Part IV (part 2 of 2)

"Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for crushing the shells of mollusca."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions of all parts of the globe.

The genera Labrus, Crenilabrus, Ctenolabrus, Acantholabrus, Centrolabrus, and Coris, have occurred in British seas, and all of {438}these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic as far as Madeira. Eight other genera are characteristic of the Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from the coasts of North America. Seven genera are common to all the great oceans; the remainder being confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New Zealand, but being far more abundant between the Tropics.

FAMILY 50.--EMBROTOCIDÆ. (2 Genera, 17 Species.)

"Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies covered with cycloid scales, and with small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan and California northwards. One species enters the fresh waters of California.

FAMILY 51.--GERRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas; ranging south as far as the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and north to Japan and (one species) to New Jersey, U.S.

FAMILY 52.--CHROMIDÆ. (19 Genera, 100 Species.)

"Fresh-water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated or elongate scaly bodies, and small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical regions.

Eutroplus (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and Ceylon; Chromis (15 sp.), Sarotherodon (2 sp.), and Hemichromis (4 sp.), are from the rivers and lakes of Africa, extending to the Sahara and Palestine. The remaining 15 genera are American, and several of them have a restricted distribution. Acara (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the Antilies; Theraps (1 sp.), Guatemala; Heros (26 sp.), Texas and {439}Mexico to La Plata; Mesonauta (1 sp.), Brazil; Petenia (1 sp.), Lake Peten, Guatemala; Uaru (2 sp.), Brazil; Hygrogonus (1 sp.), Brazil; Cichla (4 sp.), Equatorial America; Crenicichla (9 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; Chætobranchus (3 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; Mesops (2 sp.), Brazil; Satanoperca (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; Geophagus (1 sp.), North Brazil and Guiana; Symphysodon (1 sp.), Lower Amazon; Pterophyllum (1 sp.), Lower Amazon.

Order III.--ANACANTHINI.

FAMILY 53.--GADOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very small scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an obtuse snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Australia and Tasmania.

FAMILY 53_a_.--LYCODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united with the anal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and Antarctic seas about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island.

FAMILY 54.--GADIDÆ. (21 Genera, 58 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered with small smooth scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Cold and temperate regions of both hemispheres; in the North extending as far south as the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, New York and Japan (and one species to the Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the South to Chili and New Zealand.

Gadus (Cod), Merluccius (Hake), Phycis, Lota, Molva, Couchia, Motella, and Raniceps, are British. Lota inhabits fresh waters.

{440}FAMILY 55.--OPHIDIIDÆ. (16 Genera, 43 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal and anal fins united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent."

DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal; from Greenland to New Zealand, but most abundant in the Tropics.

Ophidium and Ammodytes occur in British seas; Lucifuga inhabits subterranean fresh waters in Cuba.

FAMILY 56.--MACROURIDÆ. (3 Genera, 21 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, compressed tapering tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira and the Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese and Australian seas.

None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas.

FAMILY 57.--ATELEOPODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long compressed, tapering tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--Japan.

FAMILY 58.--PLEURONECTIDÆ. (34 Genera, 185 Species.)

"Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat bodies, one side of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically placed, both on the coloured side. They inhabit the sandy bottoms of shallow seas, and often ascend rivers."

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical coasts.

{441}Seven genera occur in British seas, viz.: Hippoglossus, Hippoglossoides, Rhombus, Phrynorhombus, Arnoglossus, Pleuronectes (Turbot), and Solea (Sole). There are 13 genera in the Atlantic and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both; and 2 found only in the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, Synaptura, has one species in the Mediterranean.

Order IV.--PHYSOSTOMI.

FAMILY 59.--SILURIDÆ. (114 Genera, 547 Species.)

"Fresh-water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony shields, and the head always furnished with barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The fresh waters of all the temperate and tropical regions, those which enter the salt water keeping near the coast.

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into eight sub-families and seventeen groups, the distribution of which is as follows:--

Sub-family 1 (SILURIDÆ HOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to the Old World. It consists of three groups: Clarina (2 genera, Clarias and Heterobranchus) ranges over the whole area of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, to which it appears to be strictly confined; Plotosina (3 genera, Plotosus, Copidoglanis, and Cnidoglanis) ranges from the eastern coasts of Africa to Japan, Polynesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers; Chacina (1 genus, Chaca) ranges from India to Borneo.

Sub-family 2 (SILURIDÆ HETEROPTERÆ) is also confined to the Old World; it consists of one group,--Silurina, containing 19 genera, viz.:--Saccobranchus (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and Ceylon; Silurus (5 sp.), Palæarctic region from Central Europe to Japan, China, and Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China; Silurichthys (3 sp.), Cashmere, Java, and Borneo; Wallago (2 sp.), Hindostan, Sumatra, and Borneo; Belodontichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Eutropiichthys (1 sp.), Bengal; Cryptopterus {442}(15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with a species in the Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; Callichrous (10 sp.), Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; Schilbe (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eutropius (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India; Hemisilurus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Siluranodon (1 sp.), Nile; Ailia (2 sp.), Bengal; Schilbichthys (1 sp.), Bengal; Laïs (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; Pseudeutropius (6 sp.), India and Sumatra; Pangasius (7 sp.), Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo; Helicophagus (2 sp.), Sumatra; Silondia (1 sp.), Ganges.

Sub-family 3 (SILURIDÆ ANOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to Equatorial America; it consists of the group Hypopthalmina, containing 2 genera: Helogenes (1 sp.), Hypopthalmus (4 sp.), from the country north of the Amazon, Surinam, and the Rio Negro.

Sub-family 4 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPTERÆ) ranges over all the tropical and most of the temperate parts of the globe, except Europe and Australia. It consists of four groups: Bagrina (16 genera), ranging over most of the Old World and North America; Pimelodina (15 genera), confined to Tropical America, except one genus which is African; Ariina (10 genera), all Tropical regions; and Bagarina (3 genera), Oriental region. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Bagrus (2 sp.), Nile; Chrysichthys (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; Clarotes (1 sp.), Upper Nile; Macrones (19 sp.), India, Ceylon to Borneo, and one species in Asia Minor; Pseudobagrus (4 sp.), Japan, China, and Cochin China; Liocassis (5 sp.), Japan, China, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; Bagroides (3 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Bagrichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Rita (5 sp.), Continental India and Manilla; Acrochordonichthys (6 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Akysis (3 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Olyra (1 sp.), Khasya; Branchiosteus (1 sp.), Khasya; Amiurus (13 sp.), Nearctic region to Guatemala and China; Hopladelus (1 sp.), North America; Noturus (4 sp.), North America; Sorubim (1 sp.), Amazon; Platystoma (11 sp.), Tropical South America; Hemisorubim (1 sp.) Rio Negro, Brazil; Platistomatichthys (1 sp.), Rio Branco, Brazil; Phractocephalus (1 sp.), Amazon; Piramutana (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Platynematichthys {443}(1 sp.), northern and southern tributaries of Amazon; Piratinga (3 sp.), Amazon Valley; Sciades (2 sp.), Amazon; Pimelodus (42 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, single aberrant species from West Africa, Java and the Sandwich Islands; Pirinampus (1 sp.), Brazil; Conorhynchus (1 sp.), Brazil; Notoglanis (1 sp.), Madeira, Amazon Valley; Callophysus (3 sp.), Tropical South America; Auchenaspis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; Arius (68 sp.), all Tropical regions; Galeichthys (1 sp.), Cape of Good Hope; Genidens (1 sp.), Brazil; Hemipimelodus (3 sp.), India, Sumatra, and Borneo; Ketingus (1 sp.), Sunda Islands; Ælurichthys (4 sp.), Eastern United States to Guiana; Paradiplomystax (1 sp.), Brazil; Diplomystax (1 sp.), Chili; Osteogeniosus (3 sp.), India to Java; Batrachocephalus (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Bagarius (1 sp.), India to Java; Euclyptosternum (1 sp.), India; Glyptosternum (8 sp.), Himalayas, Central India, Java, and Sumatra; Hara (3 sp.), Continental India; Amblyceps (3 sp.), Continental India.

Sub-family 5 (SILURIDÆ STENOBRANCHIÆ) is confined to South America and Africa, with one genus and species in the Ganges. It consists of three groups: Doradina (12 genera), South America and Africa; Rhinoglanina (3 genera), Central Africa and the Ganges; Malapterurina (1 genus), Tropical Africa. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Ageniosus (4 sp.), Surinam to La Plata; Tetranematichthys (1 sp.), Central Brazil, Rio Guaporé; Euanemus (1 sp.), Surinam and Brazil; Auchenipterus (9 sp.), Equatorial America; Centromochlus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Trachelyopterus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Cetopsis (3 sp.), Brazil; Asterophysus (1 sp.), Rio Negro, North Brazil; Doras (13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; Oxydoras (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; Rhinodoras (3 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; Synodontis (12 sp.), Tropical Africa; Rhinoglanis (1 sp.), Upper Nile; Mochocus (1 sp.), Nile; Callomystax (1 sp.), Nile; Malapterurus (3 sp.), Tropical Africa.

Sub-family 6 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPODES) inhabits Tropical America and Northern India as far as Tenasserim. It consists of two groups: the Hypostomatina (17 genera), with the same distribution as the sub-family, and the Aspredinina (3 genera), {444}confined to Equatorial America. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Arges (2 sp.), Andes of Peru and Ecuador; Stygogenes (2 sp.), Andes; Brontes (1 sp.), Andes; Astroblepus (1 sp.), Popayan; Callichthys (11 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; Plecostomus (15 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; Liposarcus (3 sp.), Surinam and Brazil; Chætostomus (25 sp.), Tropical America, Trinidad, and Porto Rico; Pterygoplichthys (4 sp.), Brazil; Rhinelepis (1 sp.), Brazil; Acanthicus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Loricaria (17 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; Acestra (4 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; Sisor (1 sp.), Northern Bengal; Erethistes (1 sp.), Assam; Pseudecheneis (1 sp.), Khasya Hills; Exostoma (2 sp.), Assam and Tenasserim; Bunocephalus (2 sp.), Guiana; Bunocephalichthys (1 sp.), Rio Branco, North Brazil; Aspredo (6 sp.), Guiana.

Sub-family 7 (SILURIDÆ OPISTHOPTERÆ) consists of two groups: Nematogenyina (2 genera), and Trichomycterina (3 genera), and is confined to South America. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Heptapterus (2 sp.), South America; Nematogenys (1 sp.), Chili; Trichomycterus (7 sp.), South America to 15,000 feet elevation; Eremophilus (1 sp.), Andes of Bogota; Pariodon (1 sp.), Amazon.

Sub-family 8 (SILURIDÆ BRANCHICOLÆ) is confined to Tropical South America. It consists of one group, Stegophilina, and 2 genera: Stegophilus (1 sp.), Brazil; and Vandellia (2 sp.), Amazon Valley.

FAMILY 60. CHARACINIDÆ. (47 Genera, 230 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and without barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Neotropical and Ethiopian regions.

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into 10 groups, viz.: Erythrinina (5 genera), South America; Curumatina {445}(6 genera), South America; Citharinina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Anostomatina (3 genera), South America; Tetragonopterina (16 genera), South America and Tropical Africa; Hydrocyonina (9 genera), Tropical America and Tropical Africa; Distichodontina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Icthyborina (1 genus), Africa; Crenuchina (1 genus), Equatorial America; Serrasalmonina (4 genera), South America.

The following is the distribution of the genera:--

Macrodon (4 sp.), Tropical America; Erythrinus (5 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; Lebiasina (1 sp.), West Equatorial America; Pyrrhulina (1 sp.), Guiana; Corynopoma (4 sp.), Trinidad only; Curimatus (15 sp.), Tropical South America and Trinidad; Prochilodus (12 sp.), South America to the La Plata; Cæntropus (2 sp.), East Equatorial America; Hemiodus (8 sp.), Equatorial America east of Andes; Saccodon (1 sp.), Ecuador; Parodon (1 sp.), Brazil; Citharinus (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; Anostomus (8 sp.), Tropical America; Rhytiodus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Leporinus (14 sp.), South America East of Andes; Piabucina (2 sp.), Guiana; Alestes (4 sp.), Tropical Africa; Brachyalestes (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; Tetragonopterus (32 sp.), Tropical America; Scissor (1 sp.), South America; Pseudochalceus (1 sp.), West Ecuador; Chirodon (2 sp.), Chili; Chalceus (1 sp.), Guiana; Brycon (10 sp.), South America east of Andes; Chalcinopsis (4 sp.), Central America and Ecuador; Bryconops (2 sp.), Tropical America; Creagrutus (1 sp.), Western Ecuador; Chalcinus (4 sp.), Tropical South America; Gastropelecus (8 sp.), Tropical South America; Piabuca (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Agoniates (1 sp.), Guiana; Anacyrtus (7 sp.), Central and South America; Hystricodon (1 sp.), Equatorial America; Salminus (3 sp.), South America; Hydrocyon (3 sp.), Tropical Africa; Sarcodaces (1 sp.), West Africa; Oligosarcus (1 sp.), Brazil; Xiphoramphus (7 sp.), South America east of Andes; Xiphostoma (5 sp.), Equatorial America east of Andes; Cynodon (3 sp.), Tropical America East of Andes; Distichodus (7 sp.), Tropical Africa; Icthyborus (3 sp.), Nile; Crenuchus (1 sp.), Guiana; Mylesinus (1 sp.), Equatorial America; Serrasalmo (13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; Myletes (18 sp.), {446}Tropical South America east of Andes; Catoprion (1. sp.), Brazil and Guiana.

FAMILY 61.--HAPLOCHITONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with naked or scaly bodies and without barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate South America and South Australia.

The genera are, Haplochiton (2 sp.), Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands; Prototroctes (2 sp.), Southern Australia and New Zealand.

FAMILY 62.--STERNOPTYCHIDÆ. (6 Genera, 12 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with very thin deciduous scales or none, and with a row of phosphorescent spots or organs on the under surface of the body."

DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes found in the Mediterranean sea, and in the deep Atlantic from the coasts of Norway to the Azores and the Tropics.

FAMILY 63.--SCOPELIDÆ. (11 Genera, 47 Species.)

"Marine fishes, somewhat resembling the fresh-water Siluridæ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal, but most abundant in warm and tropical seas.

These are deep-sea fishes, abounding in the Mediterranean and the great oceans, a few extending north to near Greenland and south to Tasmania.

{447}FAMILY 64.--STOMIATIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

"Small marine fishes, naked or with very fine scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes, ranging from Greenland to beyond the Equator.

FAMILY 65.--SALMONIDÆ (15 Genera, 157 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, many species periodically descending to the sea and a few altogether marine:--Salmon and Trout."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions, and one genus and species in New Zealand. A considerable number of species are confined to single lakes or rivers, others have a wide distribution.

The genera are distributed as follows:--

Salmo (83 sp.), rivers and lakes of the Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions, as far south as Algeria, Asia Minor, the Hindoo-Koosh and Kamschatka, and to about 38° North Latitude in North America, many of the species migratory; Onchorhynchus (8 sp.), American and Asiatic rivers entering the Pacific, as far south as San Francisco and the Amur; Brachymystax (1 sp.), Siberian rivers, from Lake Baikal and the Atlai Mountains northwards; Luciotrutta (2 sp.), Caspian Sea and Volga; Plecoglossus (1 sp.), Japan and Formosa; Osmerus (3 sp.), rivers of temperate Europe and North America entering the Atlantic, and one species in California; Thaleichthys (1 sp.), Columbia River, Vancouver's Island; Hypomesus (1 sp.), coasts of California, Vancouver's Island, and North-eastern Asia; Mallotus (1 sp.), coasts of Arctic America from Greenland to Kamschatka; Retropinna (1 sp.), fresh waters of New Zealand; Coregonus (41 sp.), fresh waters of northern parts of temperate Europe, Asia and North America, many of the species migratory: Thymallus (6 sp.), fresh waters of temperate parts of {448}Europe, Asia, and North America; Argentina (4 sp.), Mediterranean and deep seas of Western Europe; Microstoma (2 sp.), Mediterranean, and seas of Greenland; Salarix (2 sp.), China and Japan, in seas and rivers. Salmo, Osmerus, Coregonus, and Thymallus, are British genera.

FAMILY 66.--PERCOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish covered with toothed scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Lake Superior, North America.

FAMILY 67.--GALAXIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with neither scales nor barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere.

The only genus, Galaxias, is found in New Zealand, Tasmania, and Tierra del Fuego, ranging north as far as Queensland and Chili; and one of the species is absolutely identical in the two regions.

FAMILY 68.--MORMYRIDÆ. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scales on the body and tail but not on the head, and no barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ethiopian Region.

Most abundant in the Nile, a few from the Gambia, the Congo, and Rovuma. The genera are:--

Mormyrus (1 sp.), Nile, Gambia, West Africa, Mozambique, Rovuma; Hyperopsius (2 sp.), Nile and West Africa; Mormyrops (4 sp.), Nile, West Africa and Mozambique.

{449}FAMILY 69.--GYMNARCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, resembling the Mormyridæ, but with tapering finless tail, and neither anal nor ventral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Ethiopian region.

The only genus, Gymnarchus, inhabits the Nile and the rivers of West Africa.

FAMILY 70.--ESOCIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies, no barbels, and dorsal fins situated towards the tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions.

One species, the Pike (Esox lucius) ranges from Lapland to Turkey, and in America from the Arctic regions to the Albany river; the remainder are American species extending South as far as New Orleans.

FAMILY 71.--UMBRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

"Small fresh-water scaly fishes, without barbels or adipose fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Central Europe and Temperate North America.

FAMILY 72.--SCOMBRESOCIDÆ. (5 Genera, 136 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and a series of keeled scales along each side of the belly."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.

All the genera have a wide distribution. A species of Belone and one of Scombresox are found on the British coast. The Flying-fishes (Exocetus, 44 sp.), belong to this family. They abound in all tropical seas and extend as far as the Mediterranean and Australia. None of the genera are exclusively fresh-water, {450}but a few species of Belone, and Hemiramphus are found in rivers in various parts of the world.

FAMILY 73.--CYPRINODONTIDÆ. (20 Genera, 106 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, covered with scales, the sexes frequently differing, mostly viviparous."

DISTRIBUTION.--Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, but most abundant in Tropical America.

The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Cyprinodon (11 sp.), Italy, North Africa and Western Asia to Persia, also North America from Texas to New York; Fitzroya (1 sp.), Montevideo; Characodon (1 sp.), Central America; Tellia (1 sp.), Alpine pools of the Atlas: Limnurgus (1 sp.), Mexican plateau; Lucania (1 sp.), Texas; Haplochilus (18 sp.), India, Java, Japan, Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and the Seychelle Islands, Carolina to Brazil, Jamaica; Fundulus (17 sp.), North and Central America and Ecuador, Spain and East Africa; Rivulus (3 sp.), Tropical America, Cuba and Trinidad; Orestias (6 sp.), Lake Titacaca, Andes; Jenynsia (1 sp.), Rio Plata; Pseudoxiphophorus (2 sp.), Central America; Belonesox (1 sp.), Central America; Gambusia (8 sp.), Antilles, Central America and Texas; Anableps (3 sp.), Central and Equatorial America; Poecilia (16 sp.), Antilles, Central and South America; Mollienesia (4 sp.), Louisiana to Mexico; Platypoecilus (1 sp.), Mexico; Girardinus (10 sp.), Antilles and South Carolina to Uruguay; Lepistes (1 sp.), Barbadoes.

FAMILY 74.--HETEROPYGII. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with posterior dorsal fin, and very small scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the United States.

Amblyopsis (1 sp.) is a blind fish found in the caverns of Kentucky; while Chologastes (1 sp.), which only differs from it in having perfect eyes, is found in ditches in South Carolina.

{451}FAMILY 75.--CYPRINIDÆ. (109 Genera, 790 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, generally scaly, with no adipose fin, and pharyngeal teeth only, the mouth being toothless."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the Old World and North America, but absent from Australia and South America.

This enormous family is divided by Dr. Günther into fourteen groups, the distribution of which is as follows:--

Catostomina (4 genera), North America and North-east Asia; Cyprinina (39 genera), same range as the family; Rohteichthyina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago; Leptobarbina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago; Rasborina (5 genera), East Africa to China and Borneo; Semiplotina (2 genera), Western Asia; Xenocypridina (3 genera), Eastern Asia; Leuciscina (10 genera), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; Rhodeina (3 genera), Palæarctic region; Danionina (9 genera), India to China and Japan; Hypophthalmichthyina (1 genus), China; Abramidina (16 genera), same range as the family; Homalopterina (2 genera), India to Java; Cobitidina (10 genera), Palæarctic and Oriental regions.

The following is the distribution of the genera:--

Catostomus (16 sp.), Nearctic region and Eastern Siberia; Moxostoma (2 sp.), Eastern United States; Sclerognathus (5 sp.), Temperate North America to Guatemala, also Northern China; Carpiodes (1 sp.), United States; Cyprinus (2 sp.), Temperate parts of Palæarctic region (1 sp. British); Carassius (3 sp.), Temperate Palæarctic region (1 sp. British); Catla (1 sp.), Continental India; Cirrhina (5 sp.), Continental India to China; Dangila (6 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; Osteochilus (14 sp.), Siam to Java and Sumatra; Labeo (27 sp.), Tropical Africa and Oriental region; Tylognathus (10 sp.), Syria, India to Java; Abrostomus (2 sp.), South Africa; Discognathus (4 sp.), Syria to India and Java, mostly in mountain streams; Crossochilus (9 sp.), India to Sumatra and Java; Gymnostomus (7 sp.), Continental India; Epalzeorhynchus (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Capoeta (13 sp.), Western Asia; Barbus (163 sp.), Temperate or Tropical {452}parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa (1 sp. British); Thynnichthys (2 sp.), Pegu, Borneo, and Sumatra; Barbichthys (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; Amblyrhynchichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Albulichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Oreinus (3 sp.), Himalayan region; Schizothorax (13 sp.), Himalayan region and west to Afghanistan and Persia; Ptychobarbus (1 sp.), Thibet; Gymnocypris (1 sp.), loc. unknown; Schizopygopsis (1 sp.), Thibet; Diptychus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Thibet; Aulopyge (1 sp.), Western Asia; Gobio (2 sp.), Temperate Europe (1 sp. British); Pseudogobio (4 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa; Ceratichthys (9 sp.), Temperate North America; Bungia (1 sp.), Western Asia, Herat; Pimephales (2 sp.), Eastern United States; Hyborhynchus (3 sp.), Eastern United States; Ericymba (1 sp.), United States; Pseudorasbora (1 sp.), Japan, China; Cochlognathus (1 sp.), Texas; Exoglossum (2 sp.), United States; Rhinichthys (6 sp.), Eastern United States; Rohteichthys (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; Leptobarbina (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Rasbora (12 sp.), East Coast of Africa, India, to Java and Borneo; Luciosma (3 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; Nuria (2 sp.), India, Tenasserim, and Ceylon; Aphyocypris (1 sp.), North China; Amblypharyngodon (3 sp.), India to Tenasserim; Cyprinion (3 sp.), Syria and Persia; Semiplotus (1 sp.), Assam; Xenocypris (1 sp.), China; Paracanthobrama (1 sp.), China; Mystacoleucus (1 sp.), Sumatra; Leuciscus (84 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions (5 sp. are British); Ctenopharyngodon (1 sp.), China; Mylopharodon (1 sp.), California; Paraphoxinus (2 sp.), South-eastern Europe; Meda (1 sp.), River Gila; Tinca (1 sp.), Europe (Britain to Constantinople); Leucosomus (8 sp.), Nearctic region; Chondrostoma (7 sp.), Europe and Western Asia; Orthodon (1 sp.), California; Acrochilus (1 sp.), Columbia River; Achilognathus (6 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa; Rhodeus (3 sp.), Central Europe and China; Pseudoperilampus (1 sp.), Japan; Danio (8 sp.), India and Ceylon; Pterosarion (2 sp.), Central India and Assam; Aspidoparia (3 sp.), Continental India; Barilius (15 sp.), East Africa and Continental India; Bola (1 sp.), Ganges to Bramahputra; Schacra (1 sp.), Bengal; Opsariichthys (5 sp.), Japan and Formosa; Squaliobarbus (1 sp.), China; Ochetobius (1 sp.), North China; {453}Hypophthalmichthys (2 sp.), China; Abramis (16 sp.), North America, Central Europe, and Western Asia (1 sp. is British); Aspius (3 sp.), East Europe, Western Asia, China; Alburnus (15 sp.), Europe and Western Asia (1 British sp.); Rasborichthys (1 sp.), Borneo; Elopichthys (1 sp.), China; Pelotrophus (2 sp.), East Africa; Acanthobrama (3 sp.), Western Asia; Osteobrama (5 sp.), Continental India; Chanodichthys (6 sp.), China and Formosa; Smiliogaster (1 sp.), Bengal; Culter (2 sp.), China; Pelecus (1 sp.), Eastern Europe; Eustira (1 sp.), Ceylon; Chela (16 sp.), India to Siam, Java and Borneo; Pseudolabuca (1 sp.), China; Cachius (1 sp.), Continental India; Homaloptera (8 sp.), India to Cochin China, Java, and Sumatra; Psilorhynchus (2 sp.), North-eastern India; Misgurnus (5 sp.), Europe to India, China, and Japan; Nemachilus (37 sp.), Europe and Asia; Cobitis (3 sp.), Europe, India, Japan; Lepidocepalichthys (3 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Java; Acanthopsis (2 sp.), Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo; Botia (7 sp.), India to Japan and Sunda Isles; Oreonectes (1 sp.), China; Lepidocephalus (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Acanthopthalmus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Apua (1 sp.), Tenasserim; Kneria (2 sp.), Tropical Africa.

FAMILY 76.--GONORHYNCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish with spiny scales, mouth with barbels, and with short dorsal fin opposite the ventrals."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate parts of Southern Oceans, and Japan.

FAMILY 77.--HYODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish with cycloid scales and posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of North America.

{454}FAMILY 78.--OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with large hard scales, and dorsal fin opposite and equal to the anal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical rivers.

The genera are:--Osteoglossum (3 sp.), Eastern South America, Sunda Islands, and Queensland; Arapaima (1 sp.), Eastern South America--the "Pirarucú" of the Amazon; Heterotis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa.

FAMILY 79.--CLUPEIDÆ. (18 Genera, 161 Species.)

"Marine scaly fishes, without barbels, and with the abdomen often compressed and serrated."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the whole globe, many species entering rivers. They are most abundant in the Indian seas, less so in America, scarce in Africa, while they are almost absent from Australia. The Herring, Sprat, Shad, and Pilchard, are British species of Clupea, a genus which contains 61 species and ranges all over the world.

FAMILY 80.--CHIROCENTRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, with thin deciduous scales, no barbels, and posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Eastern seas from Africa to China.

FAMILY 81.--ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, covered with thin cycloid scales, no barbels, and posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Mediterranean.

{455}FAMILY 82.--NOTOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, without barbels, head and body scaly, long tapering tail, and short posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of India, Siam, the Sunda Islands, and West Africa.

FAMILY 83.--HALOSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with cycloid scales, a short median dorsal fin, and no barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Atlantic, Madeira.

FAMILY 84.--GYMNOTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with elongate bodies, pointed tail, and no dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical America from Trinidad to the River Parana.

The genera are distributed as follows:--

Sternarchus (8 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; Rhamphichthys (6 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; Sternophygus (4 sp.), Tropical America; Carapus (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; Gymnotus, (1 sp.--the Electric eel), Tropical South America.

FAMILY 85.--SYMBRANCHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 6 Species.)

"Marine and fresh-water fishes, having elongate bodies without fins, and very minute scales or none."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters and coasts of Western Australia and Tasmania.

The genera are:--

Amphipnous (1 sp.), Bengal; Monopterus (1 sp.), Siam to Northern China and Sunda Islands; Symbranchus (3 sp.), Tropical {456}America, and India to Australia; Chilobranchus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania.

FAMILY 86.--MURÆNIDÆ. (26 Genera, 230 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like bodies and no ventral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--The seas and fresh waters of temperate and tropical regions. This family is divided by Dr. Günther into two sub-families and nine sections. The genus Anguilla, comprising our common Eel and a number of species from all parts of the world, is the only one which is found in fresh water, though even here most of the species are marine. Anguilla and Conger are the only British genera.

FAMILY 87.--PEGASIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short opposite dorsal and anal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean and seas of China and Australia.

Order V.--LOPHOBRANCHII.

"Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small toothless mouth."

FAMILY 88.--SOLENOSTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two dorsal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and the Moluccas.

{457}FAMILY 89.--SYNGNATHIDÆ. (15 Genera, 112 Species.)

"Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one soft dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--All the tropical and temperate seas. Some species of Syngnathus, Doryichthys, and Coelonotus enter fresh water, and a few live in it exclusively. Siphonostoma, Syngnathus, Nerophis, and Hippocampus are British genera. The Hippocampina (5 genera, 25 sp.), or Sea-horses, are peculiar to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or four species of Hippocampus in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Order VI.--PLECTOGNATHI.

"Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a narrow mouth, and soft posterior dorsal fin."

FAMILY 90.--SCLERODERMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.)

"Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more abundant in the Tropics.

FAMILY 91.--GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into a beak."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.

Some species of Tetrodon are found in the rivers of Tropical America, Africa, and Asia. Species of Tetrodon and Orthagoriscus have been found on the British coasts.

{458}SUB-CLASS II.--DIPNOI.

FAMILY 92.--SIRENOIDEI. (3 Genera, 3 Species.)

"Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered with cycloid scales; the vertical fins forming a continuous border to the compressed tapering tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and Australia.

The genera are:--Protopterus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; Lepidosiren (1 sp.), Amazon Valley; Ceratodus (1 sp.), Queensland.

SUB-CLASS III.--GANOIDEI.

Order I.--HOLOSTEI.

"Body covered with scales."

FAMILY 93.--AMIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--United States.

FAMILY 94.--POLYPTERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines."

DISTRIBUTION.--Central and Western Africa.

The genera are:--

Polypterus (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; Calamoichthys (1 sp.), Old Calabar.

{459}FAMILY 95.--LEPIDOSTEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal fins composed of articulated rays."

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony Pikes, inhabits North America to Mexico and Cuba.

Order II.--CHONDROSTEI.

"Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the skin with osseous bucklers or naked."

FAMILY 96.--ACCIPENSERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 20 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior mouth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. ACCIPENSER (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has the distribution of the family; most of the species are marine, but some are confined to the Caspian and Black Seas and the great American lakes with the rivers flowing into them, while the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia River have peculiar species. The other genus, SCAPHIRHYNCHUS (1 sp.), is confined to the Mississippi and its tributaries.

FAMILY 97.--POLYDONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked skin."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers.

{460}SUB CLASS IV.--CHONDROPTERYGII. (SHARKS AND RAYS.)

Order I.--HOLOCEPHALA. (Chimæras.)

FAMILY 98.--CHIMÆRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

"Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile organ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Northern and Southern temperate seas. Chimæra is British.

Order II.--PLAGIOSTOMATA.

Sub-order.--SELACHOIDEA. (Sharks.)

FAMILY 99.--CARCHARIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 59 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. Species of Galeus and Mustelus have occurred on our coasts.

FAMILY 100.--LAMNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 7 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. Species of Lamna, Alopecias, and Selache have occurred in British seas.

{461}FAMILY 101.--RHINODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--South and East Africa.

FAMILY 102.--NOTIDANIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from the North Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope and California. One species has occurred on our southern coasts.

FAMILY 103.--SCYLLIIDÆ. (7 Genera, 25 Species.)

"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Species of Scyllium and Pristiurus are British.

FAMILY 104.--CESTRACIONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand, Moluccan Sea.

FAMILY 105.--SPINACIDÆ. (10 Genera, 21 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no anal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species of Acanthias, Læmargus, and Echinorhinus have occurred on our coasts.

{462}FAMILY 106.--RHINIDÆ (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to California and Australia.

FAMILY 107.--PRISTIOPHORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each edge."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of Japan and Australia.

Sub-order BATOIDEI. (Rays.)

FAMILY 108.--PRISTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

"Rays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions.

FAMILY 109.--RHINOBATIDÆ. (3 Genera, 15 Species.)

"Rays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two dorsal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and sub-tropical seas.

FAMILY 110.--TORPEDINIDÆ. (6 Genera, 15 Species.)

"Rays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to Tasmania.

FAMILY 111.--RAIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 29 Species.)

"Rays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Several species of Raia are found on our coasts.

{463}FAMILY 112.--TRYGONIDÆ (6 Genera, 43 Species.)

"Rays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and rivers of Tropical America. A species of Trygon has occurred on our Southern coast. Ellipesurus and Tæniura are found in the fresh waters of the interior of South America, while the latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas, but not in the Atlantic.

FAMILY 113.--MYLOBATIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)

"Rays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end of snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. A species of MYLIOBATIS is British, but most of the species and genera are confined to tropical seas. Dicerobatis and Ceratoptera are very large Rays, commonly called Sea-devils.

SUB-CLASS V.--CYCLOSTOMATA.

"Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without lateral fins."

FAMILY 114.--PETROMYZONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 12 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths and without barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions of both hemispheres. Three species of Petromyzon (Lampreys), are British.

{464}FAMILY 115.--MYXINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)

"Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the temperate regions of both hemispheres.

SUB-CLASS VI.--LEPTOCARDII.

FAMILY 116.--CIRRHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudimentary eyes."

DISTRIBUTION.--The only species, the Lancelet (Amphioxus), is the lowest form of living vertebrate. It is found in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, and has occurred on our southern coast.

Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes.

Marine Fish.--There are about 80 families of marine fishes, and of these no less than 50 are universally, or almost universally, distributed over the seas and oceans of the globe. Of the remainder many are widely distributed, some species even ranging from the North Atlantic to Australia. Six families are confined to the Northern Seas, but four of these consist of single species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2 genera, 11 sp.), and the Accipenseridæ (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one family (Acanthoclinidæ) is confined to the Southern oceans, and that consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternoptychidæ, Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ and Halosauridæ) are confined to the Atlantic Ocean, while 13 are found only in the Pacific; and of the remainder several are more abundant in the Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodidæ and Gadidæ) are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the {465}latter family has a single species in the Indian seas. Among the curiosities of distribution are,--the extensive genus Diagramma, confined to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the Mediterranean; the single species constituting the family Lophotidæ, found only in the Mediterranean and Japan; the small family of Notacanthi, confined to Greenland, the Mediterranean, and West Australia; and the four families, Sternoptychidæ, Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ, and Halosauridæ, which are believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and are therefore very rarely obtained.

Fresh-water Fish.--There are 36 families of fishes which inhabit fresh water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both marine and fresh-water. These present many interesting peculiarities of distribution. The Neotropical region is the richest in families, and probably also in genera and species. No less than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are altogether peculiar. The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18 families, the former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several isolated forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the great American lakes; and, no doubt, when the African lakes are equally well known, they will be found also to possess many peculiar forms. The Oriental region comes next, with 17 families, of which 3 are peculiar. The Palæarctic has 12, and the Australian 11 families, each with only 1 altogether peculiar to it.

If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be so nearly related that they should be combined, we shall find the fresh-water fishes in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, for example, together contain 20 families, but only 11 of these occur in both, and only 5 are exclusive inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an amount of diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together possess 24 families, only 11 of which are found in both, and only 1 exclusively characteristic of the two. The Australian and Neotropical regions possess together 27 families, of which 7 are found in both, and 3 are exclusively characteristic of the two. This last fact is very interesting: the marine family of {466}Trachinidæ possesses a fresh-water genus, Aphritis, one species of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia; the Haplochitonidæ (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and South Australia; and the Galaxidæ (1 genus, 12 sp.) inhabit the same regions, but extend to Chili, to New Zealand and to Queensland. We have here an illustration of that connection between South America and Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of which there are only scattered indications in most classes of animals. The dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the Oriental from the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly marked in mammalia and birds, is equally so in fresh-water fishes. No less than six families have their eastern limits in Java and Borneo; while the extensive family of Cyprinidæ has no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas.

The distribution of fresh-water fishes lends no support to the view that the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian region. A large proportion of the Oriental families are common to the whole region; while there is hardly a single example, of a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus extending into the peninsula of India and no further.

Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious fish, forming the family Comephoridæ, which is confined to Lake Baikal, among the mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thousand miles distant from the ocean; yet having its nearest allies in the exclusively oceanic family of the mackerels (Scomberidæ). The Characinidæ are confined to Africa and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The Salmonidæ are confined to the two northern regions, except a single species of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus Osteoglossum has a species in South America, another in the Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland; while the curious Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar genera in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia.

Fossil Fishes.--Fishes have existed from a very remote era, and it is remarkable that the first whose remains have been {467}discovered belong to the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which has continued to exist down to our times, and of which the sturgeon is the best known example. We may therefore be sure that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found, although so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the earth. In the Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous remains of fishes are found, allied to the Lepidosteus or Gar-pike of North America. The next group in order of appearance, are the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks and Rays. Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and become plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations and in all succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene strata. The Holocephali appear first in the Oolitic period, and are represented by the living Chimæridæ. The Dipnoi, to which belong the Lepidosiren and Ceratodus, are believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the evidence of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned groups, and many of them have little resemblance to existing forms. The Teleostean fishes, which form the great bulk of those now living, cannot be traced back further than the Cretaceous period, while by far the larger number first appear in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonidæ, Scopelidæ, Percidæ, Clupeidæ, Scombresocidæ, Mugilidæ, and Siluridæ, or forms closely allied to them, are found in the Cretaceous formation. In the Eocene beds we first meet with Squammipennes, Cyprinidæ, Pleuronectidæ, Characinidæ, Murænidæ, Gadidæ, Pediculati, Syngnathidæ, and Hippocampidæ.

Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh-water origin being rare, and of little importance as an aid in determining the causes of the distribution of living forms. To understand this we must look to the various changes of the land surface which have led to the existing distribution of all the higher vertebrates, and to those special means of dispersal which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water productions.

{468}CHAPTER XXI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF INSECTS.

Although insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals, and illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic phenomena of distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in much detail. This arises chiefly from their excessive numbers, but also from the minuteness and obscurity of many of the groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but the European species. The number of described species of insects is uncertain, as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made; but it probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to somewhere about 10,000 genera--many times more than all vertebrate animals together. Of the eight Orders into which Insects are usually divided, only two--the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera--have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distribution with that of vertebrate animals; and even of these it is only certain favourite groups which have been so collected. Among Lepidoptera, for example, although the extensive group of Butterflies may be said, in a general sense, to be thoroughly well known--every spot visited by civilized man having furnished its quota to our collections--yet the minute Tineidæ, or even the larger but obscure Noctuidæ, have scarcely been collected at all in tropical countries, and any attempt to study their geographical distribution would certainly lead to erroneous results. The same thing occurs, though perhaps in a less degree, among the Coleoptera. While the Carabidæ, Buprestidæ, and {469}Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as well known as those of the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinidæ, the smaller Elateridæ, and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose to examine with some care the distribution of the Butterflies, and the Sphingina among Lepidoptera, and the following large and well-known families of Coleoptera:--Cicindelidæ, Carabidæ, Lucanidæ, Cetoniidæ, Buprestidæ, and the three families of Longicorns. These families together contain over 30,000 species, classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large proportion of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribution will lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any number of isolated facts drawn from the less known members of the class.

Range of Insects in Time.--In considering how much weight is to be given to facts in insect distribution, and what interpretation is to be put upon the anomalies or exceptional cases that may be met with, it is important to have some idea of the antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at which the forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geological record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals, is fragmentary in the extreme as regards indications of former insect life; yet the positive facts that it does disclose are of great interest, and have an important bearing on our subject. These facts and the conclusions they lead to have been discussed in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully weighed in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the distribution of insects and that of the higher animals.

{470}Order--LEPIDOPTERA.

Sub-order--Lepidoptera RHOPALOCERA, or BUTTERFLIES.

FAMILY 1.--DANAIDÆ. (24 Genera, 530 Species.)

The Danaidæ are now held to comprehend, not only the whole of the group so named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the Heliconidæ of that author. Their range is thus extended over the whole of the tropical regions. A few species spread northwards into the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but these are only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical character of the group. The more remarkable genera are,--Hestia (10 sp.), and Ideopsis (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and Moluccan districts; Danais (50 sp.), which has the range of the whole family; Euploea (140 sp.), confined to the Oriental and Australian regions, but especially abundant in the Malayan and Moluccan districts; Hamadryas (4 sp.), Australian region only. The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid Heliconidæ, and are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few species which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region. The chief of these genera are:--

Ithomia (160 sp.), Melinæa (18 sp.), Napeogenes (20 sp.), Mechanitis (4 sp.), Ceratina (32 sp.), Dircenna (10 sp.), and Lycorea (4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the northern extent of these insects.

{471}FAMILY 2.--SATYRIDÆ. (60 Genera, 835 Species.)

This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending even into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera are, however, restricted in their range.

Hætera, Lymanopoda, Calisto, Corades, Taygetis, Pronophila, Euptychia, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropical, the last named extending north to Canada; Debis, Melanitis, Mycalesis and Ypthima, are mostly Oriental, but extending also into the Australian and the Ethiopian regions; Gnaphodes, Leptoneura, and a few other small genera, are exclusively Ethiopian; Xenica, Hypocista, and Heteronympha, are Australian; Erebia, Satyrus, Hipparchia, Coenonympha, and allies, are mostly Palæarctic, but some species are Ethiopian, and others Nearctic; Chionabas, is characteristic of the whole Arctic regions, but is also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The peculiar genera in each region are,--Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7; Oriental, 11; Ethiopian, 5; Palæarctic, 3; Nearctic, 0.

FAMILY 3.--ELYMNIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

The genus Elymnias, which constitutes this family, is characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some species in Northern India and one in Ashanti. It thus agrees with several groups of Vertebrata, in showing the resemblance {472}of Malaya with West Africa independently of the Peninsula of India.

FAMILY 4. MORPHIDÆ. (10 Genera, 106 Species.)

The Morphidæ are a group of generally large-sized butterflies, especially characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, and of Tropical America; with a few species extending to the Himalayas on the west, and to Polynesia on the east. The genera are:--

Amathusia (6 sp.), Northern India to Java; Zeuxidia (9 sp.), the Malay district; Discophora (7 sp.), Northern India to Philippines, Java and Timor; Enispe (3 sp.), Northern India; Hyades (15 sp.), Moluccan and Polynesian districts, except one species in Java; Clerome (11 sp.), Northern India to Philippines and Celebes; Æmona (1 sp.), Sikhim; Hyantis (1 sp.), Waigiou; Thaumantis (10 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan districts; Morpho (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central American sub-regions.

FAMILY 5. BRASSOLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species.)

The Brassolidæ have the same distribution as the genus Morpho. The genera are:--

Brassolis (5 sp.); Opsiphanes (17 sp.); Dynastor (2 sp.); Penetes (1 sp.); Caligo (21 sp.); Narope (5 sp.); and Dasyopthalma (3 sp.)

{473}FAMILY 6.--ACRÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 90 Species.)

The genus Acræa is especially abundant in the Ethiopian region, which contains two-thirds of all the known species; 3 or 4 species only, range over the whole Oriental, and most of the Australian regions; while all the rest inhabit the same districts of the Neotropical region as the Brassolidæ.

FAMILY 7.--HELICONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 114 Species.)

The true Heliconidæ are very characteristic of the Neotropical region; one species only extending into the Southern States of North America as far as Florida. The genus Heliconius (83 sp.), has the range of the family; while Eueides (19 sp.), is confined to the Brazilian and Central American sub-regions.

FAMILY 8.--NYMPHALIDÆ. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.)

This is the largest and most universally distributed family of butterflies, and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries, {474}Tortoise-shell, Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor butterflies. They are found wherever butterfly-life can exist, and some single species--like the Painted Lady (Pyrameis cardui)--range almost over the globe. A few of the more extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed:--

Colænis, Agraulis, Eresia, Synchloe, Epicalia, Eunica, Eubagis, Catagramma, Callithea, Ageronia, Timetes, Heterochroa, Prepona, Hypna, Paphia, and Siderone, are wholly Neotropical, as well as many others which have a smaller number of species. Euryphene, Romaleosoma, Aterica, and Harma, are exclusively Ethiopian. Terinos, Athyma, Adolias, and Tanæcia, are Oriental, but they mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last however is strictly Malayan, and Adolias only reaches Celebes. Mynes alone, is exclusively Australian, but Prothoe is almost so, having only one outlying species in Java. Eurytela and Ergolis are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but the latter reaches the Moluccas. Cethosia, Cirrhochroa, Messaras, and Symphædra, are both Oriental and Australian; while Junonia, Cyrestis, Diadema, Neptis, and Nymphalis, are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, the latter extending into the Mediterranean district, while Junonia occurs also in South America and the Southern United States.

The most cosmopolitan genus is Pyrameis, which has representatives in every region and every district. Apatura is found in all but the Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just enters the confines of the latter region in Celebes; Limenitis is abundant in the Oriental region, but extends eastward to Celebes and westward into Europe, North America, and even into South America. Argynnis, Melitæa, and Vanessa, are almost confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; the former however occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java, and also in Chili and in Jamaica. Two genera--Dicrorrhagia and Helcyra--have both one species in North India and another in the island of Ceram. The number of genera peculiar to each region is as follows:--Neotropical, 50; Australian, 2; Oriental 15; Ethiopian, 14; Palæarctic, 1; Nearctic, 0.

{475}FAMILY 9.--LIBYTHEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)

The genus Libythea, which constitutes this family, appears to have its head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all sides in an erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected portions of the globe, as indicated above.

FAMILY 10.--NEMEOBIIDÆ. (12 Genera, 145 Species.)

This group has been separated from the Erycinidæ of the older authors, and contains all the non-American genera and species. Half the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species of this group are, however, Neotropical; one is European; two or three African; and twenty-six Oriental and Australian. The genera are:--

Nemeobius (1 sp.), Europe; Dodona (6 sp.), North India; Zemeros (2 sp.), North India and Malaya; Abisara (11 sp.), North India, Malayan and Moluccan districts, Madagascar and West Africa; Taxila (8 sp.), North India and Malaya; Dicallaneura (2 sp.), Moluccan district; Alesa (6 sp.), Eunogyra (2 sp.), Cremna (7 sp.), Bæotis (3 sp.), are all from the Brazilian sub-region; Eurybia (10 sp.), Mesosemia (80 sp.), inhabit both the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions.

{476}FAMILY 11.--EURYGONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 78 Species.)

This small family, separated from the true Erycinidæ by Mr. Bates, is confined to the tropical forest-districts of continental America. The genera are:--

Eurygona (71 sp.); Methonella (1 sp.); the latter found in Equatorial South America.

FAMILY 12.--ERYCINIDÆ. (59 Genera, 560 Species.)

This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful butterflies, is especially characteristic of the virgin forests of the Neotropical region, only a few species of three genera extending into the Nearctic region. The more important genera, and those which have an exceptional distribution, can alone be here noticed. Charis extends from Brazil to New York; Apodemia from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon; Amarynthis inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions; Lepricornis and Metapheles are small genera found only in the Mexican sub-region; Lymnas, Necyria, Ancyluris, Diorhina, Esthemopsis, Anteros, Emesis, Symmachia, Cricosoma, Calydna, Lemonias, Nymphidium, Theope, and Aricoris are common to the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number) are only known from the Brazilian sub-region, and of these a considerable proportion are confined to the damp equatorial forests of the Amazon Valley.

{477}FAMILY 13.--LYCÆNIDÆ. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.)

The Lycænidæ--of the variety and beauty of which in tropical regions our own "Blues" and "Coppers" give but a faint idea--are a group of universal distribution. We shall therefore indicate those genera which are restricted to one or more regions, or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus Polyommatus (containing 325 species) has the same universal distribution as the entire family. Our common "Blues" well represent this genus. Lycæna (comprising the "Coppers") is more especially characteristic of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but straggling species occur also in North India, South Africa, Chili, and New Zealand. Thecla is especially characteristic of the Neotropical region, where there are about 370 species; in the Nearctic region, 36; in the Palæarctic 13; and in the Ethiopian 3. Miletus, Lucia, Hypolycæna, Myrina, and Deudorix are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere--the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. Aphneus and Iolaus are common to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter extending to Celebes. Ialmenus, Pseudodipsas, Curetis, and Amblypodia are common to the Oriental and Australian regions, but the first-named is found also in Madagascar. Zephyrus is found only in the Nearctic and Palæarctic, Eumæus in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has one peculiar genus (Feniseca); the Palæarctic has two--Thestor and Læosopis; the Ethiopian has nine--Pentila, Liptana, D'Urbania, Axiocerces, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Hewitsonia, and Deloneura; the Oriental has five--Allotinus, Ilerda, Poritia, Camena, and Liphyra; the Australian has three--Hypochrysops, Utica, and Ogyris; and the Neotropical also three--Lamprospilus, Theorema, and Trichonis.

{478}FAMILY 14.--PIERIDÆ. (35 Genera, 817 Species.)

The Pieridæ are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over the globe as the last family, and we shall group the genera in the same manner. Pieris (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan; Terias and Callidryas are found in all the four tropical regions, and as far north as Pennsylvania in the Nearctic region; Pontia, Tachyris, Eronia, and Thestias are common to the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named, however, only extending as far as Timor; Colias is pre-eminently Palæarctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one Indian, two in Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands; Anthocharis is wholly Palæarctic and Nearctic; Midea has two species Nearctic, and one in Japan; Gonepteryx is Palæarctic and Neotropical, extending into Texas; Idmais and Callosune are Ethiopian and Oriental; Thyca and Iphias are Oriental and Australian; Meganostoma is Nearctic and Neotropical; Nathalis and Kricogonia are Neotropical, ranging into Florida, Texas, and Colorado.

The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The Neotropical region has ten, two being confined to Chili; Euterpe and Leptalis are the most remarkable, the latter containing a number of forms mimicking the Heliconidæ and Danaidæ. The Oriental region has two, Prioneris and Dercas, the Australian one, Elodina; the Ethiopian two, Teracolus and Pseudopontia; the Palæarctic two, Leucophasia and Zegris; the Nearctic one, Neophasia.

{479}FAMILY 15.--PAPILIONIDÆ. (13 Genera, 455 Species.)

The Papilionidæ, comprising many of the noblest and richest-coloured butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group, are almost as universally distributed as the Pieridæ, but they do not extend to so many remote islands nor so far into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Nine-tenths of the species belong to the genus Papilio, and these are especially abundant in tropical regions, although species occur in every region and every sub-region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus are characteristic of each great region--as the "Æneas" group in the Neotropical, the "Paris" group in the Oriental, the "Ægeus" group in the Australian, the "Zenobius" group in the Ethiopian, and many others. The few species of the Palæarctic region belong, on the other hand, to a group of universal distribution, and the Nearctic has a good number of species allied to Neotropical forms.

The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. Parnassius is an Alpine genus, confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The Palæarctic region further possesses 5 peculiar genera--Mesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Sericinus, and Thais; the Oriental has 4, Calinaga, Teinopalpus, Bhutanitis, and Leptocircus, the latter going as far as Celebes; the Australian has 1, Eurycus; and the Neotropical 1, Euryades, confined to the Chilian sub-region. The Ethiopian and the Nearctic regions have no peculiar genera.

{480}FAMILY 16.--HESPERIDÆ. (52 Genera (?), 1,200 Species.)

The Hesperidæ, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly small obscurely coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and of which hosts of species still remain to be discovered and described. As the grouping of these into genera is not yet satisfactorily accomplished, only the more extensive and best known groups will be here noticed. Pamphila and Hesperia are universally distributed; Nisoniades seems to be only absent from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre-eminently rich in Hesperidæ, 33 genera being found there, of which 20 are peculiar to it; the Australian region has 12 genera, only 1 (Euschemon) being peculiar; the Oriental has 18, with 3 peculiar; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3 peculiar; the Palæarctic 6, with 1 (Erynnis) almost peculiar, a species occurring in Mexico; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found also in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palæarctic, and the rest being of wide distribution. Many new genera have, however, been recently described in the United States, but it is impossible yet to determine how many, if any, of these are peculiar. More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr. Edwards' "Synopsis of North American Butterflies,"--a very large number considering that Europe possesses only about 30.

{481}Sub-order--LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA, or MOTHS.

The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense extent, and are, besides, so imperfectly known compared with the Butterflies, that it would serve no purpose to go into the details of their distribution; especially as most of the families and a considerable number of the genera are cosmopolitan. We propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which, being generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many of them day-fliers, have been extensively collected; and whose numbers are more manageable than the succeeding groups.

Group I.--SPHINGINA.

FAMILY 17.--ZYGÆNIDÆ (46 Genera, about 530 Species).

The Zygænidæ are universally distributed, but many of the genera are restricted in their range. Zygæna (85 sp.) is mainly Palæarctic, but 2 species are South African, and 1 North American; Procris (22 sp.) has a scattered distribution, from the Palæarctic region to South America, South Africa and North India; Heterogynis (3 sp.) and Dysauxis (3 sp.) are European; Pollanisus (3 sp.) is Australian; Glaucopis (120 sp.) is mainly Neotropical, with a few Oriental; Syntomis (94 sp.) is found in all the Old-World regions; and Euchromia (150 sp.) is found in all warm countries, though especially abundant in South America.

FAMILY 18.--CASTNIIDÆ (7 Genera, 63 Species).

The Castniidæ have an interesting distribution, being mainly Neotropical, with four genera in Australia and New Guinea. Castnia, Coronis, and Gazera, with 51 species, are Neotropical; Synemon, Euschemon, Damias and Cocytia, with 12 species, are Australian, the latter being found only in the Papuan Islands.

{482}FAMILY 19.--AGARISTIDÆ (13 Genera, 76 Species).

The Agaristidæ are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the Castniidæ, but almost confined to the Australian and Oriental regions, with a few in the Ethiopian. The most important genera are,--Agarista (21 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Eusemia (31 sp.), Ægocera (7 sp.), Oriental and Ethiopian regions; the other genera being confined to the islands from Java to New Guinea.

FAMILY 20.--URANIIDÆ (2 Genera, 12 Species).

These magnificent insects have a singular distribution. The gold-spangled Urania (6 sp.) is characteristic of Tropical America, but a single species of great magnificence occurs in Madagascar. The large but sober-tinted Nyctalemon (6 sp.) is found in the Neotropical, Oriental, and Australian regions.

FAMILY 21.--STYGIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

These insects are confined to the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, 2 genera in the former, 1 in the latter.

FAMILY 22.--ÆGERIIDÆ. (24 Genera, 215 Species.)

This family is found in all parts of the world except Australia. Ægeria is most abundant in Europe, but is found also in North and South America.

FAMILY 23.--SPHINGIDÆ. (40 Genera, 345 Species.)

The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important genera are,--Macroglossa (26 sp.), Chærocampa (46 sp.), and Macrosila (21 sp.), all cosmopolitan; Sesia (12 sp.), Europe, Asia, and North America; Deilephila (19 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, Nearctic region, and Chili; Sphinx (21 sp.), Europe, {483}North and South America; Smerinthus (29 sp.), all regions except Australia. Our Death's Head Moth (Acherontia atropos) ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and Sphingidea.

The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431 genera and 7,740 species, arranged in 16 families, according to Mr. Kirby's Catalogue published in 1871. The Sphingidea consist of 135 genera and 1,255 species, arranged in 7 families, according to the British Museum Catalogue dated 1864; and as this includes all Mr. Bates' collections in America and my own in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have since been made.

The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies corresponds generally with that of Birds--and more especially with that of the Passerine birds--in showing a primary division of the earth into Eastern and Western, rather than into Northern and Southern lands. The Neotropical region is by far the richest and most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of butterflies, whereas the other regions have only from 8, in the Palæarctic, to 12 in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; and as none of the Old World regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very clear superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater, since the Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether peculiar to it, out of a total of 431 genera, many of which are cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the Eastern regions with the Western, we have two peculiar families in the former to 4 in the latter; while the Southern regions (Australian and Neotropical) possess not a single peculiar family in common.

In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less marked degree, the Neotropical being the richest region; but here we have one family (Castniidæ) which appears to be confined to the two southern regions,--the Australian and Neotropical.

The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special interest, which must be briefly noticed. There are several {484}genera typically characteristic of the North Temperate regions which have a few species widely scattered on mountains, or in the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Chili possesses representatives of four of these genera--Argynnis, Lycæna, Colias, and Deilephila; and this has been thought by some naturalists to be of such importance as to outweigh the purely Neotropical character of a large portion of the Chilian fauna, and to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a great North Temperate zoological region. But when we remember that Argynnis occurs also in Java, and Lycæna in New Zealand, while Colias ranges to Southern Africa, Malabar, and the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the argument to be a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see Vol. II., pp. 43-47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the otherwise purely Neotropical genus, Urania, in Madagascar is even more striking, supported as it is by the Antillean, Solenedon, belonging to a family of Mammalia otherwise confined to Madagascar, and by one or two Coleopterous genera, to be noticed farther on as common to the two countries. Our view as to the true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found at Vol. I., p. 284.

The division of the Castniidæ (a family almost confined to the Tropics), between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is also a very curious and important phenomenon, because it seems to point to a more remote connection between the two countries than that indicated by the resemblance between the productions of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be explained in another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 398 and 404).

The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental and Australian regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera, and it is very curious that it should be so, for in this, if in any group of animals, we should expect an almost complete fusion to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily across wide tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference to interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet we find no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan {485}sub-region which never cross the narrow seas to the east of them; 6 others which only pass to Celebes; and 2 more which have extended from Java along the closely connected line of islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5 strictly Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single representative in Java. The following is a list of these genera:--

INDO-MALAYAN GENERA:--Amathusia, Thaumantis, Tanæcia, Eurytela, Ilerda, Zemeros, Taxila, Aphneus, Prioneris, Dercas, Clerome, Adolias, Apatura, Limenitis, Iolaus, Leptocircus, (the last six reach Celebes); Discophora, Thestias; (the last two reach Timor.)

AUSTRO-MALAYAN GENERA:--Hamadryas, Hypocista, Mynes, Dicallaneura, Elodina, Hyades, Prothoë (the last two reach Java).

The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole Archipelago and give it a homogeneous character, are the various genera of Danaidæ, the genus Elymnias, and Amblypodia with a few other Lycænidæ. These are all abundant and conspicuous groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to the general rule of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of this phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvæ of many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families of plants; and we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully investigated, that the groups which range over the whole Archipelago feed on genera of plants which have an equally wide range, while those which are limited to one region or the other, have food-plants belonging to genera which are similarly limited. It is known that the vegetation of the two regions differs largely in a botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost identical; and this may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood, than among those which derive their support from the juices of the living foliage. This subject will be again discussed under the various families of Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in mind the striking facts of generic limitation which have been here brought forward.

{486}Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the Lower Oolite; but these cannot be held to give any adequate idea of the antiquity of so highly specialised a group, which, in all probability, dates back to Palæozoic times, since one of the Bombycidæ,--a group almost as highly-organised--has been discovered in the coal formation of Belgium. (See Vol. I. p. 168.)

Order--COLEOPTERA.

GEODEPHAGA, or CARNIVOROUS GROUND BEETLES.

The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ, differing in their form and habits no less than in their numbers and distribution. The former, comprising about 800 species, are far more abundant and varied in Tropical regions; the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are highly characteristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully half of all the known species occur.

CICINDELIDÆ. (35 Genera, 803 Species.)

The Cicindelidæ, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive group, spread over the whole globe, but much more abundant in tropical than in temperate or cold countries. More than half of the species (418) belong to the single genus Cicindela, the only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large genera are,--Collyris (81 sp.), wholly Oriental; Odontochila (57 sp.), South American, with species in Java and Celebes; Tetracha (46 sp.), mostly South American, but with species in South Europe, North America, and Australia; Tricondyla (31 sp.), characteristic of the Oriental region, but extending eastward to New Guinea; Ctenostoma (26 sp.), wholly Neotropical; Dromica (24 sp.), wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and Mozambique; Therates (18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New Guinea.

The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows:--the Nearctic region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it; the {487}Palæarctic has 2, but none peculiar; the Ethiopian 13, with 11 peculiar; the Oriental 8, with 3 peculiar; the Australian 9, with 2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15, with 10 peculiar. The connection between South America and Australia is shown by the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic South American genus Tetracha, as well as one of Megacephala. The small number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and Australian regions is partly owing to the circumstance that two otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have spread eastward to the Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily explained by the great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow straits, and by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan portion of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better adapted to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those of Australia itself, and the latter group of islands have thus acquired an Oriental aspect in their entomology, though not without indications of the presence of an aboriginal insect-fauna of a strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian and Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually distinct manner. Tetracha, a genus which ranges from Mexico to La Plata, has 9 species in Australia; while Megacephala has 2 American and 1 Australian species. Another curious, and more obscure relation, is that between the faunas of Tropical America and Tropical Africa. This is also illustrated by the genus Megacephala, which has 4 African species as well as 2 South American; and we have also the genus Peridexia, which has 2 species in South America and 2 in Madagascar.

Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera; as Amblychila and Omus confined to California and the Rocky Mountains; Manticora, Ophryodera, Platychile and Dromica, characteristic of South Africa; Megalomma and Pogonostoma peculiar to the Mascarene Islands; and Caledonica to the islands east of New Guinea. The extensive and elegant genus Collyris is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, over the whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits into Celebes and Timor.

The Cicindelidæ, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of {488}the earth which have been found best to represent the facts of distribution in the higher animals.

CARABIDÆ. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.)

The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat general treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while its classification has been most carefully worked out, and a detailed exposition of its geographical distribution by a competent entomologist would be of the greatest interest. A careful study of Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue, however, enables me to sketch out the main features of its distribution, and to detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy.

The Carabidæ are remarkable among insects, and perhaps among all terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous, varied, conspicuous, and beautiful group, which is pre-eminently characteristic of the Palæarctic region. So strikingly and unmistakably is this the case, that it must be held completely to justify the keeping that region distinct from those to which it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although the Carabidæ are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar genera and abundant species in every part of the world without exception, yet the Palæarctic region alone contains fully one-third, or perhaps nearer two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be said, that the group is a temperate as compared with a tropical one; so that probably half the species are to be found in the temperate and cold regions of the globe, leaving about an equal number in the much more extensive tropical and warm regions. But, among the cold regions, the Palæarctic is pre-eminent. North America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera and fewer species.

The magnificent genus Carabus, with its allies Procerus and Procrustes, containing about 300 species, all of large size, is almost wholly confined to the Palæarctic region, only 10 species inhabiting North America, and 11 Temperate South America, with one on the African mountain of Kilimandjaro. Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000 species, are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical {489}countries all over the globe; but many of these are more abundant in the Palæarctic region than elsewhere. Such are Scarites, Calosoma, Brachinus, Cymindis, Lebia, Chlænius, Platynus, Harpalus, Bembecidium, Pæcilus, and Argutor. Of tropical cosmopolites, or genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the temperate zones, there seem to be only four,--Catascopus, Coptodera, Colopodes, and Caasnonia. Pheropsophus is confined to the tropics of the Old World; while Drimostoma, though widely scattered, is characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere.

The Palæarctic region has about 50 genera of Carabidæ which are strictly confined to it, the most important being,--Leistus (30 sp.), Procerus (5 sp.), Procrustes, (17 sp.), Zabrus (60 sp.), Pristonychus (42 sp.), and Ophonus (60 sp.); but it possesses a large number in common with the Nearctic region. The more remarkable of these are,--Carabus, Nebria, Amara, Cyrtonotus, Bradycellus, Anopthalmus, Celia, Cychrus, Patrobus, Elaphrus, Notiophilus, Bradytus, Callisthenus, Blethisa, and several others. Many too, though not strictly confined to the North Temperate regions, are very abundant there, with a few species isolated in remote countries, or widely scattered, often in an eccentric manner. Among these may be mentioned, Trechus (120 sp.), all North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Caledonia and South America; Dyschirus (127 sp.), North Temperate, with 3 or 4 species in Australia, China and La Plata; Omaseus, (88 sp.), Steropus (90 sp.), Platysoma (114 sp.), and Pterostichus (138 sp.), are mostly North Temperate, but each has a few species in the South Temperate zone, New Zealand, Australia, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dromius (54 sp.), is about two-thirds Palæarctic, the rest of the species being scattered over the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa, Burmah, Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate genera Calathus and Olisthopus, have each one species in New Zealand; Percus has most of its species in South Europe, but 3 in Australia; Abax is confined to the north temperate zone, but with one species in Madagascar; while Læmosthenes is said to have a species identically the same in South Europe and Chili. Some of these apparent anomalies may be due to wrong {490}determination of the genera, but there can be little doubt that most of them represent important facts in distribution.

The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidæ. Its more important peculiar genera are,--Dicælus (22 sp.), Pasimachus (17 sp.), Eurytrichus (9 sp.), Sphæroderus (7 sp.), Pinacodera (6 sp.), and others of smaller extent, about 30 in all. It also possesses representatives of a considerable number of Palæarctic genera, as already indicated; and a few of South American genera, of which Helluomorpha and Galerita are the most important.

The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar forms of Carabidæ, as in almost all other great groups. It possesses more than 100 peculiar genera, but about 30 of these are confined to the South Temperate sub-region. The more important peculiar genera of Tropical America are,--Agra (144 sp.), Ardistomus (44 sp.), Schizogenius (25 sp.), Pelecium, (24 sp.), Calophena (22 sp.), Ctenodactyla (7 sp.). Among the Chilian and South Temperate peculiar forms are,--Antarctia (29 sp.), Scelodontis (10 sp.), Tropidopterus (4 sp.). Among the Neotropical genera with outlying species are,--Pachyteles (50 sp.), one of which is West African; Selenophorus (70 sp.), with 4 African, 4 Oriental, and 1 from New Caledonia; Ega (11 sp), with one in the East Indies, and one in New Caledonia; Galerita, with 36 American species, 8 African, and 3 Indian; Callida and Tetragonoderus, mostly American, but with a few African, Oriental and Australian species; and Pseudomorpha, common to America and Oceania.

The Australian region is almost equally rich, possessing about 95 peculiar genera of Carabidæ, no less than 20 of which are confined to New Zealand. The most important are, Carenum, Promecoderus, Scaraphites, Notonomus, Ænigma, Sphallomorpha, Silphomorpha, and Adelotopus. The gigantic Catadromus has 4 Australian species and 1 in Java; Homalosoma has 31 species in Australia and New Zealand, and 1 in Madagascar. Celebes and New Guinea have each peculiar genera, and one is common to Australia and the Cape of Good Hope.

The Oriental region possesses 80 peculiar genera, 10 of which are confined to Ceylon. The more important are,--Pericallus, Planetes, and Mormolyce. Distrigus is also characteristic of this {491}region, with one species in Madagascar; while it has Orthogonius, Hexagonia, Macrochilus, and Thyreopterus in common with the Ethiopian region, and is rich in the fine tropical genus, Catascopus.

The Ethiopian region has 75 peculiar genera, 8 of which are confined to Madagascar. The more important are,--Polyhirma, Graphipterus, and Piezia. Anthia is chiefly African, with a few species in India; Abacetus is wholly African, except a species in Java, and another in South Europe; and Hypolithus is typically African, but with 7 species in South America and 1 in Java.

The facts of distribution presented by this important family, looked at broadly, do not support any other division of the earth into primary regions than that deduced from a study of the higher animals. The amount of speciality in each of these regions is so great, that no two of them can be properly united; and in this respect the Carabidæ accord wonderfully with the Vertebrates. In the details of distribution there occur many singular anomalies; but these are not to be wondered at, if we take into consideration the immense antiquity of Coleopterous insects--which existed under specialised forms so far back as the Carboniferous epoch,--the ease with which they may be dispersed as compared with larger animals, and the facilities afforded by their small size, habits of concealment, and often nocturnal habits, for adaptation to the most varied conditions, and for surviving great changes of surface and of the surrounding organic forms. The wonder rather is, not that there are so many, but so few cases of exceptional and anomalous distribution; and the fact that these creatures, so widely different from Vertebrates in organisation and mode of life, are yet on the whole subject to the same limitations of range as were found to occur among the higher animals, affords a satisfactory proof that the principles on which our six primary regions are founded, are sound; and that they are well adapted to exhibit the most interesting facts of geographical distribution, among all classes of animals.

Much stress has been laid on the fact of a few species of such typical European genera as Carabus, Dromius, and others, being {492}found in Chili and Temperate South America; and it has been thought, that in a system of Entomological regions this part of the world must be united to the Northern Hemisphere. But these writers omit to take into account, either the large numbers of isolated and peculiar forms characteristic of South Temperate America, or the indications of affinity with Tropical America and Australia, both of which are really more important than the connection with Europe. The three important Chilian genera, Cascelius, Barypus, and Cardiopthalmus, are closely allied to the Australian Promecoderus; others, as Omostenus and Plagiotelium, are quite isolated; while Antarctia and Metius, according to Lacordaire, form a distinct division of the family. Chili, too, has many species of Pachyteles, Coptodera, and other South American genera; and this affinity is far stronger in many other families than in the Carabidæ. The existence of representatives of typical northern forms in Chili, is a fact of great interest, and may be accounted for in a variety of ways; (see Vol. II. p. 44) but it is not of such a magnitude as to be of primary importance in geographical distribution, and it can only be estimated at its fair value, by taking into account the affinities of all the groups inhabiting that part of the world.

LUCANIDÆ. (45 Genera, 529 Species.)

Passing over a number of obscure families, we come to the remarkable group of the Lucanidæ, or Stag-beetles, which, being almost all of large size, and many of them of the most striking forms, have been very thoroughly collected and assiduously studied.

The most curious feature of their general distribution, is their scarcity in Tropical South America, and their complete absence from Tropical North America and the West Indian Islands, though they appear again in Temperate North America. In the New World they may, in fact, be looked upon as a temperate group characteristic of the extra-tropical regions and the highlands; while in the Old World, where they are far more abundant, they are distinctly tropical, being especially numerous {493}in the Oriental and Australian regions. No genus has the range of the whole family, Dorcus and Lucanus being absent from Africa, while Cladognathus is unknown in the New World and on the continent of Australia. The Oriental region is the richest in peculiar forms, possessing 16 genera, 7 of which are wholly confined to it, while 3 others only just range beyond it to North China on the one side, or to the Austro-Malayan islands on the other. The Australian region comes next, with 15 genera, of which 7 are wholly peculiar. South America has 12 genera, 10 of which are peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, and 2 of these are confined to the island of Bourbon. The Palæarctic region has 8 genera, and the Nearctic 5; one genus being peculiar to Europe, and two confined to Europe and North America. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions have 3 genera in common and peculiar to them; the Oriental and Australian 3; while the Australian and Neotropical have 1 in common, to which may be added Streptocerus, which represents in Chili the Australian Lamprima.

Among the special features presented by the distribution of the Lucanidæ, may be mentioned--the remarkable group of genera, Pholidotus, Chiasognathus, and Sphenognathus, confined to Temperate South America, the Andes, and mountains of Brazil; Lucanus (19 sp.), almost confined to the Oriental and Palæarctic regions, three species only inhabiting North America; Odontolabris (29 sp.), wholly Oriental, with 2 sp. in Celebes; Nigidius (11 sp.), Ethiopian, but with species in Formosa, the Philippines, and Malacca; Syndesus (11 sp.), common to Australia, New Caledonia, and South America; Figulus (20 sp.), divided between Africa and Madagascar on the one hand, and Australia, with the Malay and Pacific Islands, on the other.

The facts of distribution here sketched out are in perfect accordance with those of many groups of Vertebrates. The regions are sharply contrasted by their peculiar and characteristic genera; the several relations of those regions are truly indicated; while there is a comparatively small proportion of cases of anomalous or eccentric distribution.

{494}CETONIIDÆ. (120 Genera, 970 Species.)

As representative of the enormous group of the Lamellicorns, which, according to continental entomologists, forms a single family numbering nearly 7,000 species, we take the Cetoniidæ or Rose-Chafers. These comprise a number of the most brilliant and beautifully-coloured insects, including the gigantic Goliathi, which are among the largest of known beetles. They have been assiduously collected in every part of the world, and their classification has been elaborated by many of our most eminent entomologists.

The Cetoniidæ are especially abundant in tropical and warm countries, yet far more so in the Old World than in the New; and in the Old World, the Ethiopian region exhibits a marvellous richness in this family, no less than 76 genera being found there, while 64, or more than half the total number, are peculiar to it. Next in richness, though still very far behind, comes the Oriental region, with 29 genera, 17 of which are peculiar. The Neotropical has only 14 genera, but all except two are peculiar to it, and one of these is not found out of the New World. The Australian region has 11 genera, three only being peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 13, with 4 peculiar; the Nearctic 7, with 2 peculiar. The affinities of the regions for each other, as indicated by the genera confined to two adjacent regions, are in this family somewhat peculiar. The Ethiopian and Oriental show the most resemblance, 6 genera being common and peculiar to the two; the Oriental and the Australian are unusually well contrasted, having only one genus exclusively in common, while 8 genera are found in the Indo-Malay Islands which do not cross the boundary to the Austro-Malayan division, and several others only pass to the nearest adjacent islands; on the other hand, the only large Australian genus, Schizorhina, is found in many parts of the Moluccas, but not further west. The Australian and Neotropical regions exhibit no direct affinity, the nearest ally to the South American Gymnetidæ being Clinteria, an African and Asiatic genus; while not a single genus is common {495}to Australia and South America. The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions have 3 genera in common, which are found in no other part of the world.

Among the special features of interest connected with the distribution of this family, we must first notice the exceptional richness of Madagascar, which alone possesses 21 peculiar genera. South Africa is also very rich, having 8 peculiar genera. Stethodesma is very peculiar, being divided between South America and Mexico on the one hand, and West and South Africa on the other. Stalagmosoma is a desert genus, ranging from Persia to Dongola. No genus is cosmopolitan, or even makes any approach to being so, except Valgus, which occurs in all the regions except the Neotropical; and even the family seems to be not universally distributed, since no species are recorded either from New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, or the Antilles.

The facts here brought forward, lead us to the conclusion that the Cetoniidæ are an Old-World tropical family, which had been well developed in Africa and Asia before it spread to Australia and America; and that it is only capable of being freely dispersed in the warmer regions of the earth. This view will explain the absence of affinity between the Australian and Neotropical regions, the only closer connection between which, has almost certainly occurred in the colder portions of the Temperate zone.

BUPRESTIDÆ. (109 Genera, 2,686 Species.)

The next family suited to our purpose is that of the Buprestidæ, consisting as it does of many large and some gigantic species, generally adorned with brilliant metallic colours, and attracting attention in all warm countries. Although these insects attain their full development of size and beauty only in the Tropics, they are not much less abundant in the warmer parts of the Temperate zone. In the Catalogue of the Coleoptera of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, by M. de Marseul (1863), we find 317 species of Buprestidæ enumerated, although {496}the district in question only forms a part of the Palæarctic region, which would thus seem to possess its full proportion of the species of this family. Confining ourselves to the generic forms, we find far less difference than usual between the numbers possessed by the tropical and the temperate regions; the richest being the Australian, with 47 genera, 20 of which are peculiar; and the poorest the Nearctic, with 24 genera, of which 7 are peculiar. The Oriental has 41 genera, 14 of which are peculiar; the Neotropical 39, of which the large proportion of 18 are peculiar; the Ethiopian 27, of which 6 are peculiar; and the Palæarctic also 27, but with 9 peculiar.

A most interesting feature in the distribution of this family, is the strong affinity shown to exist between the Australian and Neotropical regions, which have 4 genera common to both and found nowhere else; but besides this, the extensive and highly characteristic Australian genus, Stigmodera, is closely related to a number of peculiar South American genera, such as Conognatha, Hyperantha, Dactylozodes,--the last altogether confined to Chili and Temperate South America. Here we have a striking contrast to the Cetoniidæ, and we can hardly help concluding, that, as the latter is typically a tropical group, so the present family, although now so largely tropical, had an early and perhaps original development in the temperate regions of Australia, spreading thence to Temperate South America as well as to the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. The Australian and Oriental regions have 4 genera exclusively in common, but they also each possess a number of peculiar or characteristic genera, such as the Indo-Malayan Catoxantha (which has only a single species in the Moluccas) and nine others of less importance; and the exclusively Austro-Malayan genus, Sambus, with five smaller groups, and Cyphogastra, with only 2 Indo-Malay species. The Oriental and Ethiopian regions are very distinct, only possessing the single genus, Sternocera, exclusively in common. The Nearctic and Palæarctic are also distinct, only one genus, Dicerca, being confined to America (North and South) and Europe, a fact which again points to a southern origin for this family, and its comparatively recent extension into the {497}North Temperate zone. It must be remembered, however, that in view of the immense geological antiquity of the existing families of Beetles, dating back certainly to the Secondary and probably to the Palæozoic epoch, "comparatively recent" may still be of considerable antiquity.

It is somewhat singular that North and South America have no genera exclusively in common. The connection between South America and Africa seems to be shown,--by the genus Psiloptera, the mass of the species being divided between these regions, with a few widely scattered over the globe; and the American genus Actenodes, which has one species in West Africa. Somewhat allied, is the extensive genus Polybothris, strictly confined to Madagascar. The genus Agrilus is perhaps cosmopolitan, although no species of the family is recorded from New Zealand. Among the peculiarities of distribution we may notice,--the genus Sponsor, with 8 species in the island of Mauritius, 1 in Celebes, and 1 in New Guinea; Ptosima, scattered between the United States, Mendoza in South Temperate America, South Europe, the Philippine Islands, and North China; Polycesta, which besides inhabiting South America, North America, and Europe, has a single species in Madagascar; and Belionota, which has 8 species African, 8 Indo-Malayan, 2 Austro-Malayan, and 1 in California. The extensive genus Acmæodera, is most abundant in the warm and dry portions of the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions, with some in the Andes and South Temperate America, a few in Brazil and the West Indies, and 1 said to be from the Philippines. About one-third of the genera (containing more than half the species) have a tolerably extensive range, while the genera confined to single regions contain only about one-fourth of the total number of species.

It will, I think, be admitted, after a careful study of the preceding facts, that the regions and sub-regions here adopted, serve to exhibit, with great clearness, the chief phenomena of distribution presented by this interesting family.

{498}LONGICORNIA. (1,488 Genera, 7,576 Species).

The elegant and admired group of the Longicorn Beetles, is treated by continental authors as a single family, consisting of three sub-divisions--the Prionidæ, Cerambycidæ, and Lamiidæ of English entomologists. These are so closely related, and are so similar in form, habits, and general distribution, that it will be best to consider the whole as one group, noticing whatever peculiarities occur in the separate divisions. The endless structural differences among these insects, have led to their being classed in an unusual number of genera, which average little more than 5 species each; a number far below that in any of the other families we have been considering, and probably below that which obtains in any of the more extensive groups of animals or plants. This excessive subdivision of the genera, a large number of which consist of only one or two species, renders it difficult to determine with precision the relations of the several regions, since the affinities of these genera for each other are in many cases undetermined. A group of such enormous extent as this, can only be properly understood after years of laborious study; we must therefore content ourselves with such results as may be obtained from a general survey of the group, and from a comparison of the range of the several genera, by means of a careful tabulation of the mass of details given in the recent Catalogue of Messrs. Gemminger and Harold and the noble work of Lacordaire.

The proportionate extent of the three families of Longicorns is very unequal; the Prionidæ comprising about 7 per cent., the Cerambycidæ 44 per cent., and the Lamiidæ 49 per cent. of the total number of species; and the genera are nearly in the same proportions, being almost exactly 10, 40, and 50 per cent. of the whole, respectively; or, 135 Prionidæ, 609 Cerambycidæ, and 746 Lamiidæ. The several regions, however, present marked differences in their proportions of these families. In the two North Temperate regions, the Cerambycidæ are considerably more numerous than the Lamiidæ, in the proportion of about 12 to {499}9; and in this respect the Neotropical region agrees with them, though the superiority in the proportion of Cerambycidæ is somewhat less. In the Old World tropical regions, however, and in Australia, the Lamiidæ greatly preponderate--being nearly double in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (or as 11 to 6), while in the Australian it is as 6 to 5. The Prionidæ show a similar difference, though in a less degree; being proportionately more numerous in the North Temperate and Neotropical regions. Now, as regards the North Temperate regions, this difference can be, to some extent explained, by a difference in the habits of the insects. The Lamiidæ, which both in the larva and perfect state have exceedingly powerful jaws, exclusively frequent timber trees, and almost always such as are dead; while the Cerambycidæ, are generally more delicate and have weaker mandibles, and many of the species live on shrubs, dead twigs, foliage, and even on flowers. The immense superiority of the Tropics in the number and variety of their timber trees, and the extent of their forests, sufficiently accounts for their superiority to the Temperate regions in the development of Lamiidæ; but the great excess of Cerambycidæ in South America as compared with the rest of the Tropics, is not to be so readily explained.

Bearing in mind the different proportions of the families, as above noted, we may now consider the distribution of the Longicorns as a whole. In number of generic forms, the Neotropical region, as in so many other groups, has a marked superiority. It possesses 516 genera, 489 of which (or about 19/20 of the whole) are peculiar to it. The Australian and Oriental regions come next, and are exactly equal, both possessing 360 genera, and having almost exactly the same proportion (in each case a little less than ¾) peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 262 genera, with about 5/6 peculiar; the Palæarctic 196, with 51 (rather more than ¼) peculiar; and the Nearctic 111, with 59 (a little more than half) peculiar. The more isolated of the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera. Thus, Chili with Temperate South America possesses 37, a large proportion being Cerambycidæ; the Malagasi group 26, {500}with a preponderance of Lamiidæ; and New Zealand 12, of which the Cerambycidæ are only slightly in excess.

The relations between the Longicorn fauna of the several regions, are such as are in accordance with the dependence of the group on a warm climate and abundant vegetation; and indicate the efficiency of deserts and oceans as barriers to their migration. The Neotropical and Australian regions have only 4 genera in common, but these are sufficient to show, that there must probably once have been some means of communication between the two regions, better adapted to these insects than any they now possess. The Nearctic and Neotropical regions have 5, and the Nearctic and Palæarctic 13 genera in common and peculiar to them, the latter fact being the most remarkable, because no means of inter-communication now exists, except in high latitudes where the species of the Longicorns are very few. The Oriental and Australian regions, on the other hand, are closely connected, by having no less than 52 genera of Longicorns in common and peculiar to them. Most of these are specially characteristic of the Malay Archipelago, often extending over all the islands from Sumatra to New Guinea. This large number of wide-spread genera of course gives a character of uniformity to the entire area over which they extend; and, with analogous facts occurring in other families, has led many entomologists to reject that division of the Archipelago between the Australian and Oriental regions, which has been so overwhelmingly demonstrated to be the natural one in the case of the higher animals. The general considerations already advanced in Chapter II. enable us, however, to explain such anomalies as this, by the great facilities that exist for the transfer from island to island of such small animals, so closely connected with woody vegetation in every stage of their existence. That this is the true and sufficient explanation, is rendered clear by certain additional facts, which those who object to the sharp division of the Indo-Malay and Austro-Malay sub-regions have overlooked.

An analysis of all the Malay Longicorns proves, that besides the 52 genera characteristic of the Archipelago as a whole, there are 100 genera which are confined to one or other of its component {501}sub-regions. Many of these, it is true, consist of single species confined to a single island, and we will not lay any stress on these; but there are also several important groups, which extend over the Indo-Malay or the Austro-Malay islands only, stopping abruptly at the dividing-line between them. For example, on the Indo-Malay side we have Euryarthrum, Leprodera, Aristobia, Coelosterna, and Entelopes, and what is perhaps even more satisfactory, the large genera Agelasta and Astathes, abundant in all the Indo-Malay islands, but having only one or two species just passing the boundary into Celebes. On the other side we have Tethionea, Sphingnotus, Arrhenotus, Tmesisternus (the last three genera abounding from New Guinea to Celebes, but totally unknown further west), Hestima, Trigonoptera, Amblymora, Stesilea, Enes, and the large genus Micracantha, with but a single species beyond the boundary,--30 Austro-Malayan genera in all, each found in more than one island, but none of them extending west of Celebes. Here we have clear proof that the boundary line between the two great regions exists for Longicorns, as well as for all other animals; but in this case an unusually large number have been able to get across it. This, however, does not abolish the barrier, but only proves that it is not absolutely effectual in all cases. Those who maintain that the Malay Archipelago forms a single Coleopterous region, must disprove or explain the instances of limited range here adduced.

Out of nearly 1500 known genera of these insects, only one genus, Clytus, appears to be cosmopolitan. Saperda and Callichroma are the only others that perhaps occur in every region; but these are both wanting over wide tracts of the earth's surface, Saperda being absent from Tropical Africa and the Malay Archipelago; and Callichroma from the Australian region, except one species in Polynesia. Many of the genera of Longicorns have a somewhat wide and scattered distribution, indicative of decadence or great antiquity. Mallodon and Parandra are mostly South American, but have species in Australia and Africa; Oeme is found in Brazil and the United States, with one species in West Africa; Ceratophorus has 2 species in West Africa and 1 in New Zealand. Xystrocera is mostly African, but has single species in {502}Borneo, Java, Amboyna and South Australia; Phyton has one species in North America and the other in Ceylon; Philagetes has 2 in South Africa, and 1 in Malacca; Toxotus abounds in North America and Europe, with one species away in Madagascar. Leptura is also North Temperate, but has a species at the Cape, one at Singapore and a third in Celebes. Necydalis has species in North and South America, Europe and Australia. Hylotrupes has 1 species in North America and Europe, and 1 in Australia; Leptocera prefers islands, being found only in Ceylon, Madagascar, Bourbon, Batchian, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and North Australia; Hathliodes is Australian, with 1 species in Ceylon; Schoenionta has 3 Malayan species, and 1 in Natal. Many other cases equally curious could be quoted, but these are sufficient. They cannot be held to indicate any close relation between the distant countries in which species of the same genus are now found, but perhaps serve to remind us that groups of great antiquity, and probably of great extent, have dwindled away, leaving a few surviving relics scattered far and wide, the sole proofs of their former predominance.

General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera.

We have now passed in review six of the most important and best known groups of the Coleoptera or Beetles, comprising about 2,400 genera, and more than 21,000 species. Although presenting certain peculiarities and anomalies, we have found that, on the whole, their distribution is in very close accordance with that of the higher animals. We have seen reason to believe that these great and well-marked groups have a high geological antiquity, and by constantly bearing this fact in mind, we can account for many of the eccentricities of their distribution. They have probably survived changes of physical geography which have altogether extinguished many of the more highly organised animals, and we may perhaps gain some insight into the bearing of those changes, by considering the cross relations between the several regions indicated by them. On carefully tabulating the indications given by each of the groups here discussed, I arrive at the following approximate result. The {503}best marked affinities between the regions are those between the Nearctic and Palæarctic,--the Oriental and Australian,--the Australian and Neotropical,--which appear to be about equal in each case. Next comes that between the Ethiopian and Oriental on the one side, and the Ethiopian and Neotropical on the other, which also appear about equal. Then follows that between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions; and lastly, and far the least marked, that between the North Temperate and South Temperate regions. That the relation between the Ethiopian and Neotropical region should be so comparatively well marked, is unexpected; but we must consider that in such a comparison as the present, we probably get the result, not of any recent changes or intermigrations, but of all the long series of changes and opportunities of migration that have occurred during many geological epochs,--probably during the whole of the Tertiary period, perhaps extending far back into the Secondary age.

It appears evident that Insects exhibit in a very marked degree in their actual distribution, the influence both of very ancient and very modern conditions of the earth's surface. The effects of the ancient geographical features of the earth, are to be traced, in the large number of cases of discontinuous and widely scattered groups which we meet with in almost every family, and which, to some extent, obscure the broader features of distribution due to the period during which the barriers which divide the several primary regions have continued to exist. And this, which we may consider as the normal distribution, is still further obscured in those cases where the barriers between existing regions are of such a nature as to admit of the free passage of insects or their larva in a variety of ways, and (what is perhaps of more importance) in which the physical features on both sides of the barrier are so nearly identical, as to admit of the ready establishment of such immigrants as may occasionally arrive. These conditions concur, for some families of insects, in the case of the Oriental and Australian portions of the Malay Archipelago; and it is there that the normal distribution has been sometimes greatly obscured, but never, as we have sufficiently shown, by any means obliterated.

{504}CHAPTER XXII.

AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.

The Mollusca being for the most part marine, it does not enter into the plan of this work to go into much detail as to their distribution. The orders and families will, however, be passed briefly in review, and all terrestrial and fresh-water groups discussed in somewhat more detail; with the object of showing how far their distribution accords with that of the higher animals, and to what extent the anomalies they present can be explained by peculiarities of organisation and habits. If the views advocated in our fifth chapter are correct, the regions there marked out must apply to all classes of animals; and it will be the task of the students of each group, to work out in detail the causes which have led to any special features of distribution. All I can hope to do here, is to show, generally and tentatively, that such a mode of treatment is possible; and that it is not necessary, as it is certainly not convenient or instructive, to have a distinct set of "Regions" established for each class or order in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.

For all the Marine groups I have merely summarised the information contained in Mr. Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca, but in the case of the Land Shells I have consulted the most recent general works, and endeavoured to give an accurate, though doubtless a very incomplete, account of the most interesting facts in their distribution. As their classification is very unsettled, I have followed that of the two latest great works, by Martens and Pfeiffer.

{505}CLASS.--CEPHALOPODA.

Order I.--DIBRANCHIATA.

FAMILY 1.--ARGONAUTIDÆ. "Paper Nautilus." (1 Genus, 4 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Open seas of all warm regions. Two species fossil in Tertiary deposits.

FAMILY 2.--OCTOPODIDÆ. "Polypi." (7 Genera, 60 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Norway to New Zealand, all tropical and temperate seas and coasts.

FAMILY 3.--TEUTHIDÆ. "Squids or Sea-pens." (16 Genera, 102 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, to Greenland; 2 other genera are fossil, in the Lias and Oolite.

FAMILY 4.--SEPIADÆ. "Cuttle Fish." (1 Genus, 30 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas: 4 other genera are fossil, in Eocene and Miocene deposits.

FAMILY 5.--SPIRULIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All the warmer seas.

{506}FAMILY 6.--BELEMNITIDÆ. Fossil. (6 Genera, 100 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Lias to Chalk in Europe, India and North America.

Order II.--TETRABRANCHIATA.

FAMILY 7.--NAUTILIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species, Living; 4 Genera, 300 Species, Fossil).

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the fossil species from the Silurian Period to the Tertiary, in all parts of the world.

FAMILY 8.--ORTHOCERATIDÆ. Fossil. (8 Genera, 400 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Lower Silurian to Lias.

FAMILY 9.--AMMONITIDÆ. Fossil. (14 Genera, 1100 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Upper Silurian to Chalk. Found at 16,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas.

{507}Class.--GASTEROPODA.

Order I.--PROSOBRANCHIATA.

FAMILY 1.--STROMBIDÆ. (4 Genera, 86 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Strombidæ, or Wing-shells, inhabit tropical and warm seas from the Mediterranean to New Zealand; most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are nearly 200 fossil species, from the Lias to Miocene and recent deposits.

FAMILY 2.--MURICIDÆ. (12 Genera, 1000 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, most abundant in the Tropics. Trichotropis is confined to Northern seas; Murex and Fusus are cosmopolitan. There are about 700 fossil species, ranging from the Oolite to the Miocene and recent formations.

FAMILY 3.--BUCCINIDÆ. (24 Genera, 1100 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Buccinidæ, or "Whelks," range over the whole world, but some of the genera are restricted. Buccinum inhabits the north and south temperate seas; Monoceros the West Coast of America; Cassidaria the Mediterranean; Phos, Harpa, Eburna, and Ricinula, are confined to the Pacific; Dolium inhabits the Mediterranean as well as the Pacific. There are about 350 fossil species, mostly from the Eocene and Miocene beds.

{508}FAMILY 4.--CONIDÆ. (3 Genera, 850 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cones are universally distributed, but this applies only to the genus Pleurotoma. Conus is tropical and sub-tropical, and Cithara is confined to the Philippine Islands. There are about 460 fossil species, from the Chalk formation to the most recent deposits.

FAMILY 5.--VOLUTIDÆ, (5 Genera, 670 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Volutes are mostly tropical; but a small species of Mitra is found at Greenland, and a Marginella in the Mediterranean. Cymba is confined to the West Coast of Africa and Portugal. Voluta extends south to Cape Horn. There are about 200 fossil species, from the Chalk and Eocene to recent formations.

FAMILY 6.--CYPRÆIDÆ. (3 Genera, 200 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The well-known Cowries are found all over the world, but they are much more abundant in warm regions. One small species extends to Greenland. There are nearly 100 fossil species, from the Chalk to the Miocene and recent formations.

FAMILY 7.--NATICIDÆ. (5 Genera, 270 species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Naticidæ, or Sea-snails, though most abundant in the Tropics, are found also in temperate seas, and far into the Arctic regions. Two other genera are fossil; and there are about 300 extinct species, ranging from the Devonian to the Pliocene formations.

{509}FAMILY 8.--PYRAMIDELLIDÆ. (10 Genera, 220 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These turreted shells are very widely distributed both in temperate and tropical seas; and most of the genera have also a wide range. There are about 400 extinct species, from so far back as the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations.

FAMILY 9.--CERITHIADÆ. (5 Genera, 190 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These are marine, estuary, or fresh-water shells, of an elongated spiral form; they have a world-wide distribution, but are most abundant in the Tropics. Potamides (41 sp.), is the only fresh-water genus, and is found in the rivers of Africa, India and China, to North Australia and California. Another genus is exclusively fossil, and there are about 800 extinct species, ranging from the Trias to the Eocene and recent formations.

FAMILY 10.--MELANIADÆ. (3 Genera, 410 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh-water only: lakes and rivers in warm countries, widely scattered. South Palæarctic and Australian regions, from Spain to New Zealand; South Africa, West Africa, and Madagascar; United States. There are about 50 fossil species, from the Wealden and Eocene to recent formations.

FAMILY 11.--TURRITELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 230 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. Cæcum is found in north temperate seas only. The other genera are mostly tropical, but some species reach Iceland and Greenland. There are near 300 species fossil, ranging from the Neocomian to the Pliocene formations.

{510}FAMILY 12.--LITTORINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 310 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Littorinidæ are mostly found on the coasts in shallow water; as the common Periwinkle (Littorina littorea). They are of world-wide distribution; but Solarium and Phorus are tropical; while Lacuna, Skenea, and most species of Rissoa are Northern. About 180 species are fossil, ranging from the Permian to the Pliocene formations.

FAMILY 13.--PALUDINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 217 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Paludinidæ, or River-snails, are all fresh-water, and range over the whole world. Paludina (60 sp.), is confined to the Northern Hemisphere; Ampullaria (136 sp.), is tropical; Amphibola (3 sp.), inhabits New Zealand and the Pacific Islands; Valvata (18 sp.), North America and Britain. There are 72 fossil species of Paludina and Valvata, in the Wealden formation and more recent fresh-water deposits.

FAMILY 14.--NERITIDÆ. (10 Genera, 320 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All warm seas, ranging north to Norway and the Caspian Sea. Neritina and Navicella inhabit fresh or brackish waters, the latter confined to the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and the islands of the Pacific. There are 80 fossil species, from the Trias, Lias, and Eocene formations down to recent deposits.

FAMILY 15.--TURBINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 425 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus TROCHUS (200 sp.) has a world-wide range, but the other genera are mostly tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are more than 900 fossil species, found in all parts of the world, from the Lower Silurian to the Tertiary formations.

{511}FAMILY 16.--HALIOTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 106 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ear-shells are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans; some are found on the east coasts of the Atlantic, but there are very few in the West Indies. Ianthina (10 sp.) consists of floating oceanic snails found in the warm parts of the Atlantic. Three other genera are fossil, and there are near 500 fossil species of this family ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations.

FAMILY 17.--FISSURELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 200 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. Puncturella (6 sp.) is confined to Northern and Antarctic seas; Rimula to the Philippines; and Parmophorus (15 sp.) from the Cape of Good Hope to the Philippines and New Zealand. There are about 80 fossil species, ranging from the Carboniferous formation to the deposits of the Glacial epoch.

FAMILY 18.--CALYPTRÆIDÆ. (4 Genera, 125 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Calptræidæ, or Bonnet-Limpets, are found on the coasts of all seas from Norway to Chili and Australia; but are most abundant within the Tropics. The genera are all widely scattered. There are 75 fossil species, ranging from the Devonian to recent formations.

FAMILY 19.--PATELLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 254 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Patellidæ, or Limpets, are universally distributed, and are as abundant in the temperate as in tropical seas. There are about 100 fossil species, ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary formations.

{512}FAMILY 20.--DENTALIADÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus Dentalium is found in the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, West Indies and India. There are 125 fossil species, found in various formations as far back as the Devonian in Europe and in Chili.

FAMILY 21.--CHITONIDÆ. (1 Genus, 250 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--On rocky shores in all parts of the world. There are 37 fossil species ranging back to the Silurian period.

Order II.--PULMONIFERA. ("Terrestrial Molluscs.")

The Land and Fresh-water snails are so important and extensive a group, and their classification has been so carefully studied, that their geographical distribution is a subject of much interest. The range of the genera will therefore be given in some detail. For the Helicidæ I follow the classical work of Albers--Die Helicien, Von Martens' Edition (1860); and for the Operculate families, Pfeiffer's Monographia Pneumonopomorum Viventium, 2nd Supplement, 1865. The number of species is, of course, very considerably increased since these works were published (and the probable amount of the increase I have in most cases indicated), but this does not materially affect the great features of their geographical distribution.

FAMILY 22.--HELICIDÆ. (33 Genera, 3,332 Species) (1860).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Universal.

The Helicidæ, or Snails, are a group of immense extent and absolutely cosmopolitan in their range, being found in the most barren deserts and on the smallest islands, all over the globe. They reach to near the line of perpetual snow on mountains, and {513}to the limit of trees or even considerably beyond it, in the Arctic regions; but they are comparatively very scarce in all cold countries. The Antilles, the Philippine Islands, Equatorial America, and the Mediterranean sub-region are especially rich in this family. Comparatively few of the genera, and those generally small ones, are restricted to single regions; but on the other hand very few are generally distributed, only two--Helix and Pupa--occurring in all the six regions, while Helix alone is truly cosmopolitan, occurring in every sub-region, in every country, and perhaps in every island on the globe.

The Neotropical region is, on the whole, the richest in this family, the continental Equatorial districts producing an abundance of large and handsome species, while the Antilles are pre-eminent for the number of their peculiar forms. This region possesses 22 of the genera, and 6 of them are peculiar.

The Palæarctic region seems to come next in productiveness, but this may be partly owing to its having been so thoroughly explored. It possesses 16 of the genera, and 3 of them are confined to it. The great mass of the species are found in the warm and fertile countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

The Ethiopian region has 13 genera, only one of which is peculiar.

The Australian region has 14 genera, 2 of which are confined to the Pacific Islands.

The Oriental has 15 genera and the Nearctic 12, but in neither case are there any peculiar generic types.

The following is the distribution of the several genera taken in the order of their magnitude:--

Helix (1,115 sp.), cosmopolitan. This genus is divided into 88 sub-genera, a number of which have a limited distribution. An immense quantity of species have been recently described, so that the number now exceeds 2,000.

Nanina (290 sp.) is characteristic of the Oriental and Australian regions, over the whole of which it extends, just entering the Palæarctic region as far as North China and Japan. Isolated from this area is a small group of 4 species occurring {514}in West Africa. The number of species in this genus have now been increased to about 400.

Clausilia (272 sp.) is most abundant in Europe, with a few species widely scattered in India, Malaya, China, Japan, Equatorial America, and one in Porto Rico. The described species have been increased to nearly 500.

Bulimulus (210 sp.) is American, and almost exclusively Neotropical, ranging from Montevideo and Chili, to the West Indian Islands, California and Texas; with two sub-genera confined to the Galapagos Islands. About 100 new species have been described since the issue of the second edition of Dr. Woodward's Manual.

Pupa (210 sp.) abounds most in Europe and the Arctic regions, but has a very wide range, being scattered throughout Africa, continental India, Australia, the Pacific Islands, North America to Greenland, and the Antilles; but it is absent from South America, the Himalayan and Malayan sub-regions, China and Japan. An extinct species has occurred abundantly in the carboniferous strata of North America. About 160 additional species have been described.

Bulimus (172 sp.) abounds most in Tropical South America; it is also found from Burmah eastward through Malaya to the Solomon and Fiji Islands; there are also scattered species in Patagonia, St. Vincents, Texas, St. Helena, and New Zealand. More than 100 additional species have been described.

Buliminus (132 sp.) ranges from Central and South Europe over the whole Ethiopian and Oriental regions to North China, and through the Australian to New Zealand; there is also a single outlying species in the Galapagos Islands. About 50 more species have been described.

Cochlostyla (127 sp.) is almost peculiar to the Philippine Islands, beyond which, are a species in Borneo, one in Java, and two in Australia. Very few new species have been added to this genus.

Achatinella (95 sp.) is absolutely confined to the Sandwich Island group. Recent researches have more than tripled the number of described species.

{515}Achatina (87 sp.) is most abundant and finest in the Ethiopian region, over the whole of which it ranges; but there are also species in Florida, the Antilles, the Sandwich Islands, Ceylon and India. The described species are now more than doubled.

Hyalina (84 sp.) inhabits all Tropical America and the Antilles, North America to Greenland, and Europe to the Arctic regions. Comparatively few new species have been described.

Cylindrella (83 sp.) inhabits the West Indian islands and Guatemala to Texas, with a sub-genus in the Philippine Islands. Species since described have more than trebled the number in this genus.

Cionella (67 sp.) is widely scattered; in India from Ceylon to the Khasia Mountains, Brazil, New Granada, the West Indian islands, Palæarctic, and northern part of Nearctic regions, Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Juan Fernandez. About 20 new species have since been described.

Glandina (66 sp.), Peru to South Carolina and the Antilles, with three species in Central Africa and one in South Europe. About 40 species have been added to this genus.

Stenogyra (49 sp.), widely distributed: Tropical America and West Indies to Florida, South and West Africa, the Mediterranean region, India and the Philippines. About a dozen new species have been described.

Succinea (41 sp.), widely scattered in all the regions, and in St. Helena, Juan Fernandez, Tahiti, Chiloe, Greenland, West Africa, Himalayas and Australia. The described species are now more than 100.

Partula (39 sp.), Solomon Islands to Tahiti and Sandwich Islands. This genus has also been increased to near 100 species.

Streptaxis (34 sp.), most abundant in Tropical South America, but occurs in West Africa, the Seychelles and Rodriguez Islands, Ceylon and Burmah. It now contains over 100 described species.

Spiraxis (33 sp.), Yucatan to Mexico, and less abundant in the West Indian Islands. About 20 species have been added.

{516}Macroceramus (27 sp.), Antilles, Florida, and Peru. The species have been more than doubled.

Vitrina (26 sp.), widely scattered through North and Central Europe, North-west America and Greenland, Abyssinia, Madagascar and South Africa, Himalayas to Burmah and Australia. Species since described have more than doubled the number in this genus.

Orthalicus (23 sp.), Bolivia to Mexico and Antilles. This genus has been increased to about 40 species.

Sagda (19 sp.), Antilles only. Very few new species, if any, have been described.

Zonites (12 sp.), South Europe, with one species of a distinct type in Guatemala. The number of species in this genus has been since about tripled.

Leucochroa (11 sp.), Mediterranean region to Syria and Arabia Petrea.

Simpulopsis (7 sp.), Bahia, Antilles, and far away in the Solomon Islands. Two or three have been added.

Balea (6 sp.), Middle and North Europe, Brazil, and the Island of Tristan d'Acunha.

Daudebardia (6 sp.), Central and South Europe; and a species has since been discovered in New Zealand.

Macrocycles (4 sp.), Chili, California, Oregon and Central North America.

Columna (3 sp.), West Africa, Princes Islands and Madagascar.

Stenopus (2 sp.), Island of St. Vincent (West Indies.)

Pfeifferia (2 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas.

Testacella (2 sp.), West Europe and Teneriffe. About 8 species have been since described, including one from New Zealand.

Fossil species of Helix, Bulimus, Achatina, Balea, and Clausilia, are found in all the Tertiary formations; while a species of Pupa (as already stated) occurs in the carboniferous formation. For interesting details of the distribution of the sub-genera and species of Achatinella in the Sandwich Islands, see a paper by Rev. J. T. Gulick in the Journal of the Linnean Society. (Zoology, vol. xi. p. 496.)

{517}FAMILY 23.--LIMACIDÆ.--(12 Genera, 116 Species.)

The Limacidæ, or Slugs, are widely distributed, but they are absent from South America, where they are represented by the next family. They also seem to be absent from the greater part of Africa. The genera are distributed as follows:--

Limax (51 sp.), Palæarctic region, Australia and the Sandwich Islands; Anadenus (2 sp.), Himalayas; Philomychus (9 sp.), North America, China and Java; Arion (25 sp.), Norway to Spain and South Africa; Parmacella (7 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands and North India; Janella (1 sp.), New Zealand; Aneitea (1 sp.), New Hebrides and New Caledonia; Parmarion (4 sp.), India; Triboniophorus (3 sp.), Australia; Testacella (3 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands, and New Zealand; Hyalimax (2 sp.), Bourbon and Mauritius; Krynickia (8 sp.), Eastern Europe and North America. A few species of Limax, Arion, and Testacella have been found fossil in Tertiary deposits.

FAMILY 24.--ONCIDIADÆ. (2 Genera, 36 Species.)

The Oncidiadæ, or Slugs with a coriaceous mantle, inhabit the Oriental region, Mauritius, Australia, the Pacific Islands, South America and South Europe. The genera are:--

{518}Oncidium (16 sp.), South Europe (1 sp. British), Mauritius, Australia and Pacific Islands; Vaginulus (20 sp.), Neotropical and Oriental regions.

FAMILY 25.--LIMNÆIDÆ. (7 Genera, 332 Species.)

The Limnæidæ, or Fresh-water Snails, inhabit ponds and rivers in most parts of the world, but appear to be absent from the Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows:--

Limnæa (95 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions; Choanomphalos (2 sp.), Lake Baikal; Pompholyx (2 sp.), Western America; Chilinia (18 sp.), South America; Physa (20 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and extends to above 73° North Latitude in Siberia, being the most Arctic of land or fresh-water shells; Ancylus (49 sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical regions, Europe and New Zealand; Planorbis (145 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic and Oriental regions. Several genera are found fossil, chiefly in the Wealden, Eocene, and Miocene formations.

FAMILY 26.--AURICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 210 Species.)

The Auriculidæ are chiefly found near the sea in hot countries, and are most abundant in the Eastern tropics. They are absent {519}from the East coast of South America. The genera have a somewhat restricted distribution as follows:--

Auricula (128 sp.), India, Pacific Islands, Peru and West Indies; Melampus (56 sp.), West Indies and Europe; Carychium (9 sp.), Europe and North America; Plectrotrema (14 sp.), Australia, Malay Islands, China, Cuba; Blauneria (2 sp.), West Indian and Sandwich Islands. There are many fossil species ranging back to the Eocene formation.

FAMILY 27.--ACICULIDÆ. (4 Genera, 65 Species.) (1865.)

The Aciculidæ are small cylindrical shells chiefly found in the West Indian Islands, but with representatives widely scattered over the globe.

Acicula (5 sp.) is European only; Geomelania (21 sp.), and Chittya (1 sp.), are confined to the Island of Jamaica; Truncatella (38 sp.), is most abundant in the Antilles, but is also found in some part of each of the six regions, as indicated by the diagram of the family. But few new species have been added to this group.

FAMILY 28.--DIPLOMMATINIDÆ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.) (1865.)

The Diplommatinidæ are minute shells of the Oriental and Australian regions.

{520}Diplommatina (18 sp.) inhabits India to Burmah, and the greater part of the Australian region; the number of species has now been doubled, and one has been discovered in the island of Trinidad; Clostophis (1 sp.), Moulmein; Paxillus (3 sp.), Borneo, Hong Kong, and Loo Choo Islands.

FAMILY 29.--CYCLOSTOMIDÆ. (41 Genera, 1009 Species.) (1865.)

This extensive group, comprising the largest of the operculated land-shells, is especially characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses 25 genera, no less than 12 of them being wholly confined to it. The Neotropical region comes next, with 15 genera, 9 of which are peculiar; but a large number of these are confined to the West Indian Islands, South America itself being very poor in this group. The Palæarctic region has 3 peculiar genera; the Ethiopian and Australian 1 each. The Nearctic region has but a single West Indian species in Florida. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Oriental region are, Opisthoporus (11 sp.), Rhiostoma (6 sp.), Alycaeus (39 sp.), Opisthostoma (1 sp.), Hybocistis (3 sp.), Pterocyclos (19 sp.), extending to the Moluccas; Aulopoma (4 sp.), Dermatocera (4 sp.), Leptopoma (54 sp.), extending west to the Seychelles and east to the Moluccas and New Guinea; Cyclophorus (163 sp.), most abundant in the Oriental region, but ranges to Japan, to Chili, and all Tropical America, over the whole Australian region, and to Natal and Madagascar; Cataulus (15 sp.), confined to Ceylon, the Neilgherries and Nicobar Islands; Rhaphaulus (4 sp.), Penang to Ceram; Streptaulus (1 sp.), Arinia (3 sp.), Pupinella (2 sp.), Pupina (24 sp.), half in North India to Philippines and {521}Japan, the other half in Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia; Cyclotopsis (2 sp.), India and Malaya; Registoma (9 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas, New Caledonia and Pacific.

Characteristic of the Neotropical region are:--Cyclotus (111 sp.), half in the Antilles and Tropical America, the rest in the Moluccas, China, Malaya, India, Natal, and the Seychelle Islands; Megalomastoma (27 sp.), abundant in Cuba, West Indies and South America, others in India, Malaya, and Mauritius; Jamaicia (2 sp.), Jamaica; Licina (5 sp.), Antilles; Choanopoma (49 sp.), Antilles; Ctenopoma (25 sp.), Antilles; Diplopoma (1 sp.), Cuba; Adamsiella (15 sp.), Jamaica, Cuba, Guatemala; Cyclostomus (113 sp.), abundant in Antilles, also occurs in Madagascar, Arabia, Syria, Hungary and New Zealand; Tudora (34 sp.), Antilles, and one species in Algeria; Cistula (40 sp.), Chondropoma (94 sp.), Bourcieria (2 sp.), Tropical America.

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Palæarctic region are:--Craspedopoma (5 sp.), confined to Madeira, the Azores and Canaries; Leonia (1 sp.), Spain and Algeria; Pomatias (22 sp.), Europe and Canaries with a species in the Himalayas; Cecina (1 sp.), Manchuria.

The Ethiopian region has the peculiar genus Lithodion (5 sp.), Madagascar, Socotra and Arabia; and Otopoma (19 sp.), Mascarene Islands and Socotra, with a species in Western India and another in New Ireland.

The Australian region is characterised by Callia (3 sp.), in Ceram, Australia, and the Philippines respectively; Realia (7 sp.), New Zealand and the Marquesas Islands; Omphalotropis (38 sp.), the Australian region, with some species in India, Malaya, and the Mauritius.

The remaining genus, Hydrocena (27 sp.), has a very widely scattered distribution, being found in South Europe, Japan, the Cape, China, Malaya, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands and Chili. From 10 to 20 per cent. of new species have been since described in most of the genera of this family.

{522}FAMILY 30.--HELICINIDÆ. (7 Genera, 433 Species.) (1868.)

The Helicinidæ are very characteristic of the Antilles, comparatively few being found in any other part of the world except the Islands of the Pacific. The genera are:--

Trochatella (33 sp.), Antilles with a species in Venezuela, and another in Cambodja; Lucidella (5 sp.), Antilles; Helicina (274 sp.), Antilles, Pacific Islands, Tropical America, Southern United States, Moluccas, Australia, Philippines, Java, Andaman Islands and North China; Schasicheila (5 sp.), Mexico, Guatemala and Bahamas; Alcadia (28 sp.), Antilles; Georissa (5 sp.) Moulmein to Burmah. About 10 per cent. of new species appear to have been since described in the larger genera of this family.

General Observations on the Distribution of the Land Mollusca.

A consideration of the distribution of the families and genera of land-shells shows us, that although they possess some special features, yet they agree in many respects with the higher animals in their limitation by great natural barriers, such as oceans, deserts, mountain ranges, and climatal zones. A remarkable point in the distribution of these animals, is the number of genera which have a very limited range, and also the prevalence of genera having species scattered, as it were at random, all over the earth. No less than 14 genera (or about one-sixth of the whole number) are confined to the Antilles, while the greater part of the sub-genera of modern authors are restricted to limited areas.

If we first compare the New World with the Old, we find the difference as regards genera quite as great as in most of the {523}vertebrates. In the Helicidæ, 10 genera are confined to the New, and 7 to the Old World, 16 being common to both. In the Operculata the number of genera of restricted range is greater,--the New World having 15, the Old World 32 genera, only 8 being common to both. Of the New World genera 12 out of the 15 do not occur at all in South America; and of those of the Old World, 22 out of the 32 occur in a single region only. If we take the northern and southern division proposed by Professor Huxley (the latter comprising the Australian and Neotropical regions), we find a much less well-marked diversity. Among the Helicidæ only 4 are exclusively northern, 8 southern; while among the Operculata 22 are northern, 16 southern. The best way to compare these two kinds of primary division will be to leave out all those genera confined to a single region each, and to take account only of those characteristic of two or more of the combined regions; which will evidently show which division is the most natural one for this group. The result is as follows:--

GENERA COMMON TO TWO OR MORE REGIONS IN, AND CONFINED TO, EACH PRIMARY DIVISION OF THE EARTH.

Helicidæ Operculata. Totals. { Northern 0 0 0 } { Southern 0 0 0 }

{ Old World 1 12 13 } { New World 4 0 4 }

We find then that the northern and southern division of the globe is not at all supported by the distribution of the terrestrial molluscs. It is indeed very remarkable, that the connection so apparent in many groups between Australia and South America is so scantily indicated here. The only facts supporting it seem to be, the occurrence of Geotrochus (a sub-genus of Helix) in Brazil, as well as in the Austro-Malayan and West Pacific Islands and North Australia; and of Bulimus in the same two parts of the globe, but peculiar sub-genera in each. But in neither case is there any affinity shown between the temperate portions of the two regions, so that we must probably trace this resemblance to some more ancient diffusion of types than that which led to the similarity of plants and insects. Still more curious is the entire {524}absence of genera confined to, and characteristic of Africa and India. One small sub-genus of Helix, (Rachis), and one of Achatina, (Homorus), appear to have this distribution,--a fact of but little significance when we find another sub-genus of Helix, (Hapalus), common and confined to Guinea and the Philippine Islands; and when we consider the many other cases of scattered distribution which cannot be held to indicate any real connection between the countries implicated. No genus is confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions as a whole. A large number of sub-genera, many of them of considerable extent, are peculiar to one or other of these regions, but only 3 sub-genera of Helix and 2 of Pupa are common and peculiar to the two combined, and these are always such as have an Arctic range and whose distribution therefore offers no difficulty.

We find, then, that each of our six regions and almost all of our sub-regions are distinctly confirmed by the distribution of the terrestrial mollusca; while the different combinations of them which have at various times been suggested, receive little or no support whatever. Even those remarkably isolated sub-regions, New Zealand and Madagascar, have no strictly peculiar genera of land-shells, although they both possess several peculiar sub-genera; being thus inferior in isolation to some single West Indian Islands, to the Sandwich Islands, and even to the North Atlantic Islands (Canaries, Madeira, and Azores), each of which have peculiar genera. This of course, only indicates that the means by which land mollusca have been dispersed are somewhat special and peculiar. To determine in what this speciality consists we must consider some of the features of the specific distribution of this group.

The range of genera, and even of sub-genera is, as we have seen, often wide and erratic, but as a general rule the species have a very restricted area.

Hardly a small island on the globe but has some land-shells peculiar to it. Juan Fernandez has 20 species, all peculiar. Madeira and Porto Santo have 109 peculiar species out of a total of 134. Every little valley, plain, or hill-top, in the Sandwich Islands, though only a few square miles in extent, has its {525}peculiar species of Achatinella. Another striking feature of the distribution of land molluscs, is the richness of islands as compared with continents. The Philippines contain more species than all India; and those of the Antilles according to Mr. Bland almost exactly equal the numbers found in the entire American continent from Greenland to Patagonia. Taking the whole world, it appears that many more species of land-shells are found in the islands than on the continents of the globe, a peculiarity that obtains in no other extensive group of animals.

Looking at these facts it seems probable, that the air-breathing molluscs have been chiefly distributed by air- or water-carriage, rather than by voluntary dispersal on the land. Even seas and oceans have not formed impassable barriers to their diffusion; whereas they only spread on dry land with excessive slowness and difficulty. The exact mode in which their diffusion is effected is not known, and it may depend on rare and exceptional circumstances; but it seems likely to occur in two ways. Snails frequently conceal themselves in crevices of trees or under bark, or attach themselves to stems or foliage, and either by their operculum or mucous diaphragm, are able to protect themselves from the injurious effects of salt water for long periods. They might therefore, under favourable conditions, be drifted across arms of the sea or from island to island; while wherever there are large rivers and occasional floods, they would by similar means be widely scattered over land areas. Another possible mode of distribution is by means of storms and hurricanes, which would carry the smaller species for long distances, and might occasionally transport the eggs of the larger forms. Aquatic birds might occasionally get both shells and eggs attached to their feet or their plumage, and convey them across a wide extent of sea. But whether these, or some other unknown agency has acted, the facts of distribution clearly imply that some means of transport over water is, and has been, the chief agent in the distribution of these animals; but that its action is very rare or intermittent, so that its effects are hardly perceptible in the distribution of single species.

Another important factor in enabling us to account for the {526}distribution of these animals is the geological antiquity of the group, and the amount of change exhibited in time, by species and genera. Now we find that most of the genera of land-shells range back to the Eocene period, while those inhabiting fresh water are found almost unchanged in the Wealden. In North America a species of Pupa and one of Zonites, have been discovered in the coal measures, along with Labyrinthodonts; and this fact seems to imply, that many more terrestrial molluscs would be discovered, if fresh-water deposits, made under favourable conditions, were more frequently met with in the older rocks. If then the existing groups of land-molluscs are of such vast antiquity, and possess some means, however rarely occurring, of crossing seas and oceans, we need not wonder at the wide and erratic distribution now presented by so many of the groups; and we must not expect them to conform very closely to those regions which limit the range of animals of higher organization and less antiquity.

The total number of species of pulmoniferous mollusca is about 7,000, according to the estimate of Mr. Woodward, brought down to 1868 by Mr. Tate. But this number would be largely increased if the estimates of specialists were taken. Mr. Woodward for example, gives 760 as the number of species in the West Indian Islands; whereas Mr. Thomas Bland, who has made the shells of these islands a special study, considers that there were 1,340 species in 1866. So, the land-shells of the Sandwich Islands are given at 267; but Mr. Gulick has added 120 species of Achatinellidæ, bringing the numbers up to nearly 400,--but no doubt several of these are so closely related that many conchologists would class them as varieties. The land-shell fauna of the Antilles is undoubtedly the most remarkable in the world, and it has been made the subject of much interesting discussion by Mr. Bland and others. This fauna differs from that of all other parts of the globe in the proportions of the operculate to the inoperculate shells. The Operculata of the globe are about one-seventh, the Inoperculata about six-sevenths of the whole; and some general approximation to this proportion (or a much smaller one) exists in almost all the continents, islands, and {527}archipelagoes. In the Philippines, for example, the proportion of the Operculata is a little more than one-seventh; in the Mauritius, between one-third and one-fourth; in Madeira, one-fourteenth; in the whole American continent about one-eighth; but when we come to the Antilles we find them to amount to nearly five-sixths, about half the Operculata of the globe being found there!

Mr. Bland endeavours to ascertain the source of some of the chief genera found in the West Indian Islands, on the principle that "each genus has had its origin where the greatest number of species is found;" and then proceeds to determine that some have had an African, some an Asiatic, and some an American origin, while others are truly indigenous. But we fear there is no such simple way of arriving at so important a result; and in the case of groups of extreme antiquity like the genera of mollusca, it would seem quite as possible that the origin of a genus is generally not where the greatest number of species are now found. For during the repeated changes of physical conditions that have everywhere occurred since the Eocene period (to go no further back) every genus must have made extensive migrations, and have often become largely developed in some other district than that in which it first appeared. As a proof of this, we not unfrequently find fossil shells where the species and even the genus now no longer exists; as Auricula, found fossil in Europe, but only living in the Malay and Pacific Islands; Anastoma and Megaspira, now peculiar to Brazil, but fossil in the Eocene of France; and Proserpina of the West Indies, found in the Eocene formation of the Isle of Wight. The only means by which the origin of a genus can satisfactorily be arrived at, is by tracing back its fossil remains step by step to an earlier form; and this we have at present no means of doing in the case of the land-shells. Taking existing species as our guide we should certainly have imagined that the genus Equus originated in Africa or Central Asia; but recent discoveries of numerous extinct species and of less specialized forms of the same type, seem to indicate that it originated in North America, and that the whole tribe of "horses" may be, for anything we yet know {528}to the contrary, recent immigrants into the Old World! This example alone must convince us, that it is impossible to form any conclusion as to the origin of a genus, from the distribution of existing species only.

The general conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is, that the causes that have led to the existing distribution of the genera and higher groups of the terrestrial mollusca are so complex, and have acted through such long periods, that most of the barriers which limit the range of other terrestrial animals do not apply to them, although the species are, in most cases, strictly limited by them. Some means of diffusion--which, though probably acting very slowly and at long intervals, and more powerfully on continents than between islands, is yet highly efficient when we consider the long duration of genera--has, to a considerable extent, dispersed them across continents, seas, and oceans. On the other hand, those mountain barriers which separate many groups of the higher vertebrates, are generally less ancient than the genera of land-shells, which are thus often distributed independently of them. In order to compare the distribution of the terrestrial mollusca on equal terms with those of land animals generally, we must take genera of the former as equivalent to family groups of the latter; and we shall, I believe, then find that the distribution of the sub-genera and smaller groups of species do accord mainly with those divisions of the earth into regions and sub-regions which we have here indicated. Mr. Harper Pease, in a communication on Polynesian Land Shells in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1871 (p. 449), marks out the limits of the Polynesian sub-region, so as exactly to agree with that arrived at here from a consideration of the distribution of vertebrata; and he says that this sub-region, (or region, as he terms it) is distinctly characterised by its land-shells from all the surrounding regions. The genera (or sub-genera) Partula, Pitys, Achatinella, Palaina, Omphalotropis, and many others, are either wholly confined to this sub-region or highly characteristic of it. Mr. Binney, in his Catalogue of the Air-breathing Molluscs of North America, marks out our Nearctic region (with almost identical limits) as most clearly {529}characterised. He also arrives at a series of sub-divisions, which generally (though not exactly) agree with the sub-regions which I have here adopted. The Palæarctic, the Ethiopian, and the Oriental regions, are also generally admitted to be well characterised by their terrestrial molluscs. There only remain the Australian and the Neotropical regions, in which some want of homogeneity is apparent, owing to the vast development and specialisation of certain groups in the islands which belong to these regions. The Antilles, on the one hand, and the Polynesian Islands, on the other, are so rich in land-shells and possess so many peculiar forms, that, judged by these alone, they must form primary instead of secondary divisions. We have, however, already pointed out the inconvenience of any such partial systems of zoological geography, and the causes have been sufficiently indicated which have, in the case of land-shells as of insects, produced certain special features of distribution.

We therefore venture to hope, that conchologists will give us the advantage of their more full and accurate knowledge both of the classification and distribution of this interesting group of animals, not to map out new sets of regions for themselves, but to show what kind of barriers have been most efficient in limiting the range of species, and how their distribution is actually effected, so as to be able to explain whatever discrepancies exist between the actual distribution of land-shells and that of the higher animals.

Order III.--OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA.

There are ten families in this order, all of which, as far as known, are widely or universally distributed. Some of them are found fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch. They are commonly termed Sea-slugs, and have either a thin small shell or none. We shall therefore simply enumerate the families, with the number of genera and species as given by Mr. Woodward.

{530}FAMILY 31.--TORNATELLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species living, 166 fossil.)

FAMILY 32.--BULLIDÆ. (12 Genera, 168 Species living, 88 fossil.)

FAMILY 33.--APHYSIADÆ. (8 Genera, 84 Species living, 4 fossil.)

FAMILY 34.--PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species living, 5 fossil.)

FAMILY 35.--PHYLLIDIADÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 36.--DORIDÆ. (23 Genera, 160 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 37.--TRITONIADÆ. (9 Genera, 38 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 38.--ÆOLIDÆ. (14 Genera, 101 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 39.--PHYLLYRHOIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 40.--ELYSIADÆ. (5 Genera, 13 Species living, 0 fossil.)

{531}Order IV.--NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA.

These are oceanic, swimming molluscs, of a delicate texture. They are found in all warm seas, and range back to the Lower Silurian epoch. There are only two families.

FAMILY 41.--FIROLIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species living, 1 fossil.)

FAMILY 42.--ATLANTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species living, 159 fossil.)

CLASS.--PTEROPODA.

These are swimming, oceanic mollusca, inhabiting both Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical seas. The three families have each a wide distribution in all the great oceans. They range back to the Silurian period.

FAMILY 1.--HYALEIDÆ. (9 Genera, 52 Species living, 95 fossil.)

FAMILY 2.--LIMACINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 19 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 3.--CLIONIDÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)

{532}CLASS.--BRACHIOPODA.

These are sedentary, bivalve, marine mollusca, having laterally symmetrical shells, but with unequal valves. Both in space and time they are the most widely distributed molluscs. They are found in all seas, and at all depths; and when any of the families or genera have a restricted range, it seems to be due to our imperfect knowledge, rather than to any real geographical limitations. In time they range back to the Cambrian formation, and seem to have had their maximum development in the Silurian period. It is not, therefore, necessary for our purpose, to do more than give the names of the families with the numbers of the genera and species, as before.

FAMILY 1.--TEREBRATULIDÆ. (5 Genera, 67 Species living, 340 fossil.)

FAMILY 2.--SPIRIFERIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 380 fossil.)

FAMILY 3.--RHYNCHONELLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 4 Species living, 422 fossil.)

FAMILY 4.--ORTHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 328 fossil.)

FAMILY 5.--PRODUCTIDÆ. (3 Genera, 0 Species living, 146 fossil.)

FAMILY 6.--CRANIADÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species living, 37 fossil.)

FAMILY 7.--DISCINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 10 Species living, 90 fossil.)

FAMILY 8.--LINGULIDÆ. (2 Genera, 16 Species living, 99 fossil.)

{533}CLASS.--CONCHIFERA.

The Conchifera, or ordinary Bivalve Molluscs, may be distinguished from the Brachiopoda by having their shells laterally unsymmetrical, while the valves are generally (but not always) equal. They are mostly marine, but a few inhabit fresh water. As the distribution of some of the families presents points of interest, we shall treat them in the same manner as the marine Gasteropoda.

FAMILY 1.--OSTREIDÆ. (5 Genera, 426 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ostreidæ, including the Oysters and Scallops, are found in all seas, Arctic as well as Tropical. There are nearly 1,400 species fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.

FAMILY 2.--AVICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 94 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Aviculidæ, or Wing-shells and Pearl Oysters, are characteristic of Tropical and warm seas, a few only ranging into temperate regions. Nearly 700 fossil species are known from various formations ranging back to the Devonian, and Lower Silurian.

FAMILY 3.--MYTILIDÆ. (3 Genera, 217 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mytilidæ, or Mussels, have a world-wide distribution. There is one fresh-water species, which inhabits the Volga. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch.

{534}FAMILY 4.--ARCADÆ. (6 Genera, 360 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Arcadæ are universally distributed, and are most abundant in warm seas. The genus Leda is, however, abundant in Arctic and Temperate regions, and Solenella is confined to the South Temperate zone. There are near 1,200 fossil species, found in all strata as low as the Lower Silurian.

FAMILY 5.--TRIGONIADÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The living Trigoniæ are confined to Australia, but there are 5 other genera fossil, containing about 150 species, and found in various formations from the Chalk to the Lower Silurian.

FAMILY 6.--UNIONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 549 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Unionidæ, or Fresh-water Mussels, are found in all the fresh waters of the globe, but some of the genera are restricted. Castalia, Mycetopus and Mulleria are confined to the rivers of South America; Anodon, to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; Iridina, and Etheria, to the rivers of Africa; Unio has a universal distribution, but is especially abundant in North America. About 60 fossil species are found in the Tertiary and Wealden formations.

FAMILY 7.--CHAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Chamidæ, or Giant Clams, are confined to Tropical seas, chiefly among coral reefs. There are two other genera and 62 species fossil, ranging from the Chalk to the Oolite formations.

FAMILY 8.--HIPPURITIDÆ. (5 Genera, 103 Species.)

Fossils of doubtful affinity, from the Chalk formation.

{535}FAMILY 9.--TRIDACNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Tridacnidæ, or Clam-shells, are of very large size, and are confined to the Tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A few species have been found fossil in the Miocene formation.

FAMILY 10.--CARDIADÆ. (1 Genus, 200 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cardiadæ, or Cockles, are of world-wide distribution. Another genus is fossil, and nearly 400 fossil species are known, ranging back to the Upper Silurian formation.

FAMILY 11.--LUCINIDÆ (8 Genera, 178 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Lucinidæ inhabit the Tropical and Temperate seas of all parts of the world; but the genus Corbis is confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Montacuta and Lepton, to the Atlantic. There are nearly 500 extinct species, ranging from the Tertiary back to the Silurian formation.

FAMILY 12.--CYCLADIDÆ. (3 Genera, 176 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cycladidæ are small fresh- or brackish-water shells found all over the globe. The genus Cyclas is most abundant in the North Temperate zone, while Cyrena inhabits the warmer shores of the Atlantic and Pacific, but is absent from the West Coast of America. There are about 150 species fossil, ranging back from the Pliocene to the Wealden formations.

FAMILY 13.--CYPRINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 176 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. Cyprina and Astarte are Arctic and North Temperate; Cardita is Tropical and South Temperate. There are several extinct genera and about 1,000 species found in all formations as far back as the Lower Silurian.

{536}FAMILY 14.--VENERIDÆ. (10 Genera, 600 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. Lucinopsis is confined to the North Atlantic; Glauconeza to the months of rivers in the Oriental region; Meroe and Trigona to warm seas. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Oolitic period.

FAMILY 15.--MACTRIDÆ. (5 Genera, 147 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, but more abundant in the Tropics. Gnathodon is found in the Gulf of Mexico; Anatinella in the Oriental region. There are about 60 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.

FAMILY 16.--TELLINIDÆ. (11 Genera, 560 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas; most abundant in the Tropics. Galatea is confined to African rivers. There are about 60 fossil species, mostly Tertiary, but ranging back to the Carboniferous period.

FAMILY 17.--SOLENIDÆ. (3 Genera, 63 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All Temperate and Tropical seas. There are 80 fossil species which range back to the Carboniferous epoch.

FAMILY 18.--MYACIDÆ. (6 Genera, 121 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. Panopæa inhabits both North and South Temperate seas; Glycimeris, Arctic seas. There are near 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Oolite formation.

FAMILY 19.--ANATINIDÆ. (8 Genera, 246 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. Pholadomya is from Tropical Africa; Myadora from the Western Pacific; Myochama and Chamostræa are Australian. There are about 400 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Silurian formation.

{537}FAMILY 20.--GASTROCHÆNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and warm seas. Aspergillum ranges from the Red Sea to New Zealand. There are 35 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Oolite.

FAMILY 21.--PHOLADIDÆ (4 Genera, 81 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These burrowing molluscs inhabit all Temperate and warm seas from Norway to New Zealand. There are about 50 fossil species, ranging back to the epoch of the Lias.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Marine Mollusca.

The marine Mollusca are remarkable for their usually wide distribution. About 48 of the families are cosmopolitan, ranging over both hemispheres, and in cold as well as warm seas. About 15 are restricted to the warmer seas of the globe; but several of these extend from Norway to New Zealand, a distribution which may be called universal, and only 2 or 3 are absolutely confined to Tropical seas. Two small families only, are confined to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Marine fishes, on the other hand, have a much less cosmopolitan character, no less than 30 families having a limited distribution, while 50 are universal. Some of these 30 families are confined to the Northern seas, some to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and a considerable number to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. Many of these families, it is true, are much smaller than those of the Mollusca, which seem to possess very few of those small isolated families of two or three species only, which abound in all the Vertebrate classes. These differences are no doubt connected with the higher organisation of fishes, which renders them more susceptible to changed conditions of life; and this is indicated by the much less antiquity of existing families of fishes, the greater part of which do not date back beyond the Cretaceous epoch, and many of them only to the Eocene. In striking contrast we have the vast antiquity of most of the families of {538}Mollusca, as shown in the following table of their range taken from Mr. Woodward's work, but re-arranged, and somewhat modified.

1 = Lower Silurian. 6 = Trias. 11 = Eocene. 2 = Upper Silurian. 7 = Lower Oolite. 12 = Miocene. 3 = Devonian. 8 = Upper Oolite. 13 = Pliocene. 4 = Carboniferous. 9 = Lower Cretaceous. 14 = Recent. 5 = Permian. 10 = Upper Cretaceous.

+-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ | Range of Families of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mollusca in Time; arranged | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | in their order of appearance| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | and disappearance. | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14| +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ | Productidæ |--|--|--|--|--| | | | | | | | | | | Orthoceratidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--| | | | | | | | | | Spiriferidæ, Orthidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | | | | | | | | Atlantidæ, Hyaleidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Pyramidellidæ, Turbinidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Ianthidæ, Chitonidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Lingulidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Aviculidæ, Mytilidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Arcadæ, Trigoniadæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Cyprinidæ, Anatinidæ |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Nautilidæ | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Rhynchonellidæ, Craniadæ, } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Discinidæ } | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Cardiadæ, Lucinidæ | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Ammonitidæ | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | | | | | Naticidæ, Calyptræidæ | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Dentalidæ, Terebratulidæ | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Helicidæ | | | |--| | | | | | |--|--|--|--| | Fissurellidæ, Tornatellidæ | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Pectinidæ, Solenidæ | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Cerithiadæ, Littorinidæ, } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Astartidæ } | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Belemnitidæ | | | | | | |--|--|--|--| | | | | | Teuthidæ, Sepiadæ | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Neritidæ, Patellidæ, } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Bullidæ } | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Gastrochænidæ, Pholadidæ | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Limnæidæ, Melaniadæ | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Chamidæ, Myadæ | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Cycladidæ, Veneridæ, } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tellinidæ } | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--|--| | Hippuritidæ | | | | | | | | |--|--| | | | | | Unionidæ | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Strombidæ, Buccinidæ | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Conidæ, Volutidæ | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Auriculidæ, Cyclostomidæ | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Mactridæ | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Limacidæ | | | | | | | | | | |--|--|--|--| | Argonautidæ | | | | | | | | | | | | |--|--| | Tridacnidæ | | | | | | | | | | | | |--|--| +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+

Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone. Many genera are equally ancient. The genus Lingula has {539}existed from the earliest Palæozoic times down to the present day; while Terebratula, Rhynchonella, Discina, Nautilus, Natica, Pleurotomaria, Patella, Dentalium, Mytilus and many other living forms, range back to the Palæozoic epoch. That groups of such immense antiquity, and having power to resist such vast changes of external conditions as they must have been subject to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera and species, that we can expect the influence of recent geological or climatal changes to be manifest; and it must be left to special students to work out the details of their distribution, with reference to the general principles found to obtain among the more highly organised animals.

{540}CHAPTER XXIII.

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

Having already given summaries of the distribution of the several orders, and of some of the classes of land animals, we propose here to make a few general remarks on the special phenomena presented by the more important groups, and to indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by which they have become dispersed over wide areas.

MAMMALIA.

This class is very important, and its past history is much better known than that of most others. We shall therefore briefly summarise the results we have arrived at from our examination of the distribution of extinct and living forms of each order.

Primates.--This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one, became separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres respectively, at a very early epoch. In consequence of this separation it has diverged more radically than most other orders, so that the two American families, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, are widely differentiated from the Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they became extinct in most of the areas where the higher forms of Primates became developed. Remains found in the Eocene formation indicate, that the North American and European {541}Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into distinct series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary period for the ancestral form from which the entire order was developed.

Chiroptera.--These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The most generalised forms--the Vespertilionidæ and Noctilionidæ--are the most widely distributed; while special types have arisen in America, and in the Eastern Hemisphere. Remains found in the Upper Eocene formation of Europe differ little from species still living in the same countries; so that we can form no conjecture as to the origin or migration, of the group. Their power of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to spread over all the great continents of the globe.

Insectivora.--This very ancient group, now probably verging towards extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern continent, and never to have reached Australia or South America. It may, however, have become extinct in the latter country owing to the competition of the numerous Edentata. The Insectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some burrow in the earth,--like the moles; others have a spiny covering,--as the hedgehog's and several of the Centetidæ; others are aquatic,---as the Potamogale and the desman; others have a nauseous odour,--as the shrews; while there are several which seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher forms,--as the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels. The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insectivora inhabiting Madagascar, where the competing forms are few; and by one lingering in the Antilles, where there are hardly any other mammalia.

Carnivora.--Although perhaps less ancient than the preceding, this form of mammal is far more highly organised, and from its earliest appearance appears to have become dominant in the world. It would therefore soon spread widely, and diverge into the various specialised types represented by existing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North {542}American Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidæ and Felidæ. It seems probable, therefore, that the order had attained a considerable development before it reached the Western Hemisphere. The Procyonidæ, now confined to America, are not very ancient; and the occurrence of a few allied forms in the Himalayas (Ælurus and Æluropus) render it probable that their common ancestors entered North America from the Palæarctic region during the Miocene period, but being a rather low type they have succumbed under the competition of higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. Bears and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to America. The aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be expected, more widely and uniformly distributed, but there is little evidence to show at what period the type was first developed.

Ungulata.--These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the great continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers and in specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times to the present day. Being generally of larger size and less active than the Carnivora, they have somewhat more restricted powers of dispersal. We have good evidence that their wide range over the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon. Tapirs and Llamas have probably not long inhabited South America, while Rhinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in Africa, although abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are one of the most ancient types in both hemispheres; and their great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and their powers of swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep and goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent development of the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the Palæarctic region at a time when its climate already approximated to that which now prevails. Hence they are pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges.

Proboscidea.--These huge animals (the Elephants and Mastodons) appear to have originated in the warmer parts of the Palæarctic region, but they soon spread over all the great {543}continents, even reaching the southern extremity of America. Their extinction has probably depended more on physical than on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost total disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch.

Rodentia.--Rodents are a very dominant group, and a very ancient one. Owing to their small size and rapid powers of increase, they soon spread over almost every part of the globe, whence has resulted a great specialisation of family types in the South American continent which remained so long isolated. They are capable of living wherever there is any kind of vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by organic than by physical conditions; and the occupation of a country by enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief cause which has prevented many of the families from acquiring a wide range. The occurrence of isolated species of the South American families, Octodontidæ and Echimyidæ in the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, is an indication that the range of many of the families has recently become less extensive.

Edentata.--These singular and lowly-organised animals appear to have become almost restricted to the two great Southern lands--South Africa and South America--at an early period; and, being there free from the competition of higher forms, developed a number of remarkable types often of huge size, of which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The incursion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into Africa during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most of them in that continent; but in America they continued in full force down to the Post-Pliocene period; and even now, the comparatively diminutive Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, form a large and important portion of the fauna.

Marsupialia and Monotremata.--These are probably the representatives of the most ancient and lowly-organised types of mammal. They once existed in the northern continents, whence they spread into Australia; and being isolated, and preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a variety of types, which, however, still preserve a general {544}uniformity of organisation. One family, which continued to exist in Europe till the latter part of the Miocene period, reached America, and has there been preserved to our day.

Lines of Migration of the Mammalia.--The whole series of phenomena presented by the distribution of the Mammalia, looked at broadly, are in harmony with the view that the great continents and oceans of our own epoch have been in existence, with comparatively small changes, during all Tertiary times. Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable modifications in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has, probably, long existed in its present position, while the great oceans seem to have occupied the same depressions of the earth's crust (varied, perhaps, by local elevations and subsidences) during all this vast period of time. Hence, allowing for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be pretty clearly traced. Some, owing to their small size and great vitality, have spread to almost all the chief land masses; but the majority of the orders have a more restricted range. All the evidence at our command points to the Northern Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all the orders. At a very early period the land communication with Australia was cut off, and has never been renewed; so that we have here preserved for us a sample of one or more of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat later the union with South America and South Africa was severed; and in both these countries we have samples of a somewhat more advanced stage of mammalian development. Later still, the union by a northern route between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by a physical separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of temperature. About the same period the separation of the Palæarctic region from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the Himalayas and the increasing contrast of climate; while the formation of the great desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia, helped to complete the separation of {545}the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to render further intermigration almost impossible.

In a few cases--of which the Rodents in Australia and the pigs in Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples--the distribution of land-mammals has been effected by a sea-passage either by swimming or on floating vegetation; but, as a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of mammalia have taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is, therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected with a continent. The present class of animals thus affords the best evidence of the past history of the land surface of our globe; and we have chiefly relied upon it in sketching out (in Part III.) the probable changes which each of our great regions has undergone.

Birds.

Although birds are, of all land-vertebrates, the best able to cross seas and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main features of their distribution correspond with those of the Mammalia. South America possesses the low Formicaroid type of Passeres,--which, compared with the more highly developed forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebidæ and Hapalidæ as compared with the Old World Apes and Monkeys; while its Cracidæ as compared with the Pheasants and Grouse, may be considered parallel to the Edentata as compared with the Ungulates of the Old World. The Marsupials of America and Australia, are paralleled among birds, in the Struthionidæ and Megapodiidæ; the Lemurs and Insectivora preserved in Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Dididæ; the absence of Deer and Bears from Africa is analogous to the absence of Wrens, Creepers, and Pheasants; while the African Hyracidæ and Chrysochloridæ among mammals, may well be compared with the equally peculiar Coliidæ and Musophagidæ among birds.

From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is clear that birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of migration as mammalia; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have {546}always to a great extent limited their range. Yet these barriers have not been absolute; and in the course of ages birds have been able to reach almost every habitable land upon the globe. Hence have arisen some of the most curious and interesting phenomena of distribution; and many islands, which are entirely destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in birds, often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual character or habit. Striking examples of such interesting bird-faunas are those of New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, the Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas, and the Antilles; while even small and remote islets,--such as Juan Fernandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their past history by means of their birds, than by any other portion of their scanty fauna.

Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is the extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain external characteristics, have become developed in islands, where the smaller and less powerful birds have been protected from the incursions of mammalian enemies, and where rapacious birds--which seem to some degree dependent on the abundance of mammalia--are also scarce. Thus, we have the Pigeons and the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the Australian region, which is pre-eminently insular; and both these groups here acquire conspicuous colours very unusual, or altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours (black and red) appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene islands; while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a character not found in the allied species on the South American continent. Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these groups, in the Australian region only; and a crested parrot formerly lived in Mauritius,--a coincidence too much like that of the colours as above noted, to be considered accidental.

Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards the oceanic islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for while most of the former present hardly any cases of specific identity with the birds of adjacent continents, the latter often show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and Madagascar {547}are examples of the first-named peculiarity; the Azores and the Bermudas of the last; and the difference can be clearly traced to the frequency and violence of storms in the one case and to the calms or steady breezes in the other.

It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same convincing proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as we obtain from mammals, yet they give us much curious and suggestive information as to the various and complex modes in which the existing peculiarities of the distribution of animals have been brought about. They also throw much light on the relation between distribution and the external characters of animals; and, as they are often found where mammalia are quite absent, we must rank them as of equal value for the purposes of our present study.

Reptiles.

These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their distribution, between mammals and birds, having on the whole rather a wider range than the former, and a more restricted one than the latter.

Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the ocean than mammals; hence they are generally absent from oceanic islands. They are more especially a tropical group, and have thus never been able to pass from one continent to another by those high northern and southern routes, which we have seen reason to believe were very effectual in the case of mammalia and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between the Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the Palæarctic and Nearctic; while the Western Hemisphere is comparatively poor as regards variety of types, although rich in genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are also very effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration have probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow seas by means of floating vegetation.

Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have passed by the northern route during warm epochs. They are also more suited to traverse deserts, and they possess some unknown {548}means of crossing the ocean, as they are not unfrequently found in remote oceanic islands. These various causes have modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much richer in lizards than it is in snakes; and it is also very distinct from the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards appear to have been along the mountains and deserts of tropical countries, and, under special conditions, across tropical seas from island to island.

Crocodiles are a declining group. They were once more generally distributed, all the three families being found in British Eocene deposits. Being aquatic and capable of living in the sea, they can readily pass along all the coasts and islands of the warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are equally ancient, and the restriction of certain groups to definite areas seems to be also a recent phenomenon.

Amphibia.

The Amphibia differ widely from Reptiles in their power of enduring cold; one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or Tailed-Batrachia, being confined to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. To this class of animals the northern and southern routes of migration were open; and we accordingly find a considerable amount of resemblance between South America and Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America and the Palæarctic continent. The other tropical regions are more distinct from each other; clearly indicating that, in this group, it is tropical deserts and tropical oceans which are the barriers to migration. The class however is very fragmentary, and probably very ancient; so that descendants of once widespread types are now found isolated in various parts of the globe, between which we may feel sure there has been no direct transmission of Batrachia. Remembering that their chief lines of migration have been by northern and southern land-routes, by floating ice, by fresh-water channels, and perhaps at rare intervals by ova being carried by aquatic birds or by violent storms,--we shall be able to comprehend most of the features of their actual distribution.

{549}Fresh-water Fishes.

Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of dispersal of these animals are very limited, yet they share to some extent the wide range of other fresh-water organisms. They are found in all climates; but the tropical regions are by far the most productive, and of these South America is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain amount of identity between the two northern continents, and also between those of the South Temperate zone; yet all are radically distinct, even North America and Europe having but a small proportion of their forms in common. The occurrence of allied fresh-water species in remote lands--as the Aphritis of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the Comephorus of Lake Baikal, distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas--would imply that marine fishes are often modified for a life in fresh waters; while other facts no less plainly show that permanent fresh-water species are sometimes dispersed in various ways across the oceans, more especially by the northern and southern routes.

The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted range, although cases of very wide and scattered distribution also occur. The great zoological regions are, on the whole, very well characterized; showing that the same barriers are effectual here, as with most other vertebrates. We conclude, therefore, that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water fishes have been across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of floating ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory aquatic birds that frequent those regions. On continents they are, usually, widely dispersed; but tropical seas, even when of small extent, appear to have offered an effectual barrier to their dispersal. The cases of affinity between Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be imputed either to the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous adaptation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types; and these cases cannot be taken as evidence of any former land connection between such remote continents.

{550}Insects.

It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. II. pp. 44-48) that the peculiarities of distribution of the various groups of insects depend very much on their habits and general economy. Their antiquity is so vast, and their more important modifications of structure have probably occurred so slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combination of favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may yet have had time to produce large cumulative effects. Their small specific gravity and their habits of flight render them liable to dispersal by winds to an extent unknown in other classes of animals; and thus, what are usually very effectual barriers have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated, in the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost always show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character with other classes of animals, intermixed with the more prominent and often more numerous forms whose presence is due to this unusual facility of dispersal.

The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in any other class of animals, limited by organic and physical conditions. The vegetation, the soil, the temperature, and the supply of moisture, must all be suited to their habits and economy; while they require an immunity from enemies of various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom obtain. Few organisms have, in so many complex ways, become adapted to their special environment, as have insects. They are in each country more or less adapted to the plants which belong to it; while their colours, their habits, and the very nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to protect them from the special dangers which surround them in their native land. It follows, that while no animals are so well adapted to show us the various modes by which dispersal may be effected, none can so effectually teach us the true nature and vast influence of the organic barrier in limiting dispersal.

It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken advantage of every line of migration by which any terrestrial {551}organisms have spread over the earth, but owing to their small size and rapid multiplication, they have made use of some which are exclusively their own. Such are the passage along mountain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and the dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will perhaps be found that insects have spread over the land surface in directions dependent on our surface zones--forests, pastures, and deserts;--and a study of these, with a due consideration of the fact that narrow seas are scarcely a barrier to most of the groups, may assist us to understand many of the details of insect-distribution.

Terrestrial Mollusca.

The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with that of insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted. In both we see the effects of great antiquity, with some special means of dispersal; but while in insects the general powers of motion, both voluntary and involuntary, are at a maximum, in land-molluscs they are almost at a minimum. Although to some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the latter are more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large extent on the general organic environment. The result of these various causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread the main types of structure with considerable uniformity over the globe; while generic and sub-generic forms are often wonderfully localized.

Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to require regions of their own; but we have already pointed out the disadvantages of such a method of study. It will be far more instructive to refer them to those regions and sub-regions which are found to accord best with the distribution of the higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies they present as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of their habits and economy, and especially by a search after the hidden causes which have enabled them to spread so widely over land and ocean.

The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can {552}hardly be determined with any definiteness. On continents they seem to spread steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked probably by organic and physical conditions rather than by the barriers which limit the higher groups. Over the ocean they are also slowly dispersed, by some means which act perhaps at very long intervals, but which, within the period of the duration of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects are so very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is almost the opposite of what might have been expected,--the former being, on the whole, less distinctly localized than the latter.

CONCLUSION.

The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the distinguishing features of the various groups of land-animals as regards their distribution and migrations. They are at best but indications of the various lines of research opened up to us by the study of animals from the geographical point of view, and by looking upon their range in space and time as an important portion of the earth's history. Much work has yet to be done before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the subject in all its branches; and it is the author's hope that his volumes may lead to a more systematic collection and arrangement of the necessary facts. At present all public museums and private collections are arranged zoologically. All treatises, monographs, and catalogues, also follow, more or less completely, the zoological arrangement; and the greatest difficulty the student of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the total absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of complete and comparable local catalogues. Till every well-marked district,--every archipelago, and every important island, has all its known species of the more important groups of animals catalogued on a uniform plan, and with a uniform nomenclature, a thoroughly satisfactory account of the Geographical Distribution of Animals will not be possible. But more than this is wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal {553}forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the productions of the same locality never being associated in our museums and collections. A few such relations have been brought to light by modern scientific travellers, but many more remain to be discovered; and there is probably no fresher and more productive field still unexplored in Natural History. Most of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in the productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the continents of which they form appendages; but these can never be properly studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly grouped together. When the birds, the more conspicuous families of insects, and the land-shells of islands, are kept together so as to be readily compared with similar associations from the adjacent continents or other islands, it is believed that in almost every case there will be found to be peculiarities of form or colour running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident variations have been alluded to in various parts of this work, but they have never been systematically investigated. They constitute an unworked mine of wealth for the enterprising explorer; and they may not improbably lead to the discovery of some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural Selection), which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the external characteristics of animals.

In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that naturalists who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track of research, may find in the line of study here suggested a new and interesting pursuit, not inferior in attractions to the lofty heights of transcendental anatomy, or the bewildering mazes of modern classification. And it is a study which will surely lead them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the harmony of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal and vegetable form, with the ever-changing earth which supports them, into one grand organic whole.

{557}GENERAL INDEX.

All names in Italics refer, either to the genera and other groups of Extinct Animals in Part II. of the First Volume;--or to the genera whose distribution is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second Volume; the Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other references are in ordinary type.

The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled the extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because the general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the separate details can always be found by referring to the region, sub-region, and class.

Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261

Aard-vark, ii. 246

Aard-wolf, ii. 196

Abacetus, ii. 491

Abax, ii. 489

Abisara, ii. 475

Ablabes, ii. 375

Ablepharus, ii. 395

Abramis, ii. 453

Abronia, ii. 392

Abrornis, ii. 258

Abrostomus, ii. 451

Aburria, ii. 343

Acalyptus, ii. 384

Acanthias, ii. 401

Acanthicus, ii. 444

Acanthion, ii. 240

Acanthis, ii. 283

Acanthisitta, ii. 265

Acanthiza, ii. 258

Acanthobrama, ii. 453

ACANTHOCLINIDÆ, ii. 432

Acanthodactylus, ii. 391

Acanthodelphis, ii. 209

Acantholabrus, ii. 437

Acanthomys, ii. 229

Acanthophis, ii. 383

Acanthopsis, ii. 453

ACANTHOPTERYGII, ii. 424

ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCOGNATHI, ii. 437

Acanthopthalmus, ii. 453

Acanthoptila, ii. 261

Acanthopyga, ii. 390

Acanthorhynchus, ii. 275

Acanthosaura, ii. 402

Acara, ii. 438

Accentor, ii. 260

Accentorinæ, ii. 257

Accipenser, ii. 459

ACCIPENSERIDÆ, ii. 459

Accipiter, ii. 348

Accipitres, European Eocene, i. 163

Accipitres, classification of, i. 97 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312 range of Oriental genera of, i. 385 range of Australian genera of, i. 484

ACCIPITRES, ii. 345 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 351

ACCIPITRINÆ, ii. 347

Acerina, ii. 425

Aceros, ii. 317

Acerotherium, ii. 214

Acerotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Acestra, ii. 444

Acestura, ii. 108

Achalinus, ii. 375

Acharnes, ii. 434

Achatina, ii. 515

Achatinella, ii. 514

Acherontia, ii. 483

Achilognathus, ii. 452

Achænodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Acicula, ii. 519

ACICULIDÆ, ii. 519

Acmæodera, ii. 497

Acodon, ii. 230

ACONTIADÆ, ii. 399

Acontias, ii. 399

Acotherium, European Eocene, i. 126

Acotherium, ii. 215

Acræa, ii. 473

ACRÆIDÆ, ii. 473

Acrantus, ii. 390

Acredula, ii. 266

Acridotheres, ii. 287

Acris, ii. 419

Acrobata, ii. 252

Acrocephalus, ii. 258

Acrochilus, ii. 452

ACROCHORDIDÆ, ii. 382

Acrochordonichthys, ii. 442

Acrochordus, ii. 382

ACRONURIDÆ, ii. 433

Acropternis, ii. 297

Acryllium, ii. 340

Actenodes, ii. 497

Actinodura, ii. 261

Ada, ii. 390

Adamsiella, ii. 521

Adapis, European Eocene, i. 125

Addax, ii. 223

Adelomia, ii. 108

Adelotopus, ii. 490

Adenomera, ii. 416

Adolias, ii. 474

Aedon, ii. 259

Ægeria, ii. 482

ÆGERIIDÆ, ii. 482

Ægialitis, ii. 356

Ægithaliscus, ii. 266

Ægithalus, ii. 266

Ægocera, ii. 482

Ægotheles, ii. 318

Æluredus, ii. 275

Ælurichthys, ii. 443

ÆLURIDÆ, ii. 201

Ælurogale, European Eocene, i. 125

Æluropus, ii. 201

Ælurus, ii. 201

Æmona, ii. 472

Ænigma, ii. 490

Æolidæ, ii. 530

Æpyceros, ii. 223

Æpyornis, of Madagascar, i. 164

Æpyornis, ii. 370

ÆPYORNITHIDÆ, ii. 370

Æsacus, ii. 355

Æshna, from the Lias, i. 167

Æthopyga, ii. 276

Æthya, ii. 364

Agama, ii. 402

AGAMIDÆ, ii. 401

Agapornis, ii. 328

Agarista, ii. 482

Agaristidæ, ii. 482

Agelasta, ii. 501

AGELASTINÆ, ii. 340

Agelæus, ii. 282

Ageniosus, ii. 443

Ageronia, ii. 474

Aglæactis, ii. 108

Agnopterus, European Eocene, i. 163

Agoniates, ii. 445

Agonostoma, ii. 435

Agonus, ii. 428

Agouti, ii. 241

Agra, ii. 490

Agraulis, ii. 474

Agrilus, ii. 497

Agriochoerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Agrion, from the Lias, i. 167

Agriornis, ii. 100

Ahætulla, ii. 379

Ailia, ii. 442

Aipysurus, ii. 384

Aithurus, ii. 107

Aix, ii. 363

Akysis, ii. 442

Alæmon, ii. 289

Alaska, birds of, ii. 136

Alauda, ii. 289

ALAUDIDÆ, ii. 289

Albatrosses, ii. 365

Albulichthys, ii. 452

Alburnus, ii. 453

Alca, ii. 367

Alcadia, ii. 522

ALCEDINIDÆ, ii. 315

Alcedo, ii. 316

ALCEPHALINÆ, ii. 224

Alcephalus, Indian Miocene, i. 122

Alcephalus, ii. 224

Alces, ii. 219

ALCIDÆ, ii. 367

Alcippe, ii. 261

Alcurus, ii. 267

Alcyone, ii. 316

Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, i. 289

Alectorurus, ii. 100

Alectroenas, ii. 332

ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 454

Alesa, ii. 475

Alestes, ii. 445

Alethe, ii. 262

Aletornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163

Aleutian Islands, birds of, ii. 137

Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, i. 111

Algira, ii. 391

Alleghany sub-region, ii. 130 mammalia of, ii. 132 birds of, ii. 132 reptiles of, ii. 133 amphibia of, ii. 134 fishes of, ii. 134 islands of, ii. 134

Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, i. 61 objections to his system of circumpolar zones, i. 67 objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, i. 68 on birds of N. America, ii. 133, 136

Alligator, ii. 406

ALLIGATORIDÆ, ii. 406

Alligators, ii. 406

Allotinus, ii. 477

Alopecias, ii. 460

Alsæcomus, ii. 332

Alsecus, ii. 259

Alseonax, ii. 270

Alsodes, ii. 417

Altai mountains, fossils in caves, i. 111

Alytes, ii. 417

ALYTIDÆ, ii. 417

Amadina, ii. 287

Amara, ii. 489

Amarynthis, ii. 476

Amathusia, ii. 472

Amauresthes, ii. 287

Amaurospiza, ii. 285

Amazilia, ii. 109

Amblyrhiza, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148

AMBLYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 380

Amblycephalus, ii. 380

Amblyceps, ii. 443

Amblychila, ii. 487

Amblymora, ii. 501

Amblyopsis, ii. 450

Amblyornis, ii. 275

Amblypharyngodon, ii. 452

Amblypodia, ii. 477

Amblyrhamphus, ii. 282

Amblyrhiza, ii. 237

Amblyrhynchichthys, ii. 452

Amblystoma, ii. 413

Ameiva, ii. 390

America, recent separation of North and South, i. 40 extinct mammalia of, i. 129 N., Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 129

American Creepers, ii. 295

AMIIDÆ, ii. 458

Amiurus, ii. 442

Ammodromus, ii. 284

Ammodytes, ii. 440

Ammomanes, ii. 289

AMMONITIDÆ, ii. 506

Amomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Ampeliceps, ii. 287

AMPELIDÆ, ii. 280

Ampelio, ii. 102

Ampelis, ii. 280

Amphechinus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 188

Amphibia, means of dispersal of, i. 28 classification of, i. 100 peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 226 table of Palæarctic families of, i. 237 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of West Africa, i. 264 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 280 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298 of the Oriental region, i. 317 of the Indian sub-region, i. 326 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340 table of Oriental families of, i. 369 of the Australian region, i. 397 resemblances of Australian and South-American, i. 400 of New Guinea, i. 416 of New Zealand, i. 457 Neotropical, ii. 11 of South Temperate America, ii. 41 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii. 72 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89 of the Nearctic region, ii. 120 of California, ii. 128 of Central North America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143

AMPHIBIA, ii. 411 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 422 fossil, ii. 423 summary and conclusion, ii. 548 lines of migration of, ii. 548

Amphibola, ii. 510

Amphibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 225

Amphicyon, European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 ii. 198 ii. 202

Amphiglossus, ii 398

Amphimericidæ, European Miocene, i. 119

Amphimoschus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 220

Amphioxus, ii. 464

Amphipnous, ii. 455

Amphisbæna, ii. 389

AMPHISBÆNIDÆ, ii. 388

Amphisorex, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 191

Amphitragulus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 218

Amphiuma, ii. 412

AMPHIUMIDÆ, ii. 412

Amphixestus, ii. 397

Ampullaria, ii. 510

Amydrus, ii. 288

Amytis, ii. 258

Anabatoides, ii. 103

Anabazenops, ii. 103

Anableps, ii. 450

ANACANTHINI, ii. 439

Anacyrtus, ii. 445

Anadenus, ii. 517

Anadia, ii. 393

ANADIADÆ, ii. 393

Anæretes, ii. 101, 291

Anaides, ii. 413

Analcipus, ii. 268

Anarhynchus, ii. 356

Anarrhichas, ii. 431

Anas, ii. 363

Anastoma, European Tertiary, i. 169 ii. 527

Anastomus, ii. 361

ANATIDÆ, ii. 363

ANATINIDÆ, ii. 536

Anatinella, ii. 536

Anausorex, ii. 191

Anchilophus, European Eocene, i. 125

Anchippodus, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Anchippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Anchitheridæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 212

Anchitherium, European Miocene, i. 119 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Ancient fauna of New Zealand, i. 459

Ancistrops, ii. 103

Ancylotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121

Ancylotherium, ii. 246

Ancyluris, ii. 476

Ancylus, ii. 518

Andaman Islands, zoology of, i. 333 probable past history of, i. 334

Andigena, ii. 307

Andrias, European Miocene, i. 165

Androdon, ii. 107

Andropadus, ii. 267

Aneitea, ii. 517

Anguilla, ii. 456

Anguis, ii. 397

Angwantibo, ii. 176

Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, i. 85

Animals, development of, affecting distribution, i. 7 dispersal and migration of, i. 10 rapid multiplication of, i. 10

Anisacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428

Anoa, ii. 222

Anodon, ii. 534

Anolius, ii. 400

Anomalurus, ii. 235

Anomalpus, ii. 397

Anoplodipsas, ii. 381

Anoplotheriidæ, European Miocene, i. 119

Anoplotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 European Eocene, i. 126 S. American Eocene, i. 1

Anopthalmus, ii. 489

Anostomus, ii. 445

Anous, ii. 365

Anser, ii. 363

Anseranas, ii. 363

Anseres, arrangement of, i. 98 peculiar Palæarctic genera of, i. 250 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 313 peculiar Australian genera of, i. 485

ANSERES, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 367

Antarctia, ii. 490 ii. 492

Ant-eaters, ii. 247

Antechinomys, ii. 249

Antechinus, ii. 249

Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, i. 122 birthplace and migrations of, i. 155 Palæarctic, i. 182 ii. 221

Antelotherium, Indian Miocene, i. 122

Antennarius, ii. 431

Anteros, ii. 476

Anthia, ii. 491

Anthipes, ii. 270

Anthocharis, ii. 478

Anthochæra, ii. 275

Anthornis, ii. 275

Anthracotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Anthracotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 215

Anthreptes, ii. 276

Anthropoid apes, ii. 170

Anthropoides, ii. 357

Anthus, ii. 290

Antiacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Antillean sub-region, ii. 61 mammalia of, ii. 62 birds of, ii. 64 illustration of zoology of, ii. 67 table of distribution of resident land-birds of, ii. 68 reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 72 fresh-water fish of, ii. 73 insects of, ii. 73 land-shells of, ii. 75 past history of, ii. 78

Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, i. 148 land-shells of, ii. 526

Antilocapra, ii. 223

ANTILOCAPRINÆ, ii. 223

Antilope, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 223 ii. 226

Antiquity of the genera of insects, i. 166 of the genera of land and fresh-water shells, i. 168

Antrostomus, ii. 319

Ant-thrushes, ii. 297

Anumbius, ii. 103

ANURA, ii. 414

Anurosorex, ii. 190

Aonyx, ii. 199

Apalis, ii. 258

Apaloderma, ii. 314

Apatura, ii. 474

Aphanapteryx of Mauritius, i. 164 ii. 352

Aphantocera, ii. 107

Aphelotherium, European Eocene, i. 125

Aphneus, ii. 477

Aphobus, ii. 283

APHREDODERIDÆ, ii. 425

Aphritis, ii. 428 ii. 549

Aphriza, ii. 356

Aphysiadæ, ii. 530

Aphyocypris, ii. 452

Aplocerus, ii. 224

Aplodontia, ii. 236

Aplonis, ii. 288

Aplopelia, ii. 383

Apodemia, ii. 476

Apogon, ii. 425

Aprasia, ii. 396

APRASIADÆ, ii. 396

Aprosmictus, ii. 325

Aptenodytes, ii. 366

APTERYGIDÆ, ii. 369

Apteryx, ii. 369

Apua, ii. 453

Aquila, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 348

AQUILINÆ, ii. 348

Ara, ii. 328

Arachnechthra, ii. 276

Arachnothera, ii. 277

ARAMIDÆ, ii. 357

Aramides, ii. 352

Aramus, ii. 357

Arapaima, ii. 454

Arborophila, ii. 338

ARCADÆ, ii. 534

Archæomys, ii. 238

Archæopteryx, Bavarian Oolite, i. 163

Archibuteo, ii. 348

Arctic shells, ii. 518 zone not a separate region, i. 68

Arctitis, ii. 195

Arctocebus, ii. 176

Arctocephalus, ii. 202

Arctocyon, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 206

Arctodus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 202

Arctogale, ii. 195

Arctomys, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 235, 236

Arctonyx, ii. 199

Arctopithecus, ii. 244

Arctotherium in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Ardea, ii. 359

ARDEIDÆ, ii. 359

Ardistomus, ii. 490

Argentina, ii. 488

Arges, ii. 444

ARGONAUTIDÆ. ii. 505

Argus pheasant, figure of, i. 339 peculiarity in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's views, i. 340

Argusianus, ii. 340

Argutor, ii. 489

Argynnis, ii. 474

Aricoris, ii. 476

Ariella, ii. 195

Arinia, ii. 520

Arion, ii. 517

Aristobia, ii. 501

Arius, ii. 443

Armadillos, ii. 245

Arnoglossus, ii. 441

Aromochelys, ii. 408

Arremon, ii. 99

Arrhenotus, ii. 501

Artamia, ii. 268 ii. 271 ii. 288

ARTAMIDÆ, ii. 288

Artamides, ii. 269

Artamus, ii. 288

Arthroleptis, ii. 421

Artiodactyla, European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Artomyias, ii. 270

Arundinicola, ii. 100

Arvicola, European Pliocene, i. 113 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 S. American Eocene, i. 148

Arvicola, ii. 230, 231

Asio, ii. 350

Aspergillum, ii. 537

Aspidoparia, ii. 452

Aspidorhinus, ii. 391

Aspidura, ii. 374

Aspius, ii. 453

Aspredo, ii. 444

Aspro, ii. 425

Astarte, ii. 535

Astathes, ii. 501

Asterophys, ii. 421

Asterophysus, ii. 443

Asthenodipsas, ii. 381

Astrapia, ii. 274

Astroblepus, ii. 444

Astur, ii. 348

Asturina, ii. 348

Asturinula, ii. 348

ATELEOPODIDÆ, ii. 440

Ateles, ii. 174

Atelopus, ii. 416

Atelornis, ii. 312

Aterica, ii. 474

Athene, ii. 350

Atherina, ii. 434

Atherinichthys, ii. 434

ATHERINIDÆ, ii. 434

Atheris, ii. 386

Atherura, ii. 240

Athylax, ii. 195

Athyma, ii. 474

ATLANTIDÆ, ii. 531

Atlapetes, ii. 284

ATRACTASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383

Atractaspis, ii. 383

Atretium, ii. 375

Atrichia, ii. 299

ATRICHIIDÆ, ii. 299

Atropos, ii. 385

Attagis, ii. 354

ATTALINÆ, ii. 293

Atthis, ii. 108

Atticora, ii. 281

Attila, ii. 102

Auchenaspis, ii. 443

Auchenia, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 217

Auchenipterus, ii. 443

Auckland Islands, birds of, i. 455

Augastes, ii. 108

Auks, ii. 367

Aulia, ii. 102

Aulacodes, ii. 239

Aulacodon, ii. 239

Aulacorhamphus, ii. 307

Aulopoma, ii. 520

Aulopyge, ii. 452

Auricula, ii. 519, 527

AURICULIDÆ, ii. 518

Auriparus, ii. 266

Australia, physical features of, i. 387

Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, i. 398

Australian region, description of, i. 387 zoological characteristics of, i. 390 mammalia of, i. 390 birds of, i. 391 reptiles of, i. 396 amphibia of, i. 397 fresh-water fish of, i. 397 summary of vertebrata of, i. 397 supposed land-connection of with S. America, i. 398 insects of, i. 403 lepidoptera of, i. 404 coleoptera of, i. 405 land-shells of, i. 407 sub-regions of, i. 408 early history of, i. 465

Australian sub-region, mammalia of, i. 438 illustration of mammalia of, i. 439 birds of, i. 440 illustration of fauna of, i. 441

Australian hedgehog, ii. 254

Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, i. 388 zoology of, i. 409

Automolus, ii. 103

AVICULIDÆ, ii. 533

Avocettula, ii. 107

Avocettinus, ii. 108

Aye-aye, figure of, i. 278 ii. 177

Axiocerces, ii. 477

Azores, visited by European birds, i. 17 birds of, i. 207 butterflies of, i. 207 beetles of, i. 207, 209 peculiarly modified birds of, i. 207 stragglers to, i. 208 how stocked with animal life, i. 208

Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428

Babirusa, ii. 215

Badger, figure of, i. 195

Badis, ii. 433

Bæotis, ii. 475

Bagarius, ii. 443

Bagrichthys, ii. 442

Bagroides, ii. 442

Bagrus, ii. 442

Baird, Professor, on fauna of Cape St. Lucas ii. 130 on representative birds of United States, ii. 180

Balæna, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 207

Balæniceps, ii. 360

BALÆNIDÆ, ii. 207

Balænodon, European Pliocene, i. 112

Balænoptera, ii. 207

Balænopteridæ, ii. 207

Balea, ii. 516

Balearica, ii. 357

Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, i. 230

Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution, i. 356

Band-fish, ii. 435

Bandicoots, ii. 250

Barangia, ii. 199

Barbatula, ii. 306

Barbets, ii. 305

Barbichthys, ii. 452

Barbus, ii. 451

Barilius, ii. 452

Barissia, ii. 392

Barriers, as affecting distribution, i. 6 permanence of, as affecting distribution, i. 7 to the dispersal of birds, i. 17

Baryphthengus, ii. 313

Barypus, ii. 492

Basileuterus, ii. 279

Basilornis, ii. 287

Bassaris, ii. 200

Batara, ii. 104

Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, i. 228 on Longicorns of Japan, i. 230

Bathmodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Bathrodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Bathyerges, ii. 231

BATOIDEI, ii. 462

BATRACHIDÆ, ii. 431

Batrachocephalus, ii. 443

Batrachoseps, ii. 413

Batrachostomus, ii. 318

Bats, powers of flight of, i. 15 classification of, i. 87 of New Zealand, i. 450

Baucis, ii. 108

Baza, ii. 349

Bdeogale, ii. 195

Bearded Reedling, ii. 262

Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, i. 291 ii. 201

Beaver, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Beavers, ii. 234

Bee-eaters, ii. 312

Beetles, families selected for study, i. 103 from the Lias, i. 167 of Azores, i. 207 of Japan, i. 228 of S. Temperate America, ii. 44

BELEMNITIDÆ, ii. 506

Belemnoziphius, European Pliocene, i. 112

Belideus, ii. 252

Belionota, ii. 497

Belodontichthys, ii. 441

Belone, ii. 450

Belonesox, ii. 450

Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch, i. 218; ii. 206 on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, i. 466

Beluga, ii. 209

Bembecidium, ii. 489

Berardius, ii. 208

Berenicornis, ii. 317

Bermudas, zoology of, ii. 134

Bernicla, ii. 363

Bernieria, ii. 258

BERYCIDÆ, ii. 424

Bessonornis, ii. 256

Bettongia, ii. 251

Bhringa, ii. 269

Bhutanitis, ii. 479

Bias, ii. 270

Biatas, ii. 104

Bibos, ii. 222

Bison, ii. 222, 225

Binney, Mr., on Air-breathing Molluscs of N. America, ii. 528

Birds, means of dispersal of, i. 15 dispersal of by winds, i. 16 American, found in Europe, i. 16 reaching the Azores, i. 17 barriers to dispersal of, i. 17 limited by forests, i. 17 classification of, i. 93 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 extinct, i. 160 fossil of Palæarctic region, i. 161 European of Miocene period, i. 161 Eocene of Europe, i. 162 relations of, i. 162 extinct of North America, i. 163 recently extinct in New Zealand, i. 164 Cretaceous of N. America, i. 164 remains of in Brazilian caves, i. 164 recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 164 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 numerous Palæarctic genera, i. 183 of the European sub-region, i. 193 northern range of in Europe, i. 193 of the zone of pine forests, i. 194 of Iceland, i. 198 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 203 of Malta, i. 206 (note) of the Azores, i. 207 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 219 Oriental found in Siberia, i. 219 extreme northern Asiatic, i. 219 of northern Asiatic forests, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 223 Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 224 Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 224 characteristic of N.W. China and Mongolia, i. 226 table of Palæarctic families of, i. 235 of West Africa, i. 243 list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243 of the Ethiopian region, i. 253 of the East African sub-region, i. 260 S. African, i. 267 genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, i. 275 common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, i. 276 species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, i. 277 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 295 table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306 of the Oriental region, i. 316 of the Indian sub-region, i. 323 Oriental genera of in Central India, i. 324 Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, i. 325 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub region, i. 330 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 337 illustration of peculiar Malayan, i. 339 of the Philippine Islands, i. 346 table of Oriental families of, i. 366 table of Oriental genera of, i. 375 of Australian region, i. 391 specially organized Australian families of, i. 392 of the Papuan Islands, i. 410 peculiarities of, i. 413 brilliant colours of, i. 413 remarkable forms of, i. 414 of the Moluccas, i. 418 peculiarities of, i. 421 of the Timor group, i. 423 of Celebes, i. 428 of Australia, i. 440 of New Zealand, i. 451 peculiar to New Zealand, i. 452 of Norfolk Island, i. 453 of Lord Howe's Island, i. 453 of the Chatham Islands, i. 454 of the Auckland Islands, i. 455 table of families of Australian, i. 471 table of genera of Australian, i. 478 of the Neotropical region, ii. 6 distinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 7 of the Mexican sub region, ii. 52 of the Antilles, ii. 64 table of distribution of, ii. 68 table of families of Neotropical, ii. 86 table of genera of Neotropical, ii. 86 of the Nearctic region, ii. 116 list of typical genera of, ii. 118 of California, ii. 127 of Central N. America, ii. 130 of Eastern United States, ii. 132 of Canada, ii. 136 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 141 table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 148 and Mammals, parallelism of distribution of, ii. 545 lines of migration of, ii. 545 peculiar development of, in islands, ii. 546 contrast of distribution in tropical and temperate oceanic islands, ii. 546

Biziura , ii. 364

Blacicus, ii. 102

Black ape of Celebes, i. 427

Bland, Mr. Thomas, on Antillean land-shells, ii. 19 ii. 526

Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, i. 60 on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321

Blapsidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Blarina, ii. 191

Blauneria, ii. 519

BLENNIDÆ, ii. 431

Blenniops, ii. 431

Blennius, ii. 431

Blethisa, ii. 489

Blind burrowing snakes, ii. 372

Blunt-heads, ii. 380

Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 60 on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321

Boa, ii. 381

Boædon, ii. 380

Boas, ii. 381

Bola, ii. 452

Bolborhynchus, ii. 328

Boleosoma, ii. 425

BOMBINATORIDÆ, ii. 416

Bombinator, ii. 417

Bonasa, ii. 339

Bonnet-limpets, ii. 511

Bony Pikes, ii. 459

Bootherium, ii. 225

Borneo, probable recent changes in, i. 357

Bos, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 222, 225

Botaurus, ii. 359

Bothriodon, ii. 215

Botia, ii. 453

Bourbon, zoology of, i. 280 reptiles of, i. 281

Bourcieria, ii. 108 ii. 521

Bovidæ, European Miocene, i. 120

BOVIDÆ, ii. 221

BOVINÆ, ii. 222

Brachinus, ii. 489

BRACHIOPODA, ii. 532

Brachiurophis, ii. 383

Brachiurus, ii. 175

Brachyalestes, ii. 445

Brachycephalus, ii. 414

Brachygalba, ii. 311

Brachylophus, ii. 401

Brachymeles, ii. 397

Brachymerus, ii. 416

Brachymys, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 232 ii. 236

Brachymystax, ii. 447

Brachypteryx, ii. 256

Brachypternus, ii. 303

Brachytarsomys, ii. 230

Brachypteracias, ii. 312

Brachyrhamphus, ii. 367

Bradybates, ii. 413

Bradycellus, ii. 489

Bradyornis, ii. 271

BRADYPODIDÆ, ii. 244

Bradyptetus, ii. 258

Bradypus, ii. 244

Bradytus, ii. 489

Brama, ii. 429

Bramatherium, Miocene of Perim Island, i. 122 ii. 226

Branchiosteus, ii. 442

Branta, ii. 364

BRASSOLIDÆ, ii. 472

Brassolis, ii. 472

Brazilian cave-fauna, i. 143 remarks on, i. 145

Brazilian sub-region, description of, ii. 21 mammalia of, ii. 23 birds of, ii. 24 illustration of mammalia of, ii. 23 illustration of birds of, ii. 28 islands of, ii. 29

Breviceps, ii. 416

Breyeria borinensis, Carboniferous insect, i. 168

Britain, peculiar species in, i. 197

British Isles, zoology of, i. 197

Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, i. 340

Broad-bills, ii. 294

Bronchocela, ii. 402

Brontes, ii. 444

Brontotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Brontotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Brotogerys, ii. 328

Brush-turkeys, ii. 341

Brycon, ii. 445

Bryconops, ii. 445

Bryttus, ii. 425

Buarremon, ii. 99

Bubalus, ii. 222

Bubo, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 350

BUCCINIDÆ, ii. 507

Buccinum, ii. 507

Bucco, ii. 310

BUCCONIIDÆ, ii. 310

Bucephala, ii. 364

Bucephalus, ii. 379

Buceros, ii. 317

BUCEROTIDÆ, ii. 316

Bucorvus, ii. 317

Budorcas, ii. 224

BUDORCINÆ, ii. 224

Budytes, ii. 290

Buffaloes, ii. 221

Bufo, ii. 415

BUFONIDÆ, ii. 415

Bulbuls, ii. 267

BULLIDÆ, ii. 530

Buliminus, ii. 514

Bulimulus, ii. 514

Bulimus, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 514, 523

Bunælurus, N American Tertiary, i. 134

Bungarus, ii. 383

Bungia, ii. 452

Bunocephalichthys, ii. 444

Bunocephalus, ii. 444

Buphaga, ii. 288

BUPRESTIDÆ, ii. 495

Buprestidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Busarellus, ii. 348

Bush-shrikes, ii. 297

Bustards, ii. 356

Butalis, ii. 270

Butastur, ii. 348

Buteo, ii. 348

Buteogallus, ii. 348

BUTEONINÆ, ii. 348

Buteola, ii. 348

Buthraupis, ii. 98

Butterflies, arrangement of, i. 103 Palæarctic, i. 187 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of Azores, i. 207 peculiar to Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of Japan and North China, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 number of Ethiopian species, i. 256 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342 of the Australian region, i. 404 of the Austro-Malay sub-region, i. 404 of the Moluccas, i. 419 of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 434 of New Zealand, i. 457 ii. 470 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 483 fossil, ii. 486 of S. Temperate America, ii. 43

Bycanistes, ii. 317

Cabalus, ii. 352

Cabrita, ii. 391

Cacatua, ii. 325

CACATUIDÆ, ii. 324

Caccabis, ii. 339

Cachius, ii. 453

Cacomantis, ii. 309

Cacophis, ii. 383

Cacopitta, ii. 261

Cacopus, ii. 416

Cacotus, ii. 417

Cactornis, ii. 284

Cadurcotherium, European Eocene, i. 125

Cæcilia, ii. 411

CÆCILIADÆ, ii. 411

Cæcum, ii. 509

Cælodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Cælogenys, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 241

Cænopithecus, European Eocene, i. 124 ii. 178

Cæntropus, ii. 445

Cainotherium, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126

Cairina, ii. 364

Caica, ii. 328

Calamanthus, ii. 258

Calamaria, ii. 374

CALAMARIIDÆ, ii. 374

Calamodon, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Calamodus, ii. 258

CALAMOHERPINÆ, ii. 287

Calamoichthys, ii. 458

Calamospiza, ii. 285

Calandrella, ii. 289

Calao, ii. 317

Calathus, ii. 489

Caledonica, ii. 487

Calendula, ii. 289

Calicalicus, ii. 271

Calictis, ii. 195

Calidris, ii. 353

Caliecthrus, ii. 309

California, illustration of zoology of, ii. 128

Californian sub-region, ii. 127 mammalia of, ii. 127 birds of, ii. 127 reptiles of, ii. 128 amphibia of, ii. 128 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 128

Caligo, ii. 472

Calinaga, ii. 479

Calisto, ii. 471

Callæas, ii. 287

Callia, ii. 521

Callichroma, ii. 501

Callichrous, ii. 442

Callichthys, ii. 444

Callida, ii. 490

Callidryas, ii. 478

Callionymus, ii. 430

Calliope, ii. 259

Callipepla, ii. 339

Calliperidia, ii. 108

Calliphlox, ii. 198

Callirhynus, ii. 375

Callisaurus, ii. 401

Calliste, ii. 98

Callisthenus, ii. 489

Callithea, ii. 474

Callithrix, in Brazilian caves, i. 184 ii. 175 ii. 178

Callocephalus, ii. 204

Callochen, ii. 363

Callomystax, ii. 443

Callophis, ii. 383

Callophysus, ii. 443

Callopistes, ii. 390

Callorhinus, ii. 202

Calloselasma, ii. 385

Callosune, ii. 478

Callula, ii. 416

Calobates, ii. 290

Calocitta, ii. 273

Calodromas, ii. 344

Caloenas, ii. 333

Caloperdix, ii. 339

Calophena, ii. 490

Calopsitta, ii. 325

Caloragia, ii. 375

Calorhamphus, ii. 306

Calornis, ii. 288

Calosoma, ii. 489

Calostethus, ii. 419

Calotes, ii. 402

Calothorax, ii. 108

Calydna, ii. 476

Calypte, ii. 108

Calyptocephalus, ii. 421

Calyptomena, ii. 295

Calyptorhynchus, ii. 325

CALYPTRÆIDÆ, ii. 511

Calyptura, ii. 102

Camarhynchus, ii. 284

Camaroptera, ii. 258

Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, i. 122 birth-place and migrations of, i. 155 Palæarctic, i. 182

Camelidæ, essentially extra-tropical, i. 112 N. American Tertiary, i. 138

CAMELIDÆ, ii. 216

CAMELOPARDALIDÆ, ii. 221

Camelopardalis, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 221

Camelotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 217

Camels, ii. 216

Camelus, ii. 216

Camena, ii. 477

Campephaga, ii. 269

CAMPEPHAGIDÆ, ii. 268

Campephilus, ii. 303

Campsiempis, ii. 101

Camptolaimus, ii. 364

Campylopterus, ii. 107

Campylorhynchus, ii. 264

Canadian sub-region, mammalia of, ii. 135 birds of, ii. 136 reptiles and fishes of, ii. 137 insects of, ii. 137

Canaries, birds of, i. 208 beetles of, i. 209

Cancroma, ii. 359

Canidæ, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 remarkable S. African, i. 267

CANIDÆ, ii. 197

Canis, European Pliocene, i. 112 Post-Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 134, 135 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 197

Cantharus, ii. 427

Cantoria, ii. 376

Cape Ant-eater, ii. 246

Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna of, i. 266

Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, i. 214

Cape-hare, S. African, i. 267

Capito, ii. 306

CAPITONINÆ, ii. 306

Capoeta, ii. 451

Capra, ii. 224, 225

Capreolus, ii. 219

CAPRIMULGIDÆ, ii. 319

Caprimulgus, ii. 319

CAPRINÆ, ii. 224

Capromys, ii. 238

Capys, ii. 477

CARABIDÆ, ii. 488

Carabus, ii. 488 ii. 489

CARANGIDÆ, ii. 429

Carassius, ii. 451

CARCHARIIDÆ, ii. 460

Carcineutes, ii. 316

Cardellina, ii. 279

CARDIADÆ, ii. 535

Cardinalis, ii. 285

Cardiodus, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Cardiopthalmus, ii. 492

Cardita, ii. 535

Carenum, ii. 490

Cariama, Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 357

CARIAMIDÆ, ii. 357

Caridonax, ii. 316

Carlia, ii. 397

Carnivora of European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Carnivora, classification of, i. 88 antiquity of, i. 153 of the Palæarctic region, i. 182 list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 240 list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 302 range of Oriental genera of, i. 373 list of Australian genera of, i. 476

CARNIVORA, ii. 192 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 204 range of, in time, ii. 206 summary and conclusion, ii. 541

Caroline Islands, birds of, i. 444

Carpenter, Dr. Philip, on Panama shells, ii. 20

Carpiodes, ii. 451

Carpococcyx, ii. 309

Carpodacus, ii. 285

Carpodectes, ii. 102, 294

Carpophaga, ii. 332

Carterodon in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239

Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, i. 85 Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, i. 88

Carychium, ii. 519

Casarca, ii. 363

Cascelius, ii. 492

Casiornis, ii. 102, 293

Casoryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 225

Casnonia, ii. 489

Cassiculus, ii. 282

Cassicus, ii. 282

Cassidaria, ii. 507

Cassidix, ii. 283

Cassinia, ii. 270

Cassowaries, ii. 368

Castalia, ii. 534

Castnia, ii. 481

CASTNIIDÆ, ii. 481

Castor, European Pliocene, i. 113 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 234

CASTORIDÆ, ii. 234

Castoroides, ii. 234

Casuarius, ii. 369

CASUARIIDÆ, ii. 368

Catadromus, ii. 490

Catagramma, ii. 474

Catamblyrhynchus, ii. 285

Catamenia, ii. 285

Catascopus, ii. 489 ii. 491

Cataulus, ii. 520

Catharistes, ii. 346

Cathartes, Brazilian caves, i. 124 ii. 346

Catharus, ii. 256

Catherpes, ii. 264

Catla, ii. 451

Catoblepas, ii. 224

Catodon, ii. 208

Catodontidæ, ii. 207

Catopra, ii. 433

Catoprion, ii. 446

Catostomus, ii. 451

Catoxantha, ii. 496

Catriscus, ii. 258

Cats, ii. 192

Cave-fauna of Brazil, i. 143

Cavia, European Miocene, i. 121 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 241

Cavies, ii. 241

CAVIIDÆ, ii. 241

CEBIDÆ, ii. 174

Cebochoerus, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 215

Cebus in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 174 ii. 178

Cecina, ii. 521

Celebes, physical features of, i. 389 mammalia of, i. 426 birds of, i. 428 insects of, i. 434 origin of fauna of, i. 436

Celestus, ii. 327

Celeus, ii. 303

Celia, ii. 489

Cenchris, ii. 385

Centetes, ii. 188

Centetidæ, European Miocene, i. 118

CENTETIDÆ, ii. 188

Centrarchus, ii. 425

CENTRISCIDÆ, ii. 436

Centriscus, ii. 436

Centrites, ii. 101, 291

Centrocercus, ii. 339

Centrolabrus, ii. 437

Centrolophus, ii. 429

Centromochlus, ii. 443

Centronotus, ii. 431

Centropus, ii. 309

Centronyx, ii. 286

Centropyx, ii. 390

Centurus, ii. 303

Cephalepis, ii. 108

Cephalopeltis, ii. 389

CEPHALOPHINÆ, ii. 224

Cephalophus, ii. 224

CEPHALOPODA, ii. 505

Cephalopterus, ii. 103, 294

Cephalopyrus, ii. 266

Cepola, ii. 435

CEPOLIDÆ, ii. 435

CERAMBYCIDÆ, ii. 493

Ceratichthys, ii. 452

Ceratina, ii. 470

Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, i. 397

Ceratodus, ii. 458

Ceratohyla, ii. 418

Ceratophora, ii. 402

Ceratophorus, ii. 501

Ceratophrys, ii. 420

Ceratoptera, ii. 463

Ceratorhina, ii. 367

Ceratorhinus, ii. 213

Ceratotherium, ii. 213

Cerberus, ii. 376

Cercaspis, ii. 380

Cerchneis, ii. 349

Cercocebus, ii. 173

Cercolabes in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 240

CERCOLABIDÆ, ii. 239

Cercoleptes, ii. 200

Cercomacra, ii. 104

Cercomela, ii. 260

Cercomys, ii. 239

Cercopithecus in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 173

Cercosaura, ii. 394

CERCOSAURIDÆ, ii. 394

Cereopsis, ii. 363

Ceriornis, ii. 340

CERITHIADÆ, ii. 509

Certhia, ii. 264

Certhidea, ii. 278

CERTHIADÆ, ii. 264

Certhilauda, ii. 289

Certhiola, ii. 278

Certhiparus, ii. 266

Cervicapra, ii. 224

CERVICAPRINÆ, ii. 224

Cervidæ, European Miocene, i. 120 birth-place and migrations of, i. 155

CERVIDÆ, ii. 218

Cervulus, ii. 219

Cervus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Pliocene and Miocene, i. 122 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 219

Ceryle, ii. 316

CESTRACIONTIDÆ, ii. 461

Cetacea, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Cetacea, classification of, i. 89 range of Oriental genus, i. 374

CETACEA, ii. 207

Cethosia, ii. 474

CETONIIDÆ, ii. 494

Cetopsis, ii. 443

Cettia, ii. 258

Ceuthmochares, ii. 309

Ceycopsis, ii. 316

Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, i. 327

Ceylonese sub-region, i. 326 mammalia of, i. 327 birds of, i. 327 reptiles of, i. 327 amphibia of, i. 327 insects of, i. 327 past history of, as indicated by its fauna. i. 328

Ceyx, ii. 316

Chaca, ii. 441

Chæmarrhornis, ii. 259

Chæmepelia, ii. 333

Chærocampa, ii. 482

Chætobranchus, ii. 439

Chætocercus, ii. 108 ii. 249

Chætodon, ii. 427

Chætomys, ii. 240

Chætops, ii. 256

Chætoptila, ii. 276

Chætorhynchus, ii. 269

Chætostomus, ii. 444

Chætura, ii. 320

Chætusia, ii. 356

Chalceus, ii. 445

CHALCIDÆ, ii. 393

Chalcinopsis, ii. 445

Chalcinus, ii. 445

Chalcis, ii. 393

Chalcochloris, ii. 189

Chalcopelia, ii. 333

Chalcophaps, ii. 333

Chalcostetha, ii. 276

Chalicomys, European Pliocene, i. 113

Chalicotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 fossil in N. China, i. 123

Chamæleo, N. American Eocene, i. 165

Chalybura, ii. 107

Chamæa, ii. 264

CHAMÆIDÆ, ii. 264

CHAMÆLEONIDÆ, ii. 402

Chamæleons, ii. 402

Chamæpetes, ii. 343

Chamæospiza, ii. 284

Chamæsaura, ii. 394

CHAMÆSAURIDÆ, ii. 394

Chamæza, ii. 104

CHAMIDÆ, ii. 534

Chamois, figure of, i. 195 ii. 224

Chamostrea, ii. 536

Chanodichthys, ii. 453

CHARACINIDÆ, ii. 444

Characodon, ii. 450

CHARADRIIDÆ, ii. 355

Charadrius, ii. 356

Charina, ii. 373

Charis, ii. 476

Charitornis, ii. 274

Charmosyna, ii. 327

Chasiempis, ii. 271

Chasmodes, ii. 431

Chasmorhynchus, ii. 103, 294

Chatarrhæa, ii. 261

Chatham Islands, birds of, i. 454

Chatterers, ii. 293

Chaulelasmus, ii. 364

Chauna, ii. 361

Chaunonotus, ii. 272

Chaunoproctus, ii. 284

Chela, ii. 453

Chelemys, ii. 408

Chelidon, ii. 281

Chelidoptera, ii. 311

Chelidorynx, ii. 271

Chelodina, ii. 408

Chelomeles ii. 397

Chelone, ii. 409

Chelonia, classification of, i. 100

CHELONIA, ii. 407 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 410 fossil, ii. 410

CHELONIIDÆ, ii. 409

CHELYDIDÆ, ii. 408

Chelydobatrachus, ii. 416

Chelydra, European Pliocene, i. 165 ii. 408

Chelys, ii. 408

Chenalopex, ii. 363

Chera, ii. 286

Chersina, ii. 408

Chersydrus, ii. 382

Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, i. 336

Chevrotains, ii. 218

Chiamela, ii. 397

Chiasognathus, ii. 493

Chibia, ii. 269

Chilabothrus, ii. 381

Chili should not be placed in the Palæarctic or Nearctic regions, i. 63

Chili and Temperate S. America, distribution of Carabidæ in, ii. 492

Chilian Andes, illustration of zoology of, ii. 40

Chilian sub-region, ii. 36 mammalia of, ii. 36 birds of, ii. 37 illustration of zoology of, ii. 40 reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 40 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 42 insects of, ii. 42 origin and migrations of insects of, ii. 47

Chili, islands of, ii. 49

Chilinia, ii. 518

Chilobranchus, ii. 456

Chilomeniscus, ii. 375

Chimæra, ii. 460

CHIMÆRIDÆ, ii. 460

China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European Miocene, i. 362 North, mammalia of, i. 222

Chinchilla, ii. 237

Chinchillidæ in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148

CHINCHILLIDÆ, ii. 237

Chioglossa, ii. 413

Chionabas, ii. 471

CHIONIDIDÆ, ii. 354

Chionis, ii. 354

CHIROCENTRIDÆ, ii. 454

CHIROCOLIDÆ, ii. 393

Chirodon, ii. 445

Chirodryas, ii. 418

Chirogaleus, ii. 176

Chiroleptes, ii. 421

Chiromachæris, ii. 102, 292

Chiromantis, ii. 419

CHIROMYIDÆ, ii. 177

Chironectes, ii. 248

Chiroptera, classification of, i. 87 list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239 list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, i. 371 list of Australian genera of, i. 475

Chiroptera, European Eocene, i. 125 in Brazilian caves, i. 144

CHIROPTERA, ii. 181 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 185 fossil, ii. 185 summary and conclusion, ii. 441

Chirotes, ii. 388

CHIROTIDÆ, ii. 388

Chiroxiphia, ii. 102, 292

CHITONIDÆ, ii. 512

Chittya, ii. 519

Chlænius, ii. 489

Chlamydodera, ii. 275

Chlamydophorus, ii. 246

Chlamydotherium, ii. 246 in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Chlenasicus, ii. 262

Chloëphaga, ii. 363

Chlorochrysa, ii. 98 ii. 99

Chloronerpes, ii. 303

Chlorophanes, ii. 278

Chlorophonia, ii. 98 ii. 99

Chloropipo, ii. 102

Chlorospiza, ii. 283

Chlorospingus, ii. 99 ii. 100

Chlorostilbon, ii. 109

Choanomphalus, ii. 518

Choanopoma, ii. 521

Choeromorus, European Miocene, i. 119

Choeropotamus, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 215

Choeropus, ii. 250

Choerotherium, Indian Miocene, i. 122

Cholæpus, ii. 244

Chologastes, ii. 450

Cholornis, ii. 262

Chondestes, ii. 285

Chondropoma, ii. 521

CHONDROPTERYGII, ii. 46

CHONDROSTEI, ii. 459

Chondrostoma, ii. 452

Choneziphius, European Pliocene, i. 112

Chordeiles, ii. 320

Chough, Alpine, figure of, i. 195

Choughs, ii. 274

CHROMIDÆ, ii. 438

Chromis, ii. 438

Chrysichthys, ii. 442

Chrysobronchus, ii. 108

Chrysococcyx, ii. 310

CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ, ii. 189

Chrysochloris, ii. 189

Chrysocolaptes, ii. 303

Chrysocyon, ii. 197

Chrysolampis, ii. 108

Chrysomitris, ii. 283

Chrysopelea, ii. 379

Chrysophrys, ii. 427

Chrysoptilus, ii. 303

Chrysothrix, ii. 175

Chrysotis, ii. 328

Chrysuronia, ii. 109

Chthonicola, ii. 258

Ciccaba, ii. 350

Cichla, ii. 439

Cichladusa, ii. 261

Cichlopsis, ii. 260

Cicigna, ii. 392

Cicindela, ii. 486

CICINDELIDÆ, ii. 486

Cicinnurus, ii. 275

Ciconia, ii. 360

Ciconiidæ, ii. 360

CINCLIDÆ, ii. 262

Cinclocerthia, ii. 256

Cinclodes, ii. 103

Cinclorhamphus, ii. 260

Cinclosoma, ii. 261

Cinclus, ii. 263

Cinnicerthia, ii. 264

Cinnyricinclus, ii. 276 ii. 288

Cinosternon, ii. 408

Cinyxis, ii. 408

Cionella, ii. 515

Circaëtus, ii. 348

Circe, ii. 109

Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, i. 67

Circus, ii. 347

Cirrhina, ii. 451

CIRRHITIDÆ, ii. 427

Cirrhochroa, ii. 474

CIRRHOSTOMI, ii. 464

Cissa, ii. 273

Cissopis, ii. 99

Cisticola, ii. 257

Cistothorus, ii. 263

Cistula, ii. 521

Cithara, ii. 508

Citharinus, ii. 445

Cittura, ii. 316

Cladognathus, ii. 493

Clais, ii. 108

Clam-shells, ii. 535

Clarias, ii. 441

Clarotes, ii. 442

Classification as affecting the study of distribution, i. 83

Claudius, ii. 408

Clausilia, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 514

Clerome, ii. 472

Clibanornis, ii. 103

Climacteris, ii. 265

Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, i. 11 gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, i. 41

Clinteria, ii. 494

CLIONIDÆ, ii. 531

Clostophis, ii. 520

Clupea, ii. 454

CLUPEIDÆ, ii. 454

Clymenia, ii. 209

Clypeicterus, ii. 282

Clytoctantes, ii. 104

Clytolæna, ii. 108

Clytus, ii. 501

Cnidoglanis, ii. 441

Cnipodectes, ii. 101

Cnipolegus, ii. 101, 291

Cobitis, ii. 453

Cobras, ii. 382

Coccothraustes, ii. 284

Coccygus, ii. 309

Coccystes, ii. 310

Cochlognathus, ii. 452

Cochlostyla, ii. 514

Cochlothraustes, ii. 309

Cochoa, ii. 269

Cockatoos, ii. 324

Cockles, ii. 535

Cocos Islands, bird of, ii. 60

Cocytia, ii. 481

Coeligena, ii. 107

Coelodon, ii. 245

Coelonotus, ii. 457

Coelopeltis, ii. 377

Coelosterna, ii. 501

Coenonympha, ii. 471

Coereba, ii. 278

COEREBIDÆ, ii. 278

Cogia, ii. 208

Colaptes, ii. 304

Coleoptera, families selected for study, i. 103 Palæarctic, i. 188 number of Palæarctic species, i. 189 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Ethiopian region, i. 256 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 282, 283 of the Oriental region, i. 319 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342 of the Australian region, i. 405 affinity of Australian and South American, i. 406, 407 of Celebes, i. 435 of New Zealand, i. 457 of the Neotropical region, ii. 15 of S. Temperate America, ii. 44 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 56 of the Antilles, ii. 74 of the Nearctic region, ii. 123

COLEOPTERA, ii. 486 general observations on the distribution of, ii. 502 (see also Beetles)

Colias, ii. 478

Colies, ii. 307

COLIIDÆ, ii. 307

Colius, ii. 307

Coliuspasser, ii. 286

Collocalia, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 320

Colluricincla, ii. 272

Collyris, ii. 486, 487

Colobus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 172

Colænis, ii. 474

Colonoceras, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Colopterus, ii. 101

Colossochelys of Indian Miocene, i. 123, 165

Colpodes, ii. 489

Coluber, ii. 375

COLUBRIDÆ, ii. 375

COLUBRINÆ, ii. 375

Columbæ, classification of, i. 96 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 384 range of Australian genera of, i. 485

Columba, ii. 332

COLUMBÆ, ii. 331 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 335

COLUMBIDÆ, ii. 331

Columbula, ii. 333

Columna, ii. 516

COLYMBIDÆ, ii. 366

Colymbus, ii. 366

COMEPHORIDÆ, ii. 432

Comephorus, ii. 549

Comoro islands, zoology of, i. 281

Compsosoma, ii. 98, 375

CONCHIFERA, ii. 533

Condylura, ii. 190

Cones, ii. 508

Conger, ii. 456

CONIDÆ, ii. 508

Conirostrum, ii. 278

Conognatha, ii. 496

Conophaga, ii. 100

CONOPHAGINÆ, ii. 291

Conophis, ii. 375

Conopias, ii. 101

Conorhynchus, ii. 443

Conostoma, ii. 262

Continents, distribution of, i. 37 recent changes of, i. 38

Continental extension in Mesozoic times, i. 156

Contopus, ii. 102, 291

CONURIDÆ, ii. 327

Conurus, ii. 328

Conus, ii. 508

Copea, ii. 416

Cophoscincus, ii. 397

Copidoglanis, ii. 441

Coptodera, ii. 489, 492

Copurus, ii. 101

Copsychus, ii. 259

Coracias, ii. 311

CORACIIDÆ, ii. 311

Coracopsis, ii. 328

Corades, ii. 471

Corallus, ii. 381

Corbis, ii. 535

Cordylosaurus, ii. 392

Cordylus, ii. 392

Coregonus, ii. 447

Coriphilus, ii. 327

Coris, ii. 437

Coronella, ii. 375

CORONELLINÆ, ii. 375

Coronis, ii. 481

Cornufer, ii. 419

CORVIDÆ, ii. 272

Corvina, ii. 428

Corvinella, ii. 272

Corvultur, ii. 274

Corvus, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 274

Corydalla, ii. 290

Corydon, ii. 295

Corynopoma, ii. 445

Coryphistera, ii. 103

Coryphodon, European Eocene, i. 126

Coryphospingus, ii. 284

Corythaix, ii. 307

Corythopis, ii. 100

Corythornis, ii. 316

Cosmeteira, ii. 277

Cosmetornis, ii. 320

Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, i. 175

Cossypha, ii. 256

Cotinga, ii. 102, 294

COTINGIDÆ, ii. 293

Cottus, ii. 428

Coturniculus, ii. 284

Coturnix, ii. 338

Cotyle, ii. 281

Coua, ii. 309

Couchia, ii. 439

Coues, Dr., on the blue crow of the Rocky Mountains, ii. 128

Coursers, ii. 355

Cowries, ii. 508

Coypu, ii. 238

CRACIDÆ, ii. 342

CRACINÆ, ii. 343

Cracticus, ii. 273

Cranes, ii. 357

CRANIADÆ, ii. 532

Cranorrhinus, ii. 317

Craspedocephalus, ii. 385

Craspedopoma, ii. 521

Crateropus, ii. 261

Crax, ii. 343

Creadion, ii. 287

Creagrus, ii. 364

Creagrutus, ii. 445

Creepers, ii. 264

Cremna, ii. 475

Crenicichla, ii. 439

Crenilabrus, ii. 437

Crenuchus, ii. 445

Creurgops, ii. 99

Cricetodon, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 230

Cricetomys, ii. 230

Cricetulus, ii. 230

Cricetus, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 230

Cricosoma, ii. 476

Crinia, ii. 420

Criniger, ii. 267

Crithagra, ii. 285

Crocidura, ii. 191

Crocodiles, Eocene, i. 165 ii. 406 lines of migration of, ii. 548

Crocodilia, classification of, i. 100

CROCODILIA, ii. 405 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 406 fossil, ii. 407

CROCODILIDÆ, ii. 406

Crocodilurus ii. 390

Crocodilus, ii. 406

Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, i. 456

Crossarchus, ii. 195

Crossochilus, ii. 451

Crossodactylus, ii. 419

Crossoptilon, ii. 340

Crossopus, ii. 191

CROTALIDÆ, ii. 384

Crotalophorus, ii. 385

Crotalus, ii. 385

Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, i. 209

Crotophaga, ii. 309

Crowned-pigeon, figure of, i. 415

Crows, ii. 273

Crypsirhina, ii. 273

Cryptoblepharus, ii. 395

Cryptodacus, ii. 375

Cryptoprocta, ii. 194

CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ, ii. 194

Cryptopterus, ii. 441

Cryptornis, European Eocene, i. 163

Cryptotis, ii. 421

Crypturus, ii. 344

Ctenodactyla, ii. 490

Ctenodactylus, ii. 238

Ctenolabrus, ii. 437

Ctenomys, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 238

Ctenopharyngodon, ii. 452

Ctenopoma, ii. 521

Ctenostoma, ii. 486

Cuba, extinct mammalia of, i. 148

Curculionidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Cubina, ii. 400

CUCULIDÆ, ii. 308

Cuculus, ii. 309

Cuckoo-shrikes, ii. 268

Cuckoos, ii. 308

Culter, ii. 453

Cunningham, Professor, lizard discovered by, in Tierra-del-Fuego, ii. 41

Cuniculus, ii. 230

Cuphopterus, ii. 272

Cupidonia, ii. 339

Curassows, ii. 342

Curæus, ii. 282

Curetis, ii. 477

Curimatus, ii. 445

Curruca, ii. 259

Cursoria, ii. 382

Cursorius, ii. 355

Cuscus, ii. 252

Custa, ii. 390

Cutia, ii. 266

Cuttle fish, ii. 505

Cyanecula, ii. 259

Cyanocorax, ii. 273

Cyanomyia, ii. 109

Cyanopica, ii. 273

Cyanoptila, ii. 270

Cyanorhamphus, ii. 325

Cyanospiza, ii. 284

Cyanotis, ii. 101

Cyanurus, ii. 273

Cybernetes, ii. 101

Cychloris, ii. 280

Cychrus, ii. 489

CYCLADIDÆ, ii. 535

Cyclas, ii. 535

Cyclocorus, ii. 380

Cycloderma, ii. 409

Cyclodina, ii. 397

Cyclodus, ii. 397

Cyclophis, ii. 376

Cyclophorus, ii. 520

Cyclopterus, ii. 430

Cyclopsitta, ii. 326

Cyclorhamphus, ii. 420

Cyclostoma, Eocene, i. 169

CYCLOSTOMATA, ii. 463

CYCLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 520

Cyclostomus, ii. 521

Cyclothorus, ii. 247

Cyclotopsis, ii. 521

Cyclotus, ii. 521

Cyclusa, ii. 401

Cygnus, ii. 363

Cylindrella, ii. 515

Cylindrophis, ii. 373

Cyllo sepulta, European Cretaceous, i. 167

Cymba, ii. 508

Cymbilanius, ii. 104

Cymbirhynchus, ii. 295

Cymindis, ii. 489

Cynælurus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 193

Cynanthus, ii. 108

Cynictis, ii. 195

Cynocephalus, ii. 173

Cynodictis, ii. 198

Cynodon, ii. 445

Cynogale, ii. 195

CYNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 172

Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, i. 427

Cynopithecus, ii. 173

Cynomys, ii. 235

Cyornis, ii. 270

Cyotherium, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 198

Cyphogastra, ii. 496

Cyphorhinus, ii. 264

CYPRÆIDÆ, ii. 508

Cyprina, ii. 535

CYPRINIDÆ, ii. 451 ii. 535

Cyprinus, ii. 451

Cyprinion, ii. 452

Cyprinodon, ii. 450

CYPRINODONTIDÆ, ii. 450

CYPSELIDÆ, ii. 320

Cypseloides, ii. 320

Cypselus, ii. 320

Cypsnagra, ii. 99

Cyrena, ii. 535

Cyrestis, ii. 474

Cyrtonotus, ii. 489

Cyrtonyx, ii. 339

Cyrtophis, ii. 383

Cystignathus, ii. 420

Cystophora, ii. 204

Dacelo, ii. 316

Dacnis, ii. 278

Dactylethra, ii. 422

DACTYLETHRIDÆ, ii. 422

Dactylomys, ii. 239

Dactylopsila, ii. 249

Dactylozodes, ii. 496

Dafila, ii. 363

Dama, ii. 219

Damias, ii. 481

Damophila, ii. 109

DANAIDÆ, ii. 470

Danais, ii. 470

Dangila, ii. 451

Danio, ii. 452

Daptophilus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Darters, ii. 365

Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of the abundance of apterous insects in Madeira, i. 211 on the relation of flowers and insects, i. 463 amphibia collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 41 mice collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 37 on physical geography of the Galapagos, ii. 33

Dasia, ii. 397

Dasylophus, ii. 309

Dasyopthalma, ii. 472

Dasypeltis, ii. 377

DASYPODIDÆ, ii. 245

Dasyprocta, European Miocene, i. 121 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 241

Dasyptilus, ii. 329

Dasypus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 246

DASYURIDÆ, ii. 249

Dasyurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 249

Daudebardia, ii. 516

David, Père, his researches in China and Thibet, i. 221, 222 on birds of N. China, i. 226

Debis, ii. 471

Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary formations, i. 138 Palæarctic, i. 182 probable cause of absence from tropical Africa, i. 291 ii. 218

Deilephila, ii. 482

Deltatria, ii. 107

Delma, ii. 395

Deloneura, ii. 477

Delphinapterus, ii. 209

DELPHINIDÆ, ii. 208

Delphinus, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 209

DENDRASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383

Dendraspis, ii. 383

Dendrexetastes, ii. 104

Dendrochelidon, ii. 320

Dendrocitta, ii. 273

Dendrocolaptes, ii. 103

DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ, ii. 295

DENDROCOLAPTINÆ, ii. 295

Dendrocincla, ii. 103

Dendrocygna, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 363

Dendroeca, ii. 279

Dendrohyrax, ii. 229

Dendrolagus, ii. 251

Dendromus, ii. 303

Dendromys, ii. 230

Dendrophila, ii. 265

DENDROPHIDÆ, ii. 378

Dendrophis, ii. 378

Dendropicus, ii. 303

Dendroplex, ii. 103

Dendrornis, ii. 103

Dendrortyx, ii. 339

Denisonia, ii. 383

DENTALIADÆ, ii. 512

Dentalium, ii. 512 ii. 539

Dentex, ii. 426

Dercas, ii. 478

Dermatemys, ii. 408

Dermatocera, ii. 520

Dermatochelys, ii. 409

Deroptyus, ii. 328

Dermognathus, ii. 413

Desert-snakes, ii. 377

Desman of S. Russia, figure of, i. 219

Desmodus, ii. 182

Deudorix, ii. 477

Diadema, ii. 474

Diagramma, ii. 426

Dibamus, ii. 372

DIBRANCHIATA, ii. 505

DICÆIDÆ, ii. 277

Dicælus, ii. 490

Dicæum, ii. 277

Dicallaneura, ii. 475

Dicamptodon, ii. 413

Diceratherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Dicerca, ii. 496

Dicerobatis, ii. 463

Dichobune, European Eocene, i. 126

Dicotyles, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 birthplace and migrations of, i. 155 ii. 215

Dicotylinæ, ii. 214

Dicrocerus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 220

Dicrodon, ii. 390

Dicroglossus, ii. 421

Dicrorrhagia, ii. 474

DICRURIDÆ, ii. 269

Dicrurus, ii. 269

DIDELPHYIDÆ, ii. 248

Didelphys, European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 248

Dididæ, i. 164

DIDIDÆ, ii. 334

Didocus, ii. 417

DIDUNCULIDÆ, ii. 333

Didunculus, ii. 334

Didus, ii. 334

Dieba, ii. 197

Diemenia, ii. 383

Diglossa, ii. 278

Diglossopis, ii. 278

Dilophus, ii. 287

Dilophyrus, ii. 402

Dimodes, ii. 377

Dimylus, ii. 190

Dinictis, ii. 194

Dinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Dinocerata, N. American Tertiary, i. 139

Dinornis, allied form in European Eocene, i. 163 of New Zealand and Australia, i. 164 ii. 369

Dinornithidæ of New Zealand, i. 164

DINORNITHIDÆ, ii. 269

Dinotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 Miocene of Perim Island, i. 123

Dinyctis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Dinylus, European Miocene, i. 117

Diomedia, ii. 365

Dioplodon, ii. 208

Diorhina, ii. 476

Diphlogæna, ii. 108

Diphylla, ii. 182

Diphyllodes, ii. 274

Diplacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Diplodactylus, ii. 399

Diploglossus, ii. 397

Diplolæmus, ii. 401

Diplomesodon, ii. 191

DIPLOMMATINIDÆ, ii. 519

Diplommatina, ii. 520

Diplomystax, ii. 443

Diplopelma, ii. 416

Diplopoma, ii. 521

Diplopterus, ii. 309

DIPNOI, ii. 458

DIPODIDÆ, ii. 231

Dipodomys, ii. 233

Dippers, ii. 263

Diprotodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251

DIPSADIDÆ, ii. 379

Dipsadoboa, ii. 379

Dipsas, ii. 379

Diptychus, ii. 452

Dipus, ii. 232

Dircenna, ii. 470

Discina, ii. 539

DISCINIDÆ, ii. 532

Discoboli, ii. 430

DISCOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 421

Discoglossus, ii. 421

Discognathus, ii. 451

Discophora, ii. 472

Discura, ii. 107

Dispersal of animals, i. 10 of mammalia, i. 10 of reptiles and amphibia, i. 28

Disteira, ii. 384

Distichodus, ii. 445

Distribution, affected by climate, i. 5 affected by physical features, i. 5 contrasts of, in similar climates, i. 5 similarities of, in diverse climates, i. 6 barriers as affecting, i. 6 study of, dependent on a good classification, i. 83 of animals an adjunct to geology, i. 8 of animals requires certain preliminary studies, i. 8 of animals dependent on physical geography, i. 35 of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 40 of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, i. 43 of animals, as affected by organic changes, i. 44 of animals, hypothetical illustration of, i. 46 of animals, complexity of the causes affecting the, i. 49 of animals, problems in, i. 51 of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 42

Distrigus, ii. 490

Diuca, ii. 284

Diucopis, ii. 99

Diva, ii. 98

Divers, ii. 366

Docimastes, ii. 108

Dodo of Mauritius, i. 282 ii. 334

Dodona, ii. 475

Dolerisca, ii. 107

Dolichodon, ii. 208

Dolichonyx, ii. 282

Dolichopterus, European Miocene, i. 162

Dolichotis, ii. 241

Doliophis, ii. 383

Dolium, ii. 507

Dommina, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Donacobius, ii. 264

Donacola, ii. 287

Donacospiza, ii. 284

Doras, ii. 443

Dorcatherium, European Miocene, i. 120

Dorcopsis, ii. 251

Dorcus, ii. 493

Doricha, ii. 108

DORIDÆ, ii. 530

Doritis, ii. 479

Dormice, ii. 232

Doryichthys, ii. 457

Doryphora, ii. 107

Douroucoulis, ii. 175

Draco, ii. 402

Dremotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 218

DREPANIDIDÆ, ii. 277

Drepanis, ii. 277

Drepanornis, ii. 275 ii. 276

Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of European birds, i. 193

Drimostoma, ii. 489

Dromæus, ii. 368

Dromas, ii. 356

Dromatherium, N. American Triassic, i. 134 oldest American mammal, i. 160

Dromica, ii. 486, 487

Dromicia, ii. 252

Dromicus, ii. 375

Dromius, ii. 489

Dromococcyx, ii. 309

Dromolæa, ii. 260

Dromophis, ii. 377

Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, i. 340 ii. 269

DRYADINÆ, ii. 375

DRYIOPHIDÆ, ii. 379

Dryiophis, ii. 379

Drymocataphus, ii. 261

Drymodes, ii. 259

Drymoeca, ii. 257

DRYMOECINÆ, ii. 257

Drymomys, ii. 230

Drymornis, ii. 103

Dryocopus, ii. 303

Dryopithecus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 178

Dryospiza, ii. 284

Dryotriorchis, ii. 348

Dubusia, ii. 98

Ducks, ii. 363

Dulus, ii. 280

Dumerilia, ii. 408

Dumetia, ii. 261

Dumeticola, ii. 258

Duncan, Dr., on fossil corals of the Antilles, ii. 21

D'Urbania, ii. 477

Dwarf-ground snakes, ii. 374

Dynastor, ii. 472

Dyschirus, ii. 489

Dysauxis, ii. 481

Dysithamnus, ii. 104

Dysopes, ii. 184

Eagles, ii. 347

Eared Seals, ii. 202

Ear-shells, ii. 511

East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258 wide range of genera and species over, i. 259 few special types in, i. 260

East African sub-region, description of, i. 258 genera and species ranging over the whole of, i. 259 mammalia of, i. 260 birds of, i. 260 reptiles of, i. 260 amphibia and fishes of, i. 260 insects of, i. 260 few peculiar types in, i. 260 illustration of zoology of, i. 261

East Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 440

East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222

Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Island, i. 211

Eburna, ii. 507

Echidna, ii. 254

ECHIDNIDÆ, ii. 254

Echimyidæ, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

ECHIMYIDÆ, ii. 238

Echimys, ii. 239

Echinogale, European Miocene, i. 118

Echinops, ii. 188, 189

Echinorhinus, ii. 461

Echiothrix, ii. 230

Echis, ii. 386

Eclectus, ii. 326

Ectognathus, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Ectopistes, ii. 332

Edentata, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Pliocene, i. 140 of Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Edentata, classification of, i. 90 probable birthplace of, i. 155 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305 range of Oriental genus of, i. 375

EDENTATA, ii. 244 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 247 summary and conclusion, ii. 543

Ega, ii. 490

Egerina, ii. 397

Elainea, ii. 101, 291

ELAINEINÆ, ii. 291

Elania, ii. 397

Elanoides, ii. 349

Elanus, ii. 349

Elaphodus, ii. 220

Elaphrus, ii. 489

ELAPIDÆ, ii. 382

Elapochrus, ii. 375

Elaps, ii. 383

Elapsoidea, ii. 383

Elasmognathus, ii. 212

Electra, ii. 209

ELEPHANTIDÆ, ii. 227

Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123 fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene formations, i. 130 birthplace and migrations of, i. 155 ii. 227

Elephant shrews, S. African, i. 267 ii. 186

Elephas, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 fossil in N. China, i. 123 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 227

Eliomys, ii. 232

Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of paradise, i. 415 on classification of the birds of paradise, ii. 274

Ellipesurus, ii. 463

Ellipsoglossa, ii. 413

Ellisia, ii. 258

Ellobius, ii. 231

Elminia, ii. 271

Elodina, ii. 478

Elopichthys, ii. 453

Elornis, European Miocene, i. 162

Elosia, ii. 419

Elotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137, 139 ii. 215, 216

Elseya, ii. 408

Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204 on true relations of the birds of Central India, i. 323

Elymnias, ii. 471

ELYMNIIDÆ, ii. 471

ELSIADÆ, ii. 530

Embasis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Emberiza, ii. 285

EMBERIZINÆ, ii. 285

Emberizoides, ii. 284

Emblema, ii. 287

Embernagra, ii. 284

EMBROTOCIDÆ, ii. 438

Emesis, ii. 476

Emeu, figure of, i. 441

Emeus, ii. 368

Emminia, ii. 390

Empidagra, ii. 101

Empidias, ii. 102, 291

Empidochanes, ii. 102

Empidonax, ii. 102, 291

Empidonomus, ii. 102

Emyda, ii. 409

Emydida, Indian Miocene, i. 123

Emydocephalus, ii. 384

Emys, Indian Miocene, i. 123 Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 ii. 408

Enes, ii. 501

Engystoma, ii. 416

ENGYSTOMIDÆ, ii. 416

Enhydrina, ii. 384

Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 200

Enhydris, ii. 199

Enicurus, ii. 263

Enispe, ii. 472

Enodes, ii. 288

Enophrys, ii. 375

Ensophleus, ii. 420

Entelopes, ii. 501

Entomiza, ii. 276

Entomophila, ii. 275

Enygrus, ii. 381

Eobasileus, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Eocene period, i. 124 fauna of S. America, i. 148

Eophona, ii. 284

Eopsaltria, ii. 271

Eos, ii. 327

Epalzeorhynchus, ii. 451

Ephemera, from the Lias, i. 167

Ephthianura, ii. 260

Epicalia, ii. 474

Epicrates, ii. 381

EPIMACHINÆ, ii. 275

Epimachus, ii. 275

Epiodon, ii. 208

Epirhixis, ii. 419

Epitola, ii. 477

Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

EQUIDÆ, ii. 211

Equidæ, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Eocene, i. 125

Equus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 211

Erebia, ii. 471

Eremias, ii. 391

Eremomela, ii. 258

Eremophilus, ii. 444

Ereptodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Eresia, ii. 474

Erethistes, ii. 444

Erethizon, ii. 239

Ereunetes, ii. 353

Ergaticus, ii. 279

Ergolis, ii. 474

Ericulus, ii. 188

Ericymba, ii. 452

ERINACEIDÆ, ii. 187

Erinaceus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 187

Eriocnemis, ii. 109

Eriodes, ii. 174

Erismatura, ii. 364

Erithacus, ii. 259

Eroessa, ii. 258

Eronia, ii. 478

Erpornis, ii. 267

ERYCIDÆ, ii. 381

ERYCINIDÆ, ii. 476

Erynnis, ii. 480

Erythrinus, ii. 445

Erythrocercus, ii. 270

Erythrocnema, ii. 347

Erythrogonys, ii. 356

Erythrolampus, ii. 375

Erythromachus of Rodriguez, i. 164 ii. 352

Erythrospiza, ii. 285

Erythrosterna, ii. 270

Erythrura, ii. 387

Eryx, ii. 382

ESOCIDÆ, ii. 449

Esox, ii. 449

Esthemopsis, ii. 476

Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Estrilda, ii. 286

Etheria, ii. 534

Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, i. 63 defined, i. 73 subdivisions of, i. 73 general features of, i. 251 zoological characteristics of, i. 252 mammalia of, i. 253 great speciality of, i. 253 birds of, i. 253 reptiles of, i. 254 amphibia of, i. 255 fresh-water fish of, i. 255 summary of vertebrates of, i. 255 insects of, i. 255 coleoptera of, i. 256 terrestrial mollusca of, i. 257 sub-regions of, i. 258 Atlantic islands of, i. 269 the probable past history of, i. 285 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 293

Euanemus, ii. 443

Eubagis, ii. 474

Eucephala, ii. 109

Euchætes, ii. 98

Eucometis, ii. 99

Euchromia, ii. 481

Eucichla, ii. 298

Euclyptosternum, ii. 443

Eudromias, ii. 356

Eudynamis, ii. 310

Eudyptes, ii. 366

Eueides, ii. 473

Eugenes, ii. 107

Eugenia, ii. 107

Euhyrax, ii. 229

Eulabeornis, ii. 352

Eulabes, ii. 287

Eulampis, ii. 107

Eumæus, ii. 477

Eumeces, ii. 397

Eumetopias, ii. 203

Eumomota, ii. 313

Eumys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 231

Eumyias, ii. 270

Eunectes, ii. 381

Eunica, ii. 474

Eunogyra, ii. 475

Eupetes, ii. 263

Eupetomena, ii. 107

Euphema, ii. 325

Eupherusa, ii. 109

Euphonia, ii. 98

Euphractus, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Euphryne, ii. 401

Euphysetes, ii. 208

Eupleres, ii. 195

Euploea, ii. 470

EUPLOCAMINÆ, ii. 340

Euplocamus, ii. 340

Eupodotis, ii. 356

Euprepes, ii. 397

Eupsychortyx, ii. 339

Euptilotis, ii. 314

Euptychia, ii. 471

Eurinorhynchus, ii. 353

Eurocephalus, ii. 272

Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, i. 39 Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117 Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa, i. 124

European sub-region, description of, i. 191 forests of, i. 192 mammalia of, i. 192 birds of, i. 193 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195 fresh-water fish of, i. 196 insects of, i. 196 islands of, i. 197

Eurostopodus, ii. 320

Euryades, ii. 479

Euryapteryx, ii. 370

Euryarthrium, ii. 501

Eurybia, ii. 475

Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

Euryceros, ii. 288

Eurycus, ii. 479

Eurygona, ii. 476

EURYGONIDÆ, ii. 476

EURYLÆMIDÆ, ii. 294

Eurylæmus, ii. 295

Euryodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246

Euryphene, ii. 474

Eurypyga, ii. 358

EURYPYGIDÆ, ii. 358

Eurystomus, ii. 312

Eurytela, ii. 474

Eurytherium, European Eocene, i. 126

Eurytrichus, ii. 490

Euscarthmus, ii. 101

Euschemon, ii. 480 ii. 481

Eusemia, ii. 482

Euspiza, ii. 285

Eustephanus, ii. 108

Eustira, ii. 453

Eutatus, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 246

Eutelodon, European Eocene, i. 126

Eutemnodus, S. American Eocene, i. 148

Euterpe, ii. 285

Euthyrhynchus, ii. 276

Eutoxeres, ii. 107

Eutriorchis, ii. 348

Eutropia, ii. 209

Eutropiichthys, ii. 441

Eutropius, ii. 442

Eutroplus, ii. 438

Exocetus, ii. 449

Exoglossum, ii. 452

Exostoma, ii. 444

Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, i. 126 mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, i. 140 mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148 mammalia of the Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, i. 148 fauna of New Zealand, i. 459 Amphibia, ii. 423 Ant-eaters, ii. 247 Armadillos, ii. 246 Bovidæ, ii. 225 Bradypodidæ, ii. 245 Camelidæ, ii. 217 Camelopardalidæ, ii. 221 Canidæ, ii. 197 Castoridæ, ii. 234 Caviidæ, ii. 241 Centetidæ, ii. 189 Cercolabidæ, ii. 240 Cetacea, ii. 209 Chinchillidæ, ii. 237 Chiroptera, ii. 185 Crocodiles, ii. 407 Deer, ii. 220 Didelphyidæ, ii. 249 Dipodidæ, ii. 232 Echidnidæ, ii. 254 Echimyidæ, ii. 239 Elephants, ii. 227 Equidæ, ii. 211 Erinaceidæ, ii. 188 Felidæ, ii. 193 Hippopotami, ii. 214 Hyænas, ii. 196 Hystricidæ, ii. 240 Insectivora, ii. 192 Lacertilia, ii. 404 Lagomyidæ, ii. 242 Leporidæ, ii. 243 Macropodidæ, ii. 251 Muridæ, ii. 230 Mustelidæ, ii. 199 Myoxidæ, ii. 232 Octodontidæ, ii. 238 Ophidia, ii. 387 Orycteropodidæ, ii. 246 Otariidæ, ii. 203 Procyonidæ, ii. 201 Quadrumana, ii. 178 Rallidæ, ii. 252 Rhinocerotidæ, ii. 213 Sciuridæ, ii. 236 Seals, ii. 204 Sirenia, ii. 210 Struthionidæ, ii. 369 Suidæ, ii. 215 Talpidæ, ii. 190 Tapirs, ii. 212 Tortoises, ii. 410 Tragulidæ, ii. 218 Tupaiidæ, ii. 186 Ursidæ, ii. 202 Viverridæ, ii. 195

Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158

Falcinellus, ii. 360

Falco, ii. 349

FALCONIDÆ, ii. 347

FALCONINÆ, ii. 349

Falcons, ii. 347

Falculia, ii. 228

Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49

Fanged ground-snakes, ii. 380

Farancia, ii. 377

Fauna of Japan, general character and affinities of, i. 230 of Palæarctic region, general conclusions as to, i. 231 extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, i. 282 Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359 Moluccan, peculiarities of, i. 419 Timorese, origin of, i. 422 of Celebes, origin of, i. 436 of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460 of Galapagos, origin of, ii. 33 of Central America, origin of, ii. 57 of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78 of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80

FELIDÆ, ii. 192

Felis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 193

Felis spelæa, i. 110

Feniseca, ii. 477

Fennecus, ii. 197

Ferania, ii. 376

Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265

Feroculus, ii. 191

Fiber, ii. 230

Figulus, ii. 493

Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443

Finches, ii. 283

FIROLIDÆ, ii. 531

Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29 classification of, i. 101 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 of the Palæarctic region, i. 186 of the European sub-region, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 fresh-water, table of Palæarctic families of, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of South Africa, i. 268 fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298 fresh-water, of the Oriental region, i. 318 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341 fresh-water, table of Oriental families of i. 369 fresh-water, of the Australian region, i. 397 fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, i. 400 how the transmission may have taken place, i. 401 fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457 fresh-water, table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89 of Central N. America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 of Canada, ii. 137 fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464 fossil, ii. 466

Fishing-hawks, ii. 349

FISSURELLIDÆ, ii. 511

FISTULARIDÆ, ii. 436

Fitzroya, ii. 450

Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 361

Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, i. 462 fossil of Australia, i. 467

Floras, cretaceous and tertiary, of North America, ii. 155

Florisuga, ii. 107

Flower-peckers, ii. 277

Flower, Professor, on classification of mammalia, i. 85 classification of carnivora, i. 87

Fluvicola, ii. 100

Flycatchers, ii. 270

Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337 ii. 186

Flying Lizards, ii. 401

Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442

Fordonia, ii. 376

Forests, essential to existence of many European animals, i. 192 Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216

FORMICARIIDÆ, ii. 297

FORMICARIINÆ, ii. 298

Formicarius, ii. 104

Formicivora, ii. 104

FORMICIVORINÆ, ii. 297

Formosa, zoology of, i. 332

Fossa, ii. 195

Foudia, ii. 286

Francolinus, ii. 338

Fraseria, ii. 272

Fratercula, ii. 367

Fregetta, ii. 365

Fregilupus, ii. 288

Fregilus, ii. 274

Fresh-water fishes, Neotropical, ii. 12 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii. 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 120 of California, ii. 128 summary and conclusion, ii. 549

Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534 shell, the most Arctic, ii. 518 snakes, ii. 376 snails, ii. 518

Fringilla, ii. 283

Fringillaria, ii. 285

Fringillauda, ii. 282

FRINGILLIDÆ, ii. 284

Frog-mouths, ii. 318

Frogs, ii. 420

Fulica, ii. 352

Fuligula, ii. 364

Fulmarus, ii. 365

Fundulus, ii. 450

FURNARIINÆ, ii. 295

Furnarius, ii. 103

Fusus, ii. 507

GADIDÆ, ii. 439

GADOPSIDÆ, ii. 439

Gadus, ii. 439

Galago, ii. 177

Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463

Galapagos islands, ii. 29 mammalia of, ii. 29 birds of, ii. 30 reptiles of, ii. 32 insects of, ii. 33 land-shells of, ii. 33 conclusions as to the origin of their fauna, ii. 33

Galatea, ii. 536

Galaxias, ii. 448

GALAXIDÆ, ii. 448

Galbalcyrhynchus, ii. 311

Galbula, ii. 311

GALBULIDÆ, ii. 311

Galecynus, in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 198

Galeichthys, ii. 443

GALEOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 186

Galeoscoptes, ii. 256

Galeospalax, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 190

Galeotherium, Post-Pliocene, i. 111

Galera, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Galerella, ii. 195

Galerita, ii. 289 ii. 490

Galerix, ii. 188

Galethylax, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 198

Galeus, ii. 460

Galictis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 199

Galidia, ii. 195

Galidictis, ii. 195

Gallinæ, classification of, i. 96 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 384 range of Australian genera of, i. 485

GALLINÆ, ii. 337 ii. 340 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 344

Gallinago, ii. 353

Gallinula, ii. 352

Gallus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 ii. 340

Gallus bravardi, European Pliocene, i. 161

Galogale, ii. 195

Gambusia, ii. 450

Gampsonyx, ii. 349

Gampsorhynchus, ii. 261

Gannets, ii. 365

GANOIDEI, ii. 458

Gape-eyed Scinks, ii. 395

Gar-fish, ii. 459

Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of Parrots, ii. 324

Garrulax, ii. 261

Garrulus, ii. 273

GASTEROPODA, ii. 507

GASTEROSTEIDÆ, ii. 424

Gasterosteus, ii. 424

Gastornis, European Eocene, i. 163

GASTROCHÆNIDÆ, ii. 537

Gastropelecus, ii. 445

GAVIALIDÆ, ii. 405

Gavialis, ii. 405

Gavials, ii. 405

Gazella, ii. 223

GAZELLINÆ, ii. 223

Gazera, ii. 481

Gecinulus, ii. 303

Gecinus, ii. 303

Gecko, ii. 399

GECKOTIDÆ, ii. 399

Geese, ii. 363

Gehyra, ii. 400

Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, i. 132

Genetta, ii. 195

Genidens, ii. 443

Geobates, ii. 103

Geobiastes, ii. 312

Geocichla, ii. 256

Geococcyx, ii. 309

Geocolaptes, ii. 304

GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486

Geoffroyus, ii. 326

Geographical zoology, introduction, ii. 167 materials for, ii. 168

Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362

Geology and Physical Geography of the Antilles, ii. 62, 79

Geomelania, ii. 519

Geomys, ii. 233

Geopelia, ii. 332

Geophaps, ii. 333

Geophagus, ii. 439

Geopsittacus, ii. 325

Georissa, ii. 522

Georychus, ii. 231

Geositta, ii. 103

Geospiza, ii. 284

Geothlypis, ii. 279

Geotrochus, ii. 523

Geotryon, ii. 333

Geotrypus, ii. 190

Geranospiza, ii. 347

Gerbillus, ii. 230 ii. 232

Geronticus, ii. 360

Gerrhonotus, ii. 392

Gerrhosaurus, ii. 392

GERRIDÆ, ii. 438

Gervasia, ii. 260

Gerygone, ii. 258

Giant-Clams, ii. 534

Gibbon, ii. 171

Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114

Giraffes, ii. 221

Girardinus, ii. 450

Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, i. 40 as a cause of the great change in the fauna of the temperate zones, since Pliocene times, i. 151 probably simultaneous in both hemispheres, i. 151 causing a general subsidence of the ocean, i. 152

Glandina, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 515

Glareola, ii. 355

GLAREOLIDÆ, ii. 355

Glaucis, ii. 107

Glaucidium, ii. 350

Glauconeza, ii. 536

Glaucopis, ii. 481

Gliciphila, ii. 275

Glis, ii. 232

Globiocephalus, ii. 209

Glossoptila, ii. 278

Glossotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 247

Glycimeris, ii. 536

Glyphidodon, ii. 437

Glyphoglossus, ii. 416

Glyphorhynchus, ii. 103

Glyptodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Glyptosternum, ii. 443

Gnaphodes, ii. 471

Gnathodon, ii. 536

Gnathopsis, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Goats, Palæarctic, i. 182 ii. 221

Goat-suckers, ii. 519

GOBIESOCIDÆ, ii. 436

GOBIIDÆ, ii. 430

Gobio, ii. 452

Gobius, ii. 430

Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, i. 207

Golden Moles, S. African, i. 267

Goliathi, ii. 494

Gonepteryx, ii. 478

Goniodactylus, ii. 400

Gongylophis, ii. 382

Gonorhynchidæ, ii. 453

Gonyocephalus, ii. 402

Gonyosoma, ii. 379

Gouldia, ii. 107

Goura, ii. 333

Graculavus, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

Grallæ, arrangement of, i. 97 peculiar or characteristic Palæarctic genera, i. 249 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31 peculiar Oriental genera of, i. 386 peculiar Australian genera of, i. 484

GRALLÆ, ii. 351 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 362

Grallaria, ii. 104

Grallaricula, ii. 104

Grallina, ii. 273

Grammatophorus, ii. 402

Grammatoptila, ii. 261

Grampus, ii. 209

Granatellus, ii. 279

Grandala, ii. 259

Graphidurus, ii. 232

Graphipterus, ii. 491

Graucalus, ii. 268

Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i. 88

Grayia, ii. 376

Grayson, Col, on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59

Grebes, ii. 367

Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i. 115 summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116

Green Bulbuls, ii. 267

Greenland, zoology of, ii. 138

Greenlets, ii. 280

Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, ii. 184

Grouse, ii. 328

GRUIDÆ, ii. 356

Grus, ii. 357

Grypsicus, ii. 421

Grypus, ii. 107

Guacharo, ii. 107

Guans, ii. 342

Guaraunas, ii. 357

Gubernatrix, ii. 285

Guillemots, ii. 267

Guira, ii. 309

Guiraca, ii. 285

Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidæ of the Sandwich Islands, i. 446

Gulls, ii. 364

Gulo, ii. 199

Günther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, i. 98 his classification of fishes, i. 101 on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, i. 289 on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, i. 329 on identical Atlantiic and Pacific fishes, ii. 21 on fresh-water fishes of Central America, ii. 54

Gygis, ii. 365

GYMNARCHIDÆ, ii. 449

Gymnarchus, ii. 449

GYMNETINÆ, ii. 494

Gymnobucco, ii. 306

Gymnocephalus, ii. 103

Gymnocichla, ii. 104

Gymnocorvus, ii. 274

Gymnocypris, ii. 452

Gymnodactylus, ii. 400

GYMNODERINÆ, ii. 293

Gymnoderus, ii. 103

GYMNODONTES, ii. 457

Gymnoglaux, ii. 350

Gymnokitta, ii. 273

Gymnomystax, ii. 282

Gymnopelia, ii. 333

Gymnops, ii. 287

GYMNOPHTHALMIDÆ, ii. 395

Gymnophthalmus, ii. 395

Gymnopus, ii. 199

Gymnorhina, ii. 273

Gymnostomus, ii. 451

GYMNOTIDÆ, ii. 455

Gymnotus, ii. 455

Gymnura, ii. 188

Gypaëtus, ii. 348

Gypohierax, ii. 348

Gypoictinia, ii. 349

Gyps, ii. 346

Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, i. 460

Habitat, definition of, i. 4

Habrocomus, ii. 238

Habroptila, ii. 352

Habrura, ii. 101

Hadrostomus, ii. 102, 293

Hæmatoderus, ii. 103

Hæmatopus, ii. 356

Hæmatospiza, ii. 285

Hæmophila, ii. 284

Hæmulon, ii. 426

Hætera, ii. 471

Hagria, ii. 397

Hainan, zoology of, i. 334

Halcyon, ii. 316

Halcyornis, European Eocene, i. 103

Halicyon, ii. 204

Haliæetus, ii. 348

Haliastur, ii. 348

Halichærus, ii. 204

Halicore, ii. 210

HALIOTIDÆ, ii. 511

Halitherium, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 211

Halmaturus, ii. 251

HALOSAURIDÆ, ii. 455

Halys, ii. 385

Hamadryas, ii. 470

Hang-nests, ii. 281

Hapale, ii. 176 ii. 178

Hapalemur, ii. 176

HAPALIDÆ, ii. 175

Hapalotis, ii. 230

Hapalus, ii. 524

Haplocerus, ii. 374

Haplochilus, ii. 450

Haplochiton, ii. 446

HAPLOCHITONIDÆ, ii. 446

Haplodactylus, ii. 427

Haploodon, ii. 236

HAPLOODONTIDÆ, ii. 236

Haplospiza, ii. 284

Hapsidrophis, ii. 379

Harelda, ii. 364

Hares, ii. 242

Harma, ii. 474

Harpa, ii. 349 ii. 507

Harpactes, ii. 314

Harpagus, ii. 349

Harpalus, ii. 489

Harporhynchus, ii. 256

Harpyhaliæetus, ii. 348

Hartlaubius, ii. 288

Hathliodes, ii. 502

Hatteria of New Zealand, i. 456

Hatteria, ii. 405

Hawks, ii. 347

Hedgehogs, ii. 187

Hedymeles, ii. 285

Helarctos, ii. 202

Helcyra, ii. 474

Heleothreptus, ii. 320

Heliactin, ii. 108

Heliangelus, ii. 108

Helianthea, ii. 108

Heliastes, ii. 437

HELICIDÆ, ii. 512

Helicina, ii. 522

HELICONIDÆ, ii. 473 ii. 522

Heliconius, ii. 473

Helicophagus, ii. 442

Helicops, ii. 377

Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331

Helictis, ii. 199

Heliobletus, ii. 103

Heliochæra, ii. 102

Heliodoxa, ii. 107

Heliomastes, ii. 108

Heliopædica, ii. 107

Heliophobus, ii. 231

Helioporus, ii. 417

Heliornis, ii. 352

Heliothrix, ii. 108

Heliotrypha, ii. 108

Helix, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 513

Helladotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 221

Helluomorpha, ii. 490

Helmintherus, ii. 279

Helminthophaga, ii. 279

Heloderma, ii. 390

HELODERMIDÆ, ii. 390

Helodromas, ii. 353

Helogale, ii. 195

Helogenes, ii. 442

HELORNITHINÆ, ii. 352

Helotarsus, ii. 348

Hemibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 225

Hemicentetes, ii. 188

Hemicercus, ii. 303

Hemichelidon, ii. 290

Hemichromis, ii. 438

Hemicyon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 198

Hemidacnis, ii. 278

Hemidactylium, ii. 413

Hemidactylus, ii. 399

Hemierges, ii. 397

Hemigalea, ii. 195

Hemignathus, ii. 277

Hemimantis, ii. 419

Hemiodus, ii. 445

Hemiphractus, ii. 420

Hemipimelodus, ii. 443

Hemiprocne, ii. 320

Hemipus, ii. 270

Hemirhamphus, ii. 450

Hemisilurus, ii. 442

Hemisorubim, ii. 442

Hemistilbon, ii. 109

Hemisus, ii. 414

Hemitriccus, ii. 101

Hemixus, ii. 267

Henicognathus, ii. 328

Henicopernis, ii. 349

Henicophaps, ii. 333

Henicorhina, ii. 264

Henicornis, ii. 103

Heptapterus, ii. 444

Heredia, ii. 413

Herons, ii. 359

Heros, ii. 438

Herpestes, ii. 195

Herpetethiops, ii. 376

Herpetodryas, ii. 376

Herpeton, ii. 376

Herpetoreas, ii. 375

Herpetotheres, ii. 348

Herpetotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Herpsilochmus, ii. 104

Herring, ii. 454

Hesperia, ii. 480

HESPERIDÆ, ii. 480

Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 230, 231

Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

Hestia, ii. 470

Hestima, ii. 501

Heterobranchus, ii. 441

Heterocephalus, ii. 231

Heterocercus, ii. 102

Heterochroa, ii. 474

Heterocnemis, ii. 104

Heterocorys, ii. 289

Heterodactylus, ii. 393

Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246 ii. 376

Heterogynis, ii. 481

Heterolocha, ii. 287

Heteromorpha, ii. 262

Heteromys, ii. 233

Heteronota, ii. 400

Heteronympha, ii. 471

Heteropelma, ii. 102, 292

Heteropus, ii. 397

HETEROPYGII, ii. 450

Heterospizias, ii. 348

Heterotis, ii. 454

Heterura, ii. 290

Hewitsonia, ii. 477

Hexagonia, ii. 491

Hexaprotodon, Indian Miocene, i. 122

Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinction of large animals, i. 158

Hieracidea, ii. 349

Hierax, ii. 349

Hierococcyx, ii. 310

Hierofalco, ii. 349

Hill-Tits, ii. 266

Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, i. 329, 333

Himantornis, ii. 352

Himantopus, ii. 353

Hinulia, ii. 397

Hipistes, ii. 376

Hipparchia, ii. 471

Hipparion, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 211

Hippocampus, ii. 457

Hippoglossoides, ii. 441

Hippoglossus, ii. 441

HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ, ii. 214

Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Pliocene, i. 122 ii. 214

Hipposyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Hippotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122

HIPPOTRAGINÆ, ii. 223

Hippotragus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 223

HIPPURITIDÆ, ii. 534

Hirundinea, ii. 101

HIRUNDINIDÆ, ii. 280

Hirundo, ii. 281

Hoazin, ii. 345

Holocanthus, ii. 427

Holbrookia, ii. 401

Holochilus, ii. 230

Hologerrhum, ii. 379

HOLOSTEI, ii. 458

Holurophis, ii. 380

Homalodontotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Homalophis, ii. 376

Homalophus, European Miocene, i. 161

HOMALOPSIDÆ, ii. 376

Homalopsis, ii. 376

Homaloptera, ii. 453

Homalosoma, ii. 490

Hombronia, ii. 397

Homocamelus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217

Homorus, ii. 103 ii. 524

Honey-guides, ii. 304

Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 392 ii. 275

Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, i. 464

Hoopoes, ii. 317

Hopladelus, ii. 442

HOPLEGNATHIDÆ, ii. 433

Hoplobatrachus, ii. 421

HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460

Hoplocephalus, ii. 383

Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, i. 112

Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Hoplophorus, ii. 246

Hoplopterus, ii. 356

Horites, ii. 258

Hornbills, ii. 316

Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121 perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, i. 136 probable birthplace of, i. 154 ii. 211

Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182

Hortulia, ii. 381

Howling monkeys, ii. 175

Hudson, Mr., on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39

Humming-birds, ii. 321

Huro, ii. 425

Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, i. 461

Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59 division of animal kingdom by, i. 85

Hyades, ii. 472

Hyæna, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 fossil in N. China, i. 123 ii. 196

Hyænarctos in European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Hyænictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 196

Hyænidæ, European Miocene, i. 118

HYÆNIDÆ, ii. 196

Hyænodon, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Hyænodontidæ, European Miocene, i. 118

HYALEIDÆ, ii. 531

Hyalimax, ii. 517

Hyalina, ii. 515

Hyalosaurus, ii. 392

Hyantis, ii. 472

Hybocystis, ii. 520

Hyborhynchus, ii. 452

Hydrocena, ii. 521

Hydrochelidon, ii. 364

Hydrochoerus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Hydrochoerus, ii. 241

Hydrocissa, ii. 317

Hydrocyon, ii. 445

Hydrogale, ii. 199

Hydromedusa, ii. 408

Hydromys, ii. 230

Hydrophasianus, ii. 355

HYDROPHIDÆ, ii. 384

Hydrophis, ii. 384

Hydropotes, ii. 219

Hydropsalis, ii. 319

Hydrornis, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 298

Hydrosaurus, ii. 389

Hyetornis, ii. 309

Hygrogonus, ii. 439

Hyla, ii. 418

Hylactes, ii. 297

Hylambates, ii. 419

Hylaplesia, ii. 415

HYLAPLESIDÆ, ii. 414

Hylarana, ii. 419

Hylatomus, ii. 303

Hylella, ii. 418

HYLIDÆ, ii. 418

Hyliota, ii. 270

Hylobates, ii. 171

Hylocharis, ii. 109 ii. 271

Hylodes, ii. 419

Hylomanes, ii. 313

Hylomys, ii. 186

Hylophilus, ii. 280

Hylorhina, ii. 420

Hylotrupes, ii. 502

Hyloxalus, ii. 419

Hymenolaimus, ii. 364

HYODONTIDÆ, ii. 453

Hyohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Hyomoschus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 218

Hyopicus, ii. 303

Hyopotamus, European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 216

Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Hyotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 215

Hypargos, ii. 287

Hyperantha, ii. 496

Hypergerus, ii. 261

Hypermnestra, ii. 479

Hyperodapedon, ii. 405

Hyperolius, ii. 417

Hyperoodon, ii. 208

HYPEROODONTIDÆ, ii. 208

Hyperopsius, ii. 448

Hypertragulus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Hyphantornis, ii. 286

Hypherpes, ii. 265

Hypisodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Hypna, ii. 474

Hypnale, ii. 385

Hypochera, ii. 287

Hypochrysops, ii. 477

Hypocista, ii. 471

Hypocnemis, ii. 104

Hypocolius, ii. 272

Hypodes, ii. 272

Hypogeomys, ii. 230

Hypolais, ii. 258

Hypolithus, ii. 491

Hypolycæna, ii. 477

Hypomesus, ii. 477

Hypopachus, ii. 416

Hypophthalmichthys, ii. 453

Hypophthalmus, ii. 442

Hypopyrrhus, ii. 282

Hyporissus, ii. 190

Hypothymis, ii. 271

Hypoxanthus, ii. 304

Hypsipetes, ii. 267

Hypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251

Hypsirhina, ii. 376

Hypsirhynchus, ii. 375

Hyrachyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

HYRACIDÆ, ii. 228

Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 214 ii. 248

Hyracoidea, classification of, i. 90 Palæarctic, i. 242 Ethiopian, i. 304

HYRACOIDEA, ii. 228

Hyracotherium, supposed, in European Eocene, i. 125 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 216 ii. 229

Hyrax, ii. 228

HYSTRICIDÆ, ii. 240

Hystricodon, ii. 445

Hystrix, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 240

Ialmenus, ii. 477

Ianthoenas, ii. 332

Ianthina, ii. 511

Ibidipodia, European Miocene, i. 162

Ibidorhynchus, ii. 353

Ibidorhynchus, figure of, i. 331

Ibis, ii. 360

Ibises, ii. 360

Ibycter, ii. 347

Iceland, zoology of, i. 198

Ichneumia, ii. 195

Ichthyoborus, ii. 445

Ichthyopsis, ii. 411

Icteria, ii. 279

ICTERIDÆ, ii. 281

Icterus, ii. 282

Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

Icticyon in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 197

Ictinia, ii. 349

Ictitherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197

Ictonyx, ii. 199

Ictops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Ideopsis, ii. 470

Idmais, ii. 478

Iguana, ii. 401

Iguanas, ii. 400

IGUANIDÆ, ii. 400

Ilerda, ii. 477

Ilicura, ii. 102

India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, i. 123 geological features of, i. 328

Indian sub-region, description of, i. 321 supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i. 321 mammalia of, i. 322 birds of, i. 323 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326

Indicator, ii. 304

INDICATORIDÆ, ii. 304

Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329 zoological characteristics of, i. 330 illustration of, i. 331 reptiles of, i. 331 amphibia of, i. 331 insects of, i. 332 islands belonging to, i. 333

Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, i. 334 mammalia of, i. 336 illustrations of, i. 336, 339 birds of, i. 337 remote geographical relations of, i. 339 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340 fishes of, i. 341 insects of, i. 341 coleoptera of, i. 342 terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343 zoological relations of islands of, i. 345 recent geographical changes in, i. 357 probable origin of fauna of, i. 359

Inia, ii. 209

Insectivora, European Miocene, i. 117 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Insectivora, classification of, i. 87 of the Palæarctic region, i. 181 of N. China and E. Thibet, i. 222 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239 of Madagascar, i. 273 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301 of the Oriental region, i. 315 range of Oriental genera of, i. 372 range of Australian genera of, i. 476

INSECTIVORA, ii. 186 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 191 summary and conclusion, ii. 541

Insects, means of dispersal of, i. 32 tenacity of life of, i. 33 adapted to special conditions, i. 33 groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, i. 102 antiquity of the genera of, i. 166 fossil of European Miocene, i. 166 European Cretaceous, i. 167 European Wealden, i. 167 Palæozoic, i. 168 Palæarctic, i. 187 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of the E. African sub-region, i. 260 of W. African, i. 265 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 282 general remarks on, i. 284 of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, i. 291 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332 of the Oriental region, i. 318 of Ceylon, i. 327 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341 statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay Archipelago, i. 343 of the Australian region, i. 403 of New Guinea, i. 417 of the Moluccas, i. 420 of the Timor group, i. 426 of Celebes, i. 454 of New Zealand, i. 458 scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462 influence of, on the flora, i. 463 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of S. Temperate America, Palæarctic affinity of, ii. 45 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55 of the Antilles, ii. 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 of Canada, ii. 137 distribution of, ii. 468 range of, in time, ii. 469 summary and conclusion, ii. 550 lines of migration of, ii. 551

Iodopleura, ii. 102

Iolæma, ii. 107

Iolaus, ii. 477

Iole, ii. 267

Iora, ii. 267

Iphias, ii. 478 ii. 394

IPHISADÆ, ii. 394

Irena, ii. 269

Iridina, ii. 534

Iridornis, ii. 98

Irrisor, ii. 318

IRRISORIDÆ, ii. 318

Isacis, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Ischcognathus, ii. 375

Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 236

Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 206 of the W. African sub-region, i. 265 of the Ethiopian region, i. 269 Mascarene, i. 280 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 333 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345 Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443 Society and Marquesas, i. 444 New Caledonia and New Hebrides, i. 445 Sandwich, i. 446 of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453 Norfolk, i. 453 Lord Howe's, i. 454 Chatham, i. 454 Auckland, i. 455 of Tropical S. America, ii. 29 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336 abundance of land-shells in, ii. 525

Isodactylium, ii. 413

Ispidina, ii. 316

Issiodromys, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 232

Ithaginis, ii. 340

Ithomia, ii. 470

Ithycyphus, ii. 379

Ixalus, ii. 419

Ixonotus, ii. 267

Ixulus, ii. 266

Jacamaralcyon, ii. 311

Jacamars, ii. 311

Jacamerops, ii. 311

Jacanas, ii. 255

Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

Jaculus, ii. 232

Jaltris, ii. 375

Jamaicia, ii. 521

Janella, ii. 517

Janthocincla, ii. 261

Japalura, ii. 402

Japan and North China, physical features of, i. 221 southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, i. 226

Japan, general character of the fauna of, i. 230 former land-connexions of, i. 231

Java, mammalia of, i. 349 productions of, well known, i. 350 birds of, i. 351 representative species of birds in, i. 352 origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, i. 352 Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological peculiarities explained, i. 357

Jays, ii. 273

Jenynsia, ii. 450

Jerboas, ii. 231

Juan Fernandez, Carabidæ of, ii. 44 birds of, ii. 49 beetles and land-shells of, ii. 51

Juida, ii. 288

Juliamyia, ii. 109

Junco, ii. 284

Junonia, European Miocene, i. 167 ii. 474

Kagu, ii. 359

Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455

Kalophrynus, ii. 415

Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, i. 157 ii. 251

Keneuxia, ii. 397

Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, i. 211 (note)

Kerodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 241

Ketingus, ii. 443

Ketupa, ii. 350

King-fisher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, i. 415

King-fishers, ii. 315

Kittacincla, ii. 259

Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455

Kneria, ii. 453

Kobus, ii. 224

Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261

Kricogonia, ii. 478

Krynickia, ii. 517

Labeo, ii. 451

Labrax, ii. 425

LABRIDÆ, ii. 437

Labrus, ii. 437

LABYRINTHICI, ii. 434

Lacerta, ii. 391

LACERTIDÆ, ii. 390

Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99

LACERTILIA, ii. 388 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 403 fossil, ii. 404

Lacuna, ii. 510

Ladrone Islands, birds of, i. 444

Læmargus, ii. 461

Læmosthenes, ii. 489

Læosopis, ii. 477

Lafresnaya, ii. 107

Lagenocetus, ii. 208

Lagenorhynchus, ii. 209

Lagidium, ii. 237

LAGOMYIDÆ, ii. 242

Lagomys, European Pliocene, i. 113 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 242

Lagopus, ii. 339

Lagorchestes, ii. 251

Lagostomus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 237

Lagothrix, ii. 174

Lais, ii. 442

Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218 ii. 206

Lalage, ii. 269

Laletes, ii. 280

LAMIIDÆ, ii. 498

Lamna, ii. 460

LAMNIDÆ, ii. 460

Lampornis, ii. 107

Lampreys, ii. 463

Lamprima, ii. 493

Lampris, ii. 429

Lamprocolius, ii. 288

Lamprolæma, ii. 107

Lamrophis, ii. 380

Lampropsar, ii. 282

Lampropygia, ii. 108

Lamprospilus, ii. 477

Lamprospiza, ii. 99

Lamprotes, ii. 98

Lancelet, ii. 464

Land-lizards, ii. 391

Land and water, proportions of, i. 35

Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, i. 168

Land-shells, Palæozoic, i. 169 Palæarctic, i. 190 of Madeira, i. 209 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Ethiopian region, i. 257 of W. Africa, i. 265 of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 285 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344 of the Australian region, i. 407 of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466 of New Zealand, i. 459 of the Neotropical region, ii. 19 of the Antilles, ii. 75 conditions favouring development of, ii. 75 of N. America, ii. 124 general observations on the distribution of, ii. 522 richness of islands in, ii. 525 their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528 comparative distribution of Operculate and In-operculate, ii. 526 estimated numbers of, ii. 526

Land-snakes, ii. 382

Langaha, ii. 379

Laniarius, ii. 272

Lanicterus, ii. 268

Laniellus, ii. 272

LANIIDÆ, ii. 272

Lanio, ii. 99

Lanius, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 272

Laopithecus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

Laprissa, ii. 421

LARIDÆ, ii. 364

Larimus, ii. 428

Larks, ii. 289

Larus, ii. 364

Larvivora, ii. 259

Lasiomys, ii. 229

Lasiuromys, ii. 239

Latax, ii. 199

Lates, ii. 425

Lathria, ii. 102

Latonia, ii. 421

Latrunculus, ii. 430

Layardia, ii. 261

Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionidæ, ii. 125

Lebia, ii. 489

Lebiasina, ii. 445

Legatus, ii. 101

Leiocephalus, ii. 401

Leiolæmus, ii. 401

Leistes, ii. 282

Leistus, ii. 489

Leiuperus, ii. 420

Leiyla, ii. 419

Lemonias, ii. 476

Lemur, ii. 176

Lemur, fossil, ii. 178

Lemuravidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Lemuravus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76

Lemuridæ, European Eocene, i. 124

LEMURIDÆ, ii. 176

Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, i. 371

LEMUROIDEA, ii. 176

Lemurs, ii. 176

Leonia, ii. 521

Lepadogaster, ii. 436

Lepictis, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Lepidocepalichthys, ii. 453

Lepidocephalus, ii. 453

Lepidogrammas, ii. 309

Lepidolarynx, ii. 108

Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177 table of Palæarctic families of, i. 238 S. African, i. 268 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299 of the Oriental region, i. 318 table of Oriental families of, i. 369 of the Australian region, i. 404 table of Australian families of, i. 472 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of the Antilles, ii. 73 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 Nearctic families of, ii. 143

LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470

Lepidosiren, ii. 458

LEPIDOSTEIDÆ, ii. 459

Lepidosteus, ii. 459

LEPIDOSTERNIDÆ, ii. 389

Lepidosternon, ii. 389

Lepilemur, ii. 176

Lepistes, ii. 450

LEPORIDÆ, ii. 242

Leporinus, ii. 445

Lepricornis, ii. 476

Leprodera, ii. 501

Leptalis, ii. 478

Leptarchus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 202

Leptasthenura, ii. 103

Leptauchenia, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Leptobarbina, ii. 452

Leptobrachium, ii. 421

LEPTOCARDII, ii. 464

Leptocera, ii. 502

Leptochoerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215

Leptocircus, ii. 479

Leptodeira, ii. 379

Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 ii. 214 ii. 349

Leptognathus, ii. 381

Leptomantis, ii. 419

Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 220

Lepton, ii. 535

Leptoneura, ii. 471

Leptonyx, ii. 204

Leptopogon, ii. 101

Leptoma, ii. 520

Leptoptila, ii. 333

Leptoptilus, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 361

Leptorhytaon, ii. 380

Leptornis, ii. 276

LEPTOSOMIDÆ, ii. 310

Leptosomus, allied form in European Eocene, i. 168 ii. 310

Leptosomus of Madagascar, i. 278 figure of, i. 279

Leptotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 226

Leptotriccus, ii. 101

Leptura, ii. 502

Lepus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Lerista, ii. 395

Lerwa, ii. 339

Lesbia, ii. 108

Lestodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Leucippus, ii. 109

Leuciscus, ii. 452

Leucochroa, ii. 516

Leucocyon, ii. 197

Leucomelæna, ii. 332

Leuconerpes, ii. 304

Leucophantes, ii. 270

Leucophasia, ii. 478

Leucopleurus, ii. 209

Leucosarcia, ii. 333

Leucosomus, ii. 452

Leucosticte, ii. 285

Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, i. 228

LIALIDÆ, ii. 396

Lialis, ii. 396

Liasis, ii. 381

Libellula, from the Lias, i. 167

Libythea, ii. 475

LIBYTHEIDÆ, ii. 475

Lichanotus, ii. 381

Lichenops, ii. 101

Licina, ii. 521

Licmetis, ii. 325

Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, i. 90

LIMACIDÆ, ii. 517

LIMACINIDÆ, ii. 531

Limax, ii. 517

Limenitis, ii. 474

Limnæa, Eocene, i. 169 European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 518

LIMNÆIDÆ, ii. 518

Limnatornis, European Miocene, i. 161

Limnocharis, ii. 420

Limnocyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Limnodynastes, ii. 420

Limnohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Limnophis, ii. 376

Limnornis, ii. 103

Limnotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Limnurgus, ii. 450

Limosa, ii. 353

Limpets, ii. 511

Lingula, ii. 538

LINGULIDÆ, ii. 532

Linota, ii. 285

Linsang, ii. 195

Liocassis, ii. 442

Liopelma, ii. 417

Liopis, ii. 375

Lioptilus, ii. 267

Lioscelis, ii. 297

LIOTRICHIDÆ, ii. 266

Liothrix, ii. 266

Lipaugus, ii. 102

Liparis, ii. 430

Liphyra, ii. 477

Lipinia, ii. 397

Lipoa, ii. 342

Liposarcus, ii. 444

Liptala, ii. 477

Lissolepis, ii. 397

Listriodon, European Miocene, i. 119

Lithiodon, ii. 521

Lithomys, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 236

Lithornis, European Eocene, i. 163

Litoria, ii. 418

Littorina, ii. 510

LITTORINIDÆ, ii. 510

Lizards, classification of, i. 90 Tertiary, i. 165 wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448 distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547

Lobodon, ii. 204

Lochmias, ii. 103

Locustella, ii. 258

Loddigesia, ii. 108

Loncheres, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239

Lonchophorus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239

LONGICORNIA, ii. 498

Longicornia, Palæarctic, i. 188 Ethiopian, i. 257 Oriental, i. 320 Australian, i. 407 Neotropical, ii. 17 of Chili, ii. 46 Nearctic, ii. 123

Lontra, ii. 199

Lophiodon, European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 212

Lophiomeryx, ii. 218

Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Lophius, ii. 431

Lophoaëtus, ii. 348

LOPHOBRANCHII, ii. 456

Lophocitta, ii. 273

Lophogyps, ii. 346

Lophoictinia, ii. 349

Lopholaimus, ii. 362

Lophiomys, ii. 230

Lophophaps, ii. 333

Lophophanes, ii. 266

LOPHOPHORINÆ, ii. 340

Lophophorus, ii. 340

Lophorhina, ii. 274

Lophornis, ii. 107

Lophortix, ii. 339

Lophostrix, ii. 350

LOPHOTIDÆ, ii. 432

Lophotragus, ii. 220

Lophotriorchis, ii. 348

Lophura, ii. 402

Lord Howe's Island, birds of, i. 453

Loricaria, ii. 444

Loriculus, ii. 326

Loris, ii. 176

Lorius, ii. 327

Lota, ii. 439

Loxia, ii. 285

Loxigilla, ii. 285

Loxomylus, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148 ii. 237

Loxops, ii. 277

Lucania, ii. 450

LUCANIDÆ, ii. 492

Lucanus, ii. 493

Lucia, ii. 477

Lucidella, ii. 522

Lucifuga, ii. 440

LUCINIDÆ, ii. 535

Lucinopsis, ii. 536

LUCIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 434

Lucioperca, ii. 425

Luciotrutta, ii. 447

Lucisoma, ii. 452

Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, i. 143

Lupus, ii. 197

Lurocalis, ii. 320

Luscinia, ii. 259

Lusciniola, ii. 258

Lutra, European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 199

Lutronectes, ii. 199

Lycæna, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 196

LYCÆNIDÆ, ii. 477

Lycalopex, i. 197

LYCODIDÆ, ii. 439

Lycodon, ii. 380

LYCODONTIDÆ, ii. 380

Lycophidion, ii. 380

Lycorea, ii. 470

Lygosoma, ii. 397

Lygosomella, ii. 397

Lymanopoda, ii. 471

Lymnas, ii. 476

Lyncornis, ii. 320

Lyncus, ii. 193

Lytorhynchus, ii. 376

Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441 ii. 298

Mabouya, ii. 397

Macacus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Indian Miocene, i. 121 supposed in European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 173 ii. 178

Macaws, ii. 327

Machairodus, i. 110, 111 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 193

Machetornis, ii. 101

Machærhamphus, ii. 349

Machærirhynchus, ii. 271

Machæropterus, ii. 102

Machetes, ii. 353

Macrauchenia, S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Macrocalamus, ii. 374

Macroceramus, ii. 516

Macrochilus, ii. 491

Macrocyclis, ii. 516

Macrodipteryx, ii. 320

Macrodon, ii. 445

Macroglossa, ii. 482

Macrones, ii. 442

Macronus, ii. 261

Macronyx, ii. 290

MACROPODIDÆ, ii. 250

Macropus, ii. 251

Macropygia, ii. 332

Macrorhamphus, ii. 353

MACROSCELIDIDÆ, ii. 186

Macroscelides, ii. 186

Macrosila, ii. 482

Macrotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 246

Macrotus californicus, ii. 182

MACROURIDÆ, ii. 440

MACTRIDÆ, ii. 443

Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164 description of, i. 272 mammalia of, i. 272 birds of, i. 274 reptiles of, i. 279 amphibia of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282 general remarks on insect fauna of, i. 284

Madeira, birds of, i. 208 land-shells of, i. 208 beetles of, i. 210 wingless insects numerous in, i. 211 how stocked with animals, i. 213

MALACANTHIDÆ, ii. 433

Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, i. 353 comparison of mammalia, i. 354 of birds, i. 355

Malacocircus, ii. 261

Malacopteron, ii. 261

Malacoptila, ii. 310

Malacorhynchus, ii. 364

Malacothrix, ii. 230

Malagasy sub-region, description of, i. 272 mammalia of, i. 272 birds of, i. 274 illustration of zoology of, i. 278 reptiles of, i. 279 amphibia of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282, 289 insects of, i. 282 early history of, i. 286

Malapterurus, ii. 443

Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, i. 345 (note)

Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261

Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies in, ii. 484 distribution of Cicindelidæ in, ii. 487 distribution of Longicorns in, ii. 500

Malayan forms of life reappearing in West Africa, i. 263 fauna, probable origin of, i. 359 resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, i. 361

Malimbus, ii. 286

Mallodon, ii. 501

Mallotus, ii. 447

Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114 formerly joined to Africa, i. 201 fossil elephants of, i. 201 birds of, i. 206 (note)

Malurus, ii. 258

Mammal, the most ancient American, i. 134

Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10 as limited by climate, i. 11 as limited by rivers, i. 12 how far limited by the sea, i. 13 dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i. 14 means of dispersal of aquatic, i. 15 of most importance in determining zoological regions, i. 57 classification of, i. 85 birthplace and migrations of some families of, i. 142, 153 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 of the Palæarctic region, i. 181 of the European sub-region, i. 192 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 202 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 217 characteristic of Western Tartary, i. 218 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222 Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222 Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, i. 223 peculiar to Japan, i. 223 characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, i. 226 table of Palæarctic families of, i. 234 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239 of the Ethiopian region, i. 253 absence of certain important groups, i. 253 of the E. African sub-region, i. 260 of W. Africa, i. 262 of S. Africa, i. 267 of Madagascar, i. 272 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 294 table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 of the Oriental region, i. 315 range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, i. 322 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336 illustration of characteristic Malayan, i. 336 of the Philippine Islands, i. 345 table of Oriental families of, i. 365 table of Oriental genera of, i. 371 of Australian region, i. 390 of the Papuan Islands, i. 410 of the Moluccas, i. 417 of the Timor group, i. 422 of Celebes, i. 427 of Australia, i. 439 illustration of, i. 439 of New Zealand, i. 450 table of families of Australian, i. 470 table of genera of Australian, i. 475 destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6 of S. Temperate America, ii. 36 of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52 of the Antilles, ii. 62 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 85 table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91 of the Nearctic region, ii. 115 of California, ii. 127 of N. American central plains, ii. 129 of E. United States, ii. 132 of Canada, ii. 135 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140 table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145

Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, i. 107 extinct, of historic period, i. 110 extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i. 127 extinct, of the New World, i. 129 extinct, of N. America and Europe, compared, i. 141 original birthplace of some families and genera, i. 142, 153 of the secondary period, i. 160

MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii. 540 lines of migration of, ii. 544

Manakins, ii. 102

MANATIDÆ, ii. 210

Manatus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 210

Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220 mammalia of, i. 222 birds of, i. 223 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227 fresh-water fish of, i. 227 insects of, i. 227 coleoptera of, i. 228

MANIDIDÆ, ii. 245

Manis, ii. 245

Manorhina, ii. 276

Manticora, ii. 487

Manucodia, ii. 274

Mareca, ii. 363

Margaroperdix, ii. 338

Margarops, ii. 256

Margarornis, ii. 103

Marginella, ii. 508

Marine Mollusca, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 537

Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20

Marmosets, ii. 175

Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443

Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and African deserts, i. 200 on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, i. 200

MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 253

Marsupials, classification of, i. 91 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 European Miocene, i. 121 first migration to America, i. 155 diversified forms of, i. 391 of America prove no connection with Australia, i. 399 list of Australian genera of, i. 476

MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA, summary and conclusion, ii. 543

Martes, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 198

Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282 gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289

Masius, ii. 102

MASTACEMBELIDÆ, ii. 437

Mastodon, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Indian Miocene, i. 123 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 227, 228

Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280 reptiles of, i. 281

McCoy, Professor, on Palæontology of Victoria, i. 466

Mechanitis, ii. 470

Meda, ii. 452

Mediterranean, recent changes in, i. 39 sub-region, description of, i. 199 mammalia of, i. 202 birds of, i. 203 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204 fresh-water fish of, i. 205 insects of, i. 205 islands of, i. 206 sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201

Megabias, ii. 270

Megablabes, ii. 376

Magacephala, ii. 478

Megacephalon, ii. 342

Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Megaderma, ii. 182

Megærophis, ii. 383

Megalæma, ii. 306

MEGALÆMIDÆ, ii. 305

MEGALÆMINÆ, ii. 306

Megalixalus, ii. 419

Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148

Megalomastoma, ii. 521

Megalomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Megalomma, ii. 487

Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Megalophrys, ii. 421

Megalostoma, Eocene, i. 169

Megalurus, ii. 258

Megalophonus, ii. 289

Megamys, S. American Eocene, i. 148 ii. 238

Meganostoma, ii. 478

MEGAPODIIDÆ, ii. 341

Megapodius, ii. 342

Megaptera, ii. 207

Megarhynchus, ii. 101

Megaspira, European Tertiary, i. 169 ii. 527

Megatheridæ, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Megatherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 245

Meiornis, ii. 369

Melampitta, ii. 298

Melampus, ii. 519

Melanerpes, ii. 303

Melania, European Secondary, i. 169

MELANIADÆ, ii. 509

Melanitis, ii. 471

Melanochlora, ii. 266

Melanocorypha, ii. 289

Melanophidium, ii. 374

Melanoptila, ii. 256

Melanotis, ii. 256

MELEAGRINÆ, ii. 340

Meleagris, N. American Miocene, i. 163 ii. 340

Meles, ii. 199

Melidectes, ii. 276

Melidora, ii. 316

Melierax, ii. 348

Melinæa, ii. 470

Meliornis, ii. 275

Meliphaga, ii. 275

MELIPHAGIDÆ, ii. 275

Melipotes, ii. 276

Melirrhophetes, ii. 276

Melitæa, ii. 474

Melithreptus, ii. 276

Melittophagus, ii. 312

Melizophilus, ii. 259

Mellisuga, ii. 108

Mellivora, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 199

Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Melopelia, ii. 333

Melopsittacus, ii. 325

Melopyrrha, ii. 285

Melospiza, ii. 284

Melursus, ii. 202

Menetia, ii. 395

Meniceros, ii. 317

Meniscotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Menobranchus, ii. 412

Menopoma, ii. 412

MENOPOMIDÆ, ii. 412

Menotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Menura, ii. 298

MENURIDÆ, ii. 298

Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 199

Merganetta, ii. 364

Mergulus, ii. 367

Mergus, ii. 364

Meriones, ii. 232 ii. 230

Meristes, ii. 272

Merluccius, ii. 439

Meroe, ii. 536

MEROPIDÆ, ii. 312

Meropiscus, ii. 312

Meropogon, ii. 312

Merops, ii. 312

Merulaxis, ii. 297

Merychus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Merychippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Merychochoerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Merycodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 220

Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 214

Merycotherium, of Siberian drift, i. 112 ii. 217

Mesacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Mesapia, ii. 479

Mesites, ii. 263

Mesohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Mesomys, ii. 239

Mesonauta, ii. 438

Mesonyx, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Mesopithecus, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 178

Mesoprion, ii. 425

Mesops, ii. 439

Mesosemia, ii. 475

Messalina, ii. 391

Messaras, ii. 474

Metallura, ii. 108

Metapheles, ii. 476

Methonella, ii. 476

Metius, ii. 492

Metopia, ii. 102

Metopiana, ii. 364

Metoponia, ii. 283

Metopothrix, ii. 102

Metriopelia, ii. 333

Mexican sub-region, ii. 51 mammalia of, ii. 52 birds of, ii. 52 reptiles of, ii. 54 amphibia of, ii. 54 fresh-water fish of, ii. 54 insects of, ii. 55 land-shells of, ii. 57 its relations to the N. and S. American continents, ii. 57 islands of, ii. 59

Meyer, Dr. A.B., on reptiles and amphibia of New Guinea, i. 415¨

Micræca, ii. 270

Micracantha, ii. 501

Micrastur, ii. 347

Micrathene, ii. 350

Micrhyla, ii. 414

Microbates, ii. 104

Microcebus, ii. 176

Microcerculus, ii. 264

Microchæra, ii. 107

Microglossus, ii. 325

Microhierax, ii. 349

Microlestes, oldest European mammal, i. 160

Micromeryx, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 220

Micropelama, ii. 353

Micropternus, ii. 304

Micropterus, ii. 364

Microscelis, ii. 267

Microstoma, ii. 448

Microsyops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Microtherium, European Miocene, i. 120

Midas, ii. 176

Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, i. 219

Midea, ii. 478

Miglyptes, ii. 304

Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, i. 185

Migration of animals, i. 10 general phenomena of, i. 18 of birds, i. 19 of birds in Europe, i. 19 probable origin of, i. 22 of birds in India and China, i. 23 of birds in N. America, i. 23 changes in extent of, i. 24 of birds in S. Temperate America, i. 25 general remarks on, i. 25

Miletus, ii. 477

Milvulus, ii. 102, 291

Milvus, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 349

Mimeta, ii. 268

Mimetes, ii. 170

Mimocichla, ii. 256

Mimus, ii. 256

Minla, ii. 266

Miocene fauna of the Old World, i. 114 fauna of Geece, i. 115 fauna of Greece, summary of, i. 116 fauna of Central Europe, i. 117 deposits of Siwalik Hills, i. 121 faunas of Europe and Asia, general observations on, i. 123

Miohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Mionectes, ii. 101

Mirafra, ii. 289

Miro, ii. 260

Misgurnus, ii. 453

Mitra, ii. 508

Mitrephorus, ii. 102

Mitua, ii. 343

Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, i. 86 on classification of insectivora, i. 87 on classification of amphibia, i. 101 of classification of lemurs, ii. 176

Mixornis, ii. 261

Mniotilta, ii. 279

MNIOTILTIDÆ, ii. 278

Mochocus, ii. 443

Mocoa, ii. 397

Moho, ii. 276

Mole-rat of W. Tartary, i. 218

Mole-rats, ii. 231

Moles, almost wholly Palæarctic, i. 181 ii. 190

Mollienesia, ii. 450

Mollusca, means of dispersal of, i. 30 classification of, i. 104 groups selected for study, i. 104

MOLLUSCA, distribution of, ii. 504 range of families of, in time, ii. 538

Moluccas, zoology of, i. 417 birds of, i. 419 reptiles of, i. 420 insects of, i. 420 peculiarities of fauna of, i. 421

Molossus, ii. 184

Molothrus, ii. 282

Molva, ii. 439

MOMOTIDÆ, ii. 313

Momotus, ii. 313

Monachalcyon, ii. 316

Monarcha, ii. 270

Monasa, ii. 311

Monitor, ii. 389

Monkeys on the high Himalayas, i. 12 fossil in N. American Miocene, i. 133 in E. Thibet, i. 222 abundance of in the Oriental region, i. 315

Monoceros, ii. 507

Monodon, ii. 208

MONODONTIDÆ, ii. 208

Monoplocus, ii. 390

Monopterus, ii. 455

Monotremata, classification of, i. 91 list of Australian genera of, i. 477

MONOTREMATA, ii. 253 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 254

Monotrophis, ii. 289

Montacuta, ii. 535

Monticola, ii. 256

Montifringilla, ii. 284

Mörch, Dr., on Panama shells, ii. 20

Morelia, ii. 381

"More-pork" of Australia, figure of, i. 442

Morethria, ii. 395

Mormolyce, ii. 490

MORMYRIDÆ, ii. 448

Mormyrops, ii. 448

Mormyrus, ii. 488

Morococcyx, ii. 309

Morotherium, N. American Pliocene, i. 140

MORPHIDÆ, ii. 472

Morphnus, ii. 348

Morpho, ii. 472

Morunga, ii. 204

Moschus, ii. 219

Motacilla, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 290

MOTACILLIDÆ, ii. 290

Motella, ii. 439

Moths, ii. 481

Motmots, ii. 313

Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, i. 393

Moupin, position and zoology of, i. 221

Mouse-deer, ii. 218

Moxostoma, ii. 451

Mugil, ii. 435

MUGILLIDÆ, ii. 435

Mulleria, ii. 534

Mulleripicus, ii. 303

MULLIDÆ, ii. 426

Mullus, ii. 426

Mungos, ii. 195

Munia, ii. 287

MURÆNIDÆ, ii. 456

Murænopsis, ii. 412

Murex, ii. 507

MURICIDÆ, ii. 507

Muridæ, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

MURIDÆ, ii. 229

Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region, i. 60

Mus, ii. 229

Muscardinus, ii. 232

Muscicapa, ii. 270

MUSCICAPIDÆ, ii. 270

Muscicapula, ii. 270

Muscigralla, ii. 101

Muscipipra, ii. 101

Muscisaxicola, ii. 101, 291

Muscitodus, ii. 271

Muscivora, ii. 101

Musophaga, ii. 307

MUSOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 307

Mussels, ii. 533

Mustela, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 198

Mustelidæ, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

MUSTELIDÆ, ii. 198

Mustelus, ii. 460

MYACIDÆ, ii. 536

Myadora, ii. 536

Mycalesis, ii. 471

Mycerobas, ii. 284

Mycetes, ii. 175 ii. 178

Mycetopus, ii. 534

Mydaus, ii. 199

Myiadestes, ii. 260

Myiagra, ii. 271

Myialestes, ii. 271

Myiarchus, ii. 102, 291

Myiobius, ii. 101

Myioceyx, ii. 316

Myiochanes, ii. 102

Myiodioctes, ii. 279

Myiodynastes, ii. 101

Myiophonus, ii. 263

Myiopithecus, ii. 173

Myiotheretes, ii. 100

Myiozetetes, ii. 101

Mylesinus, ii. 445

Myletes, ii. 445

MYLIOBATIDÆ, ii. 463

Myliobatis, ii. 463

Mylodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Mylopharadon, ii. 452

Mynes, ii. 474

Myochama, ii. 536

Myodes, ii. 230

Myogale, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 190, 191

Myoictis, ii. 249

Myomorphus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148

Myopotamus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239

Myospalax, ii. 230

MYOXIDÆ, ii. 232

Myoxus, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 232

Myxomys, ii. 230

Myrina, ii. 477

Myrmeciza, ii. 104

MYRMECOBIIDÆ, ii. 250

Myrmecobius, ii. 250

Myrmecophaga, ii. 247

MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 247

Myrmotherula, ii. 104

Myron, ii. 376

Myrtis, ii. 108

Mysarachne, European Miocene, i. 118

Mysops, N. American Eocene, i. 140 ii. 231

Mystacina tuberculata, ii. 184

Mystacoleucus, ii. 452

Mystacornis, ii. 258

Mystromys, ii. 230

MYTILIDÆ, ii. 533

Mytilus, ii. 539

MYXINIDÆ, ii. 464

Myxophagus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Myxophyes, ii. 420

Myxus, ii. 435

Myzomela, ii. 275

Myzornis, ii. 266

Nænia, ii. 365

Naja, ii. 383

NANDIDÆ, ii. 433

Nandinia, ii. 195

Nandus, ii. 433

Nanina, ii. 513

Nannophryne, ii. 417

Nannophrys, ii. 421

Nanodes, ii. 327

Nanohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215

Nanotragus, ii. 224

Napeogenes, ii. 470

Napothera, ii. 261

Nardoa, ii. 381

Narwhal, ii. 208

Narope, ii. 472

Nasica, ii. 103

Nasiterna, ii. 325

Nasua, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 200

Nathalis, ii. 478

Natica, ii. 539

NATICIDÆ, ii. 508

Nautilus, ii. 539

NATRICINÆ, ii. 375

Nattereria, ii. 417

Nauclerus, ii. 349

Naucrates, ii. 429

Naultinus ii. 400

NAUTILIDÆ, ii. 506

Navicella, ii. 510

Nearctic region, defined, i. 79 subdivisions of, i. 80 distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79 ii. 114 zoological characteristics of, ii. 115 mammalia of, ii. 115 birds of, ii. 116 reptiles of, ii. 119 amphibia of, ii. 120 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 120 summary of vertebrata of, ii. 120 insects of, ii. 122 land and fresh-water shells of, ii. 124 sub-regions of, ii. 125 concluding remarks on, ii. 138 tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 139

Nearctic and Neotropical regions, no decided boundary between, ii. 117

Nebria, ii. 489

Necrornis, European Miocene, i. 161

NECTARINIIDÆ, ii. 276

Nectarinia, ii. 276

Nectarophila, ii. 276

Nectogale, ii. 190

Necydalis, ii. 502

Necyria, ii. 476

Nelicurvius, ii. 286

Nemachilus, ii. 453

Nematogenys, ii. 444

NEMEOBIIDÆ, ii. 475

Nemeobius, ii. 475

NEMORHEDINÆ, ii. 224

Nemorhedus, ii. 224

Nemoricola, ii. 290

Nemosia, ii. 99

Neobatrachus, ii. 420

Neochloe, ii. 280

Neocorys, ii. 290

Neoctantes, ii. 104

Neomeris, ii. 209

Neomorphus, ii. 309

Neophasia, ii. 478

Neophron, ii. 346

Neopipo, ii. 102

Neopus, ii. 348

Neorhynchus, ii. 285

Neosorex, ii. 191

Neotoma, ii. 230

Neotomys, ii. 230

Neotragus, ii. 224

Neotropical region, defined, i. 78 subdivisions of, i. 78 relations of W. African sub-region with, i. 265 description of, ii. 1 zoological features of, ii. 5 birds of, ii. 6, 7 distinctive features of mammalia of, ii. 6 reptiles of, ii. 9 amphibia of, ii. 11 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 12 summary of vertebrates of, ii. 13 insects of, ii. 13 land-shells of, ii. 19 marine shells of, ii. 20 summary of past history of, ii. 80 tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 84

Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 21

Neoziphius, ii. 208

Nephæcetes, ii. 320

Neptis, ii. 474

NERITIDÆ, ii. 510

Neritina, ii. 510

Nerophis, ii. 457

Nesoceleus, ii. 303

Nesocichla, ii. 256

Nesodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Nesomys, ii. 230

Nesonetta, ii. 364

Nesopsar, ii. 282

Nessia, ii. 399

Nestor, ii. 329

NESTORIDÆ, ii. 329

Nettapus, ii. 363

Neusterophis, ii. 376

Newberry, Dr., on Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of N. America, ii. 155

Newton, Professor, on position of Menuridæ and Atrichiidæ, i. 95 on birds of Iceland, i. 198 on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25 on genus Camptolæmus, ii. 39 on peculiar genera of Nearctic and Neotropical birds, ii. 118 on family Panuridæ, ii. 262

Newtonia, ii. 270

Newts, ii. 413

New Caledonia, birds of, i. 444

New Guinea, zoology of, i. 409 mammalia of, i. 410 birds of, i. 411 peculiarities of its ornithology, i. 413 illustration of ornithology of, i. 414 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 415 insects of, i. 416

New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, i. 62 extinct birds of, i. 164 sub region, description of, i. 449 compared with British Isles, i. 449 mammalia of, i. 451 islets of, i. 453 illustration of ornithology of, i. 455 reptiles of, i. 456 amphibia of, i. 457 fresh-water fish of, i. 457 insects of, i. 458 Longicorns of, i. 458 Myriapoda of, i. 458 land-shells of, i. 459 ancient fauna of, i. 460 origin of fauna of, i. 460 poverty of insects in, i. 462 relations of insect-fauna and flora of, i. 472

Nicator, ii. 272

Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, i. 332

Nightingale, migration of the, i. 21

Night-jars, ii. 319

Nigidius, ii. 493

Nigrita, ii. 286

Nilaus, ii. 272

Niltava, ii. 270

Ninox, ii. 350

Nisaëtus, ii. 348

Nisoides, ii. 348

Nisoniades, ii. 480

NOCTILIONIDÆ, ii. 184

Nocturnal tree-snakes, ii. 379

Nonnula, ii. 311

Norbea, ii. 397

Norfolk Island, birds of, i. 453

North Africa, zoological relations of, i. 202

North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene, fauna of, i. 130 Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, i. 131 extinct birds of, i. 163

Northern Hemisphere, zoological importance of, ii. 155

NOTACANTHI, ii. 437

Notaden, ii. 415

Notharctos, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Nothocerus, ii. 344

Nothocrax, ii. 343

Nothoprocta, ii. 344

Nothura, ii. 344

NOTIDANIDÆ, ii. 461

Notiophilus, ii. 489

Notodela, ii. 259

Notoglanis, ii. 443

Notonomus, ii. 490

NOTOPTERIDÆ, ii. 455

Notopholis, ii. 391

Notornis of New Zealand, i. 455

Notornis, ii. 352

Nototherium, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251

Nototrema, ii. 418

Noturus, ii. 442

Nucifraga, ii. 273

NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA. ii. 531

Nucras, ii. 391

Numenius, ii. 353

NUMIDINÆ, ii. 340

Numida, ii. 340

Nuria, ii. 452

Nuthatches, ii. 265

Nutria, ii. 199

Nyctala, ii. 350

Nyctalatinus, ii. 350

Nyctalemon, ii. 482

Nyctalops, ii. 350

Nyctea, ii. 350

Nyctereutes, ii. 197

Nycteris, ii. 182

Nyctibius, ii. 319

Nycticorax, ii. 359

Nyctidromius, ii. 320

Nyctiornis, ii. 312

Nyctipithecus, ii. 175

Nyctiprogne, ii. 320

Nymphalis, ii. 474

NYMPHALIDÆ, ii. 473

Nymphicus, ii. 325

Nymphidium, ii. 476

Ochetobius, ii. 452

Ochotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 245

Ochthæca, ii. 100

Ochthodiæta, ii. 100

Octodontidæ, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

OCTODONTIDÆ, ii. 237

Octodon, ii. 238

OCTOPODIDÆ, ii. 505

Ocyalus, ii. 282

Ocydromus, ii. 352

Ocyphaps, ii. 333

Odontochila, ii. 486

Odontolabris, ii. 493

Odontophorus, ii. 339

Odontophrynus, ii. 420

Oedemia, ii. 364

Oedicnemis, ii. 355

Oëdura, ii. 399

Oena, ii. 332

Ogmodon, ii. 383

Ogyris, ii. 477

Oligdon, ii. 375

OLIGODONTIDÆ, ii. 374

Oligosarcus, ii. 445

Olisthopus, ii. 489

Olylogon, ii. 418

Olyra, ii. 442

Omaseus, ii. 489

Ommatophoca, ii. 204

Omolepida, ii. 397

Omostenus, ii. 492

Omphalotropis, ii. 521

Omus, ii. 487

ONCIDIADÆ, ii. 517

Oncidium, ii. 518

Onychodactylus, ii. 413

Onychogale, ii. 195

Onychogalea, ii. 251

Onychognathus, ii. 288

Onchorhynchus, ii. 447

Oncostoma, ii. 101

Ophidia, classification of, i. 99

OPHIDIA, ii. 372 remarks on the general distribution of, ii. 386 fossil, ii. 387

OPHIDIIDÆ, ii. 440

Ophidium, ii. 440

OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 435

Ophiodes, ii. 397

OPHIOMORIDÆ, ii. 398

Ophiomorus, ii. 398

Ophiophagus, ii. 383

Ophiops, ii. 391

Ophioscincus, ii. 397

Ophisaurus, ii. 392

Ophites, ii. 380

Ophonus, ii. 489

Ophryodera, ii. 487

Ophysia, ii. 209

OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA, ii. 529

OPISTHOCOMI, ii. 345

Opisthocomus, Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 345

Opisthodelphys, ii. 418

Opisthostoma, ii. 520

Opisthoporus, ii. 520

Oporornis, ii. 279

Opossum, extinct in European Miocene, i. 121

Opossums, ii. 248

Opsariichthys, ii. 452

Opsiphanes, ii. 472

Orang-utan, ii. 171

Orca, ii. 209

Orcaella, ii. 209

Orchesticus, ii. 99

Orchilus, ii. 101

Oreas, ii. 223

Oreicola, ii. 260

Oreinus, ii. 452

Oreocephalus, ii. 401

Oreocincla, ii. 256

Oreodeira, ii. 401

Oreodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Oreodontidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Oreoeca, ii. 271

Oreomanes, ii. 278

Oreonectes, ii. 453

Oreonympha, ii. 108

Oreoperdix, ii. 338

OREOPHASINÆ, ii. 343

Oreophasis, ii. 343

Oreophilus, ii. 356

Oreopyra, ii. 107

Oreortyx, ii. 339

Oreoscoptes, ii. 256

Oreothraupis, ii. 99

Oreotrochilus, ii. 107

Orestias, ii. 450

Oriental region, defined, i. 75 subdivisions of, i. 75 description of, i. 314 zoological features of, i. 315 mammalia of, i. 315 birds of, i. 316 reptiles of, i. 317 amphibia of, i. 317 fresh-water fishes of, i. 318 summary of vertebrata of, i. 318 insects of, i. 318 sub-regions of, i. 321 concluding remarks on, i. 362 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 364

Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, i. 265

Oriental and Palæarctic faunas once identical, i. 362

Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, i. 363

Origma, ii. 260

Oriocalotes, ii. 402

Orioles, ii. 268

ORIOLIDÆ, ii. 268

Oriolus, ii. 268

Orites, ii. 266

Ornithion, ii. 101

ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ, ii. 253

Ornithorhynchus, ii. 253

Orocætes, ii. 256

Orohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Ortalida, ii. 343

Orthagoriscus, ii. 457

Orthalicus, ii. 516

ORTHIDÆ, ii. 532

ORTHOCERATIDÆ, ii. 506

Orthodon, ii. 452

Orthogonius, ii. 491

Orthogonys, ii. 98

Orthonyx, ii. 260

Orthorhynchus, ii. 108

Orthotomus, ii. 257

Ortygometra, ii. 352

Ortygornis, ii. 338

Ortyx, ii. 339

Ortyxelos, ii. 341

ORYCTEROPODIDÆ, ii. 246

Orycteropus, ii. 246

Orycterus, ii. 231

ORYGINÆ, ii. 223

Oryx, ii. 223

Oryzoborus, ii. 285

Oryzorictes, ii. 188

Osmerus, ii. 447

Osphranter, ii. 251

Osteobrama, ii. 453

Osteochilus, ii. 451

Osteogeniosus, ii. 443

OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 454

Osteoglossum, ii. 454

Ostinops, ii. 282

OSTREIDÆ, ii. 533

Ostrich, Miocene of N. India, i. 162

Ostriches, ii. 368

Otaria, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 202

OTARIIDÆ, ii. 202

OTIDIDÆ, ii. 356

Otidiphaps, ii. 333

Otilophus, ii. 415, 428

Otis, ii. 356

Otocorys, ii. 289

Otocryptis, ii. 402

Otogyps, ii. 346

Otomys, ii. 230

Otopoma, ii. 521

Ovibos, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 224, 225

Owl-parrot, ii. 329

Owls, ii. 350

Oxen, birth-place and migrations of, i. 155 Palæarctic, i. 182 ii. 221

OXUDERCIDÆ, ii. 431

Oxyæna, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Oxydoras, ii. 443

Oxyglossus, ii. 421

Oxygomphus, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 186

Oxylabes, ii. 262

Oxymycterus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 230, 231

Oxynotus, ii. 269

Oxypogon, ii. 108

OXYRHAMPHIDÆ, ii. 292

Oxyrhamphus, ii. 292

Oxyrhopus, ii. 379

Oxyurus, ii. 103

Oysters, ii. 533

Pachybatrachus, ii. 416

Pachycephala, ii. 271

PACHYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 271

Pachydactylus, ii. 400

Pachyæna, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Pachyglossa, ii. 277

Pachynolophus, European Eocene, i. 126

Pachyrhamphus, ii. 102

Pachyrhynchus, ii. 391

Pachyteles, ii. 490, 492

Pachytherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246

Pachyura, ii. 191

Pæocephalus, ii. 328

Pæcilus, ii. 489

Pagellus, ii. 427

Pagomys, ii. 204

Pagophila, ii. 364

Pagophilus, ii. 204

Paguma, ii. 195

PAICTIDÆ, ii. 298

Palæarctic region, ancient limits of, ii. 157 defined, i. 171 subdivisions of, i. 71 general features of. i. 180 zoological charcteristics of, i. 181 has few peculiar families, i. 181 mammalia of, i. 181 birds of, i. 182 high degree of speciality of, i. 184 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 186 fresh-water fish of, i. 186 summary of vertebrata of, i. 186 insects of, i. 186 coleoptera of, i. 187 number of coleoptera of, i. 189 land-shells of, i. 190 sub-regions of, i. 190 general conclusions on the fauna of, i. 231 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 233

Palæacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Palæetus, European Miocene, i. 162

Palægithalus, European Eocene, i. 162

Palælodus, European Miocene, i. 162

Palæocastor, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 234

Palæocercus, European Miocene, i. 162

Palæochoerus, European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 215

Palæocyon, ii. 198

Palæohierax, European Miocene, i. 162

Palæolagus, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Palæolama, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 217

Palæomephitis, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200

Palæomeryx, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 220

Palæomys, European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 238

Palæontina oolitica, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Palæontology, i. 107 how best studied in its bearing on geographical distribution, i. 168 as an introduction to the study of geographical distribution, concluding remarks on, i. 169

Palæonyctis, European Eocene, i. 125

Palæoperdix, European Miocene, i. 161

Palæophrynus, European Miocene, i. 166

Palæoreas, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

Palæornis, ii. 326

PALÆORNITHIDÆ, ii. 326

Palæonyctis, ii. 196, 206

Palæortyx, European Miocene, i. 161

Palæoryx, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

Palæospalax, i. 111 European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 190

Palæosyops, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Palæotheridæ, European Eocene, i. 125

Palæotherium, Enropean Eocene, i. 125 S. American Eocene, i. 148

Palæotragus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

Palæotringa, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

Palamedea, ii. 361

PALAMEDEIDÆ, ii. 361

Palapterygidæ of New Zealand, i. 164

PALAPTERYGIDÆ, ii. 370

Palapteryx, ii. 370

Palestine, birds of, i. 203

Pallasia, ii. 289

Paloplotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 European Eocene, i. 125

Paludicola, ii. 416

Paludina, Eocene, i. 169 European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 510

PALUDINIDÆ, ii. 510

Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, i. 146

Pamphila, ii. 480

Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, i. 222 Himalayan, figure of, i. 331 ii. 201

Pandion, ii. 349

PANDIONIDÆ, ii. 349

Pangasius, ii. 442

Pangolin, ii. 245

Panolax, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Panopoea, ii. 536

Panoplites, ii. 107

Panterpe, ii. 109

Panthalops, ii. 223

PANURIDÆ, ii. 262

Panurus, ii. 262

Panychlora, ii. 109

Panyptila, ii. 320

Paper-Nautilus, ii. 505

Paphia, ii. 474

Papilio, ii. 479

PAPILIONIDÆ, ii. 479

Papuan Islands, zoology of, i. 409

Paracanthobrama, ii. 452

Paradigalla, ii. 275

Paradiplomystax, ii. 443

Paradisea, ii. 274

Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, i. 414

Paradise-birds, ii. 274

PARADISEIDÆ, ii. 274

PARADISEINÆ, ii. 274

Paradoxornis, ii. 262

Paradoxurus, ii. 195

Parahippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Paralabraz, ii. 425

Paramys, N. American Eocene, i. 140 ii. 236

Parandra, ii. 501

Paraphoxinus, ii. 452

Pardalotus, ii. 277

Pareas, ii. 380

Parodon, ii. 445

Pareudiastes, ii. 352

PARIDÆ, ii. 265

Pariodon, ii. 444

Parisoma, ii. 266

Parmacella, ii. 517

Parmarion, ii. 517

Parmophorus, ii. 511

Parnassius, ii. 479

Paroaria, ii. 284

Parotia, ii. 274

Parra, ii. 355

PARRIDÆ, ii. 354

Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, i. 415

Parrots, classification of, i. 96 ii. 324, 329

Partridges, ii. 338

Partula, ii. 515

Parula, ii. 279

Parus, ii. 265

Pasimachus, ii. 490

Passerculus, ii. 284

Passerella, ii. 284

Passeres, arrangement of, i. 94 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306 range of Oriental genera of, i. 375 range of Australian genera of, i. 478

PASSERES, ii. 255 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 299

Passerita, ii. 379

Pastor, ii. 287

Patagona, ii. 108

Patella, ii. 539

PATELLIDÆ, ii. 511

Patriofelis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Patrobus, ii. 489

Pauxi, ii. 343

Pavo, ii. 340

PAVONINÆ, ii. 340

Paxillus, ii. 520

Pearl-oysters, ii. 533

Pease, Mr. Harper, on Polynesian region of Land-shells, ii. 528

Peccaries, ii. 215

Pectinator, ii. 238

Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined, ii. 184

Pedetes, ii. 232

PEDICULATI, ii. 431

Pediocætes, ii. 339

Pedionomus, ii. 356

PEGASIDÆ, ii. 456

Pelagius, ii. 204

Pelagornis, European Miocene, i. 162

Pelamis, ii. 384

Pelargopsis, ii. 316

Pelea, ii. 224

PELECANIDÆ, ii. 365

Pelecanoides, ii. 365

Pelecanus, ii. 365

Pelecium, ii. 490

Pelecus, ii. 453

Pelicans, ii. 365

Peliperdix, ii. 338

Pellorneum, ii. 261

Pelobates, ii. 417

PELODRYADÆ, ii. 418

Pelodryas, ii. 418

Pelodytes, ii. 421

Pelomedusa, ii. 409

Pelomys, ii. 230

Pelonax, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Peloperdix, ii. 338

Pelotrophus, ii. 453

Peltaphryne, ii. 415

Peltocephalus, ii. 408

Peltopelor, ii. 385

Peltops, ii. 270

Penelope, ii. 343

Penelopides, ii. 317

Penelopina, ii. 343

PENELOPINÆ, ii. 343

Penetes, ii. 472

Penguins, ii. 366

Pentadactylus, ii. 399

Pentila, ii. 477

Peragalea, ii. 250

Perameles, ii. 250

PERAMELIDÆ, ii. 250

Peratherium, European Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 249

Perca, ii. 425

Percarina, i. 425

Perchoerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215

Percilia, ii. 425

Percichthys, ii. 425

PERCIDÆ, ii. 425

Percnostola, ii. 104

PERCOPSIDÆ, ii. 448

Percus, ii. 489

Perdix, ii. 338

Pericallus, ii. 490

Pericrocotus, ii. 268

Peridexia, ii. 487

Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, i. 122 probable southern limit of old Palæarctic land, i. 362 character of fossils of, ii. 157

Periopthalmus, ii. 430

Perisoreus, ii. 273

Perissodactyla, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Perissoglossa, ii. 279

Peristera, ii. 333

Peristethus, ii. 428

Periwinkle, ii. 510

Pernis, ii. 349

Perodicticus, ii. 176

Perognathus, ii. 233

Peropus, ii. 399

Persia, birds of, i. 204

Petasophora, ii. 108

Petaurista, ii. 252

Petenia, ii. 438

Petrochelidon, ii. 281

Petrodromus, ii. 186

Petrels, ii. 365

Petroeca, ii. 260

Petrogale, ii. 251

Petromys, ii. 239

Petrophassa, ii. 333

Petrorhynchus, ii. 208

Petroscirtes, ii. 431

Peucæa, ii. 284

Pezophaps, ii. 334

Pezoporus, ii. 325

Pfeifferia, ii. 516

Phacellodomus, ii. 103

Phacochoerus, ii. 215

Phænicophaës, ii. 309

Phænicophilus, ii. 99

Phænicothraupis, ii. 98

Phænopepla, ii. 280

Phæochroa, ii. 107

Phæolæma, ii. 107

Phæoptila, ii. 109

Phaëthornis, ii. 107

Phaeton, ii. 365

Phalacrocorax, ii. 365

Phalangers, ii. 251

Phalangista, ii. 252

Phalangistidæ, ii. 251

Phalaropus, ii. 353

Phapitreron, ii. 333

Phaps, ii. 333

Pharomacrus, ii. 314

Phascogale, ii. 249

Phascolarctos, ii. 252

PHASCOLOMYIDÆ, ii. 252

Phascolomys, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157

PHASIANIDÆ, ii. 339

PHASIANINÆ, ii. 340

Phasianus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Post-Pliocene, i. 161 ii. 340

Phasidus, ii. 340

Phatagin, ii. 245

Pheasants, in European Miocene, i. 161 golden, of N. China, i. 226 eared, of Mongolia, i. 226 ii. 339

Phedina, ii. 281

Phelsuma, ii. 400

Phenacodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Pheropsophus, ii. 489

Pheucticus, ii. 285

Phibalura, ii. 102

Philagetes, ii. 502

Philemon, ii. 276

Philentoma, ii. 271

Philepitta, ii. 298

Philetærus, ii. 286

Philodryas, ii. 376

Philippine Islands, mammals of, i. 345 birds of, i. 346 origin of peculiar fauna of, i. 448

Philohela, ii. 353

Philomycus, ii. 517

Philydor, ii. 103

PHILYDORINÆ, ii. 295

Phlæomys, ii. 230

Phlæocryptes, ii. 103

Phlogoenas, ii. 333

Phlogophilus, ii. 108

Phlogopsis, ii. 104

Phlogothraupis, ii. 98, 283

Phoca, ii. 204

Phocæna, ii. 209

Phocidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

PHOCIDÆ, ii. 203

Phodilus, ii. 350

Phoenicocercus, ii. 102, 293

Phoenicophaës, ii. 309

PHOENICOPTERIDÆ, ii. 361

Phoenicopterus, ii. 361

PHOLADIDÆ, ii. 537

Pholadomya, ii. 536

Pholeoptynx, ii. 350

Pholidotus, ii. 245

Pholidotus, ii. 493

Phonipara, ii. 284

Phorus, ii. 510

Phos, ii. 507

Phractocephalus, ii. 442

Phrygilus, ii. 284

PHRYNISCIDÆ, ii. 414

Phryniscus, ii. 414

Phrynobatrachus, ii. 421

Phrynocephalus, ii. 402

Phrynoglossus, ii. 421

Phrynorhombus, ii. 441

Phrynosoma, ii. 401

Phycis, ii. 439

Phyllastrephus, ii. 267

PHYLLIDIADÆ, ii. 530

Phyllobates, ii. 419

Phyllodactylus, ii. 399

Phyllomedusa, ii. 418

Phyllomyias, ii. 101

Phyllomys, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239

Phyllornis, ii. 267

PHYLLORNITHIDÆ, ii. 267

Phylloscartes, ii. 101

PHYLLOSCOPINÆ, ii. 257

Phylloscopus, ii. 258

Phyllostomidæ, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 181

Phyllurus, ii. 400

PHYLLYRHOIDÆ, ii. 530

Phymaturus, ii. 401

Physa, ii. 518

Physalus, ii. 207

Physeter, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 208

Physical changes affecting distribution, i. 7

Physignathus, ii. 402

PHYSOSTOMI, ii. 441

Phytala, ii. 477

Phytotoma, ii. 294

PHYTOTOMIDÆ, ii. 294

Phyton, ii. 502

Piabuca, ii. 445

Piabucina, ii. 445

Piaya, ii. 309

Pica, ii. 273

Picariæ, arrangement of, i. 95 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 247 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 309 range of Oriental genera of, i. 381 range of Australian genera of, i. 482

PICARIÆ, ii. 302 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 322

Picathartes, ii. 274

Picicorvus, ii. 273

PICIDÆ, ii. 302

Picoides, ii. 303

Picolaptes, ii. 103

Picumnus, ii. 303

Picus, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 303

PIERIDÆ, ii. 478

Pieris, ii. 478

Piezia, ii. 491

Pigeons, classification of, i. 96 remarkable development of, in the Australian region, i. 395 crested, of Australia, figure of, i. 441 ii. 331 abundant in islands, ii. 335

Pigs, power of swimming, i. 13

Pikas, ii. 242

Pike, ii. 449

Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, i. 115

Pilchard, ii. 454

Pileoma, ii. 425

Pimelodus, ii. 443

Pimephales, ii. 452

Pinacodera, ii. 490

Pinicola, ii. 285

Pinulia, ii. 191

Pionus, ii. 328

Pipa, ii. 422

PIPIDÆ, ii. 421

Pipile, i. 343

Pipilo, ii. 284

Piping crows, ii. 273

Pipra, ii. 102, 292

Pipreola, ii. 102

PIPRIDÆ, ii. 102

Pipridea, ii. 98

Piprisoma, ii. 277

Piprites, ii. 102, 292

Piramutana, ii. 442

Piratinga, ii. 443

Pirinampus, ii. 443

Pitangus, ii. 101

Pithecia, ii. 175

Pithecopsis, ii. 420

Pithys, ii. 104

Pitta, ii. 298

Pittas, ii. 297

Pittasoma, ii. 104

Pittidæ, abundant in Borneo, i. 355

PITTIDÆ, ii. 297

Pituophis, ii. 375

Pit-vipers, ii. 384

Pitylus, ii. 99

Pityriasis, ii. 273

Plagiodontia, ii. 238

Plagiolophus, European Eocene, i. 126

Plagiotelium, ii. 492

PLAGIOSTOMATA, ii. 460

Planetes, ii. 490

Planorbis, European Secondary, i. 169 Eocene, i. 169 ii. 518

Plantain-eaters, ii. 307

Plant-cutters, ii. 294

Plants, distribution of, probably the same fundamentally as that of animals, ii. 162

Platacanthomys, ii. 230

Platalea, ii. 360

PLATALEIDÆ, ii. 360

Platanista, ii. 209

Platemys, ii. 408

Platurus, ii. 384

Platycercidæ, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, i. 394

PLATYCERCIDÆ, ii. 325

Platycercus, ii. 325

Platychile, ii. 487

Platygonus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 215

Platylophus, ii. 273

Platymantis, ii. 419

Platynematichthys, ii. 442

Platynus, ii. 489

Platypoecilus, ii. 450

PLATYRHYNCHINÆ, ii. 291

Platyrhynchus, ii. 101

Platysaurus, ii. 392

Platysoma, ii. 489

Platystira, ii. 271

Platystoma, ii. 442

Platystomatichthys, ii. 442

Plecoglossus, ii. 447

Plecostomus, ii. 444

Plecotus, ii. 183

PLECTOGNATHI, ii. 457

PLECTROMANTIDÆ, ii. 417

Plectromantis, ii. 417

Plectrophanes, ii. 286

Plectropterus, ii. 363

Plectrotrema, ii. 519

Plecturus, ii. 374

Plesiarctomys, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 236

Plesiomeryx, European Eocene, i. 126

Plesiosorex, European Miocene, i. 118

Plestiodon, ii. 397

Plethodon, ii. 413

PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 530

Pleurodeles, ii. 413

Pleurodema, ii. 420

Pleuronectes, ii. 441

PLEURONECTIDÆ, ii. 440

Pleurostrichus, ii. 392

Pleurotoma, ii. 508

Pleurotomaria, ii. 539

Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, i. 112

Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Europe, general conclusions from, i. 113 of N. America, i. 132 of S. America, i. 146 of Australia, i. 157

Pliohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Pliolophus, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 216

Pliopithecus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 178

PLOCEIDÆ, ii. 286

Plocepasser, ii. 286

Ploceus, ii. 286

Plotosus, ii. 441

Plotus, ii. 365

Plovers, ii. 355

Pluvianellus, ii. 356

Pluvianus, ii. 355

PLYCTOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 324

Pnoepyga, ii. 263

Podabrus, ii. 249

Podager, ii. 320

PODARGIDÆ, ii. 318

Podargus, ii. 318

Podica, ii. 352

Podiceps, ii. 367

PODICIPIDÆ, ii. 366

Podilymbus, ii. 367

Podocnemis, ii. 408

Poebrotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217

Poecilia, ii. 450

Poecilophis, ii. 383

Poecilothraupis, ii. 98

Poephagus, ii. 222

Poephila, ii. 287

Pogonocichla, ii. 271

POGONORHYNCHINÆ, ii. 306

Pogonorhynchus, ii. 306

Pogonornis, ii. 275

Pogonostoma, ii. 487

Pogonotriccus, ii. 101

Pohlia, ii. 418

Poiana, ii. 195

Polemistria, ii. 107

Polioaëtus, ii. 349

Poliococcyx, ii. 309

Poliohierax, ii. 349

Poliopsitta, ii. 328

Polioptila, ii. 258

Pollanisus, ii. 481

POLYBORINÆ, ii. 347

Polyboroides, ii. 347

Polyborus, ii. 347

Polybothris, ii. 497

POLYCENTRIDÆ, ii. 434

Polycesta, ii. 479

POLYDONTIDÆ, ii. 459

Polyhirma, ii. 491

POLYNEMIDÆ, ii. 429

Polyommatus, ii. 477

Polynesian sub-region, description of, i. 442 birds of, i. 443 reptiles of, i. 447

Polypedates, ii. 419

POLYPEDATIDÆ, ii. 419

Polypi, ii. 505

Polyplectron, ii. 340

Polyprion, ii. 425

POLYPTERIDÆ, ii. 458

Polypterus, ii. 458

Polytelis, ii. 325

Pomacanthus, ii. 427

POMACENTRIDÆ, ii. 437

Pomacentrus, ii. 437

Pomatias, ii. 521

Pomatorhinus, ii. 261

Pomotis, ii. 425

Pompholyx, ii. 518

Pontia, ii. 478

Pontoporia, ii. 209

Pooecetes, ii. 284

Poodytes, ii. 258

Poospiza, ii. 284

Porcupines, ii. 240

Poritia, ii. 477

Porphyrio, ii. 352

Porpoises, ii. 208

Portax, ii. 223

Porzana, ii. 352

Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, i. 110 remains imply changes of physical geography in Europe, i. 111 fauna of N. America, i. 129 fauna of N. America, remarks on, i. 130

Potamides, ii. 509

Potamochoerus, ii. 215

Potamodus, ii. 258

Potamogale of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

Potamogale, ii. 189

POTAMOGALIDÆ, ii. 189

Potamotherium, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200

Potto of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 ii. 176

Pouched Rats, ii. 233

Praotherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Pratincola, ii. 260

Pratincoles, ii. 355

Presbytes, ii. 171

Prepona, ii. 474

Primates, classification of, i. 86 probable birthplace of, i. 153 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, i. 371 range of Australian genera of, i. 475

Primates, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 117 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 124 N. American Tertiary, i. 132 of Brazilian caves, i. 144

PRIMATES, distribution of, ii. 170-180 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 179 summary and conclusion, ii. 540

Prince's Island, birds of, i. 206

Prinia, ii. 257

Prion, ii. 365

Prioneris, ii. 478

PRIONIDÆ, ii. 498

Prionidium, Oolitic insects, i. 167

Prionirhynchus, ii. 313

Prioniturus, ii. 326

Prionochilus, ii. 277

Prionodontes, ii. 246

Prionops, ii. 272

Prionoteles, ii. 314

PRISTIDÆ, ii. 462

Pristimantis, ii. 419

PRISTIOPHORIDÆ, ii. 462

Pristiphoca, in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 204

PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, ii. 426

Pristiurus, ii. 461

Pristonychus, ii. 489

Proboscidea, classification of, i. 90 range of Ethiopian genus, i. 303 range of Oriental genus, i. 374

Proboscidea, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 Indian Miocene, i. 122 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary i. 138 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147

PROBOSCIDEA, ii. 227 summary and conclusion, ii. 542

Procamelus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217

Procapra, ii. 223

Procarduelis, ii. 283

Procellaria, ii. 365

PROCELLARIIDÆ, ii. 365

Procerus, ii. 488 ii. 489

Prochilodus, ii. 445

Prochilus, ii. 202

Procnias, ii. 98

Procris, ii. 481

Procrustes, ii. 488 ii. 489

Proctotretus, ii. 401

Procyon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 200

Procyonidæ, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

PROCYONIDÆ, ii. 200

PRODUCTIDÆ, ii. 532

Progne, ii. 281

Promecoderus, ii. 490

Promephitis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200

Promerops of East Africa, figure of, i. 261

Promerops, ii. 276

Pronophilia, ii. 471

Propalæotherium, European Eocene, i. 126

Proparus, ii. 266

Propyrrhula, ii. 285

Prorastomus, ii. 211

Proserpina, ii. 527

PROSOBRANCHIATA, ii. 507

Prosthemadera, ii. 275

PROTEIDÆ, ii. 412

Proteles, ii. 196

PROTELIDÆ, ii. 196

Protemnodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251

Proteus, ii. 412

Prothoe, ii. 474

Protohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Protomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217

Protonopsis, ii. 412

Protonotaria, ii. 279

Protopithecus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 178

Protopterus, ii. 458

Protornis, European Eocene, i. 162

Prototomus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Prototroctes, ii. 446

Psalidoprogne, ii. 281

Psaltria, ii. 266

Psaltriparus, ii. 266

Psammodromus, ii. 391

Psammodynastes, ii. 377

Psammomys, ii. 230

PSAMMOPHIDÆ, ii. 377

Psammophis, ii. 377

Psammosaurus, ii. 389

Psarisomus, ii. 295

Psephotus, ii. 325

Pseudacris, ii. 418

Pseudælurus, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 194

Pseudalopex, ii. 197

Pseudecheneis, ii. 444

Pseudechis, ii. 383

Pseudeutropius, ii. 442

Pseudis, ii. 420

Pseudobagrus, ii. 442

Pseudobias, ii. 270

Pseudobufo, ii. 415

Pseudochalceus, ii. 445

Pseudochelidon, ii. 312

Pseudocolaptes, ii. 103

Pseudocordylus, ii. 392

Pseudocyon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 198

Pseudodipsas, ii. 477

Pseudogobio, ii. 452

Pseudogryphis, ii. 346

Pseudogyps, ii. 346

Pseudohage, ii. 383

Pseudolabuca, ii. 453

Pseudoleistes, ii. 282

Pseudomorpha, ii. 490

Pseudomys, ii. 230

Pseudonaje, ii. 383

Pseudoperilampus, ii. 452

PSEUDOPHIDIA, ii. 411

Pseudophryne, ii. 414

Pseudopontia, ii. 478

Pseudopus, ii. 392

Pseudorasbora, ii. 452

Pseudorca, ii. 209

Pseudoscops, ii. 350

Pseudoxiphophorus, ii. 450

Psilopogon, ii. 306

Psiloptera, ii. 497

Psilorhamphus, ii. 104

Psilorhinus, ii. 273

Psilorhynchus, ii. 453

Psittaci, classification of, i. 96 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 383 range of Australian genera of, i. 484

PSITTACI, ii. 324 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 329

PSITTACIDÆ, ii. 328

Psittacula, ii. 328

Psittacus, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 328

Psittinus, ii. 326

Psittirostra, ii. 277

Psittospiza, ii. 99

Psophia, ii. 358

PSOPHIIDÆ, ii. 358

Psophodes, ii. 262

PSYCHROLUTIDÆ, ii. 436

Pterocles, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 337

PTEROCLIDÆ, ii. 337

Pterocyclos, ii. 520

Pterodon, European Miocene, i. 125

Pteroglossus, ii. 307

Pteromys, ii. 235

Pteromyzon, ii. 463

PTEROMYZONTIDÆ, ii. 463

Pteronura, ii. 199

Pterophanes, ii. 108

Pterophyllum, ii. 439

PTEROPIDÆ, ii. 181

PTEROPODA, ii. 531

Pteropodocys, ii. 269

PTEROPTOCHIDÆ, ii. 297

Pteroptochus, ii. 297

Pterorhinus, ii. 261

Pterosarion, ii. 452

Pterostichus, ii. 489

Pteruthius, ii. 266

Pterygophlichthys, ii. 444

Ptilocerus, ii. 186

Ptilochloris, ii. 102, 293

Ptilogonys, ii. 280

Ptilonorhynchus, ii. 275

Ptilopachus, ii. 338

Ptilopus, ii. 332

Ptilorhis, ii. 275

Ptilostomus, ii. 273

Ptilotis, ii. 275

Ptosima, ii. 497

Ptyas, ii. 375

Ptychobarbus, ii. 452

Ptyonotus, ii. 428

Pucrasia, ii. 340

Puff-birds, ii. 310

Puffins, ii. 367

Puffinus, ii. 365

PULMONIFERA, ii. 512

Pulsatrix, ii. 350

Puncturella, ii. 511

Pupa, Eocene, i. 169

Pupa vetusta, Palæozoic, i. 169

Pupa, ii. 514

Pupina, ii. 520

Pupinella, ii. 520

Putorius, ii. 198

PYCNONOTIDÆ, ii. 267

Pycnonotus, ii. 267

Pycnophrys, ii. 270

Pyctorhis, ii. 261

Pygarrhicus, ii. 103

Pygmornis, ii. 107

Pygomeles, ii. 397

PYGOPODIDÆ, ii. 395

Pygoptila, ii. 104

Pygopus, ii. 395

PYRAMIDELLIDÆ, ii. 509

Pyrameis, ii. 474

Pyranga, ii. 98

Pyrenestes, ii. 286

Pyrgisoma, ii. 284

Pyrgita, ii. 284

Pyriglena, ii. 104

Pyrocephalus, ii. 101, 291

Pyroderus, ii. 103

Pyromelana, ii. 286

Pyrophthalma, ii. 259

Pyrrhocoma, ii. 99

Pyrrhospiza, ii. 285

Pyrrhula, ii. 285

Pyrrhulauda, ii. 289

Pyrrhulina, ii. 445

Pyrrhulopsis, ii. 325

Pyrrhuloxia, ii. 285

Pyrrhura, ii. 328

Pytelia, ii. 287

Python, ii. 381

Pythonidæ, European Miocene, i. 165

PYTHONIDÆ, ii. 381

Pythonodipsas, ii. 379

Pythonopsis, ii. 376

Pythons, ii. 381

Pyxicephalus, ii. 420

Pyxis, ii. 408

Quadrumana, fossil, ii. 178

Quail-snipes, ii. 354

Querquedula, ii. 363

Querula, ii. 102

Quiscalus, ii. 282

Rachis, ii. 524

Racoon-dog of N. China, i. 226

Racoons, ii. 200

Raia, ii. 462

RAIIDÆ, ii. 462

Rails, ii. 351

RALLIDÆ, ii. 351

Rallina, ii. 352

Rallus, ii. 352

Rana, European Miocene, i. 166 ii. 420

Raniceps, ii. 439

RANIDÆ, ii. 420

Ranodon, ii. 413

Rappia, ii. 419

Rasbora, ii. 452

Rasborichthys, ii. 453

Rattle-snakes, ii. 384

Rays, ii. 462

Realia, ii. 521

Rectes, ii. 272

Recurvirostra, ii. 353

Regalecus, ii. 432

Region, the best term for the primary zoological divisions, i. 68 Arctic, why not adopted, i. 69 Palæarctic, defined, i. 71 Palæarctic, subdivisions of, i. 71 Ethiopian, defined, i. 73 Ethiopian, subdivisions of, i. 73 Oriental, defined, i. 75 Oriental, subdivisions of, i. 75 Australian, defined, i. 77 Australian, subdivisions of, i. 77 Neotropical, defined, i. 78 Neotropical, subdivisions of, i. 78 Nearctic, defined, i. 79 Nearctic, distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79 Nearctic, subdivisions of, i. 80

Regions, zoological, i. 50 zoological, how they should be formed, i. 53 zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, i. 54 zoological, by what class of animals best determined, i. 56 for each class of animals, not advisable, i. 58 zoological, proposed since 1857, i. 58 zoological, Mr. Sclater's, i. 59 zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, i. 61 zoological, proportionate richness of, i. 64 temperate and tropical, well marked in northern hemisphere, i. 65 and zones, table of, i. 66 comparative richness of, i. 81 and sub-regions, table of, i. 81 order of succession of the, i. 173

Registoma, ii. 521

Reguloides, ii. 258

Regulus, ii. 258

Reinwardtænas, ii. 333

Reinwardtipicus, ii. 303

Reithrodon, ii. 230

Representative species, i. 4

Reptiles, means of dispersal of, i. 28 classification of, i. 98 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 of Indian Miocene deposits, i. 123 extinct Tertiary, i. 165 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186 of Central Europe, i. 195 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 204 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 table of Palæarctic families of, i. 236 of the Ethiopian region, i. 254 of the E. African sub-region, i. 260 of W. Africa, i. 264 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 279 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 297 of the Oriental region, i. 317 of the Indian sub-region, i. 326 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340 table of Oriental families of, i. 368 of the Australian region, i. 396 of New Guinea, i. 415 of the Moluccas, i. 420 of the Polynesian sub-region, i. 447 of New Zealand, i. 456 table of Australian families of, i. 472 Neotropical, ii. 9 of S. Temperate America, ii. 40 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii. 72 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 88 of the Nearctic region, ii. 119 of California, ii. 128 of Central N. America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 133 of Canada, ii. 137 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 142 summary and conclusion, ii. 547

REPTILIA, ii. 372

Retropinna, ii. 447

Revillagigedo Islands, zoology of, ii. 60

Rhabdornis, ii. 265

Rhabdosoma, ii. 374

RACHIODONTIDÆ, ii. 377

Rhacophorus, ii. 419

Rhamnophis, ii. 376

RHAMPHASTIDÆ, ii. 306

Rhamphastos, ii. 307

Rhamphichthys, ii. 455

Rhamphocænus, ii. 104

Rhamphococcyx, ii. 309

Rhamphocinclus, ii. 256

Rhamphocoelus, ii. 98

Rhamphomicron, ii. 108

Rhaphaulus, ii. 520

Rhea, in Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 368

Rhinaster, ii. 213

Rhinatrema, ii. 411

Rhinechis, ii. 376

Rhinelepis, ii. 444

Rhinichthys, ii. 452

RHINIDÆ, ii. 462

RHINOBATIDÆ, ii. 462

Rhinoceros, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 122 fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation in Thibet, i. 122 fossil in N. China, i. 123 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 213

Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, i. 339

Rhinocerotidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

RHINOCEROTIDÆ, ii. 213

RHINOCHETIDÆ, ii. 359

Rhinochetus, ii. 359

Rhinococcyx, ii. 309

Rhinocrypta, ii. 297

Rhinoderma, ii. 416

RHINODONTIDÆ, ii. 461

Rhinodoras, ii. 443

Rhinogale, ii. 195

Rhinoglanis, ii. 443

RHINOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 182

Rhinolophus, ii. 183

Rhinophis, ii. 374

RHINOPHRYNIDÆ, ii. 414

Rhinophrynus, ii. 414

Rhinoplax, ii. 317

Rhinopoma, ii. 183

Rhinortha, ii. 309

Rhipidura, ii. 271

Rhizomys, ii. 231

Rhodeus, ii. 452

Rhodinocincla, ii. 256

Rhodona, ii. 397

Rhodopis, ii. 108

Rhodosttehia, ii. 364

Rhombomys, ii. 230

Rhombus, ii. 441

Rhopodytes, ii. 309

Rhopoterpe, ii. 104

Rhynchæa, ii. 353

RHYNCHOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 405

RHYNCHOCEPHALINA, ii. 405

Rhynchocyon, ii. 186

Rhynchocyclus, ii. 101

Rhynchonella, ii. 539

RHYNCHONELLIDÆ, ii. 532

Rhynchops, ii. 365

Rhynchopsitta, ii. 328

Rhynchotus, ii. 344

Rhytina, ii. 210, 211

Rhytiodus, ii. 445

Ricinula, ii. 507

Rimator, ii. 263

Rimula, ii. 511

Rissa, ii. 364

Rissoa, ii. 510

Rita, ii. 442

River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264 of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, i. 12 limiting the range of birds, i. 17

River-scene in West Africa, i. 264

River-snails, ii. 510

Rivulus, ii. 450

Rock-snakes, ii. 381

Rocky mountain sub-region, ii. 129 mammalia of, ii. 129 birds of, ii. 130 reptiles, amphibia, and fishes of, ii. 130

Rodentia, classification of, i. 90 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 242 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 304 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 range of Australian genera of, i. 476

Rodentia, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 139 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 of S. American Eocene, i. 148

RODENTIA, ii. 229

Rodentia, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 243

Rodentia, summary and conclusion, ii. 543

Rohteichthys, ii. 452

Rollers, ii. 311

Rollulus, ii. 339

Romaleosoma, ii. 474

Rose-chafers, ii. 494

Rostrhamus, ii. 349

Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374

Ruff, figure of, i. 195

Rupicapra, ii. 224, 225

RUPICAPRINÆ, ii. 224

Rupicola, ii. 102, 293

RUPICOLINÆ, ii. 293

Ruticilla, ii. 259

RUTICILLINÆ, ii. 257

Saccobranchus, ii. 441

Saccodon, ii. 445

SACCOMYIDÆ, ii. 233

Saccomys, ii. 233

Saccostomus, ii. 230

Sagda, ii. 516

Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251

Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, i. 218

Saiga, ii. 223

Saimiris, ii. 175

Sakis, ii. 175

Salamandra, ii. 413

SALAMANDRIDÆ, ii. 413

Salamandrina, ii. 413

Salarix, ii. 448

Salminus, ii. 445

Salmo, ii. 447

SALMONIDÆ, ii. 447

Salpinctes, ii. 264

Salpornis, ii. 264

Saltator, ii. 99

Salvin, Mr., on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30

Sambus, ii. 496

Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443

Sand-grouse, Pallas', of Mongolia, i. 226 ii. 337

Sand-lizards, ii. 398

Sandpipers, ii. 353

Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445 probable past history of, i. 446 mountain plants of, i. 446 depth of ocean around, i. 447

Sanzinia, ii. 381

Saperda, ii. 501

Sapphironia, ii. 109

Sarcodaces, ii. 445

Sarcophilus, ii. 249

SARCORHAMPHINÆ, ii. 346

Sarcorhamphus, ii. 346

Sargus, ii. 427

Sarkidiornis, ii. 363

Saroglossa, ii. 288

Sarotherodon, ii. 438

Sasia, ii. 303

Satanoperca, ii. 439

SATYRIDÆ, ii. 471

Satyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous insect, i. 167

Satyrus, ii. 471

Saucerottia, ii. 109

Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidæ of Japan, i. 229

Saurocetes, ii. 210

Saurophis, ii. 392

Saurothera, ii. 309

Saxicola, ii. 260

Saxicolinæ, ii. 257

Sayornis, ii. 100, 291

Scallops, ii. 533

Scalops, ii. 190

Scapanus, ii. 190

Scaphiopus, ii. 417

Scaphirhynchus, ii. 459

Scaptochirus, ii. 190

Scaptonyx, ii. 190

Scaraphites, ii. 490

Scardafella, ii. 333

Scarites, ii. 489

Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 245

Scelodontis, ii. 490

Sceloporus, ii. 401

Scelotes, ii. 398

Schacra, ii. 452

Schasicheila, ii. 522

Schiffornis, ii. 102

Schilbe, ii. 442

Schilbichthys, ii. 442

Schismaderma, ii. 415

Schistes, ii. 108

Schistopleurum, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Schizodon, ii. 238

Schizogenius, ii. 490

Schizopygopsis, ii. 452

Schizorhina, ii. 494

Schizorhis, ii. 307

Schizothorax, ii. 452

Schoenionta, ii. 502

Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Central Africa, i. 252 on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262 (note)

Sciades, ii. 443

Sciæna, ii. 428

SCIÆNIDÆ, ii. 428

SCINCIDÆ, ii. 396

Scincus, ii. 397

Scinks, ii. 396

Scissirostrum, ii. 288

Scissor, ii. 445

Sciuravus, N. American Eocene, i. 140

Sciuravus, ii. 236

SCIURIDÆ, ii. 234

Sciuropterus, ii. 235

Sciurus, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 235, 236

Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59 why his six regions are adopted, i. 63 on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445 on systematic position of Certhidea, ii. 31

Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25

SCLERODERMI, ii. 457

Sclerognathus, ii. 451

SCLERURINÆ, ii. 295

Sclerurus, ii. 103

Scolecophagus, ii. 282

SCOLOPACIDÆ, ii. 353

Scolopax, ii. 353

Scomber, ii. 429

SCOMBRESOCIDÆ, ii. 449

Scombresox, ii. 449

SCOMBRIDÆ, ii. 429

SCOPELIDÆ, ii. 446

Scops, ii. 350

Scopus, ii. 360

Scortornis, ii. 320

Scotopelia, ii. 350

Scotophilus, ii. 183

Scrapteira, ii. 391

Screamers, ii. 361

Scrub-birds, ii. 299

SCYLLIDÆ, ii. 461

Scyllium, ii. 461

Scytale, ii. 379

SCYTALIDÆ, ii. 379

Scytalopus, ii. 297

Scythrops, ii. 310

Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, i. 13

Sea-devils, ii. 463

Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118 of Lake Baikal, i. 218 ii. 203

Sea-pens, ii. 505

Sea-snails, ii. 508

Sea-snakes, ii. 384

Sebastes, ii. 428

Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, i. 169

Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261 ii. 346

Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance of sloths, ii. 24

Seisura, ii. 270

Selache, ii. 460

Selasphorus, ii. 108

Selenidera, ii. 307

Selenophorus, ii. 490

Seleucides, ii. 275

Semioptera, ii. 275

Semiplotus, ii. 452

SEMNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 171

Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 117 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 171 ii. 178

Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, i. 345

Senira, ii. 397

SEPIADÆ, ii. 505

SEPIDÆ, ii. 398

Seps, ii. 398

Sepsina, ii. 398

Sericinus, ii. 479

Sericornis, ii. 258

Sericulus, ii. 275

Serilophus, ii. 295

SERPENTARIIDÆ, ii. 346

Serpentarius, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 346

Serphophaga, ii. 101

Serranus, ii. 425

Serrasalmo, ii. 445

Sesia, ii. 482

Setophaga, ii. 279

Setornis, ii. 267

Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281 amphibia of, i. 281

Shad, ii. 454

Sharks, ii. 460

Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229

Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipitres, i. 97 on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 on classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309

Sheath-bills, ii. 354

Sheep, Palæarctic, i. 182 ii. 221

Short-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373

Shrikes, ii. 272

Sialia, ii. 260

Siamanga, ii. 171

Siaphos, ii. 397

Siberia, climate of, i. 217

Siberian sub-region, description of, i. 216 mammalia of, i. 217 birds of, i. 219 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220 insects of, i. 220

Sibia, ii. 262

Siderone, ii. 474

Sieboldia, ii. 412

Sigmodon, ii. 230

Silondia, ii. 442

Silphomorpha, ii. 490

Silubosaurus, ii. 397

Siluranodon, ii. 442

Silurichthys, ii. 441

SILURIDÆ, ii. 441

Silurus, ii. 441

Silybura, ii. 374

Simenia, ii. 197

Simia, ii. 171

SIMIIDÆ, ii. 170

Simocephalus, ii. 380

Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 198

Simorhynchus, ii. 367

Simotes, ii. 375

Simpulopsis, ii. 516

Sinopa, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Siphia, ii. 270

Siphneus, ii. 230

Siphonopsis, ii. 411

Siphonorhis, ii. 320

Siphonostoma, ii. 457

Siren, ii. 411

Sirenia, classification of, i. 89 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 range of Oriental genus, i. 374 range of Australian genus of, i. 476

Sirenia, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119

SIRENIA, ii. 210

SIRENIDÆ, ii. 411

SIRENOIDEI, ii. 458

Sirystes, ii. 101

Sisor, ii. 444

Sitana, ii. 402

Sitta, ii. 265

Sittasomus, ii. 103

Sittella, ii. 265

SITTIDÆ, ii. 265

Siurus, ii. 279

Siva, ii. 266

Sivatherium, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 226

Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121

Skenea, ii. 510

Sloths, ii. 244

Slugs, ii. 517

Smaragdochrysis, ii. 109

Smerinthus, ii. 483

Smiliogaster, ii. 453

Sminthus, ii. 230

Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, i. 230

Smithornis, ii. 270

Smutsia, ii. 245

Snails, ii. 512

Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220

Snakes, classification of, i. 99 Eocene, i. 165 large proportion of venomous species in Australia, i. 396 of New Zealand, i. 457 distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547

Snipes, ii. 353

Society Islands, birds of, i. 443

Socorro, zoology of, ii. 60

Soft-tortoises, ii. 409

Solarium, ii. 510

Solea, ii. 441

SOLENIDÆ, ii. 536

Solenodon, ii. 188

SOLENOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 456

Solitaire, ii. 334

Somateria, ii. 364

Soricictis, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 196

Soricidæ, European Miocene, i. 118

SORICIDÆ, ii. 191

Soridia, ii. 397

Sorubim, ii. 442

Sotalia, ii. 209

South African sub-region, description of, i. 266 mammalia of, i. 267 birds of, i. 267 reptiles of, i. 268 amphibia of, i. 268 fresh-water fish of, i. 268 butterflies of, i. 268 coleoptera of, i. 268 summary of its zoology, i. 269

South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143 Pliocene deposits of, i. 146 supposed land connection with Australia, i. 398

South America and Africa, parallelism of their past zoological history, ii. 83

South Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441

SPALACIDÆ, ii. 231

Spalacomys, ii. 230

Spalacopus, ii. 238

Spalax, ii. 231

Sparganura, ii. 108

SPARIDÆ, ii. 426

Spatula, ii. 364

Species, representative, i. 4

Spelerpes, ii. 413

Speothos, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Spermestes, ii. 287

Spermophila, ii. 285

Spermophilus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 235, 236

Spermospiza, ii. 286

Sperm Whales, ii. 207

Sphærocephalus, ii. 209

Sphærodactylus, ii. 400

Sphæroderus, ii. 490

Sphallomorpha, ii. 490

Sphecotheres, ii. 268

Sphenæacus, ii. 258

SPHENISCIDÆ, ii. 366

Spheniscus, ii. 366

Sphenocephalus, ii. 398

Sphenodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 115 ii. 245

Sphenognathus, ii. 493

Sphenoproctus, ii. 107

Sphenops, ii. 398

Sphenostoma, ii. 266

Sphenura, ii. 258

SPHINGIDÆ, ii. 482

Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483

SPHINGINA, ii. 481

Sphingnotus, ii. 501

Sphinx, in European Oolite, i. 167 ii. 482

Sphinx Moths, ii. 482

Sphyrapicus, ii. 303

SPHYRENIDÆ, ii. 429

Spider monkeys, ii. 174

Spilornis, ii. 348

Spilotes, ii. 376

SPINACIDÆ, ii. 461

Spindalis, ii. 98, 284

Spiraxis, ii. 515

SPIRIFERIDÆ, ii. 532

SPIRULIDÆ, ii. 505

Spizaëtus, ii. 348

Spizella, ii. 284

Spiziapteryx, ii. 349

Spiziastur, ii. 348

Spodiornis, ii. 285

Sponsor, ii. 497

Spoonbills, ii. 360

Sporadinus, ii. 109

Sporopipes, ii. 286

Sprat, ii. 454

Spreo, ii. 288

Squalodon, ii. 210

Squaliobarbus, ii. 452

SQUAMIPENNES, ii. 427

Squatarola, ii. 356

Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175

Squirrels, ii. 234

St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 269 coleoptera of, i. 270 landshells of, i. 271

St. Thomas's Island, birds of, i. 266

Stachyris, ii. 261

Stactolæma, ii. 306

Stag-beetles, ii. 492

Stalagmosoma, ii. 495

Starlings, ii. 287

Starnoenas, ii. 33

Stations, definition of, i. 4

Staurotypus, ii. 408

Steatomys, ii. 230

Steatornis, ii. 319

STEATORNITHIDÆ, ii. 319

Steganura, ii. 108

Stegnolæma, ii. 343

Stegophilus, ii. 444

Stelgidopteryx, ii. 281

Stellio, ii. 402

Stellula, ii. 108

Steneofiber, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 234

Steno, ii. 209

Stenodactylus, ii. 400

Stenogyra, ii. 515

Stenopsis, ii. 320

Stenopus, ii. 516

Stenorhina, ii. 375

Stenorhynchus, ii. 204 ii. 421

Stephanophorus, ii. 98

Stercorarius, ii. 304

Sterna, ii. 364

Sternarchus, ii. 455

Sternocera, ii. 496

Sternoclyta, ii. 107

STERNOPTYCHIDÆ, ii. 446

Sternopygus, ii. 455

Sternotheres, ii. 408

Steropus, ii. 489

Stesilea, ii. 501

Stethodesma, ii. 495

Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251

Stichæus, ii. 431

Sticklebacks, ii. 424

Stigmatura, ii. 101

Stigmodera, ii. 496

STOMIATIDÆ, ii. 447

Storks, ii. 360

Stabomantis, ii. 419

Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37 birds of, ii. 39

Strepera, ii. 273

Strepsilas, ii. 356

Streptaulus, ii. 520

Streptaxis, ii. 515

Streptocerus, ii. 493

Streptocitta, ii. 274

Streptophorus, ii. 374

STRIGIDÆ, ii. 350

Stringops, ii. 329

STRINGOPIDÆ, ii. 329

Strix, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 350

STROMBIDÆ, ii. 507

Struthio, ii. 368

Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 313 range of Australian genera of, i. 485

STRUTHIONES, ii. 368 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 370

STRUTHIONIDÆ, ii. 368

Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287

Sturgeons, ii. 459

Sturnella, ii. 282

Sturnia, ii. 287

STURNIDÆ, ii. 287

Sturnopastor, ii. 287

Sturnus, ii. 287

STYGIIDÆ, ii. 482

Stygogenes, ii. 444

Stylinodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Stylinodontidæ, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Styporhynchus, ii. 376

Sublegatus, ii. 101

Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180 Palæarctic, i. 191 Ethiopian, i. 258 Oriental, i. 321 Australian, i. 408 Neotropical, ii. 21 Nearctic, ii. 125

Succinea, ii. 515

Sugar-birds, ii. 278

Suidæ, European Miocene, i. 119

SUIDÆ, ii. 214

Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433

Sula, ii. 365

Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155

Sun-birds, ii. 276

Sun-bitterns, ii. 358

Suricata, ii. 195

Surnia, ii. 350

Surniculus, ii. 310

Sus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 215

Suthora, ii. 262

Suya, ii. 258

Swallows, ii. 281

Swallow-shrikes, ii. 288

Swifts, ii. 320

Swine, ii. 214

Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, i. 332

Sycalis, ii. 284

Sylvia, ii. 259

Sylvietta, ii. 264

SYLVIIDÆ, ii. 256

SYLVIINÆ, ii. 257

Sylviorthorhynchus, ii. 103

Sylviparus, ii. 266

Syma, ii. 316

Symborodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

SYMBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 455

Symbranchus, ii. 455

Symmachia, ii. 476

Symmorphus, ii. 269

Symphædra, ii. 474

Symphysodon, ii. 439

Symplectes, ii. 286

SYNALLAXINÆ, ii. 295

Synallaxis, ii. 103

Synaphodus, European Miocene, i. 119

Synaptura, ii. 441

Synchloe, ii. 474

Syndesus, ii. 493

Synemon, ii. 481

Syngnathus, ii. 457

SYNGNATHIDÆ, ii. 457

Synodontis, ii. 443

Synoplotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Syntomis, ii. 481

Syrnium, ii. 350

Syrrhaptes, ii. 337

Sysopygis, ii. 101

Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, i. 177

Taccocoua, ii. 309

Tachydromus, ii. 391

Tachyphonus, ii. 99

Tachyris, ii. 478

Tachytriorchis, ii. 348

Tadorna, ii. 363

Tæniogale, ii. 195

Tænioptera, ii. 100, 291

TÆNIOPTERINÆ, ii. 291

Tæniura, ii. 463

Talegallus, ii. 342

Talpa, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 190

TALPIDÆ, ii. 190

Tamandua, ii. 247

Tamias, ii. 235, 236

Tanæcia, ii. 474

Tanagers, ii. 283

Tanagra, ii. 98

Tanagrella, ii. 98

TANAGRIDÆ, ii. 283

Tantalus, ii. 361

Tanygnathus, ii. 326

Tanysiptera, ii. 316

Taoniscus, ii. 344

Taphozous, ii. 183

Tapir, fossil in N. China, i. 123

Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337

Tapiridæ, European Eocene, i. 125

TAPIRIDÆ, ii. 212

Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154 ii. 212

Tapirus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Miocene, i. 122 in Brazilian caves, i. 144

Tarandus, ii. 219

Tarentola, ii. 400

Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337

Tarsiger, ii. 259

TARSIIDÆ, ii. 177

Tarsipes, ii. 252

Tarsius, ii. 177

Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, i. 441

Tatare, ii. 258

Tatusia, ii. 246

Taxidea, ii. 199

Taxila, ii. 475

Taxodon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200

Taygetis, ii. 471

Tchitrea, ii. 271

TECTONARCHINÆ, ii. 275

Teguexius, ii. 390

TEIDÆ, ii. 390

Teinopalpus, ii. 479

Teira, ii. 391

Teius, ii. 390

Teleopis, ii. 375

TELEOSTEI, ii. 424

Telephonus, ii. 272

Tellia, ii. 450

TELLINIDÆ, ii. 506

Telmatobius, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 ii. 417

Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Temnotrogon, ii. 314

Temnurus, ii. 273

Tephrocorys, ii. 289

Tephrodornis, ii. 272

Teracolus, ii. 478

Terebratula, ii. 539

TEREBRATULIDÆ, ii. 532

Terekia, ii. 353

Terenura, ii. 104

Teretristis, ii. 279

Terias, ii. 478

Terinos, ii. 474

Terns, ii. 364

Terrapene, ii. 408

Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512

Terrestrial Mollusca, summary and conclusion, ii. 551 lines of migration of, ii. 552

Tesia, ii. 263

Testacella, ii. 516 ii. 517

TESTUDINIDÆ, ii. 407

Testudo, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123 great antiquity of the genus, i. 289

Testudo, ii. 408

Tethionea, ii. 501

TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506

Tetracha, ii. 486, 487

Tetrachus, European Miocene, i. 117

Tetraceros, ii. 224

Tetracus, ii. 188

Tetradactylus, ii. 397

Tetragonoderus, ii. 490

Tetragonops, ii. 306

Tetragonopterus, ii. 445

Tetragonosoma, ii. 380

Tetranematichthys, ii. 443

Tetrao albus, in Italian caverns, i. 161

Tetrao, ii. 339

Tetraogallus, ii. 339

TETRAONIDÆ, ii. 338

Tetraophasis, ii. 340

Tetrodon, ii. 457

TEUTHIDÆ, ii. 505

TEUTHIDIDÆ, ii. 433

Textor, ii. 286

Thais, ii. 479

Thalassarctos, ii. 201

Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197

Thalassornis, ii. 364

Thaleichthys, ii. 447

Thalurania, ii. 107

Thamnistes, ii. 104

Thamnobia, ii. 260

Thamnodyastes, ii. 379

Thamnomanes, ii. 104

THAMNOPHILINÆ, ii. 297

Thamnophilus, ii. 104

Thaumalea, ii. 340

Thaumantis, ii. 472

Thaumastura, ii. 108

Thaumatias, ii. 109

Thecla, ii. 477

Theloderma, ii. 419

Theope, ii. 476

Theorema, ii. 477

Theraps, ii. 438

Therates, ii. 486

Theridomys, European Miocene, i. 126 European Eocene, i. 126 S. American Eocene, i. 148 ii. 239

Theropithecus, ii. 173

Thestias, ii. 478

Thestor, ii. 477

Thetia, ii. 391

THINOCORIDÆ, ii. 354

Thinocorus, ii. 354

Thinohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215

Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Thinornis, ii. 356

Thomomys, ii. 233

Thous, ii. 197

Thrasaëtus, ii. 348

Threnetes, ii. 107

Thripadectes, ii. 103

Thripophaga, ii. 103

Thryophilus, ii. 263

Thryothorus, ii. 263

Thrushes, ii. 255

Thyca, ii. 471

Thylacinus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 249

Thylacoleo, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 252

Thymallus, ii. 447

Thynnichthys, ii. 452

Thynnus, ii. 429

Thyreopterus, ii. 491

Thyrus, ii. 398

Tiaris, ii. 284 ii. 402

Tichodroma, ii. 264

Tiga, ii. 303

Tiger-beetles, ii. 486

Tigrisoma, ii. 359

Tijuca, ii. 102

Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Tillotheridæ, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Tilmatura, ii. 108

Timalia, ii. 261

TIMALIIDÆ, ii. 260

Timetes, ii. 474

Timor, physical features of, i. 389 group, mammalia of, i. 422 birds of, i. 422 origin of fauna of, i. 424 insects of, i. 426

TINAMIDÆ, ii. 343

TINAMINÆ, ii. 344

Tinamous, ii. 343

TINAMOTINÆ, ii. 344

Tinamotis, ii. 344

Tinamus, ii. 344

Tinca, ii. 452

Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Titanomys, European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 242

Titanotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Tits, ii. 265

Tityra, ii. 102

TITYRINÆ, ii. 293

Tmesisternus, ii. 501

Toads, ii. 415

Tockus, ii. 317

TODIDÆ, ii. 313

Todies, ii. 313

Todirhamphus, ii. 316

Todirostrum, ii. 101

Todopsis, ii. 271

Todus, ii. 313

Tolypeutes, ii. 246

Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Tomistoma, ii. 405

Tomodon, ii. 175

Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443

Topaza, ii. 107

TORNATELLIDÆ, ii. 530

TORPEDINIDÆ, ii. 462

Tortoises, classification of, i. 100 of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i. 289 ii. 407

TORTRICIDÆ, ii. 373

Tortrix, ii. 373

Totanus, ii. 353

Toucans, ii. 306

Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

Toxodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 137

Toxodontidæ, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Toxotus, ii. 502

Trachelyopterus, ii. 443

TRACHINIDÆ, ii. 428

Trachinus, ii. 428

Trachurus, ii. 429

Trachycephalus, ii. 401 ii. 418

Trachydosaurus, ii. 397

Trachyphonus, ii. 306

TRACHYPTERIDÆ, ii. 432

Trachytherium, European Miocene, i. 119

TRAGELAPHINÆ, ii. 223

Tragelaphus, ii. 223

Tragocerus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120

Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331

Tragops, ii. 379

TRAGULIDÆ, ii. 218

Tragulus, ii. 218

Trapelus, ii. 402

Trechus, ii. 489

Tree-crows, ii. 273

Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415

Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i. 337

Tree-snakes, ii. 378

Tremarctos, ii. 202

Treron, ii. 332

Tres Marias, zoology of, ii. 59

Tribolonotus, ii. 397

Triboniophorus, ii. 517

Tribonyx, ii. 352

Trichastoma, ii. 261

TRICHECHIDÆ, ii. 203

Trichechus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 203

TRICHIURIDÆ, ii. 429

Trichixos, ii. 262

TRICHOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 327

Trichoglossidæ, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 393

Trichoglossus, ii. 327

Tricholæma, ii. 306

Trichomycterus, ii. 444

Trycondyla, ii. 486

Trichonis, ii. 477

TRICHONOTIDÆ, ii. 435

Trichothraupis, ii. 99

Trichotropis, ii. 507

Triclaria, ii. 328

TRIDACNIDÆ, ii. 535

Trigla, ii. 428

TRIGLIDÆ, ii. 427

Trigona, ii. 536

TRIGONIADÆ, ii. 534

Trigonoptera, ii. 501

Trimeresurus, ii. 385

Tringa, ii. 353

Tringoides, ii. 353

TRIONYCHIDÆ, ii. 409

Trionyx, Indian Miocene, i. 123 Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 ii. 409

Triprion, ii. 418

Triptorhinus, ii. 297

Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, i. 271

Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, i. 203 on the arrangement of the Sylviidæ, ii. 257

Triton, ii. 413

TRITONIADÆ, ii. 530

Trochalopteron, ii. 261

Trochatella, ii. 522

TROCHILIDÆ, ii. 321

Trochilus, ii. 108

Trochus, ii. 510

Troglodytes, ii. 170 ii. 263

TROGLODYTIDÆ, ii. 263

Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 314

Trogon, ii. 314

TROGONIDÆ, ii. 314

TROGONOPHIDÆ, ii. 388

Trogonophis, ii. 388

Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i. 111 ii. 234

Tropidechis, ii. 383

Tropidococcyx, ii. 379

Tropidodipsas, ii. 379

Tropidolepis, ii. 401

Tropidolepisma, ii. 397

Tropidonotus, ii. 375

Tropidophorus, ii. 397

Tropidopterus, ii. 490

Tropidorhynchus, ii. 276

Trucifelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129

Trugon, ii. 333

Trumpeters, ii. 358

Truncatella, ii. 519

Trgyon, ii. 463

TRYGONIDÆ, ii. 463

Tuatara, ii. 405

Tudora, ii. 521

Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, i. 216

Tupaia, ii. 186

TUPAIIDÆ, ii. 186

Tupaiidæ, European Miocene, i. 118

Turacoena, ii. 333

Turacos, ii. 307

Turacus, ii. 307

TURBINIDÆ, ii. 510

TURDIDÆ, ii. 255

Turdinus, ii. 262

Turdus, ii. 256

Turnagra, ii. 262

Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i. 90

TURNICIDÆ, ii. 341

Turnix, ii. 341

TURRITELLIDÆ, ii. 509

Tursio, ii. 209

Turtles, ii. 409

Turtur, ii. 333

Tylas, ii. 267

Tylodon, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 196

Tylognathus, ii. 451

Tylotriton, ii. 413

Typhlina, ii. 372

Typhline, ii. 372

Typhlocalamus, ii. 374

TYPHLOPIDÆ, ii. 372

Typhlops, ii. 372

Typhloscincus, ii. 399

Typotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

TYRANNIDÆ, ii. 290

TYRANNINÆ, ii. 291

Tyranniscus, ii. 101

Tyrannulus, ii. 101

Tyrannus, ii. 102, 291

Tyrant-Shrikes, ii. 290

Uaru, ii. 439

Uintacyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Uintornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163

Uma, ii. 401

UMBRIDÆ, ii. 449

Umbrina, ii. 428

Ungalia, ii. 381

Ungulata, classification of, i. 89 antiquity of, i. 154 of the Palæarctic region, i. 182 range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 241 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 range of Australian genera of, i. 476

Ungulata, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146

UNGULATA, ii. 211 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 226 summary and conclusion, ii. 542

Unio, European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 534

UNIONIDÆ, ii. 534

Upucerthia, ii. 103

UPUPIDÆ, ii. 317

Uragus, ii. 285

Urania of Madagascar, i. 282

Urania, ii. 482

URANIIDÆ, ii. 482

Uria, ii. 367

Uroaëtus, ii. 348

Urocissa, ii. 273

Urochroa, ii. 107

Urochroma, ii. 328

Urocyon, ii. 197

URODELA, ii. 411

Urogalba, ii. 311

Urolestes, ii. 272

Uromastix, ii. 402

UROPELTIDÆ, ii. 373

Uuropeltis, ii. 374

Uropsila, ii. 264

Uropsilus, ii. 190

Uropsophorus, ii. 385

Urospatha, ii. 313

Urospizias, ii. 348

Urosticte, ii. 108

Urotrichus, ii. 190

Urotriorchis, ii. 347

Ursidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 in Brazilian caves, i. 144

URSIDÆ, ii. 201

Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 200

Ursus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 201

Urubutinga, ii. 348

Urva, ii. 195

Uta, ii. 401

Utica, ii. 477

Vaginulus, ii. 518

Valgus, ii. 495

Valvata, ii. 510

Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

Vanga, ii. 272

Vandellia, ii. 444

Vanellus, ii. 356

Vanessa, ii. 474

VARANIDÆ, ii. 389

Varanus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123

VENERIDÆ, ii. 536

Venilia, ii. 303

Vermicella, ii. 383

Verreauxia, ii. 303

Vertebrata, summary of Palæarctic, i. 186 summary of Ethiopian, i. 255 summary of Oriental, i. 318 summary of Australian, i. 397 summary of Neotropical, ii. 13 summary of Nearctic, ii. 120

Vespertilio, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 183

VESPERTILIONIDÆ, ii. 183

Vidua, ii. 286

Vipera, ii. 385

VIPERIDÆ, ii. 385

Viperus, European Miocene, i. 165

Vipers, ii. 385

Vireo, ii. 280

VIREONIDÆ, ii. 279

Vireolanius, ii. 280

Vireosylvia, ii. 280

Viscacha, ii. 237

Vitrina, ii. 516

Viverra, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195

Viverricula, ii. 195

Viverridæ, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125

VIVERRIDÆ, ii. 194

Vivia, ii. 303

Volatinia, ii. 284

Voluta, ii. 508

Volutes, ii. 508

VOLUTIDÆ, ii. 508

Volvocivora, ii. 269

Vulpes, ii. 197

Vultur, ii. 346

VULTURIDÆ, ii. 345

VULTURINÆ, ii. 346

Wagtails, ii. 290

Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine islands, i. 346 on birds of Celebes, i. 428 on arrangement of the Timaliidæ, ii. 261

Wallago, ii. 441

Wall-lizards, ii. 399

Walrus, ii. 203

Wart-snakes, ii. 382

Washakius, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, i. 90 on classification of marsupials, i. 91

Water-lizards, ii. 389

Weaver-finches, ii. 286

West African sub-region, description of, i. 262 mammalia of, i. 262 birds of, i. 262 Oriental or Malayan element in, i. 263 river scene with characteristic animals, i. 264 reptiles of, i. 264 amphibia of, i. 264 Oriental and Neotropical relations of, i. 265 insects of, i. 265 land-shells of, i. 265 islands of, i. 265

West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441

Whelks, ii. 507

Whip-snakes, ii. 379

Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

Wing-shells, ii. 507 ii. 533

Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the Coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, i. 209 on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, i. 211 on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, i. 214 on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 on the beetles of St. Helena, i. 270

Wombats, ii. 253

Woodpeckers, ii. 302

Wood-warblers, ii. 278

Woolly monkeys, ii. 174

Wrens, ii. 263

Wrynecks, ii. 304

Xanthocephalus, ii. 282

Xantholæma, ii. 306

Xanthomelus, ii. 275

Xanthopygia, ii. 270

Xanthosomus, ii. 282

Xanthotis, ii. 275

Xema, ii. 364

Xenelaphis, ii. 376

Xenica, ii. 471

Xenicus, ii. 265

Xenochrophys, ii. 375

Xenocypris, ii. 452

Xenodermus, ii. 376

Xenodon, ii. 375

XENOPELTIDÆ, ii. 373

Xenopeltis, ii. 373

Xenophrys, ii. 421

Xenopipo, ii. 102

Xenops, ii. 103

Xenorhina, ii. 415

XENORHINIDÆ, ii. 415

Xenospingus, ii. 284

Xenurelaps, ii. 383

Xenurus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246

Xiphias, ii. 430

Xiphidiopicus, ii. 303

XIPHIIDÆ, ii. 430

Xiphius, ii. 208

Xiphocolaptes, ii. 103

Xiphodontidæ, European Miocene, i. 119

Xipholena, ii. 102

Xiphorhampus, ii. 445

Xiphorhynchus, ii. 103

Xiphostoma, ii. 445

Xystrocera, ii. 501

Ypthima, ii. 471

Yuhina, ii. 266

YUNGIDÆ, ii. 304

Yungipicus, ii. 303

Yunx, ii. 304

Zabrus, ii. 489

Zalophus, ii. 203

Zamenis, ii. 375

Zanclostomus, ii. 309

Zaocys, ii. 375

Zebras, ii. 211

Zegris, ii. 478

Zemeros, ii. 475

Zenaida, ii. 333

Zenaidura, ii. 332

Zephyrus, ii. 477

Zeuglodon, ii. 210

Zeuglodontidæ, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 210

Zeus, ii. 429

Zeuxidia, ii. 472

Zoarces, ii. 431

Zonites, ii. 516

Zonites priscus, Palæozoic, i. 169

Zonotrichia, ii. 284

ZONURIDÆ, ii. 391

Zonurus, ii. 392

Zoological characteristics of Palæarctic region, i. 181 Ethiopian region, i. 252 Oriental region, i. 315 Australian region, i. 390 of Neotropical region, ii. 5 of Nearctic region, ii. 115

Zoological regions, discussion on, i. 50 their origin and relations, ii. 155-161

Zoothera, ii. 256

Zootoca, ii. 391

Zosterops, ii. 277

Zygæna, ii. 481

ZYGÆNIDÆ, ii. 481

Zygnopsis, ii. 398

THE END.

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.

Notes

[1] Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, and Professor Newton, divide the Neotropical Region into six sub-regions, of which our "Brazilian sub-region" comprises three--the "Brazilian," the "Amazonian," and the "Columbian;" but, after due consideration, it does not seem advisable to adopt this subdivision in a general work which treats of all the classes of terrestrial animals. (See p. 27.)

[2] Mr. Salvin, who has critically examined the ornithological fauna of these islands, has kindly corrected my MS. List of the Birds, his valuable paper in the Transactions of the Zoological Society not having been published in time for me to make use of it.

[3] This name will be used for the whole island of St. Domingo, as being both shorter and more euphonious, and avoiding all confusion with Dominica, one of the Lesser Antilles. It is also better known than "Hispaniola," which is perhaps the most correct name.

[4] Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacidæ; but a recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it belongs to the Muridæ, and comes near Arvicola.

[5] The species of the genera Phylloscopus and Hypolais are so mixed up in the Hand List, that Mr. Tristram has furnished me with the following enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong to them, by the numbers in that work:--

Phylloscopus. 3032 3033 3048 = 3038 3039 3063 = 3047 = 3054 = 3061 3048 3049 3050 3051 3052 3053 3056 = 3081 3057 3059 3060

Hypolais. 3026 3028 3029 3054 = 3031 = 3036 3042 3043 304 3062 = 3047 3046 = 2932 3035 2976

[6] The term "Malaya" is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are confined. "Malay Archipelago" will be used to include both Indo-Malaya and Austro-Malaya.

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