The train skirts the orchards around Jaffa (with Sarona on the left) and turns to the S.E. through the plain of Sharon (p. 468), following the depression of the Wâdi Miserâra. On the right is the agricultural colony of the Alliance Israélite. To the E. rise the bluish hills of ancient Judaea.

12 M. Lydda, Arabic Ludd, Old Test. Lod, Gr.-Rom. Diospolis, was severed from Samaria by the Maccabees (p. 472) in 145 B.C. and annexed to Judæa.

14 M. =Er-Ramleh= (accommodation at the Franciscan convent; pop. exceeding 7000, incl. 2500 Christians), founded by the Omaiyades (p. 485) in 716, was the Ramula of the era of the Crusades, when it was even more important than Jerusalem. The chief sight is the *Minaret of the oldest mosque (Jâmi el-Abyad, ‘white mosque’), famed also for its view. It was erected by En-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, in a style recalling the Romanesque transition buildings of the Crusaders (p. 474), but has lost its original summit.

The train crosses the Jerusalem road and runs to the S. through marshy flats to (18 M.) the village of Nâaneh. At some distance from the railway Akir, once Ekron, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines (p. 466), lies on the right (W.), and on the left (E.) are the famous ruins of Tell Jezer, mentioned in the letters found at Tell el-Amarna (p. 456), originally the Canaanitish (Phœnician) city of Gezer (a drive of 1 hr. from Er-Ramleh).

24½ M. Sejed. Soon turning to the E., we ascend the Wâdi es-Sarâr (‘valley of Sorek’, Judg. xvi. 4), which beyond (31 M.) Deir Abân narrows to a wild rocky gorge.

47½ M. Bittir, the ancient Baither or Bethar, was heroically defended against the Romans during the revolt of Bar Cochba (p. 472). The train then ascends in the Wâdi el-Werd (‘valley of roses’) and crosses the plain of El-Bukeia to (54½ M.) Jerusalem.

* * * * *

=Jerusalem.=—The STATION (2451 ft.; see Pl. C, 9) lies ¾ M. to the S. of the Jaffa Gate; carr. into the town 2–5 fr., according to the season.

HOTELS. *Fast’s Hotel (Pl. a; C, 4, 5), Jaffa Road; Grand New Hotel (Pl. c; D, 5), New Bazaar; Hôt. Hughes (Pl. d; C, 4), Jaffa Road; Olivet House (Pl. e; C, 2); Hôt. Kaminitz (Pl. b; C, 4), Jaffa Road. Pension at all 12–15 (out of season 8–10) fr. per day. Agreement advisable. Wine of the country 1–2, French wine from 3 fr. a bottle.

HOSPICES. Prussian Johanniter-Hospiz (Pl. g; F, 4), pens. 5 fr.; German Catholic Hospice St. Paulus (Pl. h; E, 2), outside the Damascus Gate; Austrian (Pl. i; F, 3), Via Dolorosa; Casa Nuova (Pl. k; D 4, 5), of the Franciscans; all good, pens. 5–8 fr.

RESTAURANTS. Deutsche Bierhalle, Jaffa Road; Lendhold (brewery), in the German Temple colony.

POST OFFICES. Turkish (Pl. C, 5: with the International Telegraph), outside the Jaffa Gate; French (Pl. C, 5), adjoining it; German (Pl. D, 5), etc.

TOURIST OFFICES. Thos. Cook & Son, inside Jaffa Gate; Clark, Hamburg-American Line, Dr. Benzinger (North German Lloyd), _N. Tadros_, all in Jaffa Road.

CARRIAGES at the Jaffa Gate. Drive ¼ hour, ½ mejidieh. Excursions are best arranged for by tourist-agent or landlord of hotel. So also HORSES, half-day 5, whole day 8 fr.; donkey per day 4–5, half-day 2–3 fr.

CONSULATES. British (Pl. 5; A, 1), H. E. Satow.—United States (Pl. 13; E, 5): consul, W. Coffin.

BANKS. Anglo-Palestine Co. (Pl. 1; E, 6), opposite the citadel; Crédit Lyonnais (Pl. 2; D, 5) and Banque Ottomane (Pl. D, 5), Jaffa Road; German Palaestina-Bank (Pl. 3; D, 5), inside Jaffa Gate.

PHOTOGRAPHS. The best are those of the American Colony, of Bonfils of Beirut, and (coloured) of the Photoglob of Zürich, to be obtained from Vester (American Colony Store), Boulus Meo, Sfeir, and Shammas, all in the Grand New Hotel; A. Attallah, at the Bâb el-Jedîd; Salman & Co., Jaffa Road.—Other favourite SOUVENIRS of Jerusalem are carved olive-wood and mother-of-pearl objects, in which there is a brisk trade; the largest choice is to be found in the square in front of St. Sepulchre’s, but half at most of the price asked should be offered; higher class work is best purchased at the shops mentioned above.

CHURCHES, convents, missions, schools, etc. abound (see Baedeker’s Palestine & Syria). Among them may be mentioned the Collegiate Church of St. George (with the Bishop’s House; services at 9 a.m. and 4.30 p.m.), to the N. of the town; Christ Church (Pl. E, 6; services at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m.); St. Paul’s (Pl. C, 1, 2; Arabic services at 9.30 a.m. and 3 p.m.).

TWO DAYS (when time is limited). 1st. Forenoon, Mt. of Olives (p. 479), Kidron and Hinnom Valleys (p. 480); afternoon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre (p. 474), Mûristân (p. 475), and Zion (p. 473).—2nd. Forenoon, Haram esh-Sherîf (p. 476); afternoon, excursion to Bethlehem (p. 480).

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is open before 11.30 and after 3; a forenoon visit may usually be prolonged by giving a fee to the Moslem custodian (1 fr.).

Leave to visit the Haram esh-Sherîf must be obtained from the Turkish authorities through the visitor’s consulate (see above). He is then escorted by a Turkish soldier and usually by a cavass of the consulate also. The cavass receives 8–10 fr., or 4–5 fr. from each member of a party, which covers all fees and outlays. On Fridays and during the Moslem festival of Nebi-Mûsâ (Wed. of Holy Week to Easter Mon.) the mosque is closed to strangers.

* * * * *

KEY TO PLAN OF JERUSALEM. Banks, see above.—Bazaars, Old (Sûks) and New, F 5; E 5.—Churches. Christ Church (English), E 6; Church of the Redeemer (German Prot.), E 5; Holy Sepulchre, E 4; St. Anne’s, H 3; St. George’s (English), with Bishop’s House, a little to the N. of E 1; St. Mary’s, K 3; St. Mary Magdalen’s, K 4; St. Paul’s (Arab.-Prot.), C 1, 2.— Consulates, see above.—Monasteries. Abraham’s (Greek), Pl. 19, E 4, 5; Abyssinian, Pl. 14, E 4; Armenian Catholic, Pl. 15, F 4; Coptic, Pl. 16, E 4; Gethsemane, Pl. 20, E 5; Greek (Great), D E 4, 5; Panagia (Greek), Pl. 21, E 4; Panagia Melæna (Gr.), Pl. 22, E 5; St. Basil (Gr.), Pl. 23, D 4; St. Caralombos (Gr.), Pl. 24, E 4; St. Catharine (Gr.), Pl. 25, E 4; St. Demetrius (Gr.), Pl. 26, D 5; St. George’s (Coptic), Pl. 17, D 5; St. George’s (Greek), Pl. 27 & 28, D 4 & E 7; St. John the Baptist’s (Gr.), Pl. 29, E 5; St. John Euthymius (Gr.), Pl. 30, E 4; St. Michael’s (Gr.), Pl. 31, D 4; St. Nicholas (Gr.), Pl. 32, D 4; St. Salvator’s (Latin), Pl. 36, D 4; St. Stephen’s (Dominican), E 1; St. Theodore’s (Greek), Pl. 33, D 4.—Mosques. El-Aksâ, H 5, 6; Kubbet es-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock), H 4, 5; Sîdni Omar, Pl. 37, E 5.—Synagogues (indicated by the letter ‘S’ on the Plan), many, E, F 5–7.

Jerusalem (Hebrew Yerushalayim, Gr. and Lat. Hierosolyma, Arabic El-Kuds) lies in 31°46′ N. lat. and 35°13′ E. long., on an arid limestone plateau (cold in winter) which rises in the form of a peninsula from the Kidron Valley (Wâdi Sitti Maryam, ‘Mary’s Valley’), on the E., and from the Valley of Hinnom (Wâdi er-Rabâbi), on the S. side. The narrow E. height (2441 ft.), the ancient Temple Hill, is separated from the W. hill, that of the old Upper Town (2550 ft.), by a depression, now very slight, called Tyropoeon (‘dung valley’) by Josephus, the Jewish historian. Still higher is the N.W. angle of the present town (2591 ft.).

The population is estimated at 70,000, of whom 45,000 are Jews, living mostly on alms bestowed by the charitable institutions of their European co-religionists; of the 15,000 Christians nearly half are Syrians of the Greek orthodox faith; the Moslems number about 10,000. In spring, especially at the time of the Greek Easter, the town is flooded with pilgrims, the majority being Russians. As a centre of the three chief religions of the world, Jerusalem has quite a religious atmosphere and is historically a city of overwhelming interest, but its tranquillity is sadly marred by the dissensions and jealousies of its numerous religious communities. Careful and patient study alone will reveal to the traveller something of the departed glory of the venerable capital of the Jewish empire.

HISTORY. From the tablets of Tell el-Amarna (p. 456) it appears that Urusalim was the capital of a small principality dependent on Egypt about 1400 B.C. When the Israelites under David conquered the town in the 11th cent. (2 Sam. v. 6–10) it was the chief stronghold of the Jebusites, a Canaanitish tribe. David made it his residence and built a castle known as the City of David. His son Solomon, with the aid of Phœnician artificers, afterwards built his palace and the Temple of Jehovah on Mt. Zion (the E. hill). On the bi-partition of the kingdom after his death Jerusalem became the capital of Judah. The kingdom of Israel in N. Palestine was subjugated by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and in 597 Jerusalem, under Jehoiachin, shared a like fate at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. In 586 the revolt under Zedekiah led to the destruction of the city. On the return of the Jews from captivity in 538 the city and Temple were gradually rebuilt, and the new town-wall was completed in 444. On the death of Alexander the Great in 323 Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Ptolemies (p. 433) and often suffered severely from conflicts with the Diadochi of Syria. The last royal dynasty, that of the Maccabees (167–63), was overthrown by the Romans when Pompey conquered the city. As the residence of Herod the Great (37–4 B.C., according to the accepted chronology), in the last year of whose reign Christ was born, Jerusalem prospered anew. A new palace in the Roman style was erected at the N.W. angle of the upper town, and the rebuilding of the Temple was begun. But a revolt of the Zealots, or Jewish national party, led to embittered struggles with the Romans in 67 A.D., with the result that Jerusalem was stormed by Titus in 70, the Temple burned down, and the city was completely destroyed as Carthage had once been. Another rising of the Jews under Trajan (117) extended as far as the Cyrenaica (comp. p. 413) in N. Africa. On the ruins of the city, on a site almost coinciding with that enclosed by the present city-walls, Emp. Hadrian erected the new pagan colony of Ælia Capitolina, from which, after the last revolt, that of Bar Cochba (132–5), Jews were excluded.

The modern history of Christian Jerusalem begins with the building of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Emp. Constantine (about 326–36). Pilgrims soon flocked to the holy places, and in 570 there were already hospices with 3000 beds for their use. In 614 the Persians under Chosroes II. (p. 485) sacked the city, but when it was captured by caliph Omar in 637 it was treated with clemency, being regarded as a sacred place by Moslems as well as by Christians. In 691 began the erection of the famous Dome of the Rock, on the sacred rock (p. 477), the site of the ancient Jewish Temple, the greatest sanctuary of Islam after the Kaaba of Mecca. Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Egyptian Fatimites in 969, but was wrested from them by the Seljuks in 1077. It was chiefly the maltreatment of the Christian pilgrims by the Seljuks that gave rise to the First Crusade. In 1099 the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem, which under Godfrey de Bouillon (d. 1100) became the capital of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was retaken by Saladin in 1187, but in 1229 was voluntarily ceded by Melik el-Kâmil to Emp. Frederick II. Lastly, in 1244, it was stormed by the Kharezmians, and has been under Moslem rule ever since.

BOOKS. Among the best of the numerous works on Jerusalem are Barclay’s ‘City of the Great King’, Besant & Palmer’s ‘Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin’ (5th ed., London, 1908), Warren’s ‘Underground Jerusalem’ (London, 1876), and Wilson & Warren’s ‘Recovery of Jerusalem’ (London, 1871). Miss A. Goodrich-Freer’s ‘Inner Jerusalem’ (1904), Laurence Hutton’s ‘Literary Landmarks of Jerusalem’, and C. R. Conder’s ‘The City of Jerusalem’ (London, 1909) also may be mentioned.

The *OLD TOWN is enclosed by a *Wall of the 13–14th cent., restored by Suleiman the Great (p. 542) in 1537–41; it is 40 ft. high and about 2½ M. long. The two main streets lead to the W. from the Jaffa Gate (Pl. D, 5, 6; Arabic Bâb el-Khalîl), and N. from the handsome Damascus Gate (Pl. D, 5, 6; Bâb el-Amûd) respectively. They divide the town into four quarters, to the N.W. the Greek-Frank, S.W. the Armenian, S.E. the Jewish, and N.E. the Moslem. The streets are crooked, often vaulted over, and, in the Jewish quarter especially, very dirty. All the houses have rain-water cisterns, besides which there are several reservoirs.

The JAFFA SUBURB, situated to the N.W., is the most important, in style the most European. It is the chief seat of the European or ‘Frank’ inhabitants and contains the consulates, several churches, and the extensive Russian Buildings (Pl. A-C, 2, 3).—Outside the Gate of Zion (Pl. E, 7, 8; Bâb en-Nebi Dâûd, ‘gate of the prophet David’), but originally within the town-walls, lies the so-called Zion Suburb. It contains the Christian cemeteries, the German Benedictine monastery Dormitio Sanctae Mariae (Pl. E, 8; ‘death-sleep of Mary’), with the new Church of St. Mary, and the now Mohammedan buildings of En-Nebi Dâûd (Pl. E, 8; with ‘David’s Tomb’ and the ‘Room of the Last Supper’). Near the railway-station (p. 470) is the substantial German Temple Colony (comp. p. 468).

We begin our visit to the old town at the Jaffa Gate, a busy centre of traffic, to which the road from the station leads (p. 480). To the S.E. of the gate, and partly on the site of Herod’s palace, rises the citadel El-Kala (Pl. D, 6; 14th and 16th cent.); the N.E. tower probably corresponds to the Phasaël Tower of the time of Herod.

DAVID STREET, one of the chief business streets, under different names (Sueikat Allân, Hâret el-Bizâr, and Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh; Pl. D-G, 5), connects the Jaffa Gate with the Silseleh Gate of the Haram esh-Sherîf (p. 476). On the left, opposite the citadel, is the well-stocked New Bazaar (Pl. D, 5).

At St. John’s Monastery (Pl. 29; E, 5), the Greek pilgrims’ hospice at the S.W. angle of the Mûristân (p. 475), we first turn to the left into the HÂRET EN-NÂSARA (Pl. E, 5, 4; Christians’ Street). On the left is the very ancient Patriarch’s Pool (Birket Hammâm el-Batrak; Pl. E, 5), assigned by tradition to king Hezekiah (about 700 B.C.); on the right is the Patriarch’s Bath. Opposite the Great Greek Monastery (Deir er-Rûm el-Kebîr; Pl. D, E, 4, 5), is, on the right, the entrance to the—

*=Church of the Holy Sepulchre= (Pl. E, 4; adm., see p. 471), whose principal dome, crowned with a gilded cross, is everywhere conspicuous. This, especially at Easter, is the great goal of the pilgrims. The discovery of the Holy Sepulchre, which Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, the father of church history (314–40), tells us was made by Constantine, induced that emperor to build a round church here, the so-called Anastasis (church of the resurrection), and a five-aisled basilica, dedicated to the sign of the Cross (Martyrion). These churches having been burned down by the Persians (p. 473), Abbot Modestus, under Emp. Heraclius, began to build, in 629, a new church of the resurrection, the prototype of the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), a new church of the Cross, and a small Calvary church on the supposed site of the Crucifixion (Golgotha). A fourth church, that of St. Mary, is said to have existed here in 670. Between 1140 and 1149, the period of the Second Crusade, the Crusaders caused a great new church to be built by the architect Jourdain, in the Romanesque transition style, under Arabian influence, an edifice intended to embrace almost all the holy places. On the E. side of the new double church a chapel was dedicated to St. Helena (d. about 326), the mother of Constantine, who, according to later historians, once made a pilgrimage to the holy places and discovered the true Cross near the Sepulchre. On the S. side of the double church a Gothic clock-tower, originally detached, was erected in 1160–80. After the destructions of 1187 and 1244 (see p. 473), we hear of a handsome new church existing here in 1310. At length in 1719 a great part of the church was rebuilt, and at the joint cost of the Greeks and the Armenians, again in 1810 by the architect Komnenos Kalfa. Since then the Greek cathedral, the dome-roofed ‘Catholicon’, has occupied the nave of what was once the Crusaders’ basilica. Among the many additions the chapel of the Apparition (p. 475) is one of the oldest (14th cent.).

In the N.W. corner of the QUADRANGLE, or outer court, over the Chapel of the Forty Martyrs, rises the Bell Tower, the upper part of which has been destroyed. The Façade, dating from the era of the Crusades, has fine reliefs of the French school over the portals.

A vestibule, where the custodians (p. 471) sit, leads to the Stone of Unction (John xix. 38–40), last renewed in 1808.

The great ROTUNDA of the Sepulchre still has the foundation pillars, the massive outer wall of the W. semicircle, and the three apses of the Crusaders’ church. The round central structure embraces the Chapel of the Sepulchre and the Angels’ Chapel. Adjoining the Sepulchre is the 14th station of the Via Dolorosa (see below).

From the N.E. side of the ambulatory an ante-room leads to the CHAPEL OF THE APPARITION, the chief Latin (Rom. Cath.) sanctuary, on the spot where Christ is said to have appeared to his mother. In a niche is shown a fragment of the ‘Column of Scourging’.

The NAVE, which we next visit, has suffered greatly from the introduction of the Catholicon. The pointed windows, the clustered pillars, and the groined vaulting still bear traces of their origin in the Crusaders’ era. The southmost of the three chapels in the apse, in the outer wall of the choir ambulatory, contains the ‘Column of the Derision’.

To the left of this chapel a flight of 29 steps descends to ST. HELENA’S CHAPEL, belonging to the Armenians, on the site of Constantine’s basilica, with foundations of the period of Modestus; 13 more steps descend thence to the Chapel of the Finding of the Cross.

We now return to the ambulatory and ascend from it, to the left (S.), to the higher-lying GOLGOTHA CHAPELS, the 10–13th stations on the Via Dolorosa (see below).

On the S. side of the quadrangle, in front of the Holy Sepulchre Church, lies the =Mûristân= (Pl. E, F, 5), an open space of 170 by 150 yds., which contained, from the days of Charlemagne onwards, the hostels and hospitals of the European pilgrims and, from 1140, the grand buildings of the Knights of St. John. Saladin (p. 443) granted it as a charitable endowment (wakf) to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), but allowed the old hostels to remain. The larger W. half, with modern shops, now belongs to the Greek patriarchate; the E. half was presented by the sultan to Prussia. At the N.E. corner, next to the street called Hâret ed-Dabbârîn, is the German Prot. Church of the Redeemer (Pl. E, 5).

The Mûristân is bounded on the E. by the now unimportant Old Bazaar, or sûk, the three parallel streets of which form part of the great thoroughfare between the Damascus and Zion gates (p. 473). The middle street, the Sûk el-Attârin (p. 335), is continued to the N. by the Khân ez-Zeit (Pl. F, 4), from which an alley on the left leads to the Abyssinian and Coptic Monasteries.

At the Coptic Monastery is the 9th station on the =Via Dolorosa=, the ‘route of suffering’, mentioned for the first time in the 16th cent., on which Christ is said to have borne the Cross from Pilate’s house to Golgotha. The last five stations are within the Holy Sepulchre Church (see above). The other stations lie between the Greek Monastery of St. Caralombos (Pl. 24, E F, 4; 8th station) and the Barracks (Pl. G, 3; 1st station) in the Tarîk Bâb Sitti Maryam (street of the Virgin Mary’s gate).

This street leads to the E. to St. Stephen’s Gate (Pl. H, I, 3; 2405 ft.), the only E. gate of the city, called by the natives Bâb Sitti Maryam, or Lady Mary’s Gate, from its proximity to the Virgin’s Tomb (see p. 480).

Within the gate a passage leads to the N. to the fine old =Church of St. Anne= (Pl. H, 3; Arabic Es-Salâhiyeh), on the supposed site of the house of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin. It is mentioned as already existing in the 7th cent., but in its present form dates chiefly from the 12th. The crypt hewn in the rock is the traditional birthplace of the Virgin, and the tombs of Joachim and Anna also are now pointed out.

We now retrace our steps towards the W., and halfway along the Via Dolorosa follow the El-Wâd street (Pl. F, G, 4, 5) to the left, through the hollow of the ancient Tyropœon (p. 472), to the Sûk el-Kattânîn (see below), near the entrance to the Haram esh-Sherîf; or starting from the Old Bazaar, we reach the same point by the TARÎK BÂB ES-SILSELEH (Pl. F, G, 5).

The *=Haram esh-Sherîf= (Pl. G-I, 4–6; ‘noble sanctuary’), the ancient site of the Temple, is the most interesting place in Jerusalem. Adm., see p. 471. The usual entrance is by the Bâb el-Kattânîn (Pl. G, 4, 5), the central W. gate, built by En-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, behind the now deserted Sûk el-Kattânîn (cotton-market).

On this site king David erected an altar (2 Sam. xxiv. 25), and Solomon built his palace and Temple. Here stood also the second Temple, erected about 520–516 after the Babylonish captivity, and the third Temple, begun by Herod the Great (p. 472) in 20 B.C. but never completed on the grand scale projected. On the same spot Hadrian erected a temple of Jupiter as the chief sanctuary of Ælia Capitolina (p. 472), and near the S. wall of the great quadrangle Justinian built a basilica in honour of the Virgin, which afterwards became the mosque of El-Aksâ. Beyond these facts little or nothing is known of the history of this memorable site during the early centuries of the Christian era.

Mohammed, who claimed to have visited this spot, evinced great reverence for the ancient Temple, and before he had broken off his relations with the Jews he even enjoined believers to turn towards Jerusalem in prayer. About the year 637 caliph Omar converted the church of St. Mary into a mosque, and the Omaiyade Abd el-Melik (685–705) erected the famous Dome of the Rock on a platform in the centre of the sacred precincts, a building which the Crusaders took to be Solomon’s Temple. Adjoining the mosque of El-Aksâ, then called the Porticus or Palatium Salomonis, probably stood the royal palace of the Franks and the castle of the Knights Templar.

The huge substructions of the Temple plateau, the surface of which was much altered by Saladin, still date from the reign of Herod. The plateau itself forms an immense quadrangle of irregular shape (W. side 536, E. side 518, N. side 351, S. side 310 yds. long). In the N.W. corner, once perhaps the site of Baris, the castle of the Maccabees, and of the Roman castle of Antonia, rises the highest Minaret of the Haram. The buildings by the W. and N. walls, Koran schools, dwellings, etc., with open arcades on the groundfloor, are unimportant. The great quadrangle, now partly planted with trees, is studded with numerous mastabas, raised platforms with prayer-niches (mihrâbs), and sebîls, or fountains for the religious ablutions. Especially to the S.W. of the Dome the ground is honeycombed with deep Cisterns, some of which are very ancient.

Entering the precincts and passing the pretty Sebîl of Kâït Bey (p. 458) we mount one of the flights of steps of the time of Abd el-Melik to the PLATFORM, 10 ft. in height.

The so-called **=Dome of the Rock= (Kubbet es-Sakhra; Pl. H, 4, 5), usually but erroneously called Omar’s Mosque, was built, according to the Arabian historians, by Abd el-Melik for political reasons, the Omaiyades being at that period denied access to the Kaaba at Mecca. The year 72 of the Hegira (691–2) is mentioned as the date of its erection. The chief restorations in the middle ages were undertaken by the Fatimite Ez-Zâhir (1021–36), who rebuilt the dome in 1022, and by Saladin, to whom is due the superb stucco decoration of the dome. Most of the later additions were made by the Turkish sultan Suleiman the Great (1520–66). The W. porch alone is quite modern.

The building, in the late-Roman and Byzantine style (comp. p. 548), is in the form of an octagon, 50 yds. in diameter, with sides 22½ yds. in length, and with two concentric aisles. Above the inner aisle rises the boldly designed *Dome (98 ft. high), consisting of two wooden vaults placed one inside the other and roofed with plates of copper. The external walls are still incrusted below with their old slabs of marble, while above the window-sills the ancient glass mosaics were replaced in the time of Suleiman by superb Persian porcelain-tiles (kishâni). The keel-arches of the windows are of the same period.

The two aisles are separated by two series of supports. Between the eight pillars of the outer octagonal aisle, which are incrusted with marble dating from the time of Suleiman, rise sixteen columns with late-Roman or early-Byzantine capitals, and the round-arched arcades are connected, above the Byzantine imposts, by tie-beams overlaid with copper. The inner row of supports, bearing the dome, consists of four large pillars and twelve antique monolith columns. The pointed arches of the vaulting here, dating from Suleiman’s restoration, rest immediately on the capitals. The wrought-iron screen is of French workmanship of the Crusaders’ era.

The glass *Mosaics in the spandrels of the outer aisle, executed by Byzantine artificers, all belong to the earliest building; those in the drum of the dome are partly of the time of Ez-Zâhir and of Saladin. The stucco decoration of the dome was restored under Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, and again in 1830. The *Windows, dating from Suleiman’s restoration, present a marvellous wealth of colouring.

Enclosed by the inner aisle, and best viewed from the high bench beside the N.W. gate of the screen, is the Sacred Rock, measuring 18½ by 14½ yds., and rising 4–6½ ft. above the pavement of the church. Under it is a cavity, probably once a cistern. The rock is supposed to have been the site of the great Jewish altar of burnt-offering. The Jews and the Moslems believe it to have been also the scene of Abraham’s sacrifice. From this spot Mohammed is said to have been translated to heaven on his miraculous steed Burâk, while an angel restrained the rock in its attempt to follow him; here too, they believe, will be erected the throne of God on the Day of Judgment.

Outside the E. gate of the Dome of the Rock, and probably as old, is the so-called DOME OF THE CHAIN (Kubbet es-Silseleh, or Mehkemet Dâûd, ‘David’s Place of Judgment’). This structure consists of two concentric rows of columns, the outer forming a hexagon, the inner an endecagon. The large prayer-recess on the S. side, facing Mecca, is of the 13th century. The arcades, connected by tie-beams, and the drum of the dome are richly adorned with fayence tiles of Suleiman’s period. Across the dome, it is said, will be stretched a chain (silseleh) on the Day of Judgment, from which the awful scales will be suspended.

We now descend from the platform by the steps near the ‘Summer Pulpit’ (15th cent.), at the S.E. angle, and walk past the round basin of El-Kâs to the—

*=Mesjid el-Aksâ= (Pl. H, 5, 6), the sanctuary ‘farthest’ from Mecca and one of the holy places of Proto-Islam, to which God is said to have brought Mohammed from Mecca in one night (Sureh xvii. 1). The mosque without its additions is now 88 yds. long and 60 yds. wide. Of the church of Justinian nothing apparently has survived except the columns of the nave and two inner aisles. The capitals perhaps date from caliph Omar’s period (637). The broad transept was probably constructed by the Abbaside El-Mehdi (775–95); the wooden dome is now covered with lead outside. The transept gave the edifice the form of a =⟙=, which was converted later into a rectangle by the two rows of aisles added on the E. and W. These, in their present shape, and the pointed arcades of the nave and inner aisles, connected by tie-beams, belong to a late period of restoration. The so-called White Mosque, now set apart for women, a long double corridor to the W. of the transept, probably once belonged to the castle of the Knights Templar. The latest addition is the porch built by Melik el-Muazzam Isâ (d. 1227) and restored at a later period. Its middle arcades imitate Frank Gothic.

The interior was once almost as sumptuously decorated as the Dome of the Rock. The *Pulpit (mimbar), carved in wood and inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl, executed by order of Nûreddîn (p. 485) in 1169 for the great mosque of Aleppo, was presented by Saladin. To him also the mosque owes the prayer-recess, with its graceful little marble columns, the superb mosaics of the mihrâb-wall, and the drum of the dome. The author or at least restorer of the decorations of the dome is said to have been Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448). The windows date only from the time of Suleiman.

In the S.E. corner of the Haram area a staircase descends to a small Moslem Oratory with the ‘Cradle of Christ’ and to 13 vaulted galleries, part of the old substructure of the Haram, known as Solomon’s Stables. In the sixth gallery, counting from the E., there is a small door in the S. wall called the ‘Single Gate‘, an old entrance to the Haram.

The roof of the ‘Golden Gate’ (Pl. H, I, 4; Bâb ed-Dâhirîyeh), the only E. gate of the Haram, dating from the reign of Justinian (?) but now built up, affords a survey of the whole great quadrangle. At our feet lies the Kidron valley (p. 480), with its rock-tombs, and opposite rises the Mt. of Olives (see below).

Time permitting, we may now visit the Wailing Place of the Jews (Kautal Maarbei; Pl. G, 5), to the W. of the Haram, reached by descending (to the S.) the eastmost side-street of the Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh. It is probable that the Jews, who never enter the Haram precincts for fear of desecrating the holy of holies, were in the habit of repairing hither as early as the middle ages to bewail the downfall of Jerusalem. The scene is most touching on Friday afternoons (after 4 p.m.), when crowds of mourners flock to the place and litanies are chanted.

The =Mount of Olives= (Mons Oliveti, Jebel et-Tûr), running parallel to the Temple hill, is closely associated with the last days of Christ on earth. It is visited (best in the forenoon) either by carriage from the Jaffa or the Damascus Gate (10–12 fr.; ascent ½ hr.), or on horseback (p. 471) or on foot from St. Stephen’s Gate (p. 475). Those who return by the valley of the Kidron should order their carriage to meet them at the Garden of Gethsemane.

From the Damascus Gate (p. 473) the road leads past the Dominican Monastery of St. Stephen (on the right; Pl. E, 1) and then, beyond the Anglican Bishop’s House, past the so-called Tombs of the Kings (on the right). This large subterranean burial-ground, with its tomb-chambers and shaft-tombs, probably belonged to queen Helena of Adiabene and her family (1st cent. A.D.). The road to Nâbulus soon diverges to the left; ours ascends in a wide curve northwards to the top of the Scopus and to the Mt. of Olives.

On the N. height of the Mt. of Olives, to the left of the road, is the new German Augusta Victoria Institute (sanatorium and church).

On the E. summit (2665 ft.) are the Russian Buildings, a pilgrims’ hospice, the Russian Church of the Ascension, and a six-storied Belvedere Tower (214 steps). The *Panorama embraces the city and the hills around Jerusalem and Bethlehem (the latter itself not visible). Towards the E. lie the Dead Sea (1293 ft. below sea-level) and the Jordan valley (Arabic El-Ghôr), and among the bluish Mts. of Moab rises Mt. Nebo (2644 ft.), whence Moses beheld the promised land before his death (Deut. xxxiv. 1–4).

A little to the W. of the Russian Buildings lies the poor village =Kafr et-Tûr=. Near it is the Chapel of the Ascension, built in 1834–5, to mark the scene of the Ascension (in contradiction to Luke xxiv. 50, ‘He led them out as far as Bethany’). Of the earlier churches here, one a round building of Emp. Constantine, the other built by the Crusaders, few traces are left.

To the S. of the village are the LATIN BUILDINGS, including the Credo and Paternoster Churches (1898).

A steep path descends hence, to the W., to the GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE (Pl. K, 4), now the property of the Franciscans. Near the entrance (E. side) a rock marks the spot where Peter, James, and John are said to have slept (Mark xiv. 32 et seq.), and the fragment of a column close by indicates the traditional scene of the Betrayal. (A monk acts as guide; fee 3–6 pias.) A little higher up the Greeks have their own Garden of Gethsemane, containing the many-domed Church of Mary Magdalen (Pl. K, 4).

A few paces to the N.W., on the road to the upper bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 3) and to St. Stephen’s Gate, rises St. Mary’s Church (Pl. K, 3; Arabic Kenîset Sitti Maryam), built by queen Milicent or Melisendis (d. 1161) on the site of an ancient church mentioned as early as the 5th cent.; it contains the ‘coffin of the Virgin’, in which she lay until her Assumption.

The =Valley of the Kidron=, identified from a very early age with the Valley of Jehoshaphat, has been supposed, ever since pre-Christian times, owing to a misinterpretation of Joel iii. 2, to be the future scene of the Last Judgment. The Moslems bury their dead on the E. slope of the Haram esh-Sherîf, and the Jews on the W. slope of the Mt. of Olives.

From the Jericho road, to the S. of the Garden of Gethsemane, a path diverges to the right to the lower bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 5). To the left of the path are the so-called Tomb of Absalom, a cube of rock, with a curious conical roof expanding at the top; St. James’s Cavern, a rock-tomb; and the Pyramid of Zacharias. All these date from the Græco-Roman period.

Farther on, to the S.E., passing below the hill-village of Siloah (Pl. H, I, 7–9; Arabic Kafr Silwân), we come to St. Mary’s Fountain (Pl. H, 7; Aïn Sitti Maryam), an intermittent spring, probably the Gihon of the Old Testament. Since the time of Hezekiah (about 700 B.C.) its water has flowed through the underground Siloah Conduit to the Pool of Siloam (Pl. G, H, 9), within the Jewish town-wall.

Farther down the valley we reach in a few minutes ‘Job’s Well’ (about 2035 ft.; Bîr Eiyûb).

We return thence to the town by the =Valley of Hinnom= (p. 472). The ‘Zion Suburb’ (p. 473) rises steeply on the N.W.; to the left is the slope of Jebel Abû Tôr, covered with rock-tombs. Near (12 min.) the Sultan’s Pond (see below) we join the Bethlehem road.

The EXCURSION TO BETHLEHEM, by a good road (half-a-day; carr. about 12 fr.; horse, see p. 471), will even repay walkers.

The road descends to the S. from the Jaffa Gate (p. 473) into the Valley of Hinnom (see above). Beyond the Birket es-Sultân (Pl. C, D, 8), an old Jewish reservoir restored by Suleiman the Great (16th cent.), the station-road diverges to the right.

Our road leads to the S.W. across the tableland of El-Bukeia (p. 470), past the traditional Well of the Magi (Matth. ii. 9), to the (3 M.) Greek convent of Mâr Elyâs (left). Bethlehem appears in the foreground. Fine view of the Dead Sea (p. 479) to the left.

At (4 M.) ‘Rachel’s Tomb’ (Kubbet Râhîl), built like the welis or tombs of Moslem saints, the Hebron road diverges to the right.

5 M. =Bethlehem= (2550 ft.; pop. about 11,000, almost all Christians), the home of David and the birthplace of our Saviour, has a situation resembling that of Jerusalem. It consists of eight different quarters, containing many monasteries, hospitals, and schools. Fine view from the German Prot. Weihnachtskirche (‘Christmas Church’, 1893), on the W. outskirts.

Over the traditional birthplace of Christ rises *ST. MARY’S CHURCH, now occupied by the Greeks, Latins, and Armenians jointly. The original columnar basilica of the time of Constantine, with its double aisles, is still the nucleus of the present church. It was thoroughly renovated by the Crusaders, and the superb wallmosaics were restored by the Byzantine Emp. Manuel Comnenos (1143–80). The Greeks, who were in sole possession from 1672 to 1852, unfortunately added the transept wall.

INTERIOR. The entrance is by the old central portal, approached from an open space once occupied by an atrium. Three passages lead through the transept, with semicircular apses at either end, to the semicircular choir. Among the almost obliterated mosaics is a quaint representation of the Entry into Jerusalem in the S. apse.

Adjoining the choir are two flights of steps descending into the Crypt, or Chapel of the Nativity, and to the ‘Chapel of the Manger’, the ‘dwelling of St. Jerome’ (b. about 340 in Dalmatia, d. in 420 at Bethlehem), and his tomb, which also are highly revered.

The stairs on the N. side ascend to the Latin Church of St. Catharine, through which we return to the principal church.

For full details, see Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria.

74. Beirut. Excursion to Damascus.

ARRIVAL. The steamers anchor in the harbour (Pl. F, G, 1). The landing is better managed than at Jaffa. Boat for 1 pers. 2 fr.; less for a party, as may be arranged. The hotels and tourist-agents send their men on board. The Douane (Pl. F, 1; passport and custom-house formalities; comp. p. 537) is close to the landing-place.—To the E. of the Douane lies the RAILWAY STATION (Gare; Pl. F, G, 1).

HOTELS. *Hôt. d’Allemagne (Pl. a; E, 1), well spoken of, Hôt. d’Orient (Pl. b; E, 1), both near the sea; Gassmann’s Hotel (Pl. c; F, 1), in the Sûk ed-Jemîl; pens. at these 12–15 fr. (less for a prolonged stay); Hôt. Victoria (Pl. d; E, 1), plainer, etc.—RESTAURANTS. Blaich, Jean Schröter, both near the Hôt. d’Allemagne.

ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS. Four different lines traverse the town (comp. Plan); of these the Blue Line runs from the Place des Canons to the Lighthouse (Phare; Pl. A, 2), near the Râs Beirût (p. 483).

CARRIAGES. Drive 1 fr.; per hr. in town 2, in country 2–3 fr. (more on Sun.). Longer drives as may be arranged.—HORSES. Half-day 1, whole day 1½ mejidieh.

POST OFFICES. Turkish (Poste Turque; Pl. F, 1); British, French, German, and others, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).—TELEGRAPH OFFICE (Internat.; Pl. F, 2), Derb el-Kebîreh (p. 483).

BANKS. Banque Ottomane (Pl. F, 1), Anglo-Palestine Co., German Palaestina-Bank, all at the harbour.—For the Turkish money, see p. 536.

CONSULATES. British (Pl. 2; G, 2): consul-general, _H. A. Cumberbatch_; vice-consul, H. E. W. Young.—United States (Pl. 6; C, 2): consul-general, G. B. Ravndal; vice-consul, L. Memminger.

STEAMBOAT AGENCIES. Khedivial Mail, opposite the custom-house; Austrian Lloyd, Messag. Maritimes, and Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., all in Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1); Società Nazionale, opposite the German Bank.—TOURIST AGENTS. Thos. Cook & Son, in the Hôtel d’Orient; Agence Lubin, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).

CHURCHES. American Presbyterian Mission (Pl. F, 2); services on Sun. at 11 a.m. in English and at 9 a.m. in Arabic. Among the many other missions and schools are the British Syrian, the Ch. of Scotland Jewish, the Syrian Prot., and a number of German, French, etc.

Beirut (Fr. Beyrout, Arab. Beirût; pop. 190,000), the chief commercial place in Syria (Esh-Shâm), and the capital of the Turkish vilayet (province of a vali or governor) of that name, is beautifully situated, in 33° 50′ N. lat. and 35° 30′ E. long., on the S. shore of St. George’s Bay, between Râs Beirût (p. 483) and Mt. St. Dimitri. To the E. rises Lebanon (p. xxxiv), with Jebel Keneiseh and Jebel Sannîn (p. 483). The climate is mild and pleasant (mean temperature of Jan. 56° Fahr., of Aug. 81°), and the rainfall is considerable (34 in.). The sea-breezes render the summer bearable, but they are apt to fail in August and September. Many of the citizens then seek refuge in the summer quarters of Lebanon, to which Egyptians and Cypriotes also resort.

Berytus (‘fountain’) is mentioned in the tablets of Tell el-Amarna (p. 456) as the seat of the Egyptian vassal Ammunira. It lay in the territory of the Giblites, a northern branch of the Phœnicians. In 140 B.C., during the wars of the Diadochi, the town was entirely destroyed. The Romans rebuilt it and named it Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus, after the daughter of Emp. Augustus. In the 3rd cent. its school of Roman law became renowned. From that time down to the present day it has been noted also for its silk-industry, which was transplanted to Greece and to Sicily. In 529 the prosperity of the town was destroyed by an earthquake. Since its conquest by the Arabs in 635 it has been in the possession of the Moslems, except during the brief Crusaders’ occupation. Like Saida (p. 469) it was a favourite residence of the able Druse prince Fakhreddîn (1595–1634), who in league with the Venetians wrested Central Syria from the Turks. They, however, later recaptured Beirut. During the 19th cent. Beirut gradually attained a new lease of prosperity. Under the Egyptian rule its sea-borne commerce increased, while Saida and Tripoli declined. In 1840 the town was bombarded by the British fleet and recaptured for the Turks. After the massacre of Christians in 1860 (see p. 485) many Christians from central Syria settled at Beirut.

The Moslem inhabitants (about 65,000) are in a considerable minority. Among the Christians there are 64,000 Greeks, 40,000 Maronites, and 2100 Protestants. The Jews number about 5500. An unusually large percentage of the natives can read and write. The chief language is Arabic.

Beirut offers few sights. The poor and closely built Old Town contains the Great Mosque (Pl. F, 2), once a Crusader’s church, the Greek Churches, and the Maronite Cathedral (Pl. F, 2).

The Sûks or markets have lost much of their Oriental character. Most of the genuine native products come from Lebanon (keffîyehs or head-cloths, embroidery, woven stuffs, slippers, bridal chests, etc.). The filigree-work has long been noted (sold by weight).

The native population may be studied also in the large Place des Canons or Place de l’Union (Pl. F, 2), on the S. side of the Serâi or government-buildings. The numerous Arabian cafés are for men only.

The broad streets of the NEW TOWN skirt the picturesque hill-sides. Palm, orange, and lemon trees abound in the beautiful gardens. The Damascus Road (tramway; Pl. G, 4, 5) leads to the S. in ½ hr. to the Bois de Pins (Pl. G, F, 6), a pine-wood planted by Fakhreddîn for protection against the sand of the dunes.

The finest point of view is *Mt. St. Dimitri (Pl. H, 3–5; best by evening light), ½ hr. to the S.E. of the old town. From the Place des Canons we follow the Derb en-Nahr (Pl. G, 2) and the Tripoli road, turn to the right beyond the Greek Orthodox Hospital (Pl. H, 2), and then ascend to the left.

From the Place des Canons (tramway, see p. 481) the Derb el-Kebîreh (Pl. F, E, 2) and Derb el-Prusiani lead to the W., below the dunes, to the Râs Beirût. After ½ hr. we reach the Lighthouse (Phare or Fanâr; Pl. A, 2). Thence the road descends in windings to the sea and farther on to the ‘Pigeons’ Grottoes’ (reached by boat from the harbour in ½ hr.; 1½ mej.). The light is best near sunset.

* * * * *

FROM BEIRUT TO DAMASCUS, 91½ M., narrow-gauge railway (20 M. being on Abt’s rack-and-pinion system). Two trains daily in 9¼–11 hrs. (fare 110 pias. 10 or 75 pias.). The passenger should have the exact fare ready before booking. Reyâk is the diningstation for the day-train.

This Railway Company (French) has its own rate of exchange: 1 napoleon = 87 pias.; 1 sovereign = 110 pias.; 1 mejidieh = 18½ pias.

The train runs from the harbour to the E., close to the sea, to the (1½ M.) Chief Station, and through the valley of the Nahr Beirût at the E. base of Mt. St. Dimitri, soon turning to the S. to (4½ M.) El-Hadet. It then rapidly ascends the slopes of Lebanon.

10½ M. Areiya, 13 M. Aleih (2460 ft.), two summer resorts in the Lebanon. The train threads a tunnel to the highest point of the line (4879 ft.). We then descend, enjoying fine views, to the right and left, of Jebel el-Barûk (6749 ft.) and Jebel Keneiseh (6660 ft.), to (35 M.) El-Muallaka, a large village, and station for the Christian town of Zahleh (3101 ft.) on the S. spurs of Jebel Sannîn (8556 ft.; snow-capped in early summer).

We next traverse the lofty valley of El-Bikâ, the ancient Bucca Vallis, watered by the Nahr el-Lîtânî (Leontes), once the most fertile part of Coelesyria (‘hollow Syria’).

41 M. =Reyâk= or Rayak (Buffet; halt of ½ hr.), junction for Baalbek (Heliopolis) and Aleppo (Haleb).

Passing through the narrow Wâdi Yahfûfeh we next ascend the Anti-Lebanon Mts.; 54½ M. Sarrâyâ or Zerghaya (4610 ft.) lies between their two main ranges, on the watershed between the Bikâ and the plain of Damascus.

Beyond (61 M.) Ez-Zebedâni (3888 ft.) the train enters the valley of that name, famed for its fruit and watered by the Nahr Baradâ (Gr. Chrysorrhoas, ‘gold stream’). 71½ M. Sûk Wâdi Baradâ (‘market of Baradâ vale’), at the end of a defile.

76½ M. Aïn Fîjeh, the chief source of the Baradâ, has remains of a Roman Nymphæum (see p. 241). 85 M. Dummar, a villa-suburb of Damascus. The city with its minarets soon comes in sight.

The floor of the Baradâ valley, between (left and right) Jebel Kâsyûn (p. 489) and the hills of Kalabât el-Mezzeh, is well planted with trees. At the mouth of the valley the river divides into seven branches which water the great plain of Damascus.

Skirting large meadows (merj), then orchards, and a Roman Aqueduct, the train reaches (89½ M.) Damascus-Beramkeh (see below), where it is usual to alight, and lastly runs past the W. side of El-Meidân (p. 487) to (91½ M.) Damascus-Meidân.

* * * * *

=Damascus.=—RAILWAY STATIONS. =1.= Beramkeh or Baramki, near the hotels and the Serâi.—=2.= Meidân, near the Bauwâbet Allah, chief station of the Beirut line.—=3.= Kadem, for the Hejâz line (p. 469; no cabs).—Cabs and tramway, see below.

HOTELS. Hôt. Victoria, Hôt. d’Orient, Palace Hotel, all near the Beramkeh Station and the Serâi; Hôt. d’Angleterre, to the E. of the Serâi Square; pens. 10–15 fr. (or more when crowded), in the quiet season 6–10 fr.; good wine of the country (from Shtôra) 1½–5 fr.

ARABIAN CAFÉS, the largest and most interesting in the East, mostly on an arm of the Baradâ, in the Serâi Square, on the Beirut road, the Aleppo road, etc.—Visitors should beware of the cold night-air from the river after a hot day.

CABS in the Serâi Square, 6–7 pias, per drive, or 10–12 pias. per hr. (always to be agreed upon beforehand); but more on holidays and in the height of the season.—ELECTRIC TRAMWAY (3¼ M.) from the El-Meidân quarter viâ the Serâi Square to the suburb of Es-Sâlehîyeh (p. 489).

POST OFFICE and INTERNATIONAL TELEGRAPH OFFICE, Serâi Square.

CONSULS. British, G. P. Devey, near the Beramkeh Station.—United States Consular Agent, N. Meshâka, in the Christian quarter.

DRAGOMANS (Arabic terjumân), about 10 fr. a day during the season, desirable for new-comers (comp. p. xxvi), and essential in visiting the Omaiyade Mosque. Travellers should beware of trusting them with money or purchases.

BANKS. Banque Ottomane, German Palaestina-Bank, both in the Sûk el-Asrunîyeh (p. 486).—PHOTOGRAPHS sold by Suleimân Hakîm, at the E. end of the Straight Street (p. 487).—BATHS. The Hammâm el-Khaiyâtin and the Hammâm ed-Derwîshîyeh or el-Malikeh, among others, are worth seeing.

CHURCHES. English Church (St. John’s), of the London Jews Society, in the Hammâm el-Kari Quarter; Rev. J. E. Hanauer; Sun. service at 10.30. Also Edinburgh Medical, British Syrian Mission, Irish Presbyterian, and other missions, with excellent schools, hospitals, etc.—The Latins, the Greeks, and the Jews also have their own schools.

SIGHTS (when time is limited). 1st Day, in the forenoon, Serâi Square, the Bazaars, and Meidân (pp. 486, 487); afternoon, Es-Sâlehîyeh and Jebel Kâsyûn (p. 489).—2nd Day. Mosque of the Omaiyades (p. 488).

Damascus (2268 ft.), formerly called Dimishk, a name still sometimes used, but commonly called by the natives Esh-Shâm (a term applied also to the whole of Syria; p. 482), lies on the borders of the Syrian Desert (p. xxxiii) in the Rûta, a beautiful oasis between Anti-Lebanon and the ‘Meadow Lakes‘, into which fall all the branches and canals of the Baradâ. As the Koran pictures paradise as a garden, where luscious fruits drop into the mouth, the Arabs have ever regarded Damascus, with its luxuriant orchards, as the prototype of that blissful abode. The Rûta does not, however, and least of all in winter, impress Europeans quite so favourably. Yet in May, when the walnut-tree is in full leaf and the vine climbs exuberantly from tree to tree, or still later, when the apricot-trees in the midst of their rich carpet of green herbage bear their countless golden fruits and the pomegranates are in the perfection of their blossom, the gardens are truly beautiful.

HISTORY. With regard to the foundation of Damascus, which like the whole of Syria belonged from about 1500 B. C. onwards to Egypt and to the Hittite empire (p. 547) alternately, countless traditions are current among the Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. After David had temporarily extended his sway to Damascus, there arose here, in Solomon’s time, an independent Aramæan kingdom under Rezon (1 Kings, xi. 23–25). In the protracted struggles between the neighbouring kingdoms of Israel and Judah the Syrian kings generally succeeded, by means of judicious alliances, in maintaining their independence. In the annals of the Assyrians, who destroyed Damascus in 732, the town is called Dimaski and the kingdom Imîrisu. From that time onwards Damascus lost its political importance; but it continued, especially under the sway of the Seleucides of Antioch during the period of the Diadochi, to prosper as a trading and industrial city and as the starting-point of the caravan traffic with Mesopotamia and Persia. When it became a Roman provincial city it formed a political bulwark against the Arabs (Nabatæans) and Parthians. In 611 A. D., under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, many of its inhabitants were carried into captivity by the Sassanide Chosroes II.

With its conquest by the Arabs in 635 begins the most brilliant period in the history of the city. Under Mûawiya (661–79), founder of the dynasty of the Omaiyades, the greatest of Arabian princes, it became the seat of the caliphate. But when the Abbasides removed their residence to Mesopotamia in 750 Damascus again sank to the position of a provincial town. It fell successively into the hands of the Egyptian Tulunides and Fatimites (p. 443), and at length in 1075 succumbed to the Seljuks (p. 542). In 1148 it was unsuccessfully besieged by Conrad III. Under Nûreddîn and Saladin (p. 443) Damascus was the chief base of all the wars against the Crusaders. During the conflicts between the Mongols, who under Hûlagû had captured the city in 1260, and the Egyptian Mameluke sultans, Damascus was specially favoured by Beybars (1260–77). During the great predatory expedition of the Mongols under Timur (1399–1400) many scholars and artists, including the city’s famous armourers, were exiled to Samarkand. In 1516 the Turkish sultan Selim I. (p. 542) entered the city as its final conqueror. In 1860 there took place a great massacre of Christians in which the Christian quarter was utterly destroyed and about 6000 Christians killed.

Damascus consists of several different quarters. The Jews’ Quarter, as in the time of the Apostles, adjoins the ‘Straight Street’ (p. 487), on the S.E. side of the city; to the N.E. of it is the poor Christian Quarter. The other parts of the town are Moslem. Far towards the S. stretches the suburb of Meidân, inhabited by peasants. The Arabian houses in the old town are noted for their splendour. They usually contain a spacious court, adorned with fountains, flower-beds, orange-trees, etc., and flanked on the S. side by a lofty open arcade (lîwân) with pointed arches.

The population is roughly estimated at 300,000, of whom four-fifths are Moslems, and there is a garrison of 12,000 men. The Damascenes are notorious for their ignorance and fanaticism. The city was once a great centre of learning, but of about a hundred old medresehs or colleges five only now remain. The famous old weaving industry of the place (still employing about 10,000 primitive looms for silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs) is being steadily ousted by European competition. The busy bazaar traffic here is hardly less picturesque than at Cairo.

We begin our visit at the SERÂI SQUARE, the centre of business, built over the main branch of the Baradâ (p. 484). A Monument here commemorates the opening of telegraphic communication with Mecca.

To the E. of the square are the *=Bazaars=. Through the covered Sûk Ali Pasha (fruit and tobacco) we reach the Sûk el-Hamîr (donkey-market), beyond which is an open street where corn is sold.

At a large plane-tree here we turn to the right to visit the interesting Sûk es-Surûjîyeh (saddlers’ market), which ends near the citadel at the Sûk en-Nahhâsîn. This is the bazaar of the coppersmiths, who make the handsome kursi, or trays placed on wooden stands (p. 487) to serve as tables.

The =Citadel= (no admittance), a huge castle in the style introduced by the Crusaders, was built in 1219 and was afterwards restored by Beybars (p. 485). The thick walls stand on ancient substructures of massive blocks. At the corners rise square towers with bartisans. The chief gate is on the W. side.

From the W. side of the Citadel the chief thoroughfare of the city (tramway, see p. 484) leads past the Military Serâi and the Hammâm el-Malikeh (or ed-Derwîshîyeh) to the Meidân suburb (p. 487). On the left is the Sûk el-Kharrâtin, or Turners’ Market.

Opposite the Military Serâi is the entrance to the ‘Greek Bazaar‘, a covered market restored in 1893, one of the largest in the city. Among the wares, for which buyers can hardly offer too little, are weapons, antiquities, clothing, pipe-stems, and ‘damascened’ daggers (made in Germany).

Straight through the Greek Bazaar we come to the Sûk elHamîdîyeh, also renovated, with its attractive Arabian sweetmeatshops. A side-street leads thence (l.) to the bazaar for Water Pipes (a kind of hookah smoked by the peasants) and the Sûk el-Asrunîyeh, for utensils, glass, henna (p. 108), and attar of roses (p. 335).

Beyond the Sûk Bâb el-Berîd (on the left) we pass the almost deserted bazaar-street of the Booksellers (leading to the Omaiyade mosque, p. 488), with an old Triumphal Arch; whence a double row of columns once led to the ancient temple (see p. 488). We then turn out of the Hamîdîyeh, to the right, into the Cloth Bazaar (chiefly imported goods). On the right is the Tomb of Nûreddîn (p. 485; unbelievers not admitted).

Adjoining the S. side of the mosque are the bazaar of the Joiners, where we note the kabkâbs, a kind of patten, the kursistands, and the bridal chests, and that of the Goldsmiths.

To the S. of the great mosque is the region of the KHÂNS (p. 445). We come first to the Khân el-Harîr, or silk-bazaar, now that of the furriers. Near it is the House of Asad Pasha, one of the finest in the city (admittance with the aid of a dragoman). The *Khân Asad Pasha, with its superb stalactite portal, is the largest of all.

Near this point runs the ancient ‘STRAIGHT STREET’ (Acts ix. 11; now Sûk et-Tawîleh, or ‘long market’), connecting the Meidân road with the Bâb esh-Sherki (see below). A few paces to the W., towards the Meidân road, on the left, is the Khân Suleimân Pasha, for Persian carpets and silks. On the right, where the cloth-bazaar (see above) diverges, is the Silk Bazaar proper, for the sale of keffîyehs (head-cloths, ‘kerchiefs’), table-covers, embroidery, woollen cloaks (abâyehs) for peasants and Bedouins, etc.—We next come to the Sûk el-Attârîn, or spice-market, and to the Meidân Road.

At the point where we join this road rises the =Jâmi es-Sinânîyeh=, one of the most sumptuous mosques in Damascus. The chief portal (E. side), with its rich stalactites, and the minaret enriched with fayencetiles (kishâni, p. 477) are interesting.

The road forks farther on. We follow the Meidân Road (at first called Sûk es-Sinânîyeh) to the S. Close to the Jâmi el-Idein, where the Meidân Road trends somewhat to the right, we pass, on the left, the Moslem cemetery Makbaret Bâb es-Sarîr, where women weep at the tombs on Thursdays.

The poor suburb of =Meidân= is modern. Its numerous mosques, including the fine Kâat el-Ûla, are in a ruinous state. The sûk is frequented by corn-dealers, whose grain is heaped up in open barns, and by smiths. The arrival of caravans here presents a picturesque scene. The long strings of camels are attended by ragged Bedouins. Among them are seen Haurânians, bringing their corn to market, and here and there a Kurd shepherd with his square felt-mantle driving his sheep to the shambles. The Bedouins, armed with guns or with long lances, sometimes ride beautiful horses. The wealthy Druses from Lebanon have a most imposing appearance. Twice a year almost all these types may be seen together: on the departure, and again, better still, on the return of the Mecca pilgrims.

If time permit we may now retrace our steps to the cemetery Makbâret Bâb es-Sarîr (see above) whence we take a short walk along the =City Wall=, on the S.E. side of the old town, beyond the Jewish and Christian quarters (p. 485). Its foundations are Roman, the central part dates from the days of Nûreddîn and the Egyptian sultan El-Ashraf Khalîl (1291), and the upper part from the Turkish period. Passing the camping-ground of the caravans from Bagdad and the Bâb esh-Sherki (E. Gate, originally Roman), we come to the well-preserved Bâb Tûmâ (St. Thomas’s Gate). [About ¾ M. to the S. of the Bâb esh-Sherki are Christian burial-grounds; in one of which Henry Thomas Buckle, the eminent English historian (d. 1862), is interred.]

Near the Bâb Tûmâ on the Aleppo road, beyond the Baradâ, are public gardens and pleasant cafés patronized by Christians. We return thence to the Citadel (p. 486), passing between the Baradâ and the N. side of the town-wall, here probably Byzantine.

The great *=Omaiyade Mosque= (Jâmi el-Umawî), the finest monument of that dynasty in Syria next to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), deserves close inspection. Entrance by the W. gate (Bâb el-Berîd), at the end of the booksellers’ sûk (p. 486). Gratuity to the sheikh who acts as guide ca. 1 mejidieh each person; addit. charge for slippers 1–2 pias. each person.

On the site of the mosque there once stood a Roman temple within a large quadrangle. This was succeeded by the church of St. John, a three-aisled basilica built by Emp. Theodosius I. (379–95), and so named from the ‘head of John the Baptist’ (Arabic Yahyâ) preserved in the Confessio, by which the Damascenes still swear. After the conquest of the city by the Arabs (p. 485) the E. half of the church was assigned to the Moslems. Caliph Welîd (705–15) deprived the Christians of the W. half also; and in 708, with the help, it is said, of 1200 Byzantine artificers, he transformed the church into the present mosque, which was so magnificent that Arabian authors extolled it as one of the wonders of the world. Adjacent to it the earliest school of learning was built by caliph Omar II. (717–20). The mosque was carefully restored after fires in 1069, 1400, and 1893, but its ancient glory has departed for ever.

We enter the great COURT, which with the mosque itself forms an immense rectangle of 143 by 104 yds., and is flanked by two-storied arcades in the Byzantine style. Behind these are the sleeping-apartments and studies of the teachers and students. The old marble pavement of the court, the mosaic incrustation of the walls, and the crown of pinnacles have disappeared. The fountain of ablution (Kubbet en-Naufara) and the two smaller domed buildings are modern.

Of the three TOWERS the ‘bride’s minaret’ (Mâdinet el-Arûs; now being rebuilt) on the N. side of the court is said to date from the time of Welîd. The ‘minaret of Jesus’ (Mâdinet Isâ), at the S.E. angle of the mosque, recalls the Crusaders’ edifices. The Mâdinet el-Rarbîyeh, at the S.W. angle, in the Egypto-Arabian style and famed for its view, was added by Kâït Bey (p. 458).

The INTERIOR (143 by 41 yds.), with its three span-roofs, still has the form of an early-Christian basilica. Above each of the two rows of columns, 23 ft. high, which separate the aisles, rises a row of ‘colonnettes’ with round-arch openings, to which similar round-arched windows in the outer walls correspond. In the centre a threefold transept, with four huge pillars supporting the dome (Kubbet en-Nisr, eagle’s dome), indicates the direction of Mecca. The Byzantine glass-mosaics of the time of Welîd, the superb timber ceiling, and the mihrâb and mimbar (15th cent.) were all sadly damaged by the fire of 1893. In the central aisle on the E., over the ‘head of John the Baptist’, rises a modern dome in wood.

On the N. side of the mosque, near the Bâb el-Amâra, are the handsome Tomb of Saladin (Kabr Salâheddîn; adm. 6 pias.) and the Medreseh and Tomb Mosque of Sultan Beybars (p. 485), the latter, according to the inscription, built by his son in 1279.

The suburb of =Es-Sâlehîyeh= (tramway, see p. 484), l–1/4 M. to the N.W. of the Serâi Square, has about 25,000 inhab., mostly descended from Seljuks, reinforced later by Kurds and by Moslem refugees from Crete. The finest of the ruinous mosques, but not readily shown, is the tomb-mosque of Muhieddîn ibn el-Arâbi (d. 1240), adjoined by the tomb of Abd el-Kâder (p. 221).

From the Cretan quarter at the W. end of the suburb we may ascend, past a platform affording a good view, to the (1¼ hr.) top of the Jebel Kâsyûn (3718 ft.). The *View at the small Kubbet en-Nasr (‘dome of victory’) embraces the city, encircled by the broad green belt of the oasis of the Rûta, the barren heights of Anti-Lebanon, with the long chain of Mt. Hermon (9052 ft.; generally snow-capped) to the S.W.; and to the S.E., beyond Jebel Mâni, the distant hill-country of the Haurân.

Fuller details in Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria.

75. From Beirut to Smyrna (and Constantinople).

713 M. STEAMERS (agents at Beirut, see p. 481; at Smyrna, p. 531; at Constantinople, pp. 538, 539). =1.= Messageries Maritimes (N. Mediterranean Marseilles and Beirut line), from Beirut every alternate Sat. (from Constantinople on Thurs.) viâ Rhodes, Vathy, and Smyrna to Constantinople in 4 days (fare 205 or 140 fr.).—=2.= Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (see also R. 72; Syria-Egypt circular line, coming from Alexandria) from Beirut on Thurs. night (in the reverse direction Thurs. aft.) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Chios, and Smyrna to Constantinople in 8½ days (fare 284 or 212 fr.; to Smyrna 198 or 148 fr.).—=3.= Khedivial Mail Steamship Co. (comp. also R. 72; from Alexandria and calling at Port Said) leaves Beirut every alternate Wed. foren. (returning Sat. aft.) for Constantinople (in 7 days) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Rhodes, Chios, Smyrna, Mytilini, the Dardanelles, and Gallipoli (fare £E 9¼ or £E 6½; see p. 431).

Beirut, see p. 481. The French steamers make straight out to sea in a W. direction. Astern Lebanon remains long in sight.

About half-a-day’s steaming brings us in view of the mountains of =Cyprus= (Turk. Kibris; pop. ca. 243,000), culminating in the bare Troodos (6408 ft.). Under the Phœnicians and Greeks Kypros, the third-largest island in the Mediterranean (3613 sq. M.), was the seat of the cult of Aphrodite and the scene of a peculiar civilization, the product of Egyptian, Phœnician, and Greek influences in succession. In the middle ages the island was governed by kings of the house of Lusignan and was for a time the seat of the Knights of St. John (1292–1308; see pp. 475, 469, 490). Since 1878 it has been under British protectorate and only nominally Turkish.

Far away to the right we see the table-shaped Capo Greco and the bays of Larnaka and Limassol. We then pass, on the S. coast of Cyprus, the prominent peninsula of Akrotiri, with Cape Gata (lighthouse) and Cape Zevgari. Beyond Port Paphos (lighthouse) we skirt the rocky W. coast of the island.

On the coast of =Asia Minor= (Anatolia), on a clear day, we sight the beautiful ranges of the Lycian Taurus (10,500 ft.; p. xxxiii); at night the lighthouse on the island of Kasteloryzo (ancient Megiste), with the seaport of Mandraki, is sometimes visible.

To the S.E. of Rhodes we cross one of the deepest parts of the Mediterranean (12,683 ft.).

Nearing =Rhodes= (562 sq. M.; ca. 30,000 inhab.), the eastmost island of the Greek Archipelago, we sight its S.E. coast as far as Attáiros (4068 ft.; formerly Atabyrion) and Cape Lartos. The latter rises beyond the small bay of Lindos, which together with Ialysos and Kamiros, ancient Greek towns on the N. coast, and with Cnidus, Cos, and Halicarnassus, once formed the league of the Doric Hexapolis.

The French steamers call at Rhodes (Hôt. Karayannis, good; Brit. vice-cons.), the capital of the island, picturesquely situated at its N.E. point. Founded in 408 B. C. by the three older towns (see above) it became famous in later Greek times for its navy and for the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue of Helios 112 ft. high, which was accounted one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The ruinous mediæval *Fortifications and the Strada dei Cavalieri, with the old ‘Houses’ (places of assembly) of the different nations, recall the mediæval glory of Rhodes under the sway of the Knights of St. John (1308–1522) after their expulsion from Cyprus (p. 489).

We next steer through the Ægean Sea, where the scenery and the historic associations are alike most attractive. We pass the S. Sporades, Greek islands off the coast of ancient Caria and Lydia, once ruled by the Knights of St. John, and now called Dodekanesos (‘twelve islands’), which enjoy autonomy under Turkish suzerainty.

Steaming to the W.N.W. we cross the inland sea of the ancient Doris, between Rhodes and Cos, noted for its sponge-fishery. On our right lies the Anatolian peninsula of the ancient Chersonesus Rhodia, with Cape Alupo (Cynossema) and the island of Symi (Syme); to the W. rise the precipitous and fissured island of Telos (Tilos; 2008 ft.) and the volcanic island of Nisyros (2268 ft.), with its huge, still smoking crater and its hot springs. To the N.W. stretch the long outlines of Chersonesus Cnidia, with the ruins of Cnidos and Cape Krio (Triopium Promontorium).

The steamer rounds the E. coast of Cos (2871 ft.; Turk. Istankiöi; not one of the Dodekanesos group), once the seat of the most ancient shrine of Æsculapius and of a famous medical school (Hippocrates), and passes the peninsula of Budrum (Halicarnassus). To the W. appear in succession the islands of Kalymnos (2248 ft.), Leros (1086 ft.), Lipso (902 ft.; Lepsia), and Arki (Acrite).

To the E. of the island of Gaïdaronisi (696 ft.; Tragia), where Cæsar was captured by pirates in 76 B. C., opens the Latmian Bay, belonging to the ancient Ionia, now silted up by the deposits of the Mæander. A little inland are the ruins of Miletus and Priene.

The French steamers now pass through the Straits of Samos, between the Samsun Dagh (4150 ft.; Mykale) and the island of =Samos=, whose old capital, Samos, now Tigani, with its walls of the age of Polycrates and its new harbour (1908), is seen in the distance.

=Vathy= (Xenodochion Hegemonia tēs Samu, a good inn; pop. 9500), the new capital of Samos, lies in the bay of Scalanova (set below), on the N. coast. Above the narrow bay rises the distant Samsun Dagh. On the shore stands the plain palace of the Samian princes. Since 1832 the island has formed a Christian-Greek state under Turkey. The Museum, in the court of the high school, contains antiquities from the famous shrine of Hera and from Tigani.

The French vessels, soon after starting, offer a retrospect of Mt. Kerki (4725 ft.; Cerceteus Mons), the highest in Samos, and then cross the Bay of Scalanova (Sinus Caystrius). In the hill-country on the mainland, to the E. of this bay, near the mouth of the Cayster or Kaystros, once lay the rich Ionian towns of Ephesus and Colophon and, to the N. of these, Lebedus and Teos.

Passing the Bay of Sighajik and Cape Koraca (Carycium Promontorium) we soon reach the Straits of Chios (comp. p. 492).

Smyrna, see p. 530; voyage thence to Constantinople, see p. 533.

76. From Alexandria to Athens and Smyrna (and Constantinople).

FROM ALEXANDRIA TO THE PIRÆUS (Athens: 590 M.): =1.= Khedivial Mail Steamship Co. (Alexandria and Constantinople line), from Alexandria on Wed. (returning from the Piræus Thurs.) aft., in 42 hrs. (fare £ E 5 or £ 3 E 25 pias.).—=2.= Rumanian Mail Line (Alexandria and Constantza line), from Alexandria on Frid. aft. (returning from the Piræus Sat. aft.), in 2 days.—=3.= Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (Odessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria line), from Alexandria on Frid. aft. (from the Piræus Tues.), in 2 days (130 or 90 fr.).

FROM ALEXANDRIA TO SMYRNA (623 M.), steamers of the Belgian company La Phocéenne (between Alexandria and Constantinople), every Sat. aft. viâ Rhodes, Leros, and Chios.

Agents in Alexandria, see p. 432; at the Piræus, p. 494; at Smyrna, p. 531. Passports for Turkey should be visés before starting, or a Turkish passport (teskeré) may be obtained at the government buildings (p. 434).

Alexandria, see p. 431. The ATHENS STEAMERS steer to the N.W. to the Strait of Kasos, 28 M. broad, lying between Kasos (1706 ft.; one of the Dodekanesos group, p. 490) and Crete (p. 415). Behind Kasos rises the lofty island of Kárpathos (4003 ft.; Ital. Scarpanto, Turk. Kerpe), like the former one of the southmost of the Sporades. Fine view of the Sitía Mts. (4852 ft.), continued by the Lasithi Mts., together called Dikte in ancient times. Off the E. coast of Crete we see the flat islet of Elasa.

We steer close by Cape Sídero (lighthouse), the N.E. point of Crete, and past the Gianitsades (Insulae Dionysiades). As we steam across the Cretan Sea (Mare Creticum) the high mountains of Crete long remain visible.

We next pass Askania (469 ft.) and Christiana (916 ft.), the southmost islets of the Cyclades (p. xxxii), which belong to Greece, and which, like the S. Sporades (p. 490) in the Ægean Sea, rise from a submarine barrier running between the extremities of Attica and Eubœa (p. 529) and the coast of Asia Minor.

Beyond Christiana we have a striking view of the immense prehistoric crater-basin formed by the islands of Therasía (952 ft.) and Santorin (p. 417). To the N. appear the wild rocky island of Síkinos (1480 ft.) and the distant Iós or Niós (p. 417), and to the N.W. Pholégandros (1349 ft.) and the large volcanic island of Melos or Milos (2537 ft.).

We steer between Pholégandros on the right and Polinos (1171 ft.) on the left, a broad passage marked by lighthouses at night, and then through the strait between Kímolos (1306 ft.) on the left and Siphnos (2280 ft.; lighthouse) on the right, both of which, like Sériphos (1585 ft.; on the right; with iron-mines), have retained their ancient Greek names.

Passing at some distance from Thermiá (1148 ft.; the ancient Kythnos) and Kea (p. 529) we steer close by the islet of Hágios Georgios and through the Bay of Ægina to the Piraeus (p. 494).

* * * * *

On the VOYAGE TO SMYRNA we steam to the N.N.W., 370 M. from Alexandria, to Rhodes (p. 490).

Beyond Rhodes on the left are the island of Charki (1954 ft.), off its N.W. coast, and then Telos and Nisyros (p. 490). A little farther on we pass through the strait between the Syrina Group, on the left, and the islets of Kandelëusa and Pantelëusa (181 ft.; lighthouse), adjoining Nisyros, on the right.

To the W. we sight the double-peaked island of Astropalia (1660 ft.; ancient Astypalaea) and Amorgós (p. 417), and to the E. Cos and Kalymnos (p. 490). Beyond the lights on the islet of Lévitha (548 ft.) and beyond Leros (p. 490), at which the steamer calls, the rocky isle of Patmos or Patínos (870 ft.), St. John’s place of exile, becomes more conspicuous.

We next steer round Cape Papas, the W. point of the bold island of Nikaria or Ikaria (3422 ft.), and then to the N.N.E. through the Straits of Chios, 4½ M. in breadth, between the island of =Chios= (Turk. Sakis Adasi; 318 sq. M. in area) and the mainland of Anatolia or Asia Minor. The S. entrance of the straits, beyond Capo Bianco (right; once Argennon), is flanked with the islets of Páspargon (lighthouse) and Panagia. On the right lies the harbour of Cheshmeh, a little town with a mediæval castle.

We now enter the harbour of =Kastro=, or Chios (Xenodochion Nea Chios, a good inn; pop. about 14,000, mostly Greeks), the capital of the island, on the E. coast. Once a most important member of the Ionian league of cities, Chios belonged in the middle ages to the Venetians (1204–1345), and then to the Genoese (1346–1566), and only became Turkish under Suleiman the Great (p. 542). The fruitless Greek struggle for independence ended with the massacre of Chios in 1832. The hill-country of Chios is extremely fertile. A valuable export is the gum of the mastic-shrub.

We next pass close to the Goni Islands, lying in front of the bay of Lytri (Erythrae), and the Spalmatori Islets (Œnussae Insulae), at the N. end of the straits of Chios.

Sail up the Gulf of Smyrna, see p. 530.

77. From (Marseilles, Genoa) Naples to Athens (and Constantinople).

774 M. FROM NAPLES TO ATHENS (steamboat-agents at Marseilles, see p. 120; at Genoa, p. 114; at Naples, p. 137; at the Piræus, pp. 494, 495). =1.= North German Lloyd (Mediterranean & Levant Service, RR. 23, 24, 80) from Marseilles every other Thurs. viâ Genoa (Sat.), Naples (Mon.), and Catania (Tues.) to the Piræus in 6 days (fare from Marseilles 180 or 120 marks, from Genoa 168 or 112 marks, from Naples 120 or 84 marks, from Catania 96 or 64 marks).—=2.= Messageries Maritimes (Marseilles, Constantinople, and Beirut line), from Marseilles every second Thurs. viâ Naples (Sat.) to the Piræus in 4 days (fare 225 or 150 fr.); also (Marseilles, Constantinople, and Black Sea line) every second Sat. viâ Kalamata and Canea (p. 415) to the Piræus in 5 days.—=3.= Società Nazionale, lines X and XI (Genoa, Constantinople, and Odessa line), from Genoa, Tues. night, viâ Leghorn (p. 143), Naples (Frid.), Palermo (p. 147), Messina, Catania, and Canea (p. 415) to the Piræus in 11 days (fare from Naples 155 fr. 50 c. or 109 fr.).

From Marseilles and Genoa to Naples, see RR. 23, 24.

From Naples (see R. 27), after half-a-day’s sail, we reach the superb Straits of Messina. On the right, at the foot of the Monti Peloritani, lie the ruins of =Messina= (p. 156); to the left is Reggio (p. 159); to the S.W. towers Mt. Ætna (p. 159).

The German and Italian boats steer to the S.S.W. to =Catania= (p. 160).

Sailing to the E.S.E., and gradually leaving Ætna behind, we lose sight of land for a whole day. At length, on the left, we sight the Messenian Peninsula of the Peloponnesus, flanked by the Œnussae Islands; beyond it, the Bay of Koronē, the ancient Messenian Bay, runs far inland. We then steer to the E. towards Cape Taenaron or Matapán (p. xxxii), the S. point of the peninsula of Mani. To the N.E. looms the bold rocky crest of Mt. Taygetos (7903 ft.), whose top is free from snow in summer only.

Beyond Cape Tænaron the Bay of Marathonisi, the ancient Sinus Laconicus, opens to the N. We next pass between Cape Maléa, notorious for its storms, and the island of Kythera (1660 ft.; Ital. Cerigo), and turn towards the N. For a short time we see the mountains of Crete (p. 415) to the S.E. The bleak S.E. coast of the Peloponnesus is now gradually left behind, while to the right a few small rocky islands, belonging to the Cyclades (p. 492), come into sight.

Off Hydra (1942 ft.; lighthouse), near the peninsula of Argolis, opens the Bay of Ægina, the ancient Saronic Gulf. To the left is the island of Poros; in the background rises Mt. Hágios Elias (1748 ft.), the highest hill in Ægina. On the right, beyond the islet of Hagios Geōrgios (1050 ft.; lighthouse), the ancient Belbina, appears the hilly S. extremity of Attica with Cape Colonna (p. 529). The barren rounded hill in Attica, much foreshortened at first, is Mt. Hymettos; straight in front of us is Mt. Parnes, forming the N. boundary of the Attic plain.

Before us are the ancient Mt. Ægaleos (now Skaramangá Mts.) and the indented coast of the island of Salamis, which appears at both ends to join the mainland. Above Salamis towers the lofty peak of Geraneia in Megaris. A hill jutting into the sea in front of Mt. Ægaleos now becomes visible. This is the Piraeus Peninsula (comp. Map, p. 528). The hill a short way inland is the Munychia (p. 495), and to the right of it lies the shallow bay of Phálēron (p. 528). Between Hymettus and Parnes the gable-shaped Pentelikon appears. We now have a beautiful view of Athens; in the centre rises the Acropolis, on the left the monument of Philopappos. The large white building on the right is the royal palace, beyond which rises Lykabettos (p. 528).

As we near the Piræus we observe the rocky islet of Lipsokutáli (Psyttaleia; lighthouse), lying off the E. tongue of Salamis, and masking the entrance to the straits of Salamis, the scene of the famous battle of 480 B. C. (p. 506). The steamer rounds the headland of Aktē and slowly enters the harbour of the Piræus.

=Piræus.=—The COMMISSIONNAIRES of the chief Athens hotels come on board (those of the smaller, only when written for). Arrangements for landing (boat 1 dr., with baggage 2 dr.) and for a carriage to Athens (p. 495) had better be left to them. Heavier baggage is briefly examined at the Teloníon, at the S. E. angle of the harbour.

STATION of the electric railway to Athens (comp. p. 503), to the N. of the town (opposite the station of the Peloponnesus line).

HOTEL. Hot. & Restaurant Continental, Karaïskakis Sq., to the N. of the harbour, R. from 2 dr.; but better quarters are to be had in Athens.—CAFÉS in and near the garden to the S. of the Dēmarchía, 3 min. to the E. of Karaïskakis Sq., on the harbour.

ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS from the custom-house to the Athens station; from the station to the Zea harbour; also from the station, from the harbour (Karaïskakis Sq.), or from the Rue de Socrate to New Phálēron (p. 528).

STEAMBOAT AGENTS. Messageries Maritimes, Vamvakaris, Rue de Miaulis 30 b; North German Lloyd, Roth & Co., Rue de Tsamadú 21; German Levant, Frangopulos; Austrian Lloyd, S. Calucci, Quai de Tshelebi, to the W. of Karaïskakis Sq.; Società Nazionale, A. Vellas; Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., Mussuris.

BRITISH CONSUL, C. J. Cooke; vice-consul, J. Joannidis.

The Piraeus, Gr. Peiraieus (pronounced Piræévs; pop. 71,500), the time-honoured seaport of Athens (comp. p. 506), became a mere village after its destruction by Sulla in 86 B. C., and in the middle ages even lost its name, but within the last few decades has developed into a prosperous town. Its trade now exceeds that of Patras. The harbour, the ancient Kantharos, admits the largest vessels. Spacious quays, an exchange, a theatre, wide and regular streets, and over a hundred factories have been constructed.

Its antiquities are few compared with those of Athens. The chief are parts of the fortifications, such as a wall defended by towers, ascending the peninsula of Eétioneia, to the W. of the harbour. It is reached from the station in 8 min. by walking round the shallow N. arm of the harbour (the ‘blind harbour’ of antiquity). On the hill it is pierced by a gateway between two round towers.

A broad and easy path ascends the Munychia Hill (280 ft.), to the E. of the town (20 min.), whence we overlook the various basins of the Great Harbour, the round Zea Bay at the S.W. foot of the hill, the Munychia Harbour at the S.E. base, and to the E. of the latter the broad Phaleron Bay, where the Athenian ships lay down to the time of the Persian wars. We may return by the Zea Bay, noticing remains of ancient boat-houses at the beginning of the Rue du Serangeion, and regain the station by tramway.

FROM THE PIRÆUS TO ATHENS (5 M.) the electric RAILWAY (p. 503) is the quickest conveyance, but as it lies low and runs through cuttings and tunnels near the city it affords little view.

New-comers had better take a CARRIAGE. The new route (1½ hr.; fare, with luggage, 8–10 dr.), though longer, is in better condition, and is therefore preferred by the drivers. At first running alongside the railway it reaches New Phaleron (p. 528); it then skirts the bay of Phaleron at some little distance from the shore. Later proceeding inland it follows the broad new Boulevard Syngrós, which commands an excellent view of the Acropolis and leads in a straight line as far as the Olympieion (p. 509).—The old route (1¼ hr.; fare, with luggage, 6–7 dr.) follows the ‘Long Walls’ (p. 506) which once connected the Piræus with Athens. On the left is Mt. Ægaleos (p. 494), while on the right appears the bay of Phaleron. We cross the generally dry bed of the Kephisos (p. 505), and then pass the limits of the ancient olive-grove that occupies the plain of the Kephisos. Leaving behind a hill which conceals the Acropolis we at once come in sight of the Theseion, the Areopagus, and the Acropolis. The houses of the city, which we reach at the Dipylon (p. 522), all too soon exclude this splendid view. Athens, see p. 502.

78. From Venice or Trieste to Athens (and Constantinople) viâ Brindisi and Patras.

FROM VENICE TO THE PIRÆUS (Athens), Società Nazionale (Line XII, Venice, Brindisi, Patras, and Constantinople), from Venice on Sat. aft. (returning from Piræus Frid. foren.), to Patras in 4½, to the Piræus in 5 days (fare 195 or 134 fr.).

FROM TRIESTE TO THE PIRÆUS. =1.= Austrian Lloyd (fast boats to Constantinople) from Trieste on Tues. aft. (returning from Piræus Sun. even.) to Patras in 2½, to the Piræus in 4 days (fare to Patras 159 or 109, to Piræus 220 or 147 fr.). Also Greek-Oriental Line (every Sun. foren.; returning from Piræus Sun. aft.), in 5 days, and Thessalian Line (Frid. aft.; returning from Piræus Frid. or Sat.) in 6½ days.—=2.= Greek Steamboat Co. Panhellenios, from Trieste on Frid. foren. (from Piræus Mon. morn.) to Patras in 3, to the Piræus in 5 days.

From Trieste to Patras, New York Line of the Austro-Americana (p. 425), from Trieste weekly or fortnightly, in 42–46 hrs. (fare 150 or 110 K). Passengers for the Piræus are conveyed through the Corinth canal by the Achaia Co., or they may go on by rail (see below).

Agents in Venice, see p. 420; at Trieste, p. 425; at Brindisi, p. 429; at Corfu, p. 497; at Patras, p. 501; at the Piræus, pp. 494, 495.

FROM PATRAS TO ATHENS, 137½ M., railway in 7½–9½ hrs. (fare 25 or 18 dr.); express on Tues. and Frid. in 6–1 ‘wagon de luxe’ 33 dr. 40 l.). As to Greek money, see p. 502.

The Italian steamers (comp. p. 427) from Venice touch at Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi. The Lloyd steamers, except those of the Thessalian line, go direct from Trieste to Brindisi (comp. p. 429).

Soon after leaving Brindisi we steer to the S.E. To the left of the Straits of Otranto (p. 430) are seen the outlines of Albania (Turkey), with the great rampart of the Acroceraunian Mts. (6644 ft.). Farther on, in the foreground, lies the island of Corfu. On the right are the Othonian Islands, Othoní, Eríkusa, Mathraki, and the islet of Diaplo. At the S. end of the Acroceraunian Mts. lies Santi Quaranta, where the Italian steamers call, the poor seaport for Yánina, which is two day’s ride (59 M.) distant.

The scenery of the wide Strait of Corfu (2–4½ M. broad), separating the island from the mainland, is very imposing. To the right towers Monte San Salvatore (p. 500). The town of Corfu, partly hidden at first by the island of Vido, is now revealed. On casting anchor we have on our left the double hump of the Fortezza Vecchia and on the right the dark ramparts of the Fortezza Nuova.

* * * * *

Corfu.

ARRIVAL. Landing or embarking 1½, with heavy baggage, 2 dr. As the boatmen are insolent, there is no tariff, and great confusion prevails, the traveller had better allow the hotel-agents who come on board to arrange for boat, baggage, and carriage, for which a charge of 3–4 fr. is made in the bill. Passengers who go ashore for a few hours only may bargain to be landed and rowed back for 1½ fr., payable on their return.

HOTELS (tariffs payable in gold, see p. 502). *Hôt. d’Angleterre & Belle Venise (Pl. a), to the S. of the town, high site, with fine views and garden, R. 3–7, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5 fr.; St. Georges (Pl. b), on the Esplanade, similar charges.—Unpretending houses, with restaurants: Belvedere, Strada sulle Mura, pens. 7 dr.; the following are in the Greek style: Orient, on the Esplanade; Patras, Nikephoros Street; Hôt. d’Alexandrie, R. 2 fr., and Hôt. de Constantinople, R. 3 dr., both near the harbour.

CAFÉS in the Esplanade, at the beginning of the double avenue; cup of Turkish coffee 20 l.—RESTAURANTS. Abbondanza (Greek), Nikephoros Street, moderate; Patras, Belvedere, see above.—BEER. Dobay, on the Esplanade; Gambrinus, near the Old Theatre (p. 498).

BANKS. Fels & Co. (Pl. 1), Strada sulle Mura; Banque Ionienne, Nikephoros Street, not far from the Esplanade; Banque Nationale.—POST OFFICE, adjoining the Sanità, Nikephoros Street.—TELEGRAPH OFFICE, near the Banque Ionienne.

STEAMBOAT OFFICES. Austrian Lloyd, Ellerman Line, Fels & Co. (see above); Società Nazionale (Pl. 8), G. Topali.—TOURIST AGENCY. Hamburg-American Line, Strada sulle Mura.—LLOYD’S AGENTS, Barff & Co.

CONSULATES. British (Pl. 3): consul, G. Raymond; vice-consul, P. Papadachi.—United States (Pl. 7): consular agent, Ch. E. Hancock.

CARRIAGES. Drives in town or nearer environs 2–3 dr. per hr., as may be agreed upon; short drive usually 1 fr. Carr. obtained at the hotels are better but dearer.—BOATS for excursions may be ordered at the hotels.

MOTOR CARS (belonging to the Société d’Automobiles): omnibus daily to the N. and S. parts of the island, each person 10 l. per kilomètre; vehicle seated for live 50 l. per kilomètre.

THEATRES. Teatro Grande, built in 1895 on the model of San Carlo at Naples, near the Porta Reale; Ital. opera in winter; Summer Theatre, to the S. of the Ginnasio.

SEA BATHS (80 l. to 1 dr.) and plunge-baths, near Punta San Nicolò.

ENGLISH CHURCH (Holy Trinity), service in the season.

Corfu, Ital. Corfù, Greek Kérkyra, the capital of the island of the same name and the seat of archbishops of the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, is one of the wealthiest towns in the Greek dominions (pop. 28,250, incl. 4000 Rom. Cath. and 2700 Jews). The spacious harbour is enlivened by a brisk trade, the chief export being olive-oil. The fortifications constructed by the Venetians, the Fortezza Vecchia, picturesquely situated in the sea, on a double rock to the E. of the town, and the Fortezza Nuova, on the N.W., are both now unimportant. The narrow streets present a busy scene. The chief languages are Greek and Italian.

Kérkyra. Lat. Corcyra, the largest (245 sq. M.) and most important of the Ionian Islands, was supposed in ancient times to have been Scheria, the home of the Phæaci and their king Alkinoos. Having been colonized by the Corinthians at an early period (734 B. C.), it developed into a dangerous rival of its mother-city, thus partly causing the Peloponnesian war. The mediæval name seems to have been derived from ‘Korphus’, as the old fortress on the two rocks was called. From 1386 to 1797 Corfu belonged to Venice, from 1815 to 1863 it was under British sway, after which it was ceded, along with the other Ionian Islands, to the kingdom of Greece.

The island (with 93,860 inhab.) possesses hill and plain, bold rocks and charming bays on the coast, abundant water-supply, rich vegetation, and fine old olive forests, which combine to render its scenery highly attractive. The climate is mild and equable in spring and autumn. The good roads made everywhere by the British government add to the comfort and enjoyment of a short stay in the island.

On disembarking we cross the courtyard of the Dogana, turn to the left at the small Hôt. de Constantinople, and follow the Strada sulle Mura, which skirts the N. side of the town, affording numerous fine views, and reaches the Esplanade near the royal palace. Or we may ascend direct from the Dogana through the Strada Nikephoros, the busy main street, in 5 min. to the Esplanade. Before we reach the Esplanade we pass a side-street on the left with the church of Santo Spiridione, and another on the right with the Teatro Vecchio, built by the Venetians, now the municipio.

The ESPLANADE, or Spianata, lies between the town and the old fortress. On the W. side it is bounded by handsome houses with arcades on the groundfloor. At the N. end rises the—

=Royal Palace=, built in grey Malta stone, at the beginning of the British period, for the Lord High Commissioner, and containing the throne-room and the hall of the former Ionian senate. The entrance is by the W. side-door (gratuity). A marble staircase ascends to the first floor. At the top is an antique lion couchant.—In front of the palace is a Statue of Sir Frederick Adam, a much respected Lord High Commissioner of the islands (1823–32).

At the E. end of the double avenue intersecting the Esplanade rises a statue of Count von der Schulenburg, who conducted the defence of Corfu against the Turks in 1716, erected by the republic of Venice. Beyond it a bridge crosses a strait to the—

*=Fortezza Vecchia= (adm. on application), which rises on the steep twin-rocks in terraces. The dilapidated buildings are now used as barracks and a military hospital. At the foot of the height is the garrison-church built by the British. The passage opposite the chief entrance gives access to the commandant’s house. We ascend hence to the left, pass through a long vaulted passage, leading straight on to the ramparts, which are overgrown with vegetation, and lastly mount a few steps to the platform on the W. rock (230 ft.; with signalling station and lighthouse). The custodian lends a telescope (25 l.). We enjoy here a superb **View of the town and of the island, from Monte San Salvatore and Capo Cassopetto on the N. to Capo Bianco on the S.; to the E. is Epirus in Turkey, with its lofty mountains.

A broad street descends from the S. end of the Esplanade to the VIALE DELL’ IMPERATRICE ELISABETTA, formerly Strada Marina, skirting the shore below the new quarter of the town and now a favourite promenade in the evening. At the beginning of it, on the right, is the Casino, with reading and concert rooms. Turning to the right after 4 min., and then to the left, we come to the Museum, containing ancient sculptures and tomb-inscriptions. Near it is the round Tomb of Menecrates, resembling a well (7th or 6th cent. B.C.). Above is the ruined Fort of San Salvatore (prison).

The boulevard sweeps round the suburb of =Kastrades= or Garitza first to the S. and then to the E. to the Molo protecting the bay. At a bend, short of the molo, we follow the Viale Imperatore Guglielmo Secondo to the right (S.). After 7 min., opposite the apse of the old church of Santa Corcyra, we ascend a road to the left. A gate on the left is the entrance to the—

*=Royal Villa of Monrepos= (Villa Reale; free on Sun. and Thurs. aft.). The park affords fine views of the town and castle.

The Viale Imperatore Guglielmo skirts the W. slope of the hilly peninsula which stretches to the S., between Lake Kalikiópulo and the sea. Here probably lay the ancient city, with the bay of Kastrades as its trading harbour, while the Lake of Kalikiopulo, now choked with mud, seems to have been the Portus Hyllaeicus, used as a station for vessels of war. The road is bordered with rose and orange gardens, and farther on with beautiful olive-groves. In 25 min. (or from the Esplanade in ¾ hr.) we reach a round open space, called the *=Canone=, or One-gun Battery (carr. 5–6 fr.), which commands a superb view of the E. coast of the island.

Opposite, at the entrance to the ancient Hyllæan harbour, lies the Scoglio di Ulisse (‘cliff of Ulysses’), or Pontikonisi (‘mouse island’), a cypress-planted islet with a chapel and parsonage, now owned by an enterprising German. The Greeks took this to be the ship of the Phæacians which had brought Odysseus to Ithaca, and on its way back was turned into stone by the angry Poseidon. The S.W. shore of the Lake of Kalikiopulo, where a brook named Kressida enters the lake, is pointed out as the place where Odysseus was cast ashore and met the princess Nausicaa.

The charming drive to Gasturi and Benizze (7½ M.) and back takes 3–4 hrs. (carr. 10–15 dr.; as far as the Achilleion, there and back 2½ hrs., 8–10 dr.). We leave the town by the former W. gate, or Porta Reale and pass through the suburb of San Rocco. The road runs a little to the W. of Lake Kalikiopulo and ascends in windings to (5 M.) =Gasturi= (Achilleion, pens. 7 dr.). About ½ M. farther, a little to the left, is the villa *=Achilleion= (adm. to the building and the grounds 11–3, 2 dr.), built in 1890–1 for Empress Elizabeth of Austria (d. 1898), in the Italian Renaissance style, and purchased by the German emperor in 1907. The back of the villa is adjoined by a peristyle and three terraces adorned with statues. On the road, just beyond the villa, is the Restaurant Bella Vista. We now descend (short-cuts for walkers) to the (2 M.) fishing-village of Benizze, where delicious oranges grow, and where there are remains of a Roman villa (boat to Corfu, 5 dr.)

Another delightful excursion is to Santi Deca (carr. 10–15 dr.; there and back 5–6 hrs.). About ¾ M. short of Gasturi the road diverges to the right from the Benizze road. The drive to the village of Hagi Deka or Santi Deca (‘ten saints’; 676 ft.) takes 1¼ hr. (the walk 2 hrs.). Thence we ascend (guide) the (1 hr.) double-peaked =Monte Santi Deca= (1862 ft.), where we have a superb view, notably of the Albanian coast. A narrow path then descends, the last part through olive-groves, to (½ hr.) Apano-Garuna, and proceeds thence to the N. to (¼ hr.) the pass of San Teódoro or Hagios Theódoros (788 ft.), where the carriage quitted at Santi Deca may be ordered to meet us. The drive back to Corfu viâ Kamára takes 1½ hr.

The monastery of =Palæokastrizza= (‘old castle’), on the W. coast, about 15 M. to the N.W., is a delightful point of view (carr. there and back 20–25 dr., in 6 hrs., excl. stops). A road diverging to the right about halfway, 1½ M. beyond the picturesque bay of Govino, crosses the Pheleka and leads over the fine San Pantaleone Pass and through hill scenery to the N. coast. Far to the right, on the E. coast, rises Monte San Salvatore (Greek Pantokrator; 2998 ft.; ascended with guide in 3 hrs. from Spartilla; carr. from Corfu to Spartilla viâ Giovino, Ipso, and Pyrgi, in 2½ hrs., about 20 dr.).

See also Baedeker’s Greece.

* * * * *

As the STEAMER leaves Corfu the picturesque fortress remains long in view. The highest hill on the right is Monte Santi Deca (see p. 499). The strait widens. To the left is the mouth of the Kalamas; beyond it tower the Albanian Mts.; on our right is Cape Lévkimo. On the left, off Kavo Aspro or Capo Bianco, the S. point of Corfu, lie the small Sybota Islands, where, in 432 B. C., was fought the great naval battle between the Corinthians and the Corcyræans, supported by the Athenians, which marked the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war.

In 2½–3 hrs., after passing the rocky islets of Paxos and Antipaxos, we reach the open Ionian Sea. On the mainland is seen the little town of Parga.

We now leave in the distance the Epirote coast, where, off Actium, at the mouth of the Ambracian bay, Octavian’s naval victory over Antony in 31 B.C. gave him the sole supremacy. On the left the island of Levkás (Ital. Santa Maura) remains long in sight; its S.W. headland, Kavo Dukato, 5 M. long, ends in the Leucadian Rock, which once bore a temple of Apollo. Sappho, who loved the beautiful Phaon, is said to have thrown herself from this rock, a leap which was supposed to cure unrequited love.

We round the cape and enter the strait between Levkás and Kephallēnía (Ital. Cefalonia). Steering to the S.E., past the E. side of Ithaca, we have a good view of its beautiful mountain with a deep depression in the middle. At the entrance to the bay of Patras lie the Oxia Islands. Here in 1571 was fought the naval battle of Lépanto, where Don John of Austria annihilated the Turkish fleet.

Nearing Cape Kalógria, the N.W. point of the Peloponnesus, we observe to the N., beyond a narrow strip of coast and a large lagoon, the little town of Misolonghi or Mesolóngion, where Byron died in 1824. Beyond it rises Mt. Zygós (3107 ft.), the last outpost, to the W., of the high Ætolian range. Next, on the N. shore also, we sight the finely-shaped Varássova (3007 ft.) and Klókova (3415 ft.). In the Peloponnesus, to the S., tower the Olonos Mts. (7300 ft.) and the Voïdiá (6322 ft.). Patras, completely surrounded with currant-plantations, becomes more and more distinctly visible.

=Patras.=—ARRIVAL. The steamer anchors in the harbour near the Molo San Nicolò (examination of luggage at the railway-station, see below). Landing or embarkation 1, with baggage 2 dr.; but the boatmen usually try to extort far more. Hotel-boat 2½ dr.—STATION, to the N.E. of the harbour, 5 min. from the landing-place.

HOTELS (charges should be agreed upon beforehand) all near the landing-place. Hôt. d’Angleterre, R. 2–5, B. 1, déj. 3½, D. 5, pens. 8–12½ fr., well spoken of; Gr.-Hôt. de Patras, R. 4, B. 1½, déj. 3, D. 4, pens. 12½ fr.; between these, New & Tourist Hotel, St. Andreas Street, R. 2½ fr., B. 70 c., déj. 2½, D. 3½, pens. 8 fr., well spoken of.—CAFÉS-RESTAURANTS at the first two hotels.

POST OFFICE, St. Nicholas Street.—TELEGRAPH OFFICE, in the first cross-street to the right as we come from the harbour.

CAB. Drive in town 1 dr.—ELECTRIC TRAMWAY in St. Andreas Street, parallel with the quay, and to the upper town.

STEAMBOAT OFFICES. Austrian Lloyd, St. Andreas Street, next the New Hotel; Austro-Americana, Morphy & Son; Panhellēnios, St. Andreas St., a little to the W. of the harbour; Società Nazionale, St. Andreas St.

CONSULATES. British (next Gr.-Hôt. de Patras): consul, F. B. Wood; vice-consul, G. W. Crowe.—United States (opposite the Gr.-Hôt. de Patras): consul, A. B. Cooke; vice-consul, H. J. Woodley.

ENGLISH CHURCH (St. Andrew’s), near the station (see above); service at 11 a.m.

Patras, the third town of Greece (pop. 37,700), is surpassed in its trade by the Piræus only. Currants, the staple produce of the Peloponnesus, and wine are the chief exports. The town was destroyed by the Turks in 1821, and after the war of independence was rebuilt with broad and regular streets bordered with arcades.

Patrae first rose to importance under Augustus and afterwards gained great wealth by its trade. In 1205 the Franks made it their base for the conquest of the Peloponnesus (Morea). Since the 15th cent. it has belonged successively to the Venetians, the Pope, the Byzantines, and the Turks, and since 1833 to the kingdom of Greece.

The main street is that of Hagios Nikólaos (St. Nicholas), leading to the S.E. from the quay. The third cross-street to the right leads to the Platia Hagios Geórgios, containing the theatre and law-courts. The second side-street to the left leads to another square with the High School, which contains a few ancient sculptures. The first street to the N.E. running parallel with the Hagios Nikólaos Street leads to the Castle, once Venetian, then Turkish (now barracks and prison), which affords a fine view of the gulf.

Excursion to Olympia by railway (5 hrs.), see Baedeker’s Greece.

The RAILWAY FROM PATRAS TO ATHENS (137½ M., in 6½–9½ hrs.; see p. 496) is preferable to the steamers, as the traveller thus gains several clear hours for Athens. The Corinth Canal is used by the Società Nazionale and Achaia Co. only. The voyage round the Peloponnesus to the Piræus (360 M.) takes more than a day.

The train skirts the narrow S. margin of the *Gulf of Corinth, the grand mountains of which recall those of the Norwegian fiords. Between the ruined fortresses of Rhion and Antirrhion, a little way from Patras, the gulf narrows to 1¼ M. and soon, near Naupaktos, contracts again. 25 M. Ægion (Buffet); 33 M. Diakophto, whence a rack-and-pinion line mounts the hills inland. Then, above two deep bays on the N. bank, towers Mt. Parnassus. At the E. end of the gulf lies (81 M.) Corinth (halt of ¼ hr.; Buffet, déj. 4 dr.). In the isthmus of Corinth the train crosses the Corinth Canal (3¾ M. long, 25 yds. wide, 26 ft. deep) by a bridge 170 ft. high, and then skirts the N. bank of the Saronic Gulf (p. 494). On the right the eye ranges as far as the mountains of the Argolis peninsula and Ægina. Beyond (108 M.) Megara we near the N. coast of Salamis. Beyond (120½ M.) Eleusis the train turns inland and passes through the depression between (r.) Mt. Ægaleos (p. 494) and (l.) Mt. Parnes into the Attic plain. Arrival at (137½ M.) Athens, Peloponnesian Station, see below (hotel-agents in waiting; carr. 2 dr.).

* * * * *

Most STEAMERS (see p. 501) set out in a W. direction from the Gulf of Patras, holding straight out to Kephallenia and keeping distant Ithaca to the right. They then steer to the S. between the promontory of Chelonatas, the W. point of the Peloponnesus, and the island of Zante or Zakynthos. Beyond the cape and the little harbour-town of Katakolo, the calling-place for Pyrgos and Olympia (p. 501), the coast recedes and forms the sweeping curve of the Gulf of Kyparissia; behind rise the heights of the Lykaeon (4659 ft.). Later on we pass the Strophades on the right. At the extremity of the Gulf of Kyparissia the Ægaleon (4003 ft.) marks the beginning of the Messenian Peninsula. The steamers double the S. point and from here to the Piræus their course is the same as that of the Naples boats (see pp. 493, 494).

79. Athens.[8]

STATIONS. Peloponnesian (Pl. B, 1), for Patras, etc., on the N.W. side of the town.—Piraeus Railway, see p. 503.—Tickets also at the tourist-agencies, see 504.

Footnote 8:

MONEY. Greece belongs to the Latin Monetary Convention. The franc is called a drachmē (dr.; pl. drachmǽs), the centime leptón (l.; pl. leptá). The currency is chiefly paper (notes of 1, 2, and 5 dr.), and the chief banks issue also their own notes (for 10, 25, 100, 500 dr., etc.). In nickel there are coins of 5 l. (pendára, a sou or soldo), 10 l. (dekára), and 20 l.; in copper, 1, 2, 5, and 10 lepta. The only silver coins of full value are the 5 fr. pieces. It is safest to decline all foreign silver. The present exchange (1911) for the English pound is about 25 paper dr., for the gold 20 fr. piece 20 dr.

=Hotels.= At most of the hotels it is usual to arrange for a fixed charge per day; at the chief English and French are spoken; charges mostly in gold, that is, in francs instead of drachmæ; charges higher during the Olympic games. *HÔT. DE LA GRANDE-BRETAGNE (Pl. b; F, 5), Place de la Constitution, opposite the Palace, R. from 7½, B. 2, déj. 5, D. 6, pens. 17½–30 fr.; *GR.-HÔT. D’ANGLETERRE (Pl. a; F, 5), Place de la Constitution, cor. of the Rue d’Hermès, pens. 17½–25 fr.; *PALACE HOTEL (Pl. p; E, 4), Rue du Stade 18, R. 5–10, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens. from 12 fr.; these three are of the first class.—*TOURIST HOTEL (Pl. t; E, 5), cor. of the Rue d’Hermès and Rue de la Boulé, R. 3–8, B. 1, déj. 4½, D. 5, pens. 10–15 fr.; GRAND-HÔTEL (Pl. d; F, 5), Place de la Constitution, cor. of Rue du Stade, R. 3–6, B. 1¼, déj. 3½, D. 4½, pens. 8–12 fr.; HÔT. DES ETRANGERS & SPLENDID (Pl. c; F, 6), Place de la Constitution, cor. of Rue des Philhellènes, R. 5–7, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens. 10–15 fr.; *HÔT. DE LA MINERVE (Pl. g; F, 5), Rue du Stade 5, near Place de la Constitution, pens. from 12 fr., also R. from 4 dr. out of the season; *HÔT. HERMÈS (Pl. s; E, 3), Boulevard de l’Université 46, pens. from 10 fr., also R. without board from 3 fr., B. 1 fr. 20 c., déj. 3½, D. 4½ fr.; *HÔT. D’ATHÈNES (Pl. f; E, 4), cor. of Rue du Stade and Rue de Korais, R. 3–6 dr., B. 1 dr. 20 l., déj. 4, D. 5, pens. 10–14 dr., or less for some stay, R. alone, out of season, from 3 dr.; these three are good second-class inns in the Italian style, with restaurants; HÔT. ROYAL (Pl. r; F, 5), Rue du Stade 9, with garden, R. 4–10, B. 1, déj. 3½, D. 4, pens. 10–12 fr.; HÔT.-PENS. ST. GEORGES (Pl. h; E, F, 5), Rue du Stade, beside the Parliament House, R. 3–5, B. 1, déj. 3½, D. 4, pens. 8–15 fr.; *HÔT. IMPÉRIAL (Pl. i; F, 5), Rue Karageorgevitch, R. 2–10, pens. 8–12 fr.; HÔT. NATIONAL (Pl. q; E, 4), Rue du Stade 30, R. (from 3 dr.) and B. (1½ dr.) only, good.—In the warm season a mosquito-curtain (kunupiera) should be asked for.

=Pensions=, recommended for a stay of some time. Maison Merlin (Pl. G, 5), cor. of the Rues de Kanári and de Sekéri; Pens. MacTaggart, Rue du Stade 12, opposite the Parliament, pens. from 8 fr.; both English.

=Restaurants.= At the Hôtels de la Minerve, Hermès, and d’ Athènes, see above; also good, in the Rue du Stade: No. 6, Averof, with garden; No. 24, Cité, with garden; at corner of the Rue de Patisia, Kapsēs; in Rue de Thémistocle, Sintrivanēs. French usually understood.

=Cafés.= Zacharátos, Place de la Constitution, corner of the Rue du Stade (music on summer evenings); Zacharátos, Place Omónia, N. side; at the Zappion (p. 508), where there is always a cool sea-breeze.—TEA ROOMS. Khrysákis, Place de la Constitution.

=Wine.= Achaia Wine Co., Rue de Niké 1 (Pl. E, 5, 6).—BARS. Papagiannakis, Rue du Stade 40; Apotsos, Rue du Stade 9; Skekos, Rue Karageorgevitch (Greek beer 30 l. per glass).

The =Water= of the Aqueduct (p. 528) is, especially in the hot months, not above reproach. The hotels and restaurants supply good water from the Marusi spring. The mineral waters of Sáriza and Lutraki cost about 25 l. per half-bottle.

=Cabs.= To or from Peloponnesian Station 2 dr.; short drive in town 1 dr., longer 1½ dr.; to the Acropolis 2 dr.; to the Piræus with luggage 6–10 dr.; drives in town and environs 20–30 dr. per day; per hr. 3, afternoon 4 dr. (with one horse cheaper). Agreement advisable.

=Tramways= (numbered; fare 10–15, transfer 15 l.; comp. Plan). The chief lines are: =1.= From Academy (Pl. F, 4) viâ Place de la Constitution, Amalia St., Rue de Phalère (Pl. D, 8), Tsitsiphiés (on the coast), and then alternately to the left to Old Phálēron and to the right to New Phálēron; fare 25 l.—From PLACE OMÓNIA: =2.= viâ Rue du Stade, Place de la Constitution (Pl. F, 5, 6), and Rue des Philhellènes to the English Church (p. 504); =3.= viâ the National Museum to Patisia (comp. Pl. E, 1); =4.= viâ the Rue du Pirée, Dipylon, Theseion Station (Pl. B, 5), Monasteraki Station, and the Rue d’Athéna to Place Omónia; =5.= viâ the Rue Constantin to Peloponnesian Station (Pl. B, 1).—=12.= From Place de la Constitution (Pl. F, 5, 6) viâ the Rue des Philhellènes and Boulevard Olga (Pl. F, G, 7, 8) to the Stadion (Pl. G, H, 8).—=16.= From the Academy (Pl. F, 4) to the Acropolis.

=Electric Railway= to New Phálēron and the Piraeus every ¼ hr., in 18 min. (fare 65 or 45 l., return 1 dr. 15 or 80 l.; to Phaleron 40 or 30, return 75 or 55 l.). Three stations in Athens: Omónia (Pl. D, 3), Monastēráki (Pl. C, 5), and Theseion (Pl. B, 5); fare between these 5–10 l.; the ticket-clerks speak French.

=Tourist Agents.= Thos. Cook & Son, Place de la Constitution, corner of Rue d’Hermès; Ghiolman Bros., T. D. Ralli, both same Place.—For steamboat-agents at the Piræus, see p. 495.

=Banks= (9–12 and 3–5; in summer, forenoon only). Banque Nationale (Pl. D, 3), Rue d’Eole; Banque d’Orient (Pl. D, 3, 4), Rue de Sophocle; Banque d’Athènes (Pl. E, 4), Rue du Stade 32; Banque Ionienne (Pl. E, 4), same street, No. 14.

=Post & Telegraph Office= (Pl. D, 3), opposite Banque Nationale. Letter under 15 grammes within Postal Union 25 l., in Greece 20, in Athens 10 l.; registration 25 l.; deltarion or post-card, 10 or 5 l.

=Theatres= (Nov. to May). Royal National (Pl. C, 2), Rue Constantin; Théâtre Municipal (Pl. D, 3). Several summer-theatres.—=Bands= play every summer evening in the Place de la Constitution, at the Záppion (p. 508), and at New Phaleron (p. 528). Military band, Place de la Constitution, Sun. and Thurs. afternoons.

=Photographs.= Barth & Eleutheroudakis, booksellers, Place de la Constitution (Alinari’s and Boissonnas’s photographs, etc.); Rhomaïdēs (Pinacothèque Hellénique), same square; Simiriotēs, Rue des Philhellènes 2.—REQUISITES: Tavanakēs & Georgantopulos, Rue d’Hermès 12; Pestarini, Rue du Stade 2; Ragnio, Rue du Stade, opposite the Parliament.

=Legations and Consulates.= GREAT BRITAIN: Minister, _Sir Francis E. H. Elliot_, Rue de Dragatsani 8 (Pl. E, 4). Consul, _T. Cornish_.—UNITED STATES: Minister, G. H. Moses, Rue Sina 16. Consul-General, W. H. Gale, Rue Regilles 6; vice-consul, _B. Melissinos_.

=English Church= (St. Paul’s; Pl. F, 6, 7), Rue des Philhellènes, corner of Palace Garden; chaplain, W. A. Gardner, Rue du Lycée 1. Services at 8 and 10.30 a.m., and 6 p.m.

=Scientific Institutions=, all under supervision of the General Ephoros or director Dr. P. Kavvadias; office in the Ministère des Cultes, Rue d’Hermès. The Greek Archaeological Society, Rue de l’Université 20 (Pl. F, 4), is the central authority for antiquarian research in Greece.—British School of Athens (Pl. I, 4), Rue de Speusippe; American School of Classical Studies, same street; also French, German, and Austrian institutes. National Library (Pl. E, 3); open 19–2, 3–5, and 8–11.

=Collections.= Acropolis Museum (p. 519) and National Archaeological Museum (p. 526), on week-days from 9 (Dec. and Jan. 10) to 12, and from 3 (Oct.-March from 2, June-Aug. from 4) till sunset. On Sun. and holidays the National Museum is open 10–12, and the Acropolis Museum in the afternoon only. Adm. free (sticks and umbrellas 20 l.).—Numismatic Museum (p. 525), Wed. and Sat. 9 (or 10)–12 and 3–6, free.—Historical and Ethnographical Museum (p. 526), daily except on holidays, 2–5, adm. 50 l.

=Plan of Visit.= THREE DAYS: 1st. *Acropolis (p. 512), *Acropolis Museum (p. 519); afternoon, Lykabettos (p. 528).—2nd. *National Museum (p. 526); afternoon, Stadion (p. 509), Olympieion (p. 509), Monument of Lysikrates (p. 510), Theatre of Dionysos (p. 510), *Odeion (p. 511), Areopagus (p. 512), Acropolis by sunset.—3rd. Boul. de l’Université (p. 525), region to the N. of the Acropolis (pp. 520 et seq.); afternoon, *Theseion (p. 521), *Dipylon (p. 522), Hill of the Pnyx, Tomb of Philopappos (p. 524).

If 1½ DAY only be available we first drive to the Acropolis (p. 512), to which we devote 2 hrs.; then visit the Odeion (p. 511), the Theatre of Dionysos (p. 510), the Monument of Lysikrates (p. 510), the Olympieion (p. 509) with Hadrian’s Arch (p. 508), and the Stadion (p. 509); we then drive past the Tower of the Winds (p. 520), the Market Gate (p. 521), and Hadrian’s Stoa (p. 520) to the Theseion (p. 521), and if possible also to the ancient Cemetery outside the Dipylon (p. 523). Lastly, in half-a-day, we may drive through the Boul. de l’Université (p. 525), glance at the chief modern buildings, and visit the National Museum (p. 526).

Athens (130–492 ft.; pop. 167,500), modern Greek Athénai, lies 3¾ M. from the Saronic Gulf, in the great Attic plain, which is closed on the W. by Ægaleos and Parnes and on the E. by Hymettos and Pentelikon. The city is bounded on the S.E. by the Ilissos and on the W. by the Kephisos. The valleys of these streams are separated by the Turkovuni hills, whose S. spur, the Lykabettos, rises abruptly above Athens on the E. A broad saddle separates the latter from the rock of the Acropolis and a group of hills farther to the W.; these include the Philopappos or Museion, the Pnyx, and the Nymphs’ hills, and slope gently down to the sea.

The Athens of antiquity circled round the Acropolis and included the hills on its S.W. and W. sides (see Plan, where traces of ancient walls and the probable direction of the streets are indicated). The modern city extends to the N. of the Acropolis, far towards the plain of the Kephisos. Down to 1834 Athens was a poor village. Now, as the capital of the kingdom of Hellas, it has developed into one of the finest cities of the E. Mediterranean, and is quite European in character.

The main street is the Rue du Stade, connecting the Syntagma Square (Place de la Constitution; Pl. F, 5, 6) with the Omónia Square (Place de la Concorde; Pl. D, 2, 3). This street and the broad E. end of the Rue d’Hermès (see below) contain the principal shops. The Syntagma Square forms the centre of traffic. Parallel with the Rue du Stade runs the Boul. de l’Université (Panepistēmion), in which the chief public buildings are situated. This new E. quarter, known as Neapolis, is adjoined, to the W. of the Rue du Stade, by the older business quarter, the main arteries of which are the Rue d’Hermès (Pl. B-E, 5; p. 520), running to the W. from the Syntagma Square, and the Rue d’Athéna (Pl. D, 3–5), running from the Place de la Concorde to the S. and intersecting the Rue d’Hermès at right angles. Parallel to the latter is the Rue d’Eole (p. 520), which leads to the N., past the National Museum, to Patisia, and is prolonged to the S. to the Tower of the Winds at the foot of the Acropolis. The Piræus is the chief seat of industry and the wholesale trade.

HISTORY. The Athenians prided themselves on being the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, whose earliest kings are said to have been Cecrops, builder of the Acropolis, Erechtheus, Pandion, and Ægeus. Research, however, attributes the earliest settlement on the Acropolis to the Pelasgians, afterwards expelled by Ionian invaders. Theseus, the fifth king, is regarded as the actual founder of Athens. To him Thucydides assigns the Synœkismos (in 1259 B.C., it is said) or subordination of all the Attic communities to Athens as their capital. Originally consisting of the Acropolis only, the city gradually extended in all directions.

After the self-sacrifice of Kodros (1068 B.C.) the kings were succeeded by Archons, first of the house of Kodros and afterwards elected from the ranks of the Eupatridæ (landed nobles). Internal dissensions and the capricious rule of this aristocratic oligarchy led at the end of the 7th cent. to the codification of the existing law of Athens by Drakon, a measure succeeded in 594 B.C. by the democratic reforms of Solon. Eligibility for the highest offices was henceforth to depend, not on birth, but on the possession of property and the payment of taxes (‘timocracy’). The judges were to be chosen by lot, and a council (Boulē) of 400 members (Bouleutæ) was placed over the archons as the supreme governing body.

In 561 B.C., however, while Solon was still alive, Peisistratos, an ambitious but humane man and a patron of art, succeeded in usurping the position of tyrant. He and his sons Hippias and Hipparchos brilliantly developed the city. Roads were made to the various ‘demoi’ or communities of Attica, and a copious supply of water was brought by a subterranean conduit from Hymettos. The Olympieion was begun, the ancient temple of Athena on the Acropolis, the ‘hekatompedon’, was enclosed with a colonnade, and other large buildings were erected. All this splendour, however, did not compensate for the want of a free constitution; in 514 Hipparchos was assassinated by Harmodios and Aristogeiton and in 510 Hippias was banished with the aid of the Spartans. After further democratic reforms, and after various wars with adjoining states, which led to the development of the Athenian fleet, the little Attic state obtained the leadership of the whole nation in the Persian wars. In order to punish Athens for supporting the revolt of the Greek towns in Asia Minor (498), Darius I., king of Persia, sent an army of over 200,000 men with a huge fleet, under Datis and Artaphernes, across the Ægean Sea in 490. Contrary to all expectation the Athenians under Miltiades, assisted by the Platæans only, defeated the immense Persian army on the plains of Marathon. Even more glorious, and still further confirming the hegemony of Athens, was the result of the campaign of Xerxes against Greece in 480. After the heroic resistance of Leonidas and his Spartans at Thermopylæ had been overcome by the slaughter of the devoted band the whole of the huge army and armament of the Great King bore down upon Attica to avenge the defeat of Marathon. The Athenians took to their ships. The city was occupied by the Persians, the Acropolis captured, and the temples burned down. But the decisive naval victory won at Salamis (480), and due to the unflinching courage and pertinacity of Themistokles, broke the power of the Persians. The citizens had scarcely re-entered Athens when they were again compelled to retire before the army of Mardonios, but their great victory at Platæa in 479 finally relieved them from the menace of a Persian yoke.

Having taken the most glorious part in these terrible struggles Athens now became the natural leader of the Greeks in the war of retaliation. In 474 this leadership found expression in the foundation of the Attic and Delian naval league. The zenith of the Athenian power coincided with the rebuilding of the city, which progressed rapidly in spite of the opposition of the Spartans. The fortification both of the city and its harbour, which the genius of Themistokles had removed to the Piræus, was taken in hand with special vigour, and in 460–445 the ‘Long Walls’ were erected, stretching from the Piræus and from Phaleron to Athens itself. Next, under the rule of Perikles, arose the magnificent buildings on the Acropolis. A colossal statue of Athena Promachos in gold and ivory, by Phidias, was erected out of the Persian booty in 438, when the cella of the great Parthenon also was probably completed. In 437–432 were erected the stately Propylaea, and lastly the Erechtheion, begun probably soon after the peace of Nikias (421) but not completed till 407.

The Athenian democracy had attained its fullest development and its widest sway when the long-standing antagonism of Sparta led to open war between the rival states in 431. In the second year of the war Athens was visited by a terrible plague, which carried off, among many others, Perikles, the only man of genius powerful enough to control the democracy, the deterioration of which may be dated from his death. After many vicissitudes, including the disastrous campaign in Sicily undertaken by the advice of Alkibiades (comp. p. 163), the Peloponnesian war ended in 404 with the utter humiliation of Athens. The fortifications of the city and the Piræus had to be demolished, the fleet to be given up, and an oligarchic government, that of the ‘Thirty Tyrants’, to be endured at the bidding of Sparta. In 403 Thrasyboulos restored the democracy; in 393 Konon won a naval victory over the Spartans at Knidos, and rebuilt the Long Walls; but all this was but a brief and feeble reflex of the ancient glory of the state. In vain Demosthenes exhorted his fellow-citizens to vigorous resistance against Philip of Macedon; when they at last roused themselves it was too late. In 338 Greek independence received its death-blow on the battle-field of Chæronea.

Although Athens never again recovered her political importance her material prosperity survived almost unimpaired for several centuries more. In the year of the battle of Chæronea began the judicious financial administration of the orator Lykourgos, who completed the theatre previously begun on the S.E. slope of the Acropolis, built the Stadion, and filled the arsenals and harbour of the Piræus with military stores and with ships. After a fruitless revolt in 322 (the ‘Lamian War’) Athens was garrisoned with Macedonian troops. Yet Athens continued to live and thrive on the intellectual heritage stored up within her walls ever since the days of the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. As the home of the greatest poets of antiquity, as the seat of the far-famed schools of philosophy and rhetoric founded by Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno, and as a great centre of art and architecture, she still had many visitors and admirers. Foreign patrons lavished gifts upon her or erected sumptuous buildings in the city. To Ptolemy Philadelphos of Egypt (281–246) she owed a gymnasion with a library, to the Pergamenian kings handsome colonnades, and to the Syrian king Antiochos IV. Epiphanes (175–164) the Olympieion.

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