Part III (part 2 of 2)

Part III (part 2 of 2)

Insects.--Of the reptiles and fishes of Celebes we have not sufficient information to draw any satisfactory conclusions. I therefore pass to the insects of which something more is known.

The Butterflies of Celebes are not very numerous, less than 200 species in all having been collected; but a very large proportion of them, probably three-fourths of the whole, are peculiar. There is only one peculiar genus, Amechania, allied to Zethera (a group confined to the Philippine Islands), with which it should perhaps be united. Most of the genera are of wide distribution in the archipelago, or are especially Malayan, only two truly Australian genera, Elodina and Acropthalmia, reaching Celebes. On the other hand, 7 peculiar Oriental genera are found in Celebes, but not further east, viz., Clerome, Adolias, Euripus, Apatura, Limenitis, Iolaus, and Leptocircus. There are also several indications of a direct affinity with the continent rather than with Malaya, as in the cases already enumerated among birds. A fine butterfly, yet unnamed, almost exactly resembles Dichorragia nesimachus, a Himalayan species. Euripus robustus is closely allied to E. halitherses of N. India; there are no less than 5 species of Limenitis, all quite unlike those found in other parts of the archipelago. The butterflies of Celebes are remarkably distinguished from all others in the East, by peculiarities of form, size, and colour, which run through groups of species belonging to different genera. Many Papilionidæ and Pieridæ, and some {435}Nymphalidæ, have the anterior wings elongated, with the apex often acute, and, what is especially remarkable, an abrupt bend or shoulder near the base of the wing. (See Malay Archipelago, 3rd Ed. p. 281, woodcut.) No less than 13 species of Papilio, 10 Pieridæ, and 4 or 5 Nymphalidæ, are thus distinguished from their nearest allies in the surrounding islands or in India. In size again, a large number of Celebesian butterflies stand preeminent over their allies. The fine Papilios--adamantius, blumei, and gigon--are perfect giants by the side of the closely-allied forms of Java; while P. androcles is the largest and longest-tailed, of all the true swallow-tailed group of the Old World. Among Nymphalidæ, the species of Rhinopalpa and Euripus, peculiar to Celebes, are immensely larger than their nearest allies; and several of the Pieridæ are also decidedly larger, though in a less marked degree. In colour, many of the Celebesian butterflies differ from the nearest allied species; so that they acquire a singularity of aspect which marks them off from the rest of the group. The most curious case is that of three butterflies, belonging to three distinct genera (Cethosia myrina, Messaras mæonides, and Atella celebensis) all having a delicate violet or lilac gloss in lines or patches, which is wholly wanting in every allied species of the surrounding islands. These numerous peculiarities of Celebesian butterflies are very extraordinary; and imply isolation from surrounding lands, almost as much as do the strange forms of mammals and birds, which more prominently characterise this interesting island.

Of the Coleoptera we know much less, but a few interesting facts may be noted. There are a number of fine species of Cicindela, some of peculiar forms; and one Odontochila, a South American genus; while Collyris reaches Celebes from the Oriental region. In Carabidæ it has one peculiar genus, Dicraspeda; and a species of the fine Australian genus Catadromus. In Lucanidæ it has the Oriental genus, Odontolabris. In Cetoniidæ it has a peculiar genus, Sternoplus, and several fine Cetoniæ; but the characteristic Malayan genus, Lomaptera, found in every other island of the archipelago from Sumatra to New Guinea, is absent--an analogous fact to the case of Ceyx among birds. {436}In Buprestidæ, the principal Austro-Malay genus, Sambus, is found here; while Sponsor, a genus 8 species of which inhabit Mauritius, has one species here and one in New Guinea. In Longicorns there are four peculiar genera, Comusia, Pytholia, Bityle, and Ombrosaga; but the most important features are the occurrence of the otherwise purely Indo-Malayan genera Agelasta, Nyctimene, and Astathes; and of the purely Austro-Malayan Arrhenotus, Trysimia, Xenolea, Amblymora, Diallus, and Ægocidnus. The remaining genera range over both portions of the archipelago. In the extensive family of Curculionidæ we can only notice the elegant genus, Celebia, allied to Eupholus, which, owing to its abundance and beauty, is a conspicuous feature in the entomology of the island.

Origin of the fauna of Celebes.--We have now to consider, briefly, what past changes of physical geography are indicated by the curious assemblage of facts here adduced. We have evidently, in Celebes, a remnant of an exceedingly ancient land, which has undergone many and varied revolutions; and the stock of ancient forms which it contains must be taken account of, when we speculate on the causes that have so curiously limited more recent immigrations. Going back to the arrival of those genera which are represented in Celebes by peculiar species, and taking first the Austro-Malay genera, we find among them such groups as Zonoenas (s.g.), Phlogoenas, Leucotreron (s.g.), and Turacoena, which are not found in the Moluccas at all; and Myzomela, found in Timor and Banda, but not in Ceram or Bouru, which are nearest to Celebes. This, combined with the curious absence of so many of the commonest Moluccan genera, leads to the conclusion that the Austro-Malay immigration took place by way of Timor and the southern part of New Guinea. It will be remembered, that to account for the Indo-Malayan forms in New Guinea, we suggested an extension of that country in a westerly direction just north of Timor. Now this is exactly what we require, to account for the stocking of Celebes with the Australian forms it possesses. At this time Borneo did not approach so near, and it was at a somewhat later period that the last great Indo-Malay migration set in; but {437}finding the country already fairly stocked, comparatively few groups were able to establish themselves.

Going back a little farther, we come to the entrance of those few birds and insects which belong to India or Indo-China; and this probably occurred at the same time as that continental extension southward, which we found was required to account for a similar phenomenon in Java. Celebes, being more remote, received only a few stragglers. We have now to go much farther back, to the time when the ancestors of the peculiar Celebesian genera entered the country, and here our conjectures must necessarily be less defined.

On the Australian side we have to account for Megacephalon, and the other genera of purely Papuan type. It may perhaps be sufficient to say, that we do not yet know that these genera, or some very close allies, do not still exist in New Guinea; in which case they may well have entered at the same time with the species, already referred to. If, on the other hand, they are really as isolated as they appear to be, they represent an earlier communication, either by an approximation of the two islands over the space now occupied by the Moluccas; or, what is perhaps more probable, through a former extension of the Moluccas, which have since undergone so much subsidence, as to lead to the extinction of a large proportion of their ancient fauna. The wide-spread volcanic action, and especially the prevalence of raised coral-reefs in almost all the islands, render this last supposition very probable.

On the Oriental side the difficulty is greater; for here we find, what seem to be clear indications of a connection with Africa, as well as with Continental Asia, at some immensely remote epoch. Cynopithecus, Babirusa, and Anoa; Ceycopsis, Streptocitta, and Gazzola (s. g.), and perhaps Scissirostrum, may be well explained as descendants of ancestral types in their respective groups, which also gave rise to the special forms of Africa on the one hand, and of Asia on the other. For this immigration we must suppose, that at a period before the formation of the present Indo-Malay Islands, a great tract of land extended in a north-westerly direction, till it met the old Asiatic continent. This may have been before {438}the Himalayas had risen to any great height, and when a large part of what are now the cold plateaus of Central Asia may have teemed with life, some forms of which are preserved in Africa, some in Malaya, and a few in Celebes. Here may have lived the common ancestor of Sus, Babirusa, and Phacochoerus; as well as of Cynopithecus, Cynocephalus, and Macacus; of Anoa and Bubalus; of Scissirostrum and Euryceros; of Ceyx, Ceycopsis, and Ispidina. Such an origin accounts, too, for the presence of the North-Indian forms in Celebes; and it offers less difficulties than a direct connection with continental Africa, which once appeared to be the only solution of the problem. If this south-eastward extension of Asia occurred at the same time as the north-eastward extension of South Africa and Madagascar, the two early continents may have approached each other sufficiently to have allowed of some interchange of forms: Tarsius may be the descendant of some Lemurine animal that then entered the Malayan area, while the progenitors of Cryptoprocta may then have passed from Asia to Madagascar.

It is true that we here reach the extremest limits of speculation; but when we have before us such singular phenomena as are presented by the fauna of the island of Celebes, we can hardly help endeavouring to picture to our imaginations by what past changes of land and sea (in themselves not improbable) the actual condition of things may have been brought about.

II. Australia and Tasmania, or the Australian Sub-region.

A general sketch of Australian zoology having been given in the earlier part of this chapter, it will not be necessary to occupy much time on this sub-region, which is as remarkably homogeneous as the one we have just left is heterogeneous. Although much of the northern part of Australia is within the tropics, while Victoria and Tasmania are situated from 36° to 43° south latitude, there is no striking change in the character of the fauna throughout the continent; a number of important genera extending over the whole country, and giving a very uniform character to its zoology. The eastern parts, including the colonies of New South Wales and Queensland, are undoubtedly the richest, several peculiar types being found only here. The southern portion is somewhat poorer, and has very few peculiar forms; and Tasmania being isolated is poorer still, yet its zoology has much resemblance to that of Victoria, from which country it has evidently not been very long separated. The north, as far as yet known, is characterised by hardly any peculiar forms, but by the occurrence of a number of Papuan types, which have evidently been derived from New Guinea.

Plate XI.

A SCENE IN TASMANIA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{439}Mammalia.--The Australian sub-region contains about 160 species of Mammalia, of which 3 are Monotremata, 102 Marsupials, 23 Chiroptera, 1 Carnivora (the native dog, probably not indigenous), and 31 Muridæ. The north is characterised by a species of the Austro-Malayan genus Cuscus. Phascolarctos (the koala, or native bear) is found only in the eastern districts; Phascolomys (the wombat) in the south-east and Tasmania; Petaurista (a peculiar form of flying opossum) in the east. Thylacinus (the zebra-wolf), and Sarcophilus (the "native devil"), two carnivorous marsupials, are confined to Tasmania. West Australia, the most isolated and peculiar region botanically, alone possesses the curious little honey-eating Tarsipes, and the Peragalea, or native rabbit. The remarkable Myrmecobius, a small ant-eating marsupial, is found in the west and south; and Onychogalea, a genus of kangaroos, in West and Central Australia. All the other genera have a wider distribution, as will be seen by a reference to the list at the end of this chapter.

Plate XI. A Scene in Tasmania, with Characteristic Mammalia.--As some of the most remarkable Mammalia of the Australian region are now found only in Tasmania, we have chosen this island for the scene of our first illustration of the fauna of the Australian sub-region. The pair of large striped animals are zebra-wolves (Thylacinus cynocephalus), the largest and most destructive of the carnivorous marsupials. These creatures used to be tolerably plentiful in Tasmania, where they are alone found. They are also called "native tigers," or "native hyænas;" and being destructive to sheep, they have been destroyed by the farmers and will doubtless soon be exterminated. In the foreground on {440}the left is a bandicoot (Perameles gunnii). These are delicate little animals allied to the kangaroos; and they are found in all parts of Australia, and Tasmania, to which latter country this species is confined. On the right is the wombat (Phascolomys wombat), a root-eating marsupial, with large incisor teeth like those of our rodents. They inhabit south-east Australia and Tasmania. In the foreground is the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna setosa), belonging to a distinct order of mammalia, Monotremata, of which the only other member is the duck-billed Ornithorhynchus. These animals are, however, more nearly allied to the marsupials, than to the insectivora or edentata of the rest of the world, which in some respects they resemble. An allied species (Echidna hystrix) inhabits south-east Australia.

Birds.--Australia (with Tasmania) possesses about 630 species of birds, of which 485 are land-birds. Not more than about one-twentieth of these are found elsewhere, so that it has a larger proportion of endemic species than any other sub-region on the globe. These birds are divided among the several orders as follows:

Passeres 306 Picariæ 41 Psittaci 60 Columbæ 24 Gallinæ 15 Accipitres 36 Grallæ 77 Anseres 65 Struthiones 3

The Psittaci, we see, are very richly represented, while the Picariæ are comparatively few; and the Columbæ are scarce as compared with their abundance in the Austro-Malay sub-region.

Birds seem to be very evenly distributed over all Australia; comparatively few genera of importance being locally restricted. In the eastern districts alone, we find Origma, and Orthonyx (Sylviidæ); Sericulus and Ptilorhynchus (Paradiseidæ); Leucosarcia (Columbidæ); and Talegalla (Megapodiidæ). Nectarinia, Pitta, Ptilorhis, Chlamydodera, and Sphecotheres, range from the north down the east coasts. Nanodes (Psittacidæ), and Lipoa (Megapodiidæ), are southern forms, the first extending {441}to Tasmania; which island appears to possess no peculiar genus of birds except Eudyptes, one of the penguins. West Australia has no wholly peculiar genus except Geopsittacus, a curious form of ground parroquet; the singular Atrichia, first found here, having been discovered in the east. In North Australia, Emblema (Ploceidæ) is the only peculiar Australian genus, but several Austro-Malayan and Papuan genera enter,--as, Syma and Tanysiptera (Alcedinidæ); Machærihynchus (Muscicapidæ); Calornis (Sturnidæ); Manucodia, Ptilorhis, and Æluroedus (Paradiseidæ); Megapodius; and Casuarius. The presence of a species of bustard (Eupodotis) in Australia, is very curious, its nearest allies being in the plains of India and Africa. Among waders the genus Tribonyx, a thick-legged bird somewhat resembling the Notornis of New Zealand, though not closely allied to it, is the most remarkable. The district where the typical Australian forms most abound is undoubtedly the eastern side of the island. The north and south are both somewhat poorer, the west much poorer, although it possesses a few very peculiar forms, especially among Mammalia. Tasmania is the poorest of all, a considerable number of genera being here wanting; but, except the two peculiar carnivorous marsupials, it possesses nothing to mark it off zoologically from the adjacent parts of the main land. It is probable that its insular climate, more moist and less variable than that of Australia, may not be suitable to some of the absent forms; while others may require more space and more varied conditions, than are offered by a comparatively small island.

The remaining classes of animals have been already discussed in our sketch of the region as a whole (p. 396).

Plate XII. Illustrating the Fauna of Australia.--In this plate we take New South Wales as our locality, and represent chiefly, the more remarkable Australian types of birds. The most conspicuous figure is the wonderful lyre-bird (Menura superba), the elegant plumage of whose tail is altogether unique in the whole class of birds. The unadorned bird is the female. In the centre is the emu (Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ), the representative in Australia, of the ostrich in Africa and America, but {442}belonging to a different family, the Casurariidæ. To the right are a pair of crested pigeons (Ocyphaps lophotes), one of the many singular forms of the pigeon family to which the Australian region gives birth. In every other part of the globe pigeons are smooth-headed birds, but here they have developed three distinct forms of crest, as seen in this bird, the crowned pigeon figured in Plate X., and the double-crested pigeon (Lopholæmus antarcticus). The large bird on the tree is one of the Australian frog-mouthed goat-suckers (Podargus strigoides), which are called in the colony "More-pork," from their peculiar cry. They do not capture their prey on the wing like true goat-suckers, but hunt about the branches of trees at dusk, for large insects, and also for unfledged birds. A large kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) is seen in the distance; and passing through the air, a flying opossum (Petaurus sciureus), a beautiful modification of a marsupial, so as to resemble in form and habits the flying squirrels of the northern hemisphere.

III. The Pacific Islands, or Polynesian Sub-region.

Although the area of this sub-region is so vast, and the number of islands it contains almost innumerable, there is a considerable amount of uniformity in its forms of animal life. From the Ladrone islands on the west, to the Marquesas on the east, a distance of more than 5,000 miles, the same characteristic genera of birds prevail; and this is the only class of animals on which we can depend, mammalia being quite absent, and reptiles very scarce. The Sandwich Islands, however, form an exception to this uniformity; and, as far as we yet know, they are so peculiar that they ought, perhaps, to form a separate sub-region. They are, however, geographically a part of Polynesia; and a more careful investigation of their natural history may show more points of agreement with the other islands. It is therefore a matter of convenience, at present, to keep them in the Polynesian sub-region, which may be divided into Polynesia proper and the Sandwich Islands.

Plate XII.

THE PLAINS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{443}Polynesia proper consists of a number of groups of islands of some importance, and a host of smaller intermediate islets. For the purpose of zoological comparison, we may class them in four main divisions. 1. The Ladrone and Caroline Islands; 2. New Caledonia and the New Hebrides; 3. The Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands; 4. The Society, and Marquesas Islands. The typical Polynesian fauna is most developed in the third division; and it will be well to describe this first, and then show how the other islands diverge from it, and approximate other sub-regions.

Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands.--The land-birds inhabiting these islands belong to 41 genera, of which 17 are characteristic of the Australian region, and 9 more peculiarly Polynesian. The characteristic Australian genera are the following: Petroica (Sylviidæ); Lalage (Campephagidæ); Monarcha, Myiagra, Rhipidura (Muscicapidæ); Pachycephala (Pachycephalidæ); Rectes (Laniidæ); Myzomela, Ptilotis, Anthochæra (Meliphagidæ); Amadina, Eythrura, (Ploceidæ); Artamus (Artamidæ); Lorius (Trichoglossidæ); Ptilopus, Phlogænas (Columbidæ); Megapodius (Megapodiidæ).

The peculiar Polynesian genera are:--Tatare, Lamprolia (Sylviidæ); Aplonis, Sturnodes (Sturnidæ); Todiramphus (Alcedinidæ); Pyrhulopsis, Cyanoramphus, (Platycercidæ); Coriphilus (Trichoglossidæ); Didunculus (Didunculidæ).

The wide-spread genera are Turdus, Zosterops, Hirundo, Halcyon, Collocalia, Eudynamis, Cuculus, Ianthoenas, Carpophaga, Turtur, Haliæetus, Astur, Circus, Strix, Asio. The aquatic birds are fifteen in number, all wide-spread species except one--a form of moor-hen (Gallinulidæ), which has been constituted a new genus Pareudiastes.

Society, and Marquesas Islands.--Here, the number of genera of land-birds has considerably diminished, amounting only to 16 in all. The characteristic Australian genera are 5;--Monarcha, Anthochæra, Trichoglossus, Ptilopus, and Phlogoenas. The Polynesian genera are 4;--Tatare, Todiramphus, Cyanoramphus, Coriphilus, and one recently described genus, Serresius, an extraordinary form of large fruit pigeon, here classed under Carpophaga. These remote groups have thus all the character of Oceanic islands, even as regards the rest of Polynesia, since they {444}possess hardly anything, but what they might have received by immigration over a wide extent of ocean.

Ladrone, and Caroline Islands.--These extensive groups of small islands are very imperfectly known, yet a considerable number of birds have been obtained. They possess two peculiar Polynesian genera, Tatare and Sturnodes; one peculiar sub-genus, Psammathia (here included under Acrocephalus); and ten of the typical Australian genera found in Polynesia,--Lalage, Monarcha, Myiagra, Rhipidura, Myzomela, Erythrura, Artamus, Phlogoenas, Ptilopus, and Megapodius, as well as the Papuan genus Rectes, and the Malayan Calornis;--so that they can be certainly placed in the sub-region. Genera which do not occur in the other Polynesian islands are, Acrocephalus, (s.g. Psammathia) originally derived perhaps from the Philippines; and Caprimulgus, a peculiar species, allied to one from Japan.

New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides.--Although these islands seem best placed with Polynesia, yet they form a transition to Australia proper, and to the Papuan group. They possess 30 genera of land-birds, 18 of which are typical of the Australian region; but while 13 are also Polynesian, there are 5 which do not pass further east. These are Acanthiza, Eopsaltria, Gliciphila, Philemon, and Ianthoenas. The peculiar Polynesian genus, Aplonis, of which three species inhabit New Caledonia, link it to the other portions of the sub-region. The following are the genera at present known from New Caledonia:--Turdus, Acanthiza, Campephaga, Lalage, Myiagra, Rhipidura, Pachycephala, Eopsaltria, Corvus, Physocorax (s.g. of Corvus, allied to the jackdaws), Glicphila, Anthochæra, Philemon, Zosterops, Erythrura, Aplonis, Artamus, Cuculus, Halcyon, Collocalia, Cyanoramphus, Trichoglossus, Ptilopus, Carpophaga, Macropygia, Ianthoenas, Chalcophaps, Haliastur, Accipiter. The curious Rhinochetus jubatus, forming the type of a distinct family of birds (Rhinochetidæ), allied to the herons, is only known from New Caledonia.

It thus appears, that not more than about 50 genera and 150 species of land-birds, are known from the vast number of islands that are scattered over the Central Pacific, and it is not probable {445}that the number will be very largely increased. Some of the species, as the Eudynamis taitensis and Tatare longirostris, range over 40° of longitude, from the Fiji Islands to the Marquesas. In other genera, as Cyanoramphus and Ptilopus, each important island or group of islands, has its peculiar species. The connection of all these islands with each other, on the one hand, and their close relation to the Australian region, on the other, are equally apparent; but we have no sufficient materials for speculating with any success, on the long series of changes that have brought about their existing condition, as regards their peculiar forms of animal life.

Sandwich Islands.--This somewhat extensive group of large islands, is only known to contain 11 genera and 18 species of indigenous land-birds; and even of this small number, two birds of prey are wide ranging species, which may well have reached the islands during their present isolated condition. These latter are, Strix delicatula, an owl spread over Australia and the Pacific; and Asio accipitrinus, a species which has reached the Galapagos from S. America, and thence perhaps the Sandwich Islands. Of the remaining 8 genera, one is a crow (Corvus hawaiensis), and another a fishing eagle (Pandion solitarius), of peculiar species; leaving 7 genera, which are all (according to Mr. Sclater) peculiar. First we have Chasiempis, a genus of Muscicapidæ, containing two species (which may however belong to distinct genera); and as the entire family is unknown on the American continent these birds must almost certainly be allied to some of the numerous Muscicapine forms of the Australian region. Next we have the purely Australian family Meliphagidæ, represented by two genera,--Moho, an isolated form, and Chætoptila, a genus established by Mr. Sclater for a bird before classed in Entomyza, an Australian group. The four remaining genera are believed by Mr. Sclater to belong to one group, the Drepanididæ, altogether confined to the Sandwich Islands. Two of them, Drepanis and Hemignathus, with three species each, are undoubtedly allied; the other two, Loxops and Psittirostra, have usually been classed as finches. The former seem to approach the Dicæidæ; and all resemble this group in their coloration,

{446}The aquatic birds and waders all belong to wide-spread genera, and only one or two are peculiar species.

The Sandwich Islands thus possess a larger proportion of peculiar genera and species of land-birds than any other group of islands, and they are even more strikingly characterised by what seems to be a peculiar family. The only other class of terrestrial animals at all adequately represented on these islands, are the land shells; and here too we find a peculiar family, sub-family, or genus (Achatinella or Achatinellidæ) consisting of a number of genera, or sub-genera,--according to the divergent views of modern conchologists,--and nearly 300 species. The Rev. J. T. Gulick, who has made a special study of these shells on the spot, considers that there are 10 genera, some of which are confined to single islands. The species are so restricted that their average range is not more than five or six square miles, while some are confined to a tract of only two square miles in extent, and very few range over an entire island. Some species are confined to the mountain ridges, others to the valleys; and each ridge or valley possesses its peculiar species. Considerably more than half the species occur in the island of Oahu, where there is a good deal of forest. Very few shells belonging to other groups occur, and they are all small and obscure; the Achatinellæ almost monopolising the entire archipelago.

Remarks on the probable past history of the Sandwich Islands.--The existence of these peculiar groups of birds and land-shells in so remote a group of volcanic islands, clearly indicates that they are but the relics of a more extensive land; and the reefs and islets that stretch for more than 1,000 miles in a west-north-west direction, may be the remains of a country once sufficiently extensive to develope these and many other, now extinct, forms of life.[16]

Some light may perhaps be thrown on the past history of the {447}Sandwich Islands, by the peculiar plants which are found on their mountains. The peak of Teneriffe produces no Alpine plants of European type, and this has been considered to prove that it has been always isolated; whereas the occurrence of North Temperate forms on the mountains of Java, accords with other evidence of this island having once formed part of the Asiatic continent. Now on the higher summits of the Sandwich Islands, nearly 30 genera of Arctic and North Temperate flowering plants have been found. Many of these occur also in the South Temperate zone, in Australia or New Zealand; but there are others which seem plainly to point to a former connection with some North Temperate land, probably California, as a number of islets are scattered in the ocean between the two countries. The most interesting genera are the following:--Silene, which is wholly North Temperate, except that it occurs in S. Africa; Vicia, also North Temperate, and in South Temperate America; Fragaria, with a similar distribution; Aster, widely spread in America, otherwise North Temperate only; Vaccinium, wholly confined to the northern hemisphere, in cold and temperate climates. None of these are found in Australia or New Zealand; and their presence in the Sandwich Islands seems clearly to indicate a former approximation to North Temperate America, although the absence of any American forms of vertebrata renders it certain that no actual land connection ever took place.

Recent soundings have shown, that the Sandwich Islands rise from a sea which is 3,000 fathoms or 18,000 feet deep; while there is a depth of at least 2,000 fathoms all across to California on one side, and to Japan on the other. Between the Fiji Islands, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, and Australia, the depth is about 1,300 fathoms, and between Sydney and New Zealand 2,600 fathoms; showing, in every case, a general accordance between the depth of sea and the approximation of the several faunas. In a few more years, when it is to be hoped we shall know the contour of the sea-bottom better than that of the continents, we shall be able to arrive at more definite and trustworthy conclusions as to the probable changes {448}of land and sea by which the phenomena of animal distribution in the Pacific have been brought about.

Reptiles of the Polynesian Sub-region.--The researches of Mr. Darwin on Coral Islands, proved, that large areas in the Pacific Ocean have been recently subsiding; but the peculiar forms of life which they present, no less clearly indicate the former existence of some extensive lands. The total absence of Mammalia, however, shows either that these lands never formed part of the Australian or Papuan continents, or if they did, that they have been since subjected to such an amount of subsidence as to exterminate most of their higher terrestrial forms of life. It is a remarkable circumstance, that although Mammalia (except bats) are wanting, there are a considerable number of reptiles ranging over the whole sub-region. Lizards are the most numerous, five families and fourteen genera being represented, as follows:--

1. Cryptoblepharus (Gymnopthalmidæ ) Fiji Islands. 2. Ablepharus " All the islands. 3. Lygosoma (Scincidæ) Pelew Islands, New Caledonia. 4. Mabouya " Samoa Islands. 5. Euprepes " Pacific Islands. 6. Dactyloperus (Geckotidæ) Sandwich Islands. 7. Doryura (Geckotidæ) Pacific Islands. 8. Gehyra " Fiji Islands. 9. Amydosaurus " Tahiti. 10. Heteronota " Fiji Islands. 11. Correlophus " New Caledonia. 12. Brachylophus (Iguanidæ) Fiji Islands. 13. Lophura (Agamidæ) Pelew Islands. 14. Chloroscartes " Fiji Islands.

The first five are wide-spread genera, represented mostly by peculiar species; but sometimes the species themselves have a wide range, as in the case of Ablepharus poecilopleurus, which (according to Dr. Günther) is found in Timor, Australia, New Caledonia, Savage Island (one of the Samoa group), and the Sandwich Islands! Gehyra and Heteronota are Australian genera; while Lophura has reached the Pelew Islands from the Moluccas. The remainder (printed in italics), are peculiar genera; Brachylophus being especially interesting as an example of an {449}otherwise peculiar American family, occurring so far across the Pacific.

Snakes are much less abundant, only four genera being represented, one of them marine. They are, Anoplodipsas, a peculiar genus of Amblycephalidæ from New Caledonia; Enygrus, a genus of Pythonidæ from the Fiji Islands; Ogmodon, a peculiar genus of Elapidæ, also from the Fiji Islands, but ranging to Papua and the Moluccas; and Platurus, a wide-spread genus of sea-snakes (Hydrophidæ). In the more remote Sandwich and Society Islands there appear to be no snakes. This accords with our conclusion that lizards have some special means of dispersal over the ocean which detracts from their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities; which is further proved by the marvellous range of a single species (referred to above) from Australia to the Sandwich Islands.

A species of Hyla is said to inhabit the New Hebrides, and several species of Platymantis (tree-frogs) are found in the Fiji Islands; but otherwise the Amphibians appear to be unrepresented in the sub-region, though they will most likely be found in so large an island as New Caledonia.

From the foregoing sketch, it appears, that although the reptiles present some special features, they agree on the whole with the birds, in showing, that the islands of Polynesia all belong to the Australian region, and that in the Fiji Islands is to be found the fullest development of their peculiar fauna.

IV. New Zealand Sub-region.

The islands of New Zealand are more completely oceanic than any other extensive tract of land, being about 1,200 miles from Australia and nearly the same distance from New Caledonia and the Friendly Isles. There are, however, several islets scattered around, whose productions show that they belong to the same sub-region;--the principal being, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe's Island, and the Kermadec Isles, on the north; Chatham Island on the east; the Auckland and Macquarie Isles on the south;--and if these were once joined to {450}New Zealand, there would have been formed an island-continent not much inferior in extent to Australia itself.

New Zealand is wholly situated in the warmer portion of the Temperate zone, and enjoys an exceptionally mild and equable climate. It has abundant moisture, and thus comes within the limits of the South-Temperate forest zone; and this leads to its productions often resembling those of the tropical, but moist and wooded, islands of the Pacific, rather than those of the temperate, but arid and scantily wooded plains of Australia. The two islands of New Zealand are about the same extent (approximately) as the British Isles, but the difference in the general features of their natural history is very great. There are, in the former, no mammalia, less than half as many birds, very few reptiles and fresh-water fishes, and an excessive and most unintelligible poverty of insects; yet, considering the situation of the islands and their evidently long-continued isolation, the wonder rather is that their fauna is so varied and interesting as it is found to be. Our knowledge of this fauna, though no doubt far from complete, is sufficiently ample; and it will be well to give a pretty full account of it, in order to see what conclusions may be drawn as to its origin.

Mammalia.--The only mammals positively known as indigenous to New Zealand are two bats, both peculiar to it,--Scotophilus tuberculatus and Mystacina tuberculata. The former is allied to Australian forms; the latter is more interesting, as being a peculiar genus of the family Noctilionidæ, which does not exist in Australia; and in having decided resemblances to the Phyllostomidæ of South America, so that it may almost be considered to be a connecting link between the two families. A forest rat is said to have once abounded on the islands, and to have been used for food by the natives; but there is much doubt as to what it really was, and whether it was not an introduced species. The seals are wide-spread antarctic forms which have no geographical significance.

Birds.--About 145 species of birds are natives of New Zealand, of which 88 are waders or aquatics, leaving 57 land-birds {451}belonging to 34 genera. Of this latter number, 16, or nearly half, are peculiar; and there are also 5 peculiar genera of waders and aquatic birds, making 21 in all. Of the remaining genera of land-birds, four are cosmopolite or of very wide range, while the remainder are characteristic of the Australian region. The following is a list of the Australian genera found in New Zealand: Sphenæacus, Gerygone, Orthonyx (Sylviidæ); Graucalus (Campephagidæ); Rhipidura (Muscicapidæ); Anthochæra (Meliphagidæ); Zosterops (Dicæidæ); Cyanoramphus (Platycercidæ); Carpophaga (Columbidæ); Hieracidea (Falconidæ); Tribonyx (Rallidæ). Besides these there are several genera of wide range, as follows:--Anthus (Motacillidæ); Hirundo (Hirundinidæ); Chrysococcyx, Eudynamis (Cuculidæ); Halcyon (Alcedinidæ); Coturnix (Tetraonidæ); Circus (Falconidæ); Athene (Strigidæ).

Most of the above genera are represented by peculiar New Zealand species, but in several cases the species are identical with those of Australia, as in the following: Anthochæra carunculata, Zosterops lateralis, Hirundo nigricans, and Chrysococcyx lucidus; also one--Eudynamis taitensis--which is Polynesian.

We now come to the genera peculiar to New Zealand, which are of especial interest:

LIST OF GENERA OF BIRDS PECULIAR TO NEW ZEALAND.

No. of Family and Genus. Species. Remarks.

SYLVIIDÆ. 1. Myiomoira 3 Allied to Petroica, an Australian genus 2. Miro 2 " " " "

TIMALIIDÆ (?) 3. Turnagra 2 Of doubtful affinities.

SITTIDÆ. 4. Xenicus 3 Of doubtful affinities. 5. Acanthisitta 1 Of doubtful affinities.

PARIDÆ. 6. Certhiparus 2 Of doubtful affinities.

MELIPHAGIDÆ. 7. Prosthemadera 1 Peculiar genera of honeysuckers, a 8. Pogonornis 1 family which is confined to the 9. Anthornis 3 Australian Region.

STURNIDÆ. {452} 10. Creadion 2 These three genera are probably 11. Heterolocha 1 allied, and perhaps form a distinct 12. Callæas 2 family.

NESTORIDÆ. 13. Nestor 3 A peculiar family of Parrots.

STRINGOPIDÆ. 14. Stringops 1 A peculiar family of Parrots.

STRIGIDÆ. 15. (Sceloglaux) 1 s.g. of Athene.

RALLIDÆ. 16. Ocydromus 6 Allied to Eulabeornis, an Australian genus. 17. Notornis 1 Allied to Porphyrio, a genus of wide range.

CHARADRIIDÆ. 18. Thinornis 1 19. Anarhynchus 1

ANATIDÆ. 20. Hymenolæmus 1 Allied to Malacorhynchus, an Australian genus. APTERYGIDÆ. 21. Apteryx 4 Forming a peculiar family.

We have thus a wonderful amount of speciality; yet the affinities of the fauna, whenever they can be traced, are with Australia or Polynesia. Nine genera of New Zealand birds are characteristically Australian, and the eight genera of wide range are Australian also. Of the peculiar genera, 7 or 8 are undoubtedly allied to Australian groups. There are also four Australian and one Polynesian species. Even the peculiar family, Nestoridæ is allied to the Australian Trichoglossidæ. We have therefore every gradation of similarity to the Australian fauna, from identical species, through identical genera, and allied genera, to distinct but allied families; clearly indicating very long continued yet rare immigations from Australia or Polynesia; immigrations which are continued down to our day. For resident ornithologists believe, that the Zosterops lateralis has found its way to New Zealand within the last few years, and that the two cuckoos now migrate annually, the one from Australia, the other from some {453}part of Polynesia, distances of more than 1,000 miles! These facts seem, however, to have been accepted on insufficient evidence and to be in themselves extremely improbable. It is observed that the cuckoos appear annually in certain districts and again disappear; but their course does not seem to have been traced, still less have they ever been actually seen arriving or departing across the ocean. In a country which has still such wide tracts of unsettled land, it is very possible that the birds in question may only move from one part of the islands to another.

Islets of the New Zealand Sub-region.

We will here notice the smaller islands belonging to the sub-region, as it is chiefly their birds that possess any interest.

Norfolk Island.--The land-birds recorded from this island amount to 15 species, of which 8 are Australian, viz.: Climacteris scandens, Symmorphus leucopygius, Zosterops tenuirostris and Z. albogularis, Halcyon sanctus, Platycercus pennanti, Carpophaga spadicea, Phapspicata and P. chalcoptera. Of the peculiar species three belong to Australian genera; Petroica, Gerygone, and Rhipidura; one to a cosmopolitan genus, Turdus. So far the affinity seems to be all Australian, and there remain only three birds which ally this island to New Zealand,--Nestor productus, Cyanoramphus rayneri, and Notornis alba. The former inhabited the small Phillip Island (close to Norfolk Island) but is now extinct. Being a typical New Zealand genus, quite incapable of flying across the sea, its presence necessitates some former connexion between the two islands, and it is therefore perhaps of more weight than all the Australian genera and species, which are birds capable of long flights. The Cyanoramphus is allied to a New Zealand broad-tailed parroquet. The Notornis alba is extinct, but two specimens exist in museums, and it is even a stronger case than the Nestor, as showing a former approximation or union of this island with New Zealand. A beautiful figure of this bird is given in the Ibis for 1873.

Lord Howe's Island.--This small island, situated half-way between Australia and Norfolk Island, is interesting, as containing a peculiar species of the New Zealand genus Ocydromus, or {454}wood-hen (O. sylvestris). There is also a peculiar thrush, Turdus vinitinctus. Its other birds are wholly of Australian types, and most of them probably Australian species. The following have been observed, and no doubt constitute nearly its whole indigenous bird fauna. Acanthiza sp., Rhipidura sp., Pachycephala gutturalis, Zosterops strennuus and Z. tephropleurus, Strepera sp., Halcyon sp., and Chalcophaga chrysochlora. The two species of Zosterops are peculiar. The Ocydromus is important enough to ally this island to New Zealand rather than to Australia; and if the white bird seen there is, as supposed, the Notornis alba which is extinct in Norfolk Island, the connection will be rendered still more clear.

Chatham Islands.--These small islands, 450 miles east of New Zealand, possess about 40 species of birds, of which 13 are land-birds. All but one belong to New Zealand genera, and all but five are New Zealand species. The following are the genera of the land-birds: Sphenæacus, Gerygone, Myiomoira, Rhipidura, Zosterops, Anthus, Prosthemadera, Anthornis, Chrysococcyx, Cyanoramphus, Carpophaga, Circus. The peculiar species are Anthornis melanocephala, Myiomoira diffenbachi and M. traversi, Rhipidura flabellifera, and a peculiar rail incapable of flight, named by Captain Hutton Cabalus modestus. It is stated that the Zosterops differs from that of New Zealand, and is also a migrant; and it is therefore believed to come every year from Australia, passing over New Zealand, a distance of nearly 1,700 miles! Further investigation will perhaps discover some other explanation of the facts. It is also stated, that the pigeon and one of the small birds (? Gerygone or Zosterops) have arrived at the islands within the last eight years. The natives further declare, that both the Stringops and Apteryx once inhabited the islands, but were exterminated about the year 1835.

The Auckland Islands.--These are situated nearly 300 miles south of New Zealand, and possess six land-birds, of which three are peculiar,--Anthus aucklandicus, Cyanoramphus aucklandicus, and C. malherbii, the others being New Zealand species of Myiomoira, Prosthemadera, and Anthornis. It is remarkable that two peculiar parrots of the same genus should inhabit these small islands; but such localities seem favourable to the Platycercidæ, for another peculiar species is found in the remote Macquarie Islands, more than 400 miles farther south. A peculiar species and genus of ducks, Nesonetta aucklandica, is also found here, and as far as yet known, nowhere else. A species of the northern genus Mergus is also found on these islands, and has been recently obtained by Baron von Hügel.

Plate XIII.

SCENE IN NEW ZEALAND, WITH SOME OF ITS REMARKABLE BIRDS.

{455}Plate XIII. Illustrating the peculiar Ornithology of New Zealand.--Our artist has here depicted a group of the most remarkable and characteristic of the New Zealand birds. In the middle foreground is the Owl-parrot or Kakapoe (Stringops habroptilus), a nocturnal burrowing parrot, that feeds on fern-shoots, roots, berries, and occasionally lizards; that climbs but does not fly; and that has an owl-like mottled plumage and facial disc. The wings however are not rudimentary, but fully developed; and it seems to be only the muscles that have become useless for want of exercise. This would imply, that these birds have not long been inhabitants of New Zealand only, but were developed in other countries (perhaps Australia) where their wings were of use to them.

Beyond the Kakapoe are a pair of the large rails, Notornis mantelli; heavy birds with short wings quite useless for flight, and with massive feet and bill of a red colour. On the right is a pair of Kiwis (Apteryx australis), one of the queerest and most unbird-like of living birds. It has very small and rudimentary wings, entirely concealed by the hair-like plumage, and no tail. It is nocturnal, feeding chiefly on worms, which it extracts from soft earth by means of its long bill. The genus Apteryx forms a distinct family of birds, of which four species are now known, besides some which are extinct. They are allied to the Cassowary and to the gigantic extinct Dinornis. On the wing are a pair of Crook-billed Plovers (Anarhynchus frontalis), remarkable for being the only birds known which have the bill bent sideways. This was at first thought to be a malformation; but it is now proved to be a constant character of the species, as it exists even in the young chicks; yet the purpose served by such an anomalous structure is not yet discovered. {456}No country on the globe can offer such an extraordinary set of birds as are here depicted.

Reptiles.--These consist almost wholly of lizards, there being no land-snakes and only one frog. Twelve species of lizards are known, belonging to three genera, one of which is peculiar, as are all the species. Hinulia, with two species, and Mocoa, with four species (one of which extends to the Chatham Islands), belong to the Scincidæ; both are very wide-spread genera and occur in Australia. The peculiar genus Naultinus, with six species, belongs to the Geckotidæ, a family spread over the whole world.

The most extraordinary and interesting reptile of New Zealand is, however, the Hatteria punctata, a lizard-like animal living in holes, and found in small islands on the north-east coast, and more rarely on the main land. It is somewhat intermediate in structure between lizards and crocodiles, and also has bird-like characters in the form of its ribs. It constitutes, not only a distinct family, Rhyncocephalidæ, but a separate order of reptiles, Rhyncocephalina. It is quite isolated from all other members of the class; and is probably a slightly modified representative of an ancient and generalised form, which has been superseded in larger areas by the more specialized lizards and saurians.

The only representatives of the Ophidia are two sea-snakes of Australian and Polynesian species, and of no geographical interest.

Amphibia.--The solitary frog indigenous to New Zealand, belongs to a peculiar genus, Liopelma, and to the family Bomburatoridæ, otherwise confined to Europe and temperate South America.

Fresh-water Fishes.--There are, according to Captain Hutton, 15 species of fresh-water fish in New Zealand, belonging to 7 genera; six species, and one genus (Retropinna), being peculiar. Retropinna richardsoni belongs to the Salmonidæ, and is the only example of that family occurring in the Southern hemisphere, where it is confined to New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. The wide distribution of Galaxias attenuatus--from the {457}Chatham Islands to South America--has already been noticed; while another species, G. fasciatus, is found in the Chatham and Auckland Isles as well as New Zealand. A second genus peculiar to New Zealand, Neochanna, allied to Galaxias, has recently been described. Prototroctes oxyrhynchus is allied to an Australian species, but belongs to a family (Haplochitonidæ) which is otherwise South American. An eel, Anguilla latirostris, is found in Europe, China, and the West Indies, as well as in New Zealand! while the genus Agonostoma ranges to Australia, Celebes, Mauritius, and Central America.

Insects.--The great poverty of this class is well shown by the fact, that only eleven species of butterflies are known to inhabit New Zealand. Of these, six are peculiar, and one, Argyrophenga (Satyridæ), is a peculiar genus allied to the Northern genus Erebia. The rest are either of wide range, as Pyrameis cardui and Diadema bolina; or Australian, as Hamdyaas zoilus; while one, Danais erippus, is American, but has also occurred in Australia, and is no doubt a recent introduction into both countries. Only one Sphinx is recorded, and no other species of the Sphingina except the British currant-moth, Ægeria tipuliformis, doubtless imported. Coleoptera are better represented, nearly 300 species having been described, all or nearly all being peculiar. These belong to about 150 genera, of which more than 50 are peculiar. No less than 14 peculiar genera belong to the Carabidæ, mostly consisting of one or two species, but Demetrida has 3, and Metaglymma 8 species. Other important genera are Dicrochile, Homalosoma, Mecodema, and Scopodes, all in common with Australia. Mecodema and Metaglymma are the largest genera. Even the Auckland Islands have two small genera of Carabidæ found nowhere else.

Cicindelidæ are represented in New Zealand by 6 species of Cicindela, and 1 of Dystipsidera, a genus peculiar to the Australian region.

The Lucanidæ are represented by two peculiar genera, Dendroblax and Oxyomus; two Australian genera, Lissotes and Ceratognathus; and by the almost cosmopolite Dorcus.

The Scarabeidæ consist of ten species only, belonging to four {458}genera, two of which are peculiar (Odontria and Stethaspis); and two Australian (Pericoptus and Calonota). There are no Cetoniidæ.

There is only one Buprestid, belonging to the Australian genus Cisseis. The Elateridæ, (about a dozen species,) belong mostly to Australian genera, but two, Metablax and Ochosternus, are peculiar.

There are 30 species of Curculionidæ, belonging to 22 genera. Of the genera, 12 are peculiar; 1 is common to New Zealand and New Caledonia; 5 belong to the Australian region, and the rest are widely distributed.

Longicorns are, next to Carabidæ, the most numerous family, there being, according to Mr. Bates (Ann. Nat. Hist., 1874), about 35 genera, of which 26 are peculiar or highly characteristic, and 7 of the others Australian. The largest and most characteristic genera are Æmona and Xyloteles, both being peculiar to New Zealand; few of the remainder having more than one or two species. Demonax extends to the Moluccas and S. E. Asia. A dozen of the genera have no near relations with those of any other country.

Phytophaga are remarkably scarce, only two species of Colaspis being recorded; and there is only a single species of Coccinella.

The other orders of Insects appear to be equally deficient. Hymenoptera are very poorly represented, only a score of species being yet known; but two of the genera are peculiar, as are all the species. The Neuroptera and Heteroptera are also very scarce, and several of the species are wide-spread forms of the Australian region. The few species of Homoptera are all peculiar. The Myriapoda afford some interesting facts. There are nine or ten species, all peculiar. One genus, Lithobius, ranges over the northern hemisphere as far south as Singapore, and probably through the Malay Archipelago, but is not found in Australia. Henicops occurs elsewhere only in Tasmania and Chili. Cryptops, only in the north temperate zone; while two others, Cermatia and Cormocephalus, both occur in Australia.

{459}Land-Shells.--Of these, 114 species are known, 97 being peculiar. Three species of Helix are also found in Australia, and five more in various tropical islands of the Pacific. Nanina, Lymnæa, and Assiminea, are found in Polynesia or Malaya, but not in Australia. Amphibola is an Australian genus, as is Janella. Testacella and Limax belong to the Palæarctic region.

From the Chatham Islands, 82 species of shells are known, all being New Zealand species, except nine, which are peculiar.

The Ancient Fauna of New Zealand.--One of the most remarkable features of the New Zealand fauna, is the existence, till quite recent times, of an extensive group of wingless birds,--called Moas by the natives--many of them of gigantic size, and which evidently occupied the place which, in other countries, is filled by the mammalia. The most recent account of these singular remains, is that by Dr. Haast, who, from a study of the extensive series of specimens in the Canterbury museum, believes, that they belong to two families, distinguished by important differences of structure, and constitute four genera,--Dinornis and Miornis, forming the family Dinornithidæ; Palapteryx and Euryapteryx, forming the family Palapterygidæ. These were mostly larger birds than the living Apteryx, and some of them much larger even than the African ostrich, and were more allied to the Casuariidæ and Struthionidæ than to the Apterygidæ. No less than eleven species of these birds have been discovered; all are of recent geological date, and there are indications that some of them may have been in existence less than a century ago, and were really exterminated by man. Remains have been found (of apparently the same recent date) of species of Apteryx, Stringops, Ocydromus, and many other living forms, as well as of Harpagornis, a large bird of prey, and Cnemiornis, a gigantic goose. Bodies of the Hatteria punctata have also been found along with those of the Moa, showing that this remarkable reptile was once more abundant on the main islands than it is now.

The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna.--Having now given {460}an outline sketch of the main features of the New Zealand fauna and of its relations with other regions, we may consider what conclusions are fairly deducible from the facts. As the outlying Norfolk, Chatham, and Lord Howe's Islands, are all inhabited (or have recently been so) by birds of New Zealand type or even identical species, almost incapable of flight, we may infer that these islands show us the former minimum extent of the land-area in which the peculiar forms which characterise the sub-region were developed. If we include the Auckland and Macquarie Islands to the south, we shall have a territory of not much less extent than Australia, and separated from it by perhaps several hundred miles of ocean. Some such ancient land must have existed to allow of the development and specialization of so many peculiar forms of birds, and it probably remained with but slight modifications for a considerable geological period. During all this time it would interchange many of its forms of life with Australia, and there would arise that amount of identity of genera between the two countries which we find to exist. Its extension southwards, perhaps considerably beyond the Macquaries, would bring it within the range of floating ice during colder epochs, and within easy reach of the antarctic continent during the warm periods; and thus would arise that interchange of genera and species with South America, which forms one of the characteristic features of the natural history of New Zealand.

Captain F. W. Hutton (to whose interesting paper on the Geographical relations of the New Zealand Fauna we are indebted for some of our facts) insists upon the necessity of former land-connections in various directions, and especially of an early southern continental period, when New Zealand, Australia, Southern Africa, and South America, were united. Thus he would account for the existence of Struthious birds in all these countries, and for the various other groups of birds, reptiles, fishes, or insects which have no obvious means of traversing the ocean,--and this union must have occurred before mammalia existed in any of these countries. But such a supposition is quite unnecessary, if we consider that all wingless land-birds and some water-birds (as the Gare-fowl {461}and Steamer Duck) are probably cases of abortion of useless organs, and that the common ancestors of the various forms of Struthiones may have been capable of a moderate degree of flight; or they may have originated in the northern hemisphere, as already explained in Chap. XI. p. 287. The existence of two, if not three, distinct families of these birds in New Zealand, proves that the original type was here isolated at a very early date, and being wholly free from the competition of mammalia, became more differentiated than elsewhere. The Hatteria is probably coeval with these early forms, and is the only relic of a whole order of reptiles, which once perhaps ranged far over the globe.

Still less does any other form of animal inhabiting New Zealand, require a land connection with distant countries to account for its presence. With the example before us of the Bermudas and Azores, to which a great variety of birds fly annually over vast distances, and even of the recent arrival of new birds in New Zealand and Chatham Island, we may be sure that the ancestors of every New Zealand bird could easily have reached its shores during the countless ages which elapsed while the Dinornis and Apteryx were developing. The wonderful range of some of the existing species of lizards and fresh-water fish, as already given, proves that they too possess means of dispersal which have sufficed to spread them, within a comparatively recent period, over countries separated by thousands of miles of ocean; and the fact that a group like the snakes, so widely distributed and for which the climate of New Zealand is so well adapted, does not exist there, is an additional proof that land connection had nothing to do with the introduction of the existing fauna. We have already (p. 398), discussed in some detail the various modes in which the dispersal of animals in the southern hemisphere has been effected; and in accordance with the principles there established, we conclude, that the New Zealand fauna, living and extinct, demonstrates the existence of an extensive tract of land in the vicinity of Australia, Polynesia, and the Antarctic continent, without having been once actually connected with either of these countries, since the period when mammalia had peopled {462}all the great continents. That event certainly dates back to Secondary, if not to Palæozoic, times, because so dominant a group must soon have spread over the whole continuous land-area of the globe. We have no reason for believing that birds were an earlier development; and certainly cannot, with any probability, place the origin of the Struthiones before that of Mammals.

Causes of the Poverty of Insect-life in New Zealand: its Influence on the Character of the Flora.--The extreme paucity of insects in New Zealand, to which we have already alluded, seems to call for some attempt at explanation. No other country in the world, in which the conditions are equally favourable for insect-life, and which has either been connected with, or is in proximity to, any of the large masses of land, presents a similar phenomenon. The only approach to it is in the Galapagos, and in some of the islands of the Pacific; and in each of these cases the absence of mammals leads us to infer, that no connection with a continent has ever taken place. Yet the fauna of New Zealand evidently dates back to a remote geological epoch, and it seems strange that an abundance of indigenous insects have not been developed, especially when we consider the vast antiquity that most of the orders and families, and many of the genera, of insects possess (see p. 166), and that they must always have reached the country in greater numbers and variety than any of the higher animals. The undoubted fact that such an indigenous insect-fauna has not arisen, would therefore lead us to conclude, that insects find the conditions requisite for their development only in the great continental masses of land, in strict adaptation to, and dependance on, a varied fauna and flora of ever-increasing richness and complexity. A small number of widely-separated forms, introduced into a country where the fauna and flora are alike scanty and unrelated to them, seem to have little tendency to vary and branch out into that vast network of insect-life which enriches all the great continents and their once connected islands.

It is a striking confirmation on a large scale, of Mr. Darwin's beautiful theory--that the gay colours of flowers have mostly, or {463}perhaps, wholly been produced, in order to attract insects which aid in their fertilization--that in New Zealand, where insects are so strikingly deficient in variety, the flora should be almost as strikingly deficient in gaily-coloured blossoms. Of course there are some exceptions, but as a whole, green, inconspicuous, and imperfect flowers prevail, to an extent not to be equalled in any other part of the globe; and affording a marvellous contrast to the general brilliancy of Australian flowers, combined with the abundance and variety of its insect-life. We must remember, too, that the few gay or conspicuous flowering-plants possessed by New Zealand, are almost all of Australian, South American, or European genera; the peculiar New Zealand or Antarctic genera being almost wholly without conspicuous flowers. In the tropical Galapagos the same thing occurs. Mr. Darwin notices the wretched weedy appearance of the vegetation; and states that it was some time before he discovered that most of the plants were in flower at the time of his visit! And the insect-life was correspondingly deficient, consisting mainly of a few terrestrial beetles.

The poverty of insect-life in New Zealand must, therefore, be a very ancient feature of the country; and it furnishes an additional argument against the theory of land-connection with, or even any near approach to, either Australia, South Africa, or South America. For in that case numbers of winged insects would certainly have entered, and the flowers would then, as in every other part of the world, have been rendered attractive to them by the development of coloured petals; and this character once acquired would long maintain itself, even if the insects had, from some unknown cause, subsequently disappeared.

After the preceding paragraphs were written, it occurred to me, that if this reasoning were correct, New Zealand plants ought to be also deficient in scented flowers; because it is a part of the same theory, that the odours of flowers have, like their colours, been developed to attract the insects required to aid in their fertilization. I therefore at once applied to my friend Dr. Hooker, as the highest authority on New Zealand botany; simply asking whether there was any such observed deficiency. His reply {464}was:--"New Zealand plants are remarkably scentless, both in regard to the rarity of scented flowers, of leaves with immersed glands containing essential oils, and of glandular hairs." There are a few exceptional cases, but these seem even more rare than might be expected, so that the confirmation of theory is very complete. The circumstance that aromatic leaves are also very scarce, suggests the idea that these, too, serve as an attraction to insects. Aromatic plants abound most in arid countries, and on Alpine heights; both localities where winged insects are comparatively scarce, and where it may be necessary to attract them in every possible way. Dr. Hooker also informs, me that since his Introduction to the New Zealand Flora was written, many plants with handsome flowers have been discovered, especially among the Ranunculi, shrubby Veronicas, and herbaceous Compositæ. The two former, however, are genera of wide range, which may have originated in New Zealand by the introduction of plants with handsome flowers, which the few indigenous insects would be attracted by, and thus prevent the loss of their gay corollas; so that these discoveries will not much affect the general character of the flora, and its very curious bearing on the past history of the islands through the relations of flowers and insects.

In judging of the relation here supposed to exist, it must be remembered, that if the New Zealand insects have been introduced from the surrounding countries by chance immigrations at distant intervals, then, as we go back into the past the insect fauna will become poorer and poorer, and still more inadequate than at present to lead to the development of attractive flowers and odours. This quite harmonizes with the fact of the ancient indigenous flora being so remarkably scentless and inconspicuous, while a few of the more recently introduced genera of plants have retained their floral attractions.

Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Australian Region.

We have already discussed in some detail, the various relations of the Australian sub-regions to the surrounding Regions, and the geographical changes that appear to have taken place. A very {465}few observations will therefore suffice, on the supposed early history of the Australian region as a whole.

It was probably far back in the Secondary period, that some portion of the Australian region was in actual connection with the northern continent, and became stocked with ancestral forms of Marsupials; but from that time till now there seems to have been no further land connection, and the Australian lands have thenceforward gone on developing the Marsupial and Monotremate types, into the various living and extinct races we now find there. During some portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia probably comprised much of its existing area, together with Papua and the Solomon Islands, and perhaps extended as far east as the Fiji Islands; while it might also have had a considerable extension to the south and west. Some light has recently been thrown on this subject by Professor McCoy's researches on the Palæontology of Victoria. He finds abundant marine fossils of Eocene and Miocene age, many of which are strikingly similar to those of Europe at the same period. Among these are Cetaceans of the genus Squalodon; European species of Plagiostomous fishes; mollusca and corals closely resembling those of Europe and North America of the same age,--such as numerous Volutes closely allied to those of the Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight, and the genus Dentalium in great abundance, almost or quite identical with European tertiary species. Along with these, are found some living species, but always such as now live farther north in tropical seas. The Cretaceous and Mesozoic marine fossils are equally close to those of Europe.

The whole of these remains demonstrate that, as in the northern so in the southern hemisphere, a much warmer climate prevailed in the Eocene and Miocene periods than at the present time. This is a most important result, and one which strongly supports Mr. Belt's view, before referred to, that the warmer climates in past geological epochs, and especially that of the Miocene as compared with our own, was caused by a diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic, leading to a much greater uniformity of the seasons for a considerable distance from the equator, and greatly reducing the polar area within which the sun would ever {466}disappear during an entire rotation of the earth. During such a period, tropical forms of marine animals would have been able to spread north and south, into what are now cool latitudes; and identical genera, and even species, might then have ranged along the southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent, from Britain to the Bay of Bengal, and southward along the Malayan coasts to Australia,

Numerous Miocene plant-beds have also been found in Victoria, containing abundance of Dicotyledonous leaves, which are said generally to resemble those of the Asiatic flora, and of the Miocene plant-beds of the Rhine. It is to be hoped these beds will be more closely examined for remains of insects, land-shells, and vertebrates, and that the plants will be carefully preserved and critically studied; for here probably lies hidden the key, that will solve much of the mystery that attaches to the past history of the Australian fauna.

{467}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes of animals in the Australian region, the following sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in compiling the 4th Part of this work.

Mammalia.--Gould, Mammals of Australia; Waterhouse on Marsupials; Dr. J. E. Gray's List of Mammalia of New Guinea; Müller, Temminck and Schlegel on Mammals of the Moluccas; papers by Dr. Gray; and personal observations by the Author.

Birds.--Gould's Birds of Australia; Buller's Birds of New Zealand; G. R. Gray's Lists of Birds of Moluccas, &c.; Hartlaub and Finsch on Birds of Pacific Islands; Sclater on Birds of Sandwich Islands; papers by Haast, Hutton, Meyer, Salvin, Schlegel, Sclater, Travers, Lord Walden and the Author.

Reptiles.--Krefft, Catalogue of Snakes; Gunther, List of Lizards in Voyage of Erebus and Terror (1875); and numerous papers.

{468}TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show families which are peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (...) show families which only just enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=Austro-Malaya. | Order and Family | 2=Australia. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=Polynesia. | | 4=New Zealand. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | PRIMATES. | | | | | 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | | | |Oriental and Ethiopian | | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | | | 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 25. (Viverridæ) | -- | | | |Oriental 33. Otariidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones 35. Phocidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | | 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic | | | | | SIRENIA. | | | | | 42. Manatidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 47. Suidæ | -- | | | |All other regions but Nearctic 50. (Cervidæ) | -- | | | |All other regions but Ethiopian 52. (Bovidæ) | -- | | | |All other regions but | | | | | Neotropical | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | | |All other regions 61. (Scuiridæ) | -- | | | |All other regions | | | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | | | 77. Dasyuridæ | -- | -- | | | 78. Myrmecobiidæ | | -- | | | 79. Peramelidæ | -- | -- | | | 80. Macropodidæ | -- | -- | | | 81. Phalangistidæ | -- | -- | | | 82. Phascolomyidæ | | -- | | | | | | | | MONOTREMATA. | | | | | 83.Ornithorhynchidæ| | -- | | | 84. Echidnidæ | | -- | | | | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | | | | | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Oriental family 5. Cinclidæ | -- | | | | 8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | | | 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | | -- | 10. Paridæ | | -- | | -- | 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | | | |Oriental family 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Old World 18. Pachycephalidæ| -- | -- | -- | |Almost peculiar to region 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Old World 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite 21. Paradiseidæ | -- | -- | | | 22. Meliphagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian 25. Drepanididæ | | | -- | | 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Ethiopian 35. Sturnidæ | -- | | -- | -- |The Old World 36. Artamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World and N. America 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |The Old World 47. Pittidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian 49. Menuridæ | | -- | | |Peculiar to Australia 50. Atrichiidæ | | -- | | |Peculiar to Australia | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | | | |All other regions 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 71. Podargidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite | | | | | PSITTACI. | | | | | 76. Cacatuidæ | -- | -- | | |Philippine Islands 77. Platycercidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | | | |Oriental 79. Trichoglossidæ| -- | -- | -- | | 82. Nestoridæ | -- | | | -- | 83. Stringopidæ | | | | -- | | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 84a. Didunculidæ | | | -- | | | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Old World and N. America 88. (Phasianidæ) | -- | | | |Oriental 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World 90. Megapodiidæ | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 106. Otididæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere 107. Gruidæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere 112. Rhinochetidæ | | | -- | | 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | | |Widely distributed | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 122. Spheniscidæ | | -- | | -- |S. temperate regions 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | STRUTHIONES. | | | | | 127. Casuariidæ | -- | -- | | | 128. Apterygidæ | | | | -- | 129. Dinornithidæ | | | | -- |Extinct 130. Palapterygidæ | | | | -- |Extinct | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic 2. Tortricidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, S. America, | | | | | California 3. Xenopeltidæ | -- | | | |Oriental 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | | |All warm countries 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, and all other regions 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, | | | | | Neotropical 12. Dryiophidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, | | | | | Neotropical 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, | | | | | Neotropical 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian and Oriental 16. Amblycephalidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, California 19. Acrochordidæ | -- | | | |Oriental 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, Japan, | | | | | S. Carolina 23. Hydrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Madagascar, Panama | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Africa 33. Lacertidæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Neotropical, Ethiopian, | | | | | Palæarctic 42. Pygopodidæ | | -- | | | 43. Aprasiadæ | | -- | | | 44. Lialidæ | | -- | | | 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite 48. Acontiadæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Oriental 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite 50. Iguanidæ | | | -- | |N. and S. America 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Eastern Hemisphere | | | | | RHYNCOCEPHALINA. | | | | | 53.Rhyncocephalidæ | | | | -- | | | | | | CROCODILIA. | | | | | 54. Gavialidæ | -- | | | |Oriental 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical regions | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | | | |All other regions 58. Chelydidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical 60. Cheloniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 7. Phryniscidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Malayan, Neotropical 9. Bufonidæ | -- | | | |All other regions 10. Xenorhinidæ | -- | | | | 11. Engystomidæ | | -- | | |All regions but Palæarctic 12. Bombinatoridæ | | | | -- |Neotropical, Palæarctic 14. Alytidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Oriental 15. Pelodryadæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical 16. Hylidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Ethiopian 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All the regions 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite 19. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic | | | | | FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 11. Trachinidæ | | -- | | |Patagonia (? marine) 35. Labyrinthici | -- | | | |Oriental, S. Africa 37. Atherinidæ | | -- | | |Europe, America 38. Mugillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical | | | | | ANACANTHINI. | | | | | 53. Gadopsidæ | | -- | | | | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions 61. Haplochitonidæ | | -- | | |Temperate S. America 65. Salmonidæ | | | | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic 67. Galaxidæ | | -- | | -- |Temperate S. America 78. Osteoglossidæ | | -- | | |All tropical regions 85. (Symbranchidæ) | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical | | | | | DIPNOI. | | | | | 92. Sirenoidei | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions, and to Canada 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Elymniidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, Ethiopian 4. Morphidæ | -- | | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | | |All tropical regions 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | -- | | | |All the other regions 10. Nemeobeidæ | -- | | | |All other regions but Nearctic 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 18. Castniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian 20. Uraniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

TABLE II.

GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | PRIMATES. | | | CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | (Macacus | 1 |Lombok to Timor) |Oriental genus 1. Cynopithecus | 1 |Celebes and Batchian |Philippines? | | | LEMURIDÆ. | | | | | | (Tarsius | 1 |Celebes) |Indo-Malayan genus | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PTEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 2. Pteropus | 15 |The whole reg. except |Tropics of E. Hemisp. | | New Zeal. | 3. Xantharpyia | 1 |Moluccas and Timor |Oriental, | | | S. Palæarctic 4. Cynopterus | 1 |Morty Island |Oriental 5. Macroglossus | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Indo-Malaya | | Timor | 6. Harpyia | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas |Philippines 7. Hypoderma | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and | | | Timor | 8. Notopteris | 1 |Fiji Islands | | | | RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | | | | 9. Rhinolophus | 7 |Moluccas, Timor, |Warmer pts. of | | Australia | E. Hemis. 10. Hipposideros | 5 |Moluccas and Aru |Oriental | | Islands | 11. Phyllorhina | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |Indo-Malaya 12. Asellia | 1 |Amboyna |Indo-Malaya 13. Megaderma | 1 |Ternate |Oriental, Ethiopian | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 14. Scotophilus | 8 |Moluccas, Timor, |Oriental | | Australia | 15. Vespertilio | 2 |Australia |Cosmopolite 16. Miniopteris | 3 |Moluccas, Timor, and |Indo-Malaya, S. Africa | | Australia | 17. Taphozous | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Orien., Ethiop., | | N. Australia | Neotrop. 18. Plecotus | 1 |Timor |N. India, | | | S. Palæarctic 19. Nyctophilus | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |India | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 20. Molossus | 1 |Australia |Neotrop., Ethiop., | | | S. Pal. 21. Mystacina | 1 |New Zealand | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | | | | 22. Sorex | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |The E. Hemis. & | | | N. Amer. | | | CARNIVORA. | | | VIVERRIDÆ. | | | | | | (Viverra | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas) |Oriental genus (Paradoxurus | 1 |Timor, Ke Islands, ? |Oriental genus | | introduced) | | | | OTARIIDÆ. | | | | | | 23. Arctocephalus | 1 |S. Australia, |S. Temperate shores | | New Zealand | 24. Zalophus | 1 |Australia |North Pacific | | | PHOCIDÆ. | | | | | | 25. Stenorhynchus | 1 |New Zealand |Antarctic shores | | | SIRENIA. | | | MANATIDÆ. | | | | | | 26. Halicore | 1 |N. Australia |Oriental Ethiopian | | | UNGULATA. | | | SUIDÆ. | | | | | | 27. Sus | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Palæarctic, Oriental 28. Babirusa | 1 |Celebes, Bouru | | | | CERVIDÆ. | | | | | | (Cervus | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Oriental genus | | Timor) | | | | BOVIDÆ. | | | | | | 29. Anoa | 1 |Celebes | | | | RODENTIA. | | | SCIURIDÆ. | | | | | | (Sciurus | 5 |Celebes) |All the other regions | | | MURIDÆ. | | | | | | 30. Mus | 13 |Australia, Celebes, |The Western Hemisphere | | Papua | 31. Pseudomys | 1 |Australia | 32. Hapalotis | 13 |Australia | 33. Hydromys | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | 34. Acanthomys | 1 |N. Australia | 35. Echiothrix | 1 |Australia | | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | DASYURIDÆ. | | | | | | 36. Phascogale | 3 |New Guinea and | | | Australia | 37. Antechinomys | 1 |S. Australia (interior)| 38. Antechinus | 12 |Aru Ids. Australia and | | | Tasmania | 39. Chætocercus | 1 |S. Australia | 40. Dactylopsila | 1 |Aru Islands and | | | N. Australia | 41. Podabrus | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | 42. Myoictis | 1 |Aru Islands | 43. Sarcophilus | 1 |Tasmania | 44. Dasyurus | 4 |Australia | 45. Thylacinus | 1 |Tasmania | | | | MYRMECOBIIDÆ. | | | | | | 45. Myrmecobius | 1 |S. and W. Australia | | | | PERAMELIDÆ. | | | | | | 47. Perameles | 8 |N. Guinea, Aru Ids., | | |Australia, and Tasmania| 48. Peragalea | 1 |W. Australia | 49. Chæropus | 1 |S. E. and W. Australia | | | | MACROPODIDÆ. | | | | | | 50. Macropus | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | 51. Osphranter | 5 |All Australia | 52. Halmaturus | 18 |Australia and Tasmania | 53. Petrogale | 7 |All Australia | 54. Dendrolagus | 2 |New Guinea | 55. Dorcopsis | 2 |Aru, Mysol, and | | | N. Guinea | 56. Onychogalea | 3 |Central Australia | 57. Lagorchestes | 5 |N., W., and S. | | | Australia | 58. Bettongia | 6 |W., S., and E. | | | Australia and Tasmania| 59. Hypsiprymnus | 4 |W. and E. Australia & | | | Tasmania | | | | PHALANIGISTIDÆ. | | | | | | 60. Phascolarctos | 1 |E. Australia | 61. Phalangista | 5 |E., S., and W. | | | Australia and Tasmania| 62. Cuscus | 8 |Celebes to N. Guinea, | | | Timor & N. Australia | 63. Petaurista | 1 |E. Australia | 64. Belideus | 5 |S., E., & N. Austral., | | |N. Guinea, and Moluccas| 65. Acrobata | 1 |S. and E. Australia | 66. Dromicia | 5 |W. & E. Australia & | | | Tasmania | 67. Tarsipes | 1 |W. Australia | | | | PHASCOLOMYIDÆ. | | | | | | 63. Phascolomys | 1 |S. E. Australia and | | | Tasmania | | | | MONOTREMATA. | | | ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ. | | | | | | 69.Ornithorhynchus| 1 |S. and E. Australia & | | | Tasmania | | | | ECHIDNIDÆ. | | | | | | 70. Echidna | 2 |S. & E. Australia, & | | | Tasmania |

BIRDS.

| | | PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Turdus | 6 |Timor, Austral., New |Cosmopolite | | Caledonia, Norfolk | | | Island, Lord Howe's | | | and Samoan Islands | 2. Oreocincla | 1 |S. E. Australia and |Palæarctic, Oriental | | Tasmania | 3. Geocichla | 4 |Celebes, Lombok, Timor,|Oriental | | Austral. | (Monticola | 1 |Gilolo, Celebes) |Palæarctic and | | | Oriental (Zoothera | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | 4. Cisticola | 7 |Celebes, Bouru, Timor, |Palæarctic, Oriental | | Australia | 5. Sphenæacus | 4 |Australia, N. Zealand, |Ethiopian | | Chatham Islands | 6. Megalurus | 1 |Timor |Oriental 7. Poodytes | 2 |Australia | 8. Amytis | 3 |Australia | 9. Sphenura | 4 |Australia | 10. Stipiturus | 1 |Australia, Tasmania | 11. Malurus | 16 |Australia, Tasmania, & | | | N. Guinea | 12. Hylacola | 3 |Australia | 13. Calamanthus | 2 |Australia and Tasmania | 14. Acrocephalus | 7 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Palæarc., Orien., | | Australia, Caroline | Ethiop. | | Islands | 15. Tatare | 2 |Samoan to Marquesas | | | Islands | 16. Hypolais | 1 |Moluccas |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Ethiop. 17. Sericornis | 7 |Australia and Tasmania | 18. Acanthiza | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, | | | N. Caledonia | 19. Gerygone | 24 |The whole region, excl.|Philippines | | Moluccas | 20. Drymodes | 2 |Australia | 21. Oreicola | 4 |Lombok to Timor |Burmah ? (Pratincola | 1 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental, Palæarctic 22. Epthianura | 3 |Australia | 23. Petroica | 18 |Papua to Samoan Ids., | | | Australia | 24. Myiomoira | 3 |N. Zealand | 25. Lamprolia | 1 |Fiji Islands | 26. Miro | 3 |New Zealand | 27.Cinclorhamphus| 2 |Australia | 28. Origma | 1 |Australia | 29. Orthonyx | 5 |N. Guinea, Austral., | | | New Zeald. | | | | TIMALIIDÆ. | | | | | | 30. Pomatorhinus | 5 |N. Guinea and Australia|Oriental 31. Cinclosoma | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | 32. Turnagra | 3 |New Zealand | 33. Psophodes | 2 |S. E. and W. Australia | 34. Alcippe | 3 |New Guinea |Oriental (Trichastoma | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus 35. Drymocataphus | 1 |Timor |Oriental 36. Struthidea | 1 |N. and E. Australia | | | | CINCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 37. Eupetes | 2 |New Guinea |Malayan | | | CERTHIIDÆ. | | | | | | 38. Climacteris | 8 |Australia and N. Guinea| | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 39. Sittella | 5 |Australia and N. Guinea| 40. Acanthisitta | 1 |New Zealand | 41. Xenicus | 3 |New Zealand | | | | PARIDÆ. | | | | | | 42. Certhiparus | 2 |New Zealand | 43. Sphenostoma | 2 |E. and S. Australia | | | | PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | | | | 44. Criniger | 5 |Moluccas, and small |Oriental | | islands E. of Celebes| | | | ORIOLIDÆ. | | | | | | 45. Sphecotheres | 3 |Timor and Australia | 46. Oriolus | 3 |Celebes, Sulla Ids., |Oriental, Ethiopian | | Lombok and Flores | 47. Mimeta | 10 |Moluccas, N. Guinea, | | | Timor, & Australia | | | | CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | | | | (Pericrocotus | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus 48. Graucalus | 20 |Celebes to New Hebrides|Oriental | | and N. Zealand | 49. Artamides | 1 |Celebes | 50. Pteropodocys | 1 |Australia | 51. Campephaga | 12 |Celebes to Timor & |Oriental, Ethiopian | | New Guinea | 52. Lalage | 15 |Celebes to Australia & |Malayan | | Samoan Ids. | 53. Symmorphus | 1 |E. Australia and | | | Norfolk Id. | | | | DICRURIDÆ. | | | | | | 54. Dicrurus | 11 |Celebes to N. Ireland &|Oriental, Ethiopian | | Austral. | 55. Chætorhynchus| 1 |New Guinea | | | | MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | | | | 56. Peltops | 1 |Papuan Islands | 57. Monarcha | 30 |The whole region (excl.| | |Celebes and N. Zealand)| 58. Leucophantes | |N. Guinea | (Butalis | 1 |Moluccas and Celebes) |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Ethiop. 59. Micræca | 6 |Timor, N. Guinea, | | | Australia | 60. Cyornis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental 61. Siphia | 1 |Timor |Oriental 62. Seisura | 5 |Moluccas to N. Ireland,| | | Austral. | 63. Myiagra | 15 |Moluccas to Samoan Ids.| | | Austral. | (Hypothymis | 2 |Celebes) |Oriental 64.Machærirhynchus 4 |Papuan Ids. and | | | N. Australia | 65. Rhipidura | 32 |The region to Samoan |Oriental | | Ids. and N. Zealand | (Myialestes | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus (Tchitrea | 1 |Flores) |Orien. & Ethiop. | | | genus 66. Todopsis | 5 |Papuan Islands | 67. Chasiempis | 2 |Sandwich Islands | | | | PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. | | | | | | 68. Oreoeca | 1 |Temperate Australia | 69. Falcunculus | 2 |Temperate Australia | 70. Pachycephala | 45 |Moluccas to Tonga Ids. | | | and Tasmania | 71. Hylocharis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental 72. Eopsaltria | 10 |Australia to New | | | Hebrides | | | | LANIIDÆ. | | | | | | 73. Colluricincla| 4 |Australia and Tasmania | 74. Rectes | 18 |Papuan to Fiji Ids., | | | N. Austral. | (Lanius | 1 |Lombok) |Northern Hemisphere | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | 75. Strepera | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | 76. Barita | 3 |Australia and Tasmania | 77. Cracticus | 9 |Papuan Ids. to Tasmania| 78. Grallina | 1 |Australia | 79. Streptocitta | 2 |Celebes | 80. Charitornis | 1 |Sulla Islands (Celebes | | | group) | 81. Corvus | 8 |The whole region, excl.|Almost Cosmopolite | | N. Zeal. | 82. Gymnocorvus | 2 |Papuan Islands | 83. Corcorax | 1 |Australia | 84. Lycocorax | 3 |Moluccas | | | | PARADISEIDÆ. | | | | | | 85. Paradisea | 4 |Papuan Islands | 86. Manucodia | 3 |Papuan Ids. and | | | N. Australia | 87. Astrapia | 1 |New Guinea | 88. Parotia | 1 |New Guinea | 89. Lophorina | 1 |New Guinea | 90. Diphyllodes | 3 |Papuan Islands | 91. Xanthomelus | 1 |New Guinea | 92. Cicinnurus | 1 |Papuan Islands | 93. Paradigalla | 1 |New Guinea | 94. Semioptera | 1 |Gilolo and Batchian | 95. Epimachus | 1 |New Guinea | 96. Drepanornis | 1 |New Guinea | 97. Seleucides | 1 |New Guinea | 98. Ptilorhis | 4 |New Guinea and | | | N. Australia | 99. Sericulus | 1 |E. Australia | 100. Ptilorhynchus| 1 |E. Australia | 101. Chlamydodera | 4 |N. and E. Australia | 102. Æluredus | 3 |Papuan Islands and | | | E. Australia | 103. Amblyornis | 1 |New Guinea | | | | MELIPHAGIDÆ. | | | | | | 104. Myzomela | 20 |The region; excl. | | | N. Zealand | 105. Entomophila | 4 |Papuan Islands and | | | Australia | 106. Gliciphila | 10 |Papuan Ids. Timor, | | |Australia, N. Caledonia| 107.Acanthorhynchus 2 |Australia and Tasmania | 108. Meliphaga | 1 |East and S. Australia | 109. Ptilotis | 43 |Lombok and Gilolo to |(Baly) | | Tasmania and | | | Samoan Ids. | 110. Meliornis | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | 111. Prosthemadera| 1 |New Zealand | 112. Anthornis | 4 |New Zealand and | | | Chatham Ids. | 113. Anthochæra | 10 |New Guinea to Tasmania | | | and Samoan Ids., | | | N. Zealand | 114. Pogonornis | 1 |New Zealand | 115. Philemon | 18 |Lombok to N. Guinea, | | | N. Caledonia, | | |Australia | 116. Enicmiza | 2 |Australia | 117. Manorhina | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | 118. Melithreptus | 8 |N. Guinea, Australia, | | | Tasmania | 119. Euthyrhynchus| 3 |N. Guinea | 120.Melirrhophetes| 2 |N. Guinea | 121. Melidectes | 1 |N. Guinea | 122. Melipotes | 1 |N. Guinea | 123. Moho | 3 |Sandwich Islands | 124. Chætoptila | 1 |Sandwich Islands | | | | NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | | | | 125. Cosmetira | 1 |Papuan Islands | (Æthopyga | 1 |N. Celebes) |Oriental genus 126. Chalcostetha | 5 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Malaya | | Papuan Ids. | 127. Arachnecthra | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental | | N. Australia | (Nectarophila | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus Anthreptes | 1 |Celebes and Sulla |Malayan genus | | Islands | 128. Arachnothera | 1 |Papuan Islands, Lombok |Oriental | | | DICÆIDÆ. | | | | | | 129. Zosterops | 28 |The region to Fiji Ids.|Oriental, Ethiopian | | & N. Zeal. | 130. Dicæum | 12 |Celebes to Solomon Ids.|Oriental | | & Austral. | 131. Pachyglossa ? | 1 |N. Celebes |Himalayas 132. Piprisoma | 1 |Timor |India, Ceylon 133. Pardalotus | 1 |Australia and Tasmania,| | | Timor | 134. Prionochilus | |Papuan Islands |Malaya | | | DREPANIDIDÆ. | | | | | | 135. Drepanis | 3 |Sandwich Islands | 136. Hemignathus | 3 |Sandwich Islands | 137. Loxops | 1 |Sandwich Islands | 138. Psittirostra | 1 |Sandwich Islands | | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 139. Hirundo | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 140. Atticora | 1 |Australia |Neotropical | | | PLOCEIDÆ. | | | | | | 141. Estrilda | 4 |Flores, Timor, |Oriental, Ethiopian | | Australia | 142. Emblema | 1 |N. W. Australia | 143. Munia | 6 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental | | and N. Australia | 144. Donacola | 3 |Australia | 145. Poephila | 6 |Australia | 146. Amadina | 9 |Flores to Tasmania and |Ethiopian | | Samoan Islands | 147. Erythrura | 7 |Moluccas to Caroline |Java, Sumatra | | and Fiji Islands, | | | Timor, N. Caledonia | | | | STURNIDÆ. | | | | | | 148. Eulabes | 4 |Sumbawa, Flores, Papuan|Oriental | | and Solomon Islands | 149. Basilornis | 2 |Celebes and Ceram | (Acridotheres | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus 150. Creadion | 2 |N. Zealand | 151. Heterolocha | 1 |N. Zealand | 152. Callæas | 2 |N. Zealand | 153. Aplonis | 8 |N. Caledonia to Tonga | | | Islands | 154. Calornis | 13 |Celebes to Solomon |Malaya | | Islands and | | | N. Australia | 155. Enodes | 1 |Celebes | 156. Scissirostrum| 1 |Celebes | | | | ARTAMIDÆ. | | | | | | 157. Artamus | 15 |Celebes to Fiji Ids. |Oriental | | and Tasmania | | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | | | | 158. Mirafra | 2 |Flores and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 159. Budytes | 11 |Moluccas, Timor, |Palc., Ethiopian, x | | Australia | Australia 160. Corydalla | 5 |Lombok and Moluccas to |Palæarctic, Oriental | | N. Zealand | | | | PITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 161. Pitta | 12 |Celebes and Lombok to |Oriental | |N. Guinea and Australia| 162. Hydrornis | 1 |Gilolo, Batchian |Himalayas to Java 163. Melampitta | 1 |N. Guinea | | | | MENURIDÆ. | | | | | | 164. Menura | 2 |E. Australia | | | | ATRICHIIDÆ. | | | | | | 165. Atrichia | 2 |W. Australia and | | | Queensland | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | PICIDÆ. | | | | | | 166. Yungipicus | 2 |Celebes, Lombok, and |Oriental | | Flores | (Mulleripicus | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | 167. Rhamphococcyx| 1 |Celebes | 168. Centropus | 13 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental, Ethiopian | | Australia | 169. Cuculus | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien., | | Australia | Ethiopian 170. Caliechthrus | 1 |Papuan Islands | 171. Cacomantis | 10 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental | | Australia | 172. Chrysococcyx | 5 |Austro-Malaya to Fiji |Oriental, Ethiopian | | Islands and N. Zealand| (Hierococcyx | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus 173. Eudynamis | 6 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental | | Sandwich Islands | 174. Scythrops | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and | | | Australia | | | | CORACIIDÆ. | | | | | | (Coracias | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental and Ethiopian 175. Eurystomus | 4 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental and Ethiopian | | Australia | | | | MEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 176. Meropogon | 1 |Celebes | 177. Merops | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien., | | Australia | Ethiopian | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 178. Alcedo | 4 |Celebes to New Ireland |Palc., Orien., | | | Ethiopian 179. Alcyone | 6 |Batchian to Tasmania |Philippines 180. Pelargopsis | 2 |Celebes, Flores |Oriental 181. Ceyx | 7 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental 182. Ceycopsis | 1 |Celebes | 183. Syma | 2 |Papuan Islands and | | | N. Australia | 184. Halcyon | 19 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Ethiopian | | Sandwich Islands | 185. Todirhamphus | 3 |Central Pacific and | | | Sandwich Ids. | 186. Dacelo | 6 |Papuan Islands and | | | Australia | 187. Monachalcyon | 1 |Celebes | 188. Caridonax | 1 |Lombok and Flores | 189. Tanysiptera | 14 |Batchian to N. Guinea | | | and N. Australia | 190. Cittura | 2 |Celebes and Sanguir | | | Islands | 191. Melidora | 1 |New Guinea | | | | BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | | | | 192. Hydrocissa? | 1 |Celebes |Oriental 193. Calao | 1 |Moluccas to Solomon |Malayan | | Islands | 194. Cranorrhinus? | 1 |Celebes |Malayan | | | PODARGIDÆ. | | | | | | 195. Podargus | 10 |Papuan Islands to | | | Tasmania | 196. Batrachostomus | 2 |Moluccas |Oriental 197. Ægotheles | 5 |Papuan Islands to | | | Tasmania | | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | 198. Caprimulgus | 4 |Lombok to Australia, |Palc., Ethiopian, | | N. Guinea to Pelew | Orien. | | Islands | 199. Eurostopodus | 2 |Aru Islands and |Oriental genus | | Australia | (Lyncornis | 1 |Celebes) | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | 200. Dendrochelidon | 2 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental 201. Collocalia | 4 |Celebes to Pacific |Oriental | | Islands | 202. Cypselus | 1 |Australia |Palc., Orien., | | | Ethiopian 203. Chætura | 2 |Celebes, Australia |Ethio., Orien., | | | American | | | PSITTACI. | | | CACATUIDÆ. | | | | | | 204. Cacatua | 17 |Celebes and Lombok, to |Philippines | | Solomon Islands and | | | Tasmania | 205. Calopsitta | 1 |Australia | 206.Calyptorhynchus 8 |Australia and Tasmania | 207. Microglossus | 2 |Papuan Islands and | | | N. Austral. | 208. Licmetis | 3 |Austr., Solmn. Ids., & | | | N. Guin. ? | 209. Nasiterna | 3 |Papuan and Solomon | | | Islands | | | | PLATYCERCIDÆ. | | | | | | 210. Platycercus | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, | | | Norfolk Id. | 211. Psephotus | 6 |Australia | 212. Polytelis | 3 |Australia | 213. Nymphicus | 1 |Australia and | | | N. Caledonia | 214. Aprosmictus | 6 |Moluccas, Timor, Papuan| | | Islands, Australia | 215. Pyrrhulopsis | 3 |Tonga to Fiji Islands | 216. Cyanoramphus | 14 |N. Zealand, Norfolk | | | Island, N. Caledonia,| | | Society Islands | 217. Melopsittacus| 1 |Australia | 218. Euphema | 7 |Australia | 219. Pezoporus | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | 220. Geopsittacus | 1 |W. Australia | | | | PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | | | | 221. Prioniturus | 2 |Celebes |Philippines 222. Geoffroyus | 5 |Borneo to Timor & | | | Solomon Ids. | 223. Tanygnathus | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Philippines 224. Eclectus | 8 |Moluccas and Papuan | | | Islands | 225. Cyclopsitta | 7 |Papuan Ids. and N. E. |Philippines | | Austral. | 226. Loriculus | 7 |Celebes to Mysol, |Oriental | | Flores | 227. Trichoglossus| 29 |The whole region, excl.| | | Sandwich Islands, and| | | N. Zealand | 228. Nanodes | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | 229. Charmosyna | 1 |New Guinea | 230. Eos | 9 |Sanguir Ids. and | | | Moluccas to | | | Solomon Ids. | 231. Lorius | 23 |Bouru and Gilolo to | | | Solomon Ids. | 232. Coriphilus | 4 |Samoan to Marquesas | | | Islands | | | | NESTORIDÆ. | | | | | | 233. Nestor | 5 |New Zealand and | | | Norfolk Ids. | 234. Dasyptilus | 1 |New Guinea | | | | STRINGOPIDÆ. | | | | | | 235. Stringops | 1 |N. Zealand, Chatham | | | Islands? | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | 236. Treron | 5 |Celebes, Bouru, and |Oriental, Ethiopian | |Ceram, Flores and Timor| 237. Ptilopus | 50 |The whole region; excl.|Indo-Malaya | | N. Zealand | 238. Carpophaga | 40 |The whole region |Oriental 239. Ianthænas | 6 |Gilolo, Timor, Papuan |Japan, Philippines, | | Ids. to Samoan Islands| Andaman Islands 240. Leucomeloena | 1 |Australia | 241. Lopholæmus | 1 |Australia | 242. Geopelia | 5 |Lombok to Tasmania |Malaya, China 243. Macropygia | 6 |Austro-Malaya, |Indo-Malaya | | Australia | 244. Turacoena | 3 |Celebes, Timor, Solomon| | | Ids. | 245.Reinwardtoenas| 1 |Celebes to New Guinea | 246. Turtur | 2 |Austro-Malaya |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Ethiop. 247. Ocyphaps | 1 |Australia | 248. Petrophassa | 1 |N. W. Australia | 249. Chalcophaps | 4 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental | | Australia | 250. Trugon | 1 |N. Guinea | 251. Henicophaps | 1 |Papuan Islands | 252. Phaps | 3 |Australia and Tasmania | 253. Leucosarcia | 1 |Australia | 254. Geophaps | 2 |Australia | 255. Lophophaps | 3 |Australia | 256. Caloenas | 1 |Austro-Malaya |Indo-Malaya 257. Otidiphaps | 1 |N. Guinea | 258. Phlogoenas | 7 |Celebes, N. Guinea to |Philippine Islands | | Madagascar | 259. Goura | 3 |Papuan Islands | | | | DIDUNCULIDÆ. | | | | | | 260. Didunculus | 1 |Samoan Islands | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | 261. Coturnix | 9 |Celebes, Timor, |Palæarc., Orien., | | Australia, N. Zealand| Ethiop. | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | | | | (Gallus | 2 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental genus | | | TURNICIDÆ. | | | | | | 262. Turnix | 9 |Celebes & Moluccas to |Palæarc., Orien., | | Tasmania | Ethiop. | | | MEGAPODIIDÆ. | | | | | | 263. Talegallus | 3 |Papuan Islands and | | | Australia | 264. Megacephalon | 1 |Celebes | 265. Lipoa | 1 |S. Australia | 266. Megapodius | 12 |Celebes to Austral. & |Philippines, | | Samoan Ids. | Nicobar Ids. | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | 267. Circus | 2 |Celebes, S. and E. |Almost Cosmopolite | | Austral | 265. Astur | 20 |The region, to Fiji |Almost Cosmopolite | | Islands | 269. Accipiter | 6 |The whole region, to |Almost Cosmopolite | | Fiji Islands | 270. Urospiza | 1 |Australia | 271. Uroaëtus | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | 272. Nisaëtus | 1 |Australia |S. Palæarc., | | | Ethiopian, Oriental 273. Neopus | 1 |Celebes and Ternate |Oriental 274. Spizaëtus | 2 |Celebes and N. Guinea |Neotrop., Ethiop., | | | Orien. 275. Circaëtus | 1 |Timor and Flores |Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Orien. (Spilornis | 2 |Celebes and Sulla |Oriental genus | | Islands) | 276. Butastur | 1 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental, N. E. Africa 277. Haliæetus | 1 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. | | | Neotrop. region 278. Haliastur | 2 |Australia and |Oriental | | N. Caledonia | 279. Milvus | 1 |Celebes to Australia |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Ethiop. 280. Lophoictinia | 1 |Australia | 281. Gypoictinia | 1 |Australia | 282. Elanus | 3 |Celebes and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian 283. Henicopernis | 1 |Papuan Islands | (Pernis | 1 |Celebes) |Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | and Ethiopian 284. Baza | 4 |Moluccas and Australia |Oriental 285. Harpa | 1 |N. Zealand and | | | Auckland Ids. | 286. Falco | 6 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite | | Australia | 287. Hieracidea | 2 |Australia and Tasmania | 288. Cerchneis | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite | | Australia | | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 289. Pandion | 1 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 290. Polioaëtus | 1 |Celebes and Sandwich |Oriental | | Islands | | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | 291. Athene | 21 |The whole reg., excl. |Palæarc., Orien., | | Pacific Ids. | Ethiop. 292. Scops | 6 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Almost Cosmopolite | | N. Zealand | (Asio | 1 |Sandwich Islands) |Almost Cosmopolite, | | | excl. Australian | | | region 293. Strix | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds.

GRALLÆ. | | | RALLIDÆ. | | | | | | Ocydromus | 5 |New Zealand | Cabalus | 1 |Chatham Islands | Notornis | 2 |New Zealand, Norfolk | | |and Lord Howe's Islands| Tribonyx | 4 |Australia and | | | N. Zealand | Habroptila | 1 |Moluccas | Rallina | 6 |Austro-Malaya |Oriental Pareudiastes | 1 |Samoan Islands | | | | SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | | | | Cladorhynchus | 1 |Australia | | | | CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | | | | Esacus | 1 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental | | Australia | Erythrogonys | 1 |Australia | Thinornis | 2 |New Zealand | Anarhynchus | 1 |New Zealand | Pedionomus | 1 |Australia | | | | RHINOCHETIDÆ. | | | | | | Rhinochetus | 1 |New Caledonia | | | | ANATIDÆ. | | | | | | Nesonetta | 1 |Auckland Islands | Malacorhynchus| 1 |Australia | Hymenolæmus | 1 |New Zealand | Biziura | 1 |Australia | Anseranas | 1 |Australia | Cereopsis | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | | | | PROCELLARIIDÆ. | | | | | | Prion | 6 |New Zealand |Antarctic Seas | | | SPHENISCIDÆ. | | | | | | Eudyptes | 4 |Australia and |Antarctic shores | | N. Zealand | | | | STRUTHIONES. | | | CASUARIIDÆ. | | | | | | 294. Dromæus | 2 |Australia | 295. Casuarius | 9 |Ceram to New Britain, | | | N. Austrl. | | | | APTERYGIDÆ. | | | | | | 296. Apteryx | 4 |New Zealand | | | | DINORNITHIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | | | | 297. Dinornis | 5 |N. Zealand | 298. Mionornis | 2 |N. Zealand | | | | PALAPTERYGIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | | | | 299. Palapteryx | 2 |N. Zealand | 300. Euryapteryx | 2 |N. Zealand |

{489}INDEX TO VOL. I.

NOTE.--In this Index the names in Italics all refer to fossil genera or families mentioned in Part II. The systematic names of genera and families occurring in almost every page of Part III. are not given, as they would unnecessarily swell the Index; but they can be readily referred to by the Class or Order, or by the Geographical Division (Region or Sub-region) under which they occur. They will, however, all be found in the General Index, with a reference to the page (in Vol. II., Part IV.) where a systematic account of their distribution is given.

A.

Aardvark of East Africa, figure of, 261

Accipitres, European Eocene, 163

Accipitres, classification of, 97 range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, 312 range of Oriental genera of, 385 range of Australian genera of, 484

Acerotherium, European Miocene, 119 N. American Tertiary, 136

Achænodon, N. American Tertiary, 138

Acotherium, European Eocene, 126

Adapis, European Eocene, 125

Ælurogale, European Eocene, 125

Æpyornis, of Madagascar, 164

Æshna, from the Lias, 167

Agnopterus, European Eocene, 163

Agriochoerus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Agrion, from the Lias, 167

Alcephalus, Indian Miocene, 122

Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, 289

Aletornis, N. American Eocene, 163

Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, 111

Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, 61 objections to his system of circumpolar zones, 67 objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, 68

Altai mountains, fossils in caves, 111

Amblyrhiza, Pliocene of Antilles, 148

America, recent separation of North and South, 40 extinct mammalia of, 129 North, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 129

Amomys, N. American Tertiary, 134

Amphechinus, European Miocene, 117

Amphibia, means of dispersal of, 28 classification of, 100 peculiar to Palæarctic region, 186 of Central Europe, 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 of Siberian sub-region, 220

Amphibia, of the Manchurian sub-region, 226 table of Palæarctic families of, 237 of the Ethiopian region, 255 of West Africa, 264 South African, 268 of Madagascar, 280 table of Ethiopian families of, 298 of the Oriental region, 317 of the Indian sub-region, 326 of Ceylon, 327 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 table of Oriental families of, 369 of the Australian region, 397 resemblances of Australian and South-American, 400 of New Guinea, 416 of New Zealand, 457

Amphibos, Indian Miocene, 122

Amphicyon, European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 N. American Tertiary, 134

Amphimericidæ, European Miocene, 119

Amphimoschus, European Miocene, 120

Amphisorex, European Miocene, 118

Amphitragulus, European Miocene, 120

Anastoma, European Tertiary, 169

Anchilophus, European Eocene, 125

Anchippodus, N. American Eocene, 139

Anchippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Anchitheridæ, N. American Tertiary, 135

Anchitherium, European Miocene, 119 European Eocene, 125 N. American Tertiary, 135

Ancient fauna of New Zealand, 459

Ancylotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 121

Andaman Islands, zoology of, 333 probable past history of, 334

Andreas, European Miocene, 165

Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, 85

Animals, development of, affecting distribution, 7 dispersal and migration of, 10 rapid multiplication of, 10 {490}

Anisacodon, N. American Tertiary, 137

Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428

Anoplotheriidæ, European Miocene, 119

Anoplotherium, European Miocene, 119 European Eocene, 126 S. American Eocene, 148

Anseres, arrangement of, 98 peculiar Palæarctic genera, 250 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313 peculiar Australian genera of, 485

Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, 122 birthplace and migrations of, 155 Palæarctic, 182

Antelotherium, Indian Miocene, 122

Anthracotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, 137

Anthracotherium, European Miocene, 110

Antiacodon, N. American Tertiary, 133

Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, 148

Antilope, Post-Pliocene, 112 in Brazilian caves, 144

Antiquity of the genera of insects, 166 of the genera of land and freshwater shells, 168

Aphanapteryx of Mauritius, 164

Aphelotherium, European Eocene, 125

Aquila, European Miocene, 161

Archæopteryx, Bavarian Oolite, 163

Arctic zone not a separate region, 68

Arctocyon, European Eocene, 125

Arctodus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Arctomys, European Pliocene, 113

Arctotherium in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Argus pheasant, figure of, 339 peculiarity, in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's views, 340

Artiodactyla, European Eocene, 126 N. American Tertiary, 137 S. American Pliocene, 146

Arvicola, European Pliocene, 113 in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147 S. American Eocene, 148

Auchena, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Auckland Islands, birds of, 455

Australia, physical features of, 387

Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, 398

Australian region, description of, 387 zoological characteristics of, 390 mammalia of, 390 birds of, 391 reptiles of, 396 amphibia of, 397 fresh-water fish of, 397 summary of vertebrata of, 397 supposed land-connection of with S. America, 398 insects of, 403 lepidoptera of, 404 coleoptera of, 405 land shells of, 407 sub-regions of, 408 early history of, 465

Australian sub-region, mammalia of, 438 illustration of mammalia of, 439 birds of, 440 illustration of fauna of, 441

Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, 388 zoology of, 409

Aye-aye, figure of, 278

Azores, visited by European birds, 17 birds of, 207 butterflies of, 207 beetles of, 207, 209 peculiarly modified birds of, 207 stragglers to, 208 how stocked with animal life, 208

B.

Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428

Badger, figure of, 195

Balæna, European Pliocene, 112

Balænodon, European Pliocene, 112

Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, 230

Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution, 356

Barriers, as affecting distribution, 6 permanence of, as affecting distribution, 7 to the dispersal of birds, 17

Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, 228 on Longicorns of Japan, 230

Bathmodon, N. American Tertiary, 136

Bathrodon, N. American Tertiary, 133

Batrachia, Tertiary, 165

Bats, powers of flight of, 15 classification of, 87 of New Zealand, 450

Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, 291

Beaver, N. American Tertiary, 140

Beetles, families selected for study, 103 from the Lias, 167 of Azores, 207 of Japan, 228

Belemnoziphius, European Pliocene, 112

Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch, 218 on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, 466

Birds, means of dispersal of, 15 dispersal of by winds, 16 American, found in Europe, 16 reaching the Azores, 17 barriers to dispersal of, 17 limited by forests, 17 classification of, 93 Miocene of Greece, 116 extinct, 160 fossil of Palæarctic region, 161 European of Miocene period, 161 Eocene of Europe, 162 relations of, 162 extinct of North America, 163 recently extinct in New Zealand, 164 Cretaceous of N. America, 164 remains of in Brazilian caves, 164 recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 164 cosmopolitan groups of, 176 numerous genera, Palæarctic, 183 of the European sub-region, 193 northern range of in Europe, 193 of the zone of pine forests, 194 of Iceland, 198 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 203 of Malta, 206 (note) of Azores, 207 of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 of Siberian sub-region, 219 Oriental found in Siberia, 219 extreme northern Asiatic, 219 of northern Asiatic forests, 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, 223 Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224 Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224 {491} characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, 226 table of Palæarctic families of, 235 of West Africa, 243 list of Palæarctic genera of, 243 of the Ethiopian region, 253 of the East African sub-region, 260 S. African, 267 genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, 275 common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, 276 species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, 277 table of Ethiopian families of, 295 table of Ethiopian genera of, 306 of the Oriental region, 316 of the Indian sub-region, 323 Oriental genera of in Central India, 324 Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, 325 of Ceylon, 327 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330 of Indo-Malayan sub-region, 337 illustration of peculiar Malayan, 339 of the Philippine Islands, 346 table of Oriental families of, 366 table of Oriental genera of, 375 of Australian region, 391 specially organized Australian families of, 392 of the Papuan Islands, 410 peculiarities of, 413 brilliant colours of, 413 remarkable forms of, 414 of the Moluccas, 418 peculiarities of, 421 of Timor group, 423 of Celebes, 428 of Australia, 440 of New Zealand, 451 peculiar to New Zealand, 452 of Norfolk Island, 453 of Lord Howe's Island, 453 of the Chatham Islands, 454 of the Auckland Islands, 455 table of families of Australian, 471 table of genera of Australian, 478

Black ape of Celebes, 427

Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, 60 on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321

Blapsidium, Oolitic insect, 167

Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, 60 on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321

Borneo, probable recent changes in, 357

Bos, Post-Pliocene, 112 Indian Miocene, 122

Bourbon, zoology of, 280 reptiles of, 281

Bovidæ, European Miocene, 120

Brachymys, European Miocene, 120

Bramatherium, Miocene of Perim Island, 122

Brazilian cave-fauna, 143 remarks on, 145

Breyeria borinensis, carboniferous insect, 168

Britain, peculiar species in, 197

British Isles, zoology of, 197

Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, 340

Brontotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, 137

Brontotherium, N. American Tertiary, 137

Bubo, European Miocene, 162

Bulimus, Eocene, 169

Bunælurus, N. American Tertiary, 134

Buprestidium, Oolitic insect, 167

Butterflies, arrangement of, 103 Palæarctic, 187 of Central Europe, 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 of Azores, 207 peculiar to Siberian sub-region, 220 of Japan and North China, 227 of the Ethiopian region, 255 number of Ethiopian species, 256 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 of the Australian region, 404 of the Austro-Malay sub-region, 404 of the Moluccas, 419 of Celebes, peculiarities of, 434 of New Zealand, 457

C.

Cadurcotherium, European Eocene, 125

Cælodon, in Brazilian caves, 145

Cælogenys, in Brazilian caves, 144

Cænopithecus, European Eocene, 124

Cainotherium, European Miocene, 120 European Eocene, 126

Calamodon, N. American Eocene, 139

Callithrix in Brazilian caves, 184

Canaries, birds of, 208 beetles of, 209

Canidæ, European Miocene, 118 European Eocene, 125 N. American Tertiary, 134 remarkable S. African, 267

Canis, European Pliocene, 112 Post-Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 European Eocene, 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 N. American Tertiary, 134, 135 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, 122 birth-place and migrations of, 155 Palæarctic, 182

Camelidæ, essentially extra-tropical, 112 N. American Tertiary, 138

Camelopardalis, Miocene of Greece, 116 Indian Miocene, 122

Camelotherium, S. American Pliocene, 147

Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and of, 266

Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, 214

Cape-hare, S. African, 267

Cardiodus, S. American Pliocene, 147

Cariama, Brazilian caves, 164

Carnivora of European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 European Eocene, 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 N. American Tertiary, 134 of Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Carnivora, classification of, 88 antiquity of, 153 of the Palæarctic region, 182 list of Palæarctic genera of, 240 list of Ethiopian genera of, 302 range of Oriental genera of, 373 list of Australian genera of, 476

Caroline Islands, birds of, 444

Carterodon in Brazilian caves, 145

Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, 85 {492} Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, 88

Castor, European Pliocene, 113 European Miocene, 120

Casoryx, N. American Tertiary, 138

Cathartes, Brazilian caves, 164

Cave-fauna of Brazil, 143

Cavia, European Miocene, 121 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147

Cebochoerus, European Eocene, 126

Cebus in Brazilian caves, 144

Celebes, physical features of, 389 mammalia of, 426 birds of, 428 insects of, 434 origin of fauna of, 436

Centetidæ, European Miocene, 118

Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, 397

Cercolabes in Brazilian caves, 145

Cercopithecus in European Pliocene, 112

Cervidæ, European Miocene, 120 birth-place and migrations of, 155

Cervus, European Pliocene, 113 Indian Pliocene and Miocene, 122 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 138 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147

Cetacea, European Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 140

Cetacea, classification of, 89 range of Oriental genus, 374

Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, 327

Ceylonese sub-region, 326 mammalia of, 327 birds of, 327 reptiles of, 327 amphibia of, 327 insects of, 327 past history of, as indicated by its fauna, 328

Chalicomys, European Pliocene, 113

Chalicotherium, European Miocene, 119 Indian Miocene, 122 fossil in N. China, 123

Chamæleo, N. American Eocene, 165

Chamois, figure of, 195

Chatham Islands, birds of, 454

Chelonia, classification of, 100

Chelydra, European Pliocene, 165

Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, 336

Chili should not be placed in the Palæarctic or Nearctic regions, 63

China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European Miocene, 362 North, mammalia of, 222

Chinchillidæ in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147 Pliocene of Antilles, 148

Chiroptera, classification of, 87 list of Palæarctic genera of, 239 list of Ethiopian genera of, 300 range of Oriental genera of, 371 list of Australian genera of, 475

Chiroptera, European Eocene, 125 in Brazilian caves, 144

Chlamydotherium in Brazilian caves, 145

Choeromorus, European Miocene, 119

Choeropotamus, European Eocene, 126

Choerotherium, Indian Miocene, 122

Choneziphius, European Pliocene, 112

Chough, Alpine, figure of, 195

Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, 67

Classification as affecting the study of distribution, 83

Clausilia, Eocene, 169

Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, 11 gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, 41

Coleoptera, families selected for study, 103 Palæarctic, 188 number of Palæarctic species, 189 of Central Europe, 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 of the Ethiopian region, 256 S. African, 268 of Madagascar, 282, 283 of the Oriental region, 319 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 of the Australian region, 405 affinity of Australian and South American, 406, 407 of Celebes, 435 of New Zealand, 457

Collocalia, European Miocene, 161

Colobus, European Miocene, 117

Colonoceras, N. American Tertiary, 136

Colossochelys of Indian Miocene, 123, 165

Columbæ, classification of, 96 range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 range of Oriental genera of, 384 range of Australian genera of, 485

Comoro islands, zoology of, 281

Continents, distribution of, 37 recent changes of, 38

Continental extension in Mesozoic times, 156

Corvus, European Miocene, 161

Coryphodon, European Eocene, 126

Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, 175

Cricetodon, European Miocene, 120

Cricetus, European Pliocene, 113

Crocodiles, Eocene, 165

Crocodilia, classification of, 100

Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, 456

Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, 209

Crowned-pigeon, figure of, 415

Cryptornis, European Eocene, 163

Ctenomys, S. American Pliocene, 147

Cuba, extinct mammalia of, 148

Curculionidium, Oolitic insect, 167

Cyclostoma, Eocene, 169

Cyllo sepulta, European Cretaceous, 167

Cynælurus, in Brazilian caves, 144

Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, 427

Cyotherium, European Eocene, 125

D.

Daptophilus, N. American Tertiary, 134

Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of the abundance of apterous insects in Madeira, 211 on the relation of flowers and insects, 463

Dasyprocta, European Miocene, 121 in Brazilian caves, 144

Dasypus, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Dasyurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

David, Père, his researches in China and Thibet, 221, 222 on birds of N. China, 226

Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary formations, 138 {493} Palæarctic, 182 probable cause of absence of from tropical Africa, 291

Delphinus, European Pliocene, 112

Dendrocygna, European Miocene, 162

Desman of S. Russia, figure of, 219

Diceratherium, N. American Tertiary, 137

Dichobune, European Eocene, 126

Dicotyles, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 137 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146 birthplace and migrations of, 155

Dicrocerus, European Miocene, 120

Didelphys, European Eocene, 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 in Brazilian caves, 145

Dididæ, 164

Dinocerata, N. American Tertiary, 139

Dinoceras, N. American Eocene, 139

Dinornis, allied form in European Eocene, 163 of New Zealand and Australia, 164

Dinornithidæ of New Zealand, 164

Dinotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120 Miocene of Perim Island, 123

Dinyctis, N. American Tertiary, 134

Dinylus, European Miocene, 117

Diplacodon, N. American Tertiary, 136

Diprotodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Dispersal of animals, 10 of mammalia, 10 of reptiles and amphibia, 28

Distribution, affected by climate, 5 affected by physical features, 5 contrasts of, in similar climates, 5 similarities of, in diverse climates, 6 barriers as affecting, 6 study of, dependent on a good classification, 83 of animals an adjunct to geology, 8 of animals requires certain preliminary studies, 8 of animals dependent on physical geography, 35 of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, 40 of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, 43 of animals, as affected by organic changes, 44 of animals, hypothetical illustration of, 46 of animals, complexity of the causes affecting the, 49 of animals, problems in, 51 of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, 42

Dodo of Mauritius, 282

Dolichopterus, European Miocene, 162

Dommina, N. American Tertiary, 134

Dorcatherium, European Miocene, 120

Dremotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120

Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of European birds, 193

Dromatherium, N. American Triassic, 134 oldest American mammal, 160

Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, 340 opithecus, European Miocene, 117

E.

East Africa, geographical features of, 258 wide range of genera and species over, 259 few special types in, 260

East African sub-region, description of, 258 genera and species ranging over the whole of, 259 mammalia of, 260 birds of, 260 reptiles of, 260 amphibia and fishes of, 260 insects of, 260 few peculiar types in, 260 illustration of zoology of, 261

East Australia, peculiar birds of, 440

East Thibet, mammalia of, 222

Eaton, Rev. A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Island, 211

Echimyidæ, in Brazilian caves, 145

Echinogale, European Miocene, 118

Ectognathus, N. American Eocene, 139

Edentata, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Pliocene, 140 of Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Edentata, classification of, 90 probable birthplace of, 155 range of Ethiopian genera of, 305 range of Oriental genus of, 375

Elephants, fossil of Indian Miocene, 123 fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene formations, 130 birthplace and migrations of, 155

Elephant shrews, S. African, 267

Elephas, Post-Pliocene, 112 fossil in N. China, 123 N. American Tertiary, 138

Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of paradise, 415

Elornis, European Miocene, 162

Elotherium, N. American Tertiary, 137, 139

Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, 204 on true relations of the birds of Central India, 323

Embasis, N. American Tertiary, 134

Emu, figure of, 441

Emys, Indian Miocene, 123 Miocene and Eocene, 165

Emydida, Indian Miocene, 123

Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, 121

Eobasileus, N. American Eocene, 139

Eocene period, 124 fauna of S. America, 148

Ephemera, from the Lias, 167

Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, 138

Equidæ, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Eocene, 125

Equus, European Pliocene, 112 Post-Pliocene, 112 Indian Miocene, 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 135 Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Ereptodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Erinaceus, European Miocene, 117

Erythromachus of Rodriguez, 164

Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, 139

Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, 63 defined, 73 subdivisions of, 73 general features of, 251 {494} zoological characteristics of, 252 mammalia of, 253 great speciality of, 253 birds of, 253 reptiles of, 254 amphibia of, 255 fresh-water fish of, 255 summary of vertebrates of, 255 insects of, 255 coleoptera of, 256 terrestrial mollusca of, 257 sub-regions of, 258 Atlantic islands of, 269 the probable past history of, 285 tables of distribution of animals of, 293

Eumys, N. American Tertiary, 140

Euphractus, S. American Pliocene, 147

Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, 39 Miocene fauna of Central, 117 Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa, 124

European sub-region, description of, 191 forests of, 192 mammalia of, 192 birds of, 193 reptiles and amphibia of, 195 fresh-water fish of, 196 insects of, 196 islands of, 197

Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, 278

Eurydon, in Brazilian caves, 145

Eurytherium, European Eocene, 126

Eutatus, S. American Pliocene, 147

Eutelodon, European Eocene, 126

Eutemnodus, S. American Eocene, 148

Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, 126 mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, 140 mammalia of the Antilles, 148 mammalia of Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, 148 fauna of New Zealand, 459

Extinction of large animals, causes of, 158

F.

Fauna of Japan, general character and affinities of, 230 of Palæarctic region, general conclusions as to, 231 extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, 282 Malayan, probable origin of, 359 Moluccan, peculiarities of, 419 Timorese, origin of, 422 of Celebes, origin of, 436 of New Zealand, origin of, 460

Felis spelæa, 110

Felis, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 in Brazilian caves, 144

Fernando Po, zoological features of, 265

Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, 443

Fishes, means of dispersal of, 29 classification of, 101 cosmopolitan groups of, 176 of the Palæarctic region, 186 of the European sub-region, 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 fresh-water, table of Palæarctic families of, 227 of the Ethiopian region, 255 of South Africa, 268 fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, 298 fresh-water, of the Oriental region, 318 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 fresh-water, table of Oriental families of, 369 fresh-water, of the Australian region, 397 fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, 400 how the transmission may have taken place, 401 fresh-water, of New Zealand, 457

Flamingoes, European Miocene, 162

Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, 462 fossil, of Australia, 467

Flower, Professor, on classification of mammalia, 85 classification of carnivora, 87

Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, 337

Flying Opossum, figure of, 442

Formosa, zoology of, 332

Forests, essential to existence of many European animals, 192 Siberian, greatest extent of, 216

G.

Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, 463

Galecynus, in European Pliocene, 112

Galera, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Galeospalax, European Miocene, 118

Galeotherium, Post-Pliocene, 111

Galethylax, European Eocene, 125

Galictis, in Brazilian caves, 144

Gallinæ, classification of, 96 range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 range of Oriental genera of, 384 range of Australian genera of, 485

Gallus, Miocene of Greece, 116

Gallus bravardi, European Pliocene, 161

Gastornis, European Eocene, 163

Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, 132

Geological history of Oriental region, 362

Gibraltar, cave fauna of, 114

Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, 40 as a cause of the great change in the fauna of the temperate zones, since Pliocene times, 151 probably simultaneous in both hemispheres, 151 causing a general subsidence of the ocean, 152

Glandina, Eocene, 169

Glossotherium, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Glyptodon, S. American Pliocene, 147

Gnathopsis, S. American Pliocene, 147

Goats, Palæarctic, 182

Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, 207

Golden Moles, S. African, 267

Graculavus, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Grallæ, arrangement of, 97 peculiar or characteristic Palæarctic genera, 249 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313 peculiar Oriental genera of, 386 {495} peculiar Australian genera of, 484

Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, 88

Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, 115 summary of Miocene fauna of, 116

Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, 184

Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidæ of the Sandwich Islands, 446

Günther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, 98 his classification of fishes, 101 on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, 289 on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, 329

H.

Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, 460

Habitat, definition of, 4

Hainan, zoology of, 334

Halcyornis, European Eocene, 103

Halitherium, European Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 119

Helladotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120

Hatteria of New Zealand, 456

Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, 331

Helix, Eocene, 169

Hemibos, Indian Miocene, 122

Hemicyon, European Miocene, 118

Herpetotherium, N. American Tertiary, 134

Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, 140 in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, 145

Hexaprotodon, Indian Miocene, 122

Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinction of large animals, 158

Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, 329, 333

Hipparion, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 135

Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, 112 Europe in Pliocene, 113 Indian Pliocene, 122

Hipposyus, N. American Tertiary, 133

Hippotherium, European Miocene, 119 Indian Miocene, 122

Hippotragus, European Miocene, 120

Homalodontotherium, S. American Pliocene, 146

Homalophus, European Miocene, 161

Homocamelus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to Australia, 392

Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, 464

Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, 112

Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, 134

Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, 121 perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, 136 probable birthplace of, 154

Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, 461

Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, 59 division of animal kingdom by, 85

Hyæna, Post-Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 fossil in N. China, 123

Hyænarctos in European Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 S. American Pliocene, 146

Hyænictis, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118

Hyænidæ, European Miocene, 118

Hyænodon, European Miocene, 118 European Eocene, 125 N. American Tertiary, 134

Hyænodontidæ, European Miocene, 118

Hydrochoerus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Hydrornis, European Miocene, 162

Hyohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Hyomoschus, European Miocene, 120

Hyopotamus, European Miocene, 119 N. American Tertiary, 137

Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, 133

Hyotherium, European Miocene, 119

Hypertragulus, N. American Tertiary, 133

Hypisodus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Hypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Hyrachyus, N. American Tertiary, 136

Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, 136

Hyracoidea, classification of, 90 Palæarctic, 242 Ethiopian, 304

Hyracotherium, supposed, in European Eocene, 125 European Eocene, 126

Hystrix, European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 N. American Tertiary, 140

I.

Ibidipodia, European Miocene, 162

Ibidorhynchus, figure of, 331

Iceland, zoology of, 198

Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Icticyon in Brazilian caves, 144

Ictitherium, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118

Ictops, N. American Tertiary, 133

India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, 123 geological features of, 328

Indian, sub-region, description of, 321 supposed relation to Ethiopian region, 321 mammalia of, 322 birds of, 323 reptiles and amphibia of, 326

Indo-Chinese, sub-region, description of, 329 zoological characteristics of, 330 illustration of, 331 reptiles of, 331 amphibia of, 331 insects of, 332 islands belonging to, 333

Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, 334 mammalia of, 336 illustrations of, 336, 339 birds of, 337 remote geographical relations of, 339 reptiles and amphibia of, 340 fishes of, 341 insects of, 341 coleoptera of, 342 terrestrial mollusca of, 343 zoological relations of islands of, 345 recent geographical changes in, 357 probable origin of fauna of, 359

Insects, means of dispersal of, 32 tenacity of life of, 33 {496} adapted to special conditions, 33 groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, 102 antiquity of the genera of, 166 fossil of European Miocene, 166 European Cretaceous, 167 European Wealden, 167 Palæozoic, 168 Palæarctic, 187 of Central Europe, 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 of the Siberian sub-region, 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 of the Ethiopian region, 255 of the East African sub-region, 260 of West Africa, 265 S. African, 268 of Madagascar, 282 general remarks on, 284 of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, 291 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 332 of the Oriental region, 318 of Ceylon, 327 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay Archipelago, 343 of the Australian region, 403 of New Guinea, 417 of the Moluccas, 420 of Timor group, 426 of Celebes, 454 of New Zealand, 458 scarcity of, in New Zealand, 462 influence of, on the flora, 463

Insectivora, European Miocene, 117 N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 N. American Tertiary, 133

Insectivora, classification of, 87 of the Palæarctic region, 181 of N. China and E. Thibet, 222 range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 of Madagascar, 273 range of Ethiopian genera of, 301 of the Oriental region, 315 range of Oriental genera of, 372 range of Australian genera of, 476

Isacis, N. American Tertiary, 133

Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, 140

Islands, N. European, zoology of, 197 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 206 of the West African sub-region, 265 of Ethiopian region, 269 Mascarene, 280 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 333 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 345 Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, 443 Society and Marquesas, 444 New Caledonia and New Hebrides, 445 Sandwich, 446 of New Zealand sub-region, 453 Norfolk, 453 Lord Howe's, 454 Chatham, 454 Auckland, 455

Issiodromys, European Pliocene, 113

J.

Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, 144

Japan and North China, physical features of, 221 southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, 226 general character of the fauna of, 230 former land-connexions of, 231

Java, mammalia of, 349 productions of, well known, 350 birds of, 351 representative species of birds in, 352 origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, 352 Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological peculiarities explained, 357

Junonia, European Miocene, 167

K.

Kakapoe, of New Zealand, 455

Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, 157

Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, 211 (note)

Kerodon, in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147

King-fisher, racquet tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, 415

Kiwi of New Zealand, 455

Koodoo antelope, figure of, 261

L.

Lacertilia, classification of, 99

Ladrone Islands, birds of, 444

Lagomys, European Pliocene, 113 European Miocene, 120

Lagostomus, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Lake Baikal, seals of, 218

Land and water, proportions of, 35

Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, 168

Land-shells, Palæozoic, 169 Palæarctic, 190 of Madeira, 209 of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 of the Ethiopian region, 257 of W. Africa, 265 of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 285 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 344 of the Australian region, 407 of Sandwich Islands, 446 of New Zealand, 459

Lanius, European Miocene, 161

Laopithecus, N. American Tertiary, 133

Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Lemuria, a hypothetical land, 76

Lamuravidæ, 133

Lemuravus, N. American Tertiary, 133

Lemuridæ, European Eocene, 124

Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 range of Oriental genera of, 371

Lepictis, N. American Tertiary, 133

Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, 177 table of Palæarctic families of, 238 S. African, 268 table of Ethiopian families of, 299 of the Oriental region, 318 table of Oriental families of, 369 of the Australian region, 404 table of Australian families of, 472

Leptarchus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Leptauchenia, N. American Tertiary, 138

Leptochoerus, N. American Tertiary, 137

Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, 116

Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, 138

Leptoptilus, European Miocene, 162

Leptosomus, allied form in European Eocene, 168 {497}

Leptosomus of Madagascar, 278 figure of, 279

Leptotherium, in Brazilian caves, 144

Lepus, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Lestodon, S. American Pliocene, 147

Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, 228

Lebellula, from the Lias, 167

Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, 90

Limnæa, Eocene, 169 European Secondary, 169

Limnatornis, European Miocene, 161

Limnocyon, N. American Tertiary, 134

Limnohyus, N. American Tertiary, 136

Limnotheridæ, N. American Tertiary, 133

Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, 133

Listriodon, European Miocene, 119

Lithomys, European Miocene, 120

Lithornis, European Eocene, 163

Lizards, classification of, 99 Tertiary, 165 wide range of a species in Polynesia, 448

Loncheres, in Brazilian caves, 145

Lonchophorus, in Brazilian caves, 145

Lophiodon, European Eocene, 125 N. American Tertiary, 136

Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, 136

Lord Howe's Island, birds of, 453

Loxomylus, Pliocene of Antilles, 148

Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, 143

Lutra, European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121

Lycæna, Miocene of Greece, 115

Lyre bird, figure of, 441

M.

Macacus, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 Indian Miocene, 121 supposed in European Eocene, 125

Machairodus, 110, 111 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118 Indian Miocene, 121 N. American Tertiary, 134 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Macrauchenia, S. American Pliocene, 146

Macrotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 121

Madagascar, extinct birds of, 164 description of, 272 mammalia of, 272 birds of, 274 reptiles of, 279 amphibia of, 280 extinct fauna of, 282 general remarks on insect fauna of, 284

Madeira, birds of, 208 land shells of, 208 beetles of, 210 wingless insects numerous in, 211 how stocked with animals, 213

Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, 353 comparison of mammalia, 354 of birds, 355

Malagasy sub-region, description of, 272 mammalia of, 272 birds of, 274 illustration of zoology of, 278 reptiles of, 279 amphibia of, 280 extinct fauna of, 282, 289 insects of, 282 early history of, 286

Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, 345 (note)

Malayan forms of life reappearing in West Africa, 263 fauna, probable origin of, 359 resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, 361

Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 114 formerly joined to Africa, 201 fossil elephants of, 201 birds of, 206 (note)

Mammalia, means of dispersal of, 10 as limited by climate, 11 as limited by rivers, 12 how far limited by the sea, 13 dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, 14 means of dispersal of aquatic, 15 of most importance in determining zoological regions, 57 classification of, 85 birthplace and migrations of some families of, 142, 153 cosmopolitan groups of, 176 of the Palæarctic region, 181 of the European sub-region, 192 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 202 of the Siberian sub-region, 217 characteristic of Western Tartary, 218 of the Manchurian sub-region, 222 Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 222 Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, 223 peculiar to Japan, 223 characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, 226 table of Palæarctic families of, 234 range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 of the Ethiopian region, 253 absence of certain important groups, 253 of the East African sub-region, 260 of West Africa, 262 of S. Africa, 267 of Madagascar, 272 table of Ethiopian families of, 294 table of Ethiopian genera of, 300 of the Oriental region, 315 range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, 322 of Ceylon, 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, 336 illustration of characteristic Malayan, 336 of the Philippine Islands, 345 table of Oriental families of, 365 table of Oriental genera of, 371 of Australian region, 390 of the Papuan Islands, 410 of the Moluccas, 417 of Timor group, 422 of Celebes, 427 of Australia, 439 illustration of, 439 of New Zealand, 450 table of families of Australian, 470 table of genera of Australian, 475

Mammal, the most ancient American, 134

Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, 107 extinct, of historic period, 110 extinct, comparative age of in Europe, 127 extinct, of the New World, 129 {498} extinct, of N. America and Europe, compared, 141 original birth-place of some families and genera, 142, 153 of the secondary period, 160

Manatus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Manchurian sub-region, description of, 220 mammalia of, 222 birds of, 223 reptiles and amphibia of, 227 fresh-water fish of, 227 insects of, 227 coleoptera of, 228

Marquesas Islands, birds of, 443

Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and African deserts, 200 on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, 200

Marsupials, classification of, 91 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 European Miocene, 121 first migration to America, 155 diversified forms of, 391 of America prove no connexion with Australia, 399 list of Australian genera of, 476

Martes, N. American Tertiary, 135

Mascarene Islands, zoology of, 280 extinct fauna of, 282 gigantic land-tortoises of, 289

Mastodon, European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120 in Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147 Indian Miocene, 123 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 138

Mauritius, zoology of, 280 reptiles of, 281

McCoy, Professor, on Palæontology of Victoria, 466

Mediterranean, recent changes in, 39 sub-region, description of, 199 mammalia of, 202 birds of, 203 reptiles and amphibia of, 204 fresh-water fish of, 205 insects of, 205 islands of, 206 sea not separating distinct faunas, 201

Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, 137

Megalomeryx, N. American Tertiary, 138

Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, 148

Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Megalostoma, Eocene, 169

Megamys, S. American Eocene, 148

Megaspira, European Tertiary, 169

Megatheridæ, in Brazilian caves, 145

Megatherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Melania, European secondary, 169

Meleagris, N. American Miocene, 163

Mellivora, Indian Miocene, 121

Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, 167

Meniscotherium, N. American Tertiary, 138

Menotherium, N. American Tertiary, 133

Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, 144

Merychus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Merychippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Merychochoerus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Merycodus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, 122

Merycotherium of Siberian drift, 112

Mesacodon, N. American Tertiary, 133

Mesohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Mesonyx, N. American Tertiary, 134

Mesopithecus, Miocene of Greece, 115

Meyer, Dr. A. B., on reptiles and amphibia of New Guinea, 415

Microlestes, oldest European mammal, 160

Micromeryx, European Miocene, 120

Microsyops, N. American Tertiary, 133

Microtherium, European Miocene, 120

Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, 219

Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, 185

Migration of animals, 10 general phenomena of, 18 of birds, 19 of birds in Europe, 19 probable origin of, 22 of birds in India and China, 23 of birds in N. America, 23 changes in extent of, 24 of birds in S. Temperate America, 25 general remarks on, 25

Milvus, European Miocene, 162

Miocene fauna of the Old World, 114 fauna of Greece, 115 fauna of Greece, summary of, 116 fauna of Central Europe, 117 deposits of Siwalik Hills, 121 faunas of Europe and Asia, general observations on, 123

Miohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, 86 on classification of insectivora, 87 on classification of amphibia, 101

Moles almost wholly Palæarctic, 181

Mole-rat, of W. Tartary, 218

Mollusca, means of dispersal of, 30 classification of, 104 groups selected for study, 104

Moluccas, zoology of, 417 birds of, 419 reptiles of, 420 insects of, 420 peculiarities of fauna of, 421

Monkeys on the high Himalayas, 12 fossil in N. American Miocene in E. Thibet, 222 abundance of in the Oriental region, 315

Monotremata, classification of, 91 list of Australian genera of, 477

"More-pork" of Australia, figure of, 442

Morotherium, N. American Pliocene, 140

Motacilla, European Miocene, 161

Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, 393

Moupin, position and zoology of, 221

Muridæ, S. American Pliocene, 147

Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region, 60

Mustela, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118 S. American Pliocene, 146

Mustelidæ, in Brazilian caves, 144

Mylodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 S. American Pliocene, 147

Myogale, European Miocene, 118

Myomorphus, fossil in Cuba

Myopotamus, in Brazilian caves, 145

Myoxus, European Miocene, 120 European Eocene, 126

Mysarachne, European Miocene, 118

Mysops, N. American Eocene, 140

Myxophagus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

N. {499}

Nanohyus, N. American Tertiary, 137

Nasua, in Brazilian caves, 144

Nearctic region, defined, 79 subdivisions of, 80 distinct from Palæarctic, 79

Necrornis, European Miocene, 161

Neotropical region, defined, 78 subdivisions of, 78 relations of W. African sub-region with, 265

Nesodon, S. American Pliocene, 147

Newton, Professor, on position of Menuridæ and Atrichiidæ, 95 on birds of Iceland, 198

New Caledonia, birds of, 444

New Guinea, zoology of, 409 mammalia of, 410 birds of, 411 peculiarities of its ornithology, 413 illustration of ornithology of, 414 reptiles and amphibia of, 415 insects of, 416

New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, 62 extinct birds of, 164 sub-region, description of, 449 compared with British Isles, 449 mammalia of, 451 islets of, 453 illustration of ornithology of, 455 reptiles of, 456 amphibia of, 457 fresh-water fish of, 457 insects of, 458 Longicorns of, 458 Myriapoda of, 458 land-shells of, 459 ancient fauna of, 460 origin of fauna of, 460 poverty of insects in, 462 relations of insect-fauna and flora, 472

Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, 332

Nightingale, migration of the, 21

Norfolk Island, birds of, 453

North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene fauna of, 130 Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, 131 extinct birds of, 163

North Africa, zoological relations of, 202

Notharctos, N. American Tertiary, 133

Notornis of New Zealand, 455

Nototherium, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

O.

Ochotherium, in Brazilian caves, 145

Octodontidæ, S. American Pliocene, 147

Ophidia, classification of, 99

Opisthocomus, Brazilian caves, 164

Opossum, extinct, in European Miocene, 121

Oreodon, N. American Tertiary, 138

Oreodontidæ, N. American Tertiary, 138

Oriental region, defined, 75 subdivisions of, 75 description of, 314 zoological features of, 315 mammalia of, 315 birds of, 316 reptiles of, 317 amphibia of, 317 fresh-water fishes of, 318 summary of vertebrata, 318 insects of, 318 sub-regions of, 321 concluding remarks on, 362 tables of distribution of animals of, 364

Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, 265

Oriental and Palæarctic faunas once identical, 362

Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, 363

Orohippus, N. American Tertiary, 136

Ostrich, Miocene of N. India, 162

Otaria, European Miocene, 118

Ovibos, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Oxen, birthplace and migrations of, 155 Palæarctic, 182

Oxyæna, N. American Tertiary, 134

Oxygomphus, European Miocene, 118

Oxymycterus, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

P.

Pachyæna, N. American Tertiary, 134

Pachynolophus, European Eocene, 126

Pachytherium, in Brazilian caves, 145

Palæarctic region, defined, 71 subdivisions of, 71 general features of, 180 zoological characteristics of, 181 has few peculiar families, 181 mammalia of, 181 birds of, 182 high degree of speciality of, 184 reptiles and amphibia of, 186 fresh-water fish of, 186 summary of vertebrata of, 186 insects of, 186 coleoptera of, 187 number of coleoptera of, 189 land-shells of, 190 sub-regions of, 190 general conclusions on the fauna of, 231 tables of distribution of animals of, 233

Palæacodon, N. American Tertiary, 133

Palæetus, European Miocene, 162

Palægithalus, European Eocene, 162

Palælodus, European Miocene, 162

Palæocastor, N. American Tertiary, 140

Palæocercus, European Miocene, 162

Palæochoeus, European Miocene, 119

Palæohierax, European Miocene, 162

Palæolagus, N. American Tertiary, 140

Palæolama, S. American Pliocene, 147

Palæomephitis, European Miocene, 118

Palæomeryx, European Miocene, 120

Palæomys, European Miocene, 121

Palæontina oolitica, Oolitic insect, 167

Palæontology, 107 how best studied in its bearing on geographical distribution, 168 as an introduction to the study of geographical distribution, concluding remarks on, 169

Palæonyctis, European Eocene, 125

Palæoperdix, European Miocene, 161

Palæophrynus, European Miocene, 166

Palæoreas, Miocene of Greece, 116

Palæortyx, European Miocene, 161

Palæoryx, Miocene of Greece, 116

Palæospalax, 111 European Miocene, 117

Palæosyops, N. American Tertiary, 136

Palæotheridæ, European Eocene, 125

Palæotherium, European Eocene, 125 S. American Eocene, 148

Palæotragus, Miocene of Greece, 116

Palæotringa, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Palapterygidæ of New Zealand, 164 {500}

Palestine, birds of, 203

Paloplotherium, European Miocene, 119 European Eocene, 125

Paludina, Eocene, 169 European Secondary, 169

Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, 146

Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, 222 Himalayan, figure of, 331

Panolax, N. American Tertiary, 140

Papuan Islands, zoology of, 409

Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, 414

Parahippus, N. American Tertiary, 136

Paramys, N. American Eocene, 140

Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, 415

Parrots, classification of, 96

Passeres, arrangement of, 94 range of Palæarctic genera of, 243 range of Ethiopian genera of, 306 range of Oriental genera of, 375 range of Australian genera of, 478

Patriofelis, N. American Tertiary, 134

Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined, 184

Pelagornis, European Miocene, 162

Pelonax, N. American Tertiary, 138

Peratherium, European Miocene, 121 European Eocene, 126

Perchoerus, N. American Tertiary, 137

Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, 122 probable southern limit of old Palæarctic land, 362

Perissodactyla, N. American Tertiary, 135

Persia, birds of, 204

Phascolomys, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Phasianus, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Post-Pliocene, 161

Pheasants, in European Miocene, 161 golden, of N. China, 226 eared, of Mongolia, 226

Phenacodus, N. American Tertiary, 138

Philippine Islands, mammals of, 345 birds of, 346 origin of peculiar fauna of, 348

Phocidæ, N. American Tertiary, 140

Phyllomys, in Brazilian caves, 145

Phyllostomidæ, in Brazilian caves, 144

Physical changes affecting distribution, 7

Physeter, European Pliocene, 112

Picariæ, arrangement of, 95 range of Palæarctic genera of, 247 range of Ethiopian genera of, 309 range of Oriental genera of, 381 range of Australian genera of, 482

Picus, European Miocene, 161

Pigeons, classification of, 96 remarkable development of, in the Australian region, 395 crested, of Australia, figure of, 441

Pigs, power of swimming, 13

Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, 115

Pittidæ, abundant in Borneo, 355

Plagiolophus, European Eocene, 126

Planorbis, European Secondary, 169 Eocene, 169

Platycercidæ, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, 394

Platygonus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Plesiarctomys, European Eocene, 126

Plesiomeryx, European Eocene, 126

Plesiosorex, European Miocene, 118

Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, 112

Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas, of Europe, general conclusions from, 113 of N. America, 132 of S. America, 146 of Australia, 157

Pliohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Pliolophus, European Eocene, 126

Pliopithecus, European Miocene, 117

Poebrotherium, N. American Tertiary, 138

Polynesian sub-region, description of, 442 birds of, 443 reptiles of, 447

Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, 110 remains imply changes of physical geography in Europe, 111 fauna of N. America, 129 fauna of N. America, remarks on, 130

Potamogale of West Africa, figure of, 264

Potamotherium, European Miocene, 118

Potto of West Africa, figure of, 264

Praotherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Primates, classification of, 86 probable birthplace of, 153 range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 range of Oriental genera of, 371 range of Australian genera of, 475

Primates, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 117 Indian Miocene, 121 European Eocene, 124 N. American Tertiary, 132 of Brazilian caves, 144

Prince's Island, birds of, 266

Prionidium, Oolitic insects, 167

Pristiphoca, in European Pliocene, 112

Proboscidea, classification of, 90 range of Ethiopian genus, 303 range of Oriental genus, 374

Proboscidea, European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120 Indian Miocene, 122 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 138 of Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147

Procamelus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 138

Procyon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Procyonidæ, in Brazilian caves, 144

Promephitis, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118

Promerops of East Africa, figure of, 261

Propalæotherium, European Eocene, 126

Protemnodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Protohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135

Protomeryx, N. American Tertiary, 138

Protopithecus, in Brazilian caves, 144

Prototomus, N. American Tertiary, 134

Protornis, European Eocene, 162

Pseudælurus, European Miocene, 118

Pseudocyon, European Miocene, 118

Psittaci, classification of, 96 range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 range of Oriental genera of, 383 range of Australian genera of, 484

Psittacus, European Miocene, 161

Pterocles, European Miocene, 161

Pterodon, European Eocene, 125

Pupa, Eocene, 169

Pupa vetusta, Palæozoic, 169

Pythonidæ, European Miocene, 165

R.

Racoon-dog of N. China, 226

Rana, European Miocene, 166

Region, the best term for the primary zoological divisions, 68 {501} Arctic, why not adopted, 69 Palæarctic, defined, 71 Palæarctic, subdivisions of, 71 Ethiopian, defined, 73 Ethiopian, subdivisions of, 73 Oriental, defined, 75 Oriental, subdivisions of, 75 Australian, defined, 77 Australian, subdivisions of, 77 Neotropical, defined, 78 Neotropical, subdivisions of, 78 Nearctic, defined, 79 Nearctic, distinct from Palæarctic, 79 Nearctic, subdivisions of, 80

Regions, zoological, 50 zoological, how they should be formed, 53 zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, 54 zoological, by what class of animals best determined, 56 for each class of animals, not advisable, 58 zoological, proposed since 1857, 58 zoological, Mr. Sclater's, 59 zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, 61 zoological, proportionate richness of, 64 temperate and tropical, well marked in northern hemisphere, 65 and zones, table of, 66 comparative richness of, 81 and sub-regions, table of, 81 order of succession of the, 173

Representative species, 4

Reptiles, means of dispersal of, 28 classification of, 98 Miocene of Greece, 116 of Indian Miocene deposits, 123 extinct Tertiary, 165 cosmopolitan groups of, 176 peculiar to Palæarctic region, 186 of Central Europe, 195 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 204 of Siberian sub-region, 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 table of Palæarctic families of, 236 of the Ethiopian region, 254 of the East African sub-region, 260 of West Africa, 264 S. African, 268 of Madagascar, 279 table of Ethiopian families of, 297 of the Oriental region, 317 of the Indian sub-region, 326 of Ceylon, 327 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 table of Oriental families of, 368 of the Australian region, 396 of New Guinea, 415 of the Moluccas, 420 of the Polynesian sub-region, 447 of New Zealand, 456 table of Australian families of, 472

Rhea, in Brazilian caves, 164

Rhinoceros, Post-Pliocene, 112 European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 Indian Miocene, 122 fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation in Thibet, 122 fossil in N. China, 123 N. American Tertiary, 136

Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, 339

Rhinocerotidæ, N. American Tertiary, 136

River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, 264 of Madagascar, figure of, 278

Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, 12 limiting the range of birds, 17

River-scene, in West Africa, 264

Rodentia, classification of, 90 range of Palæarctic genera of, 242 range of Ethiopian genera of, 304 range of Oriental genera of, 374 range of Australian genera of, 476

Rodentia, European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120 European Eocene, 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 139 of Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 147 of S. American Eocene, 148

Ruff, figure of, 195

S.

Sahara, a debatable land, 251

Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, 218

Samoa Islands, birds of, 443

Sandwich Islands, birds of, 445 probable past history of, 446 mountain plants of, 446 depth of ocean around, 447

Sand grouse, Pallas, of Mongolia, 226

Satyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous insect, 167

Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidæ of Japan, 229

Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, 145 S. American Pliocene, 147

Schistopleurum, S. American Pliocene, 147

Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Central Africa, 252 on limits of W. African sub-region, 262 (note)

Sciurus, European Miocene, 120 European Eocene, 126

Sciuravus, N. American Eocene, 140

Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, 59 why his six regions are adopted, 63 on birds of Sandwich Islands, 445

Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, 13

Seals, fossil in European Miocene, 118 of Lake Baikal, 218

Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, 159

Secretary-bird of Africa, figure of, 261

Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 117 Indian Miocene, 121

Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, 345

Serpentarius, European Miocene, 162

Seychelle Islands, zoology of, 281 amphibia of, 281

Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, 229

Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipitres, 97 on birds of Cape Verd Islands, 215

Sheep, Palæarctic, 182

Siberia, climate of, 217

Siberian sub-region, description of, 216 mammalia of, 217 birds of, 219 reptiles and amphibia of, 220 insects of, 220

Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, 115

Sinopa, N. American Tertiary, 134 {502}

Sirenia, classification of, 89 range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 range of Oriental genus, 374 range of Australian genus of, 476

Sirenia, European Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 119

Sivatherium, Indian Miocene, 122

Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, 121

Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, 230

Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, 220

Snakes, classification of, 99 Eocene, 165 large proportion of venomous species in Australia, 396 of New Zealand, 457

Society Islands, birds of, 443

Soricictis, European Miocene, 118

Soricidæ, European Miocene, 118

South African sub-region, description of, 266 mammalia of, 267 birds of, 267 reptiles of, 268 amphibia of, 268 fresh-water fish of, 268 butterflies of, 268 coleoptera of, 268 summary of its zoology, 269

South America, fossil fauna of, 143 Pliocene deposits of, 146 supposed land connection with Australia, 398

South Australia, peculiar birds of, 441

Species, representative, 4

Speothos, in Brazilian caves, 144

Spermophilus, European Miocene, 120

Sphenodon, in Brazilian caves, 145

Sphinx, in European Oolite, 167

St. Helena, zoological features of, 269 coleoptera of, 270 landshells of, 271

St. Thomas' Island, birds of, 266

Stations, definition of, 4

Steneofiber, European Miocene, 120

Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Strix, European Miocene, 162

Struthiones, arrangement of, 98 range of Ethiopian genera of, 313 range of Australian genera of, 485

Struthious birds, probable origin of, 287

Stylinodontidæ, N. American Eocene, 139

Stylinodontia, N. American Eocene, 139

Sub-regions, on what principle formed, 80 Palæarctic, 191 Ethiopian, 258 Oriental, 321 Australian, 408

Suidæ, European Miocene, 119

Sula Islands, fauna of, 433

Sus, European Pliocene, 113 Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 119 Indian Miocene, 122

Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, 332

Symborodon, N. American Tertiary, 137

Synaphodus, European Miocene, 119

Synoplotherium, N. American Tertiary, 134

T.

Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, 177

Talpa, European Miocene, 117

Tapir, fossil in N. China, 123

Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, 154

Tapir, Malayan, figure of, 337

Tapiridæ, European Eocene, 125

Tapirus, European Pliocene, 113 Indian Miocene, 122 in Brazilian caves, 144

Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, 337

Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, 441

Taxodon, European Miocene, 118

Telmatobius, N. American Cretaceous, 164

Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, 133

Testudo, Miocene of Greece, 116 Indian Miocene, 123

Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, 289

Tetrachus, European Miocene, 117

Tetrao albus, in Italian caverns, 161

Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 118

Theridomys, European Miocene, 126 European Eocene, 126 S. American Eocene, 148

Thinohyus, N. American Tertiary, 137

Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, 133

Thylacinus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Thylacoleo, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157

Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, 139

Tillotheridæ, N. American Eocene, 139

Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, 139

Timor, physical features of, 389 group, mammalia of, 422 birds of, 422 origin of fauna of, 424 insects of, 426

Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, 139

Titanomys, European Miocene, 121

Titanotherium, N. American Tertiary, 137

Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, 135

Tonga Islands, birds of, 443

Tortoises, classification of, 100 of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, 289

Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, 264

Toxodon, S. American Pliocene, 137

Toxodontidæ, S. American Pliocene, 147

Trachytherium, European Miocene, 119

Tragocerus, Miocene of Greece, 116 European Miocene, 120

Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, 331

Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, 337

Tree-kangaroo, figure of, 415

Trichechus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Trichoglossidæ, birds specially adapted to Australia, 393

Trionyx, Indian Miocene, 123 Miocene and Eocene, 165

Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, 271

Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, 203

Trogon, European Miocene, 161

Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, 111

Trucijelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, 129

Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, 216

Tupaiidæ, European Miocene, 118

Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, 90

Tylodon, European Eocene, 125

Typotherium, S. American Pliocene, 147

U.

Uintacyon, N. American Tertiary, 134

Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, 139

Uintornis, N. American Eocene, 163

Unio, European Secondary, 169

Ungulata, classification of, 89 antiquity of, 151 {503} of the Palæarctic region, 182 range of Palæarctic genera of, 241 range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 range of Oriental genera of, 374 range of Australian genera of, 476

Ungulata, European Pliocene, 112 Miocene of Greece, 115 European Miocene, 119 Indian Miocene, 121 European Eocene, 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 N. American Tertiary, 135 of Brazilian caves, 144 S. American Pliocene, 146

Urania of Madagascar, 282

Ursidæ, N. American Tertiary, 135 in Brazilian caves, 144

Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, 121

Ursus, Post-Pliocene, 112 Indian Miocene, 121

V.

Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, 278

Varanus, Miocene of Greece, 116 Indian Miocene, 123

Vertebrata, summary of Palæarctic, 186 summary of Ethiopian, 255 summary of Oriental, 318 summary of Australian, 397

Vespertilio, European Eocene, 125

Viperus, European Miocene, 165

Viverra, European Pliocene, 112 European Miocene, 118

Viverridæ, European Miocene, 118 European Eocene, 125

W.

Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine Islands, 346 on birds of Celebes, 428

Washakius, N. American Tertiary, 134

Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, 90 on classification of marsupials, 91

West African sub-region, description of, 262 mammalia of, 262 birds of, 262 Oriental or Malayan element in, 263 river scene with characteristic animals, 264 reptiles of, 264 amphibia of, 264 Oriental and Neotropical relations of, 265 insects of, 265 land-shells of, 265 islands of, 265

West Australia, peculiar birds of, 441

Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, 264

Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, 209 on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, 211 on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, 214 on coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 on beetles of St. Helena, 270

X.

Xenurus, in Brazilian caves, 145

Xiphodontidæ, European Miocene, 119

Z.

Zeuglodontidæ, N. American Tertiary, 140

Zonites priscus, Palæozoic, 169

Zoological characteristics of Palæarctic region, 181 Ethiopian region, 252 Oriental region, 315 Australian region, 390

Zoological regions, discussion on, 50

END OF VOL. I.

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL.

Notes

[1] Marcel de Serres states this as a general fact for wading and swimming birds. He says that the old birds arrive in the extreme north almost alone, the young remaining on the shores of the Baltic, or on the lakes of Austria, Hungary, and Russia. See his prize essay, Des Causes des Migrations, &c. 2nd. ed., Paris, 1845, p. 121.

[2] Quoted in Lyell's Principles of Geology (11th ed. vol. ii. p. 374), from Amoen. Acad. Essay 75.

[3] This estimate has been made for me by Mr. Stanford from the materials used in delineating the contours of the ocean-bed on our general map. It embodies the result of all the soundings of the Challenger, Tuscarora, and other vessels, obtainable up to August, 1875.

[4] Mr. John Hickman of Desborough.

[5] Trans. Zool. Soc. of London, vol. viii. p. 381.

[6] Malta is interesting as forming a resting-place for migratory birds, while crossing the Mediterranean. It has only eight land and three aquatic birds which are permanent residents; yet no less than 278 species have been recorded by Mr. E. A. Wright as visiting or passing over it, comprising a large proportion of the European migratory birds. The following are the permanent residents: Cerchneis tinnunculus, Strix flammea, Passer salicicola, Emberiza miliaria, Corvus monedula, Monticola cyanea, Sylvia conspicillata, Columba livia, Puffinus cinereus, P. anglorum, Thalassidroma pelagica.

[7] A remarkable confirmation of this theory, is furnished in the Report to the Royal Society of the naturalist to the Kerguelen Island, "Transit Expedition"--the Rev. A. E. Eaton. Insects were assiduously collected, and it was found that almost all were either completely apterous, or had greatly abbreviated wings. The only moth found, several flies, and numerous beetles, were alike incapable of flight. As this island is subject to violent, and almost perpetual gales, even in the finest season, the meaning of the extraordinary loss of wings in almost all the insects, can, in this case, hardly be misunderstood.

[8] The facts on which these statements rest, will be found more fully detailed in the Author's Presidential Address to the Entomological Society of London for the year 1871.

[9] Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1874, p. 494.

[10] Dr. Schweinfurth has accurately determined the limits of the sub-region at the point where he crossed the watershed between the Nile tributaries and those of the Shari, in 4½° N. Lat. and 28½° E. Long. He describes a sudden change in the character of the vegetation, which to the southward of this point assumes a West-African character. Here also the chimpanzee and grey parrot first appear, and certain species of plants only known elsewhere in Western Africa.

[11] There are also some special resemblances between the plants of Madagascar and South Africa, according to Dr. Kirk.

[12] As so many typical Malay groups are absent only from the Philippines, I have adopted the term "Malaya," to show the distribution of these, using the term "Indo-Malaya" when the range of the group includes the Philippines. This must be remembered when consulting the tables of distribution at the end of this chapter.

[13] See Ann. Nat. Hist., 1873, p. 418, where the species is said to inhabit the Aru Islands and Celebes, which renders it not improbable that it may have been carried to the former islands from the latter.

[14] I also find about this proportion in my Amazonian collections, even counting all the humming-birds, parrots, and toucans as handsome birds.

[15] The general form of the skull agrees best with that of Cynocephalus mormon, the largest and most typical of the African baboons; while the position of the nostrils brings it nearer the macaques.

[16] A new genus of Beetles (Apterocyclus) of the family Lucanidæ, has recently been described from the Sandwich Islands, and it is said to be most nearly related to a group inhabiting Chili,--an indication either of the great antiquity of the fauna, or of the varied accidental migrations from which it has had its origin.

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