Part III (part 1 of 2)

Part III (part 1 of 2)

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:

A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.

{173}CHAPTER IX.

THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS.--COSMOPOLITAN GROUPS OF ANIMALS.--TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

Having discussed, in our First Part, such general and preliminary matters as are necessary to a proper comprehension of our subject; and having made ourselves acquainted, in our Second Part, with the most important results of Palæontology, we now come to our more immediate subject, which we propose to treat first under its geographical aspect. Taking each of our six regions in succession, we shall point out in some detail the chief zoological features they present, as influenced by climate, vegetation, and other physical features. We shall then treat each of the sub-regions by itself, as well as such of the islands or other sub-divisions as present features of special interest; endeavouring to ascertain their true relations to each other, and the more important changes of physical geography that seem necessary to account for their present zoological condition.

Order of Succession of the Regions.--We may here explain the reason for taking the several regions in a different succession from that in which they appear in the tabular or diagrammatic headings to each family, in the Fourth, and concluding part of this work. It will have been seen, by our examination of extinct animals (and it will be made still clearer during our study of the several regions) that all the chief types of animal life appear to have originated in the great north temperate or northern continents; while the southern continents--now represented by {174}South America, Australia, and South Africa with Madagascar--have been more or less completely isolated, during long periods, both from the northern continent and from each other. These latter countries have, however, been subject to more or less immigration from the north during rare epochs of approximation to, or partial union with it. In the northern, more extensive, and probably more ancient land, the process of development has been more rapid, and has resulted in more varied and higher types; while the southern lands, for the most part, seem to have produced numerous diverging modifications of the lower grades of organization, the original types of which they derived either from the north, or from some of the ancient continents in Mesozoic or Palæozoic times. Hence those curious resemblances in the fauna of South America, Australia, and, to a less extent, Madagascar, which have led to a somewhat general belief that these distant countries must at one time or other have been united; a belief which, after a careful examination of all the facts, does not seem to the author of this work to be well founded. On the other hand, there is the most satisfactory evidence that each southern region has been more or less closely united (during the tertiary or later secondary epoch) with the great northern continents, leading to numerous resemblances and affinities in their productions.

In endeavouring to present at a glance in the most convenient manner, the distribution of the families in the several regions and sub-regions, it was necessary to arrange them, so that those whose relations to each other were closest should stand side by side; the first and last being those between which the relations were least numerous and least important. Influenced by the usual opinions as to the relations between Australia and South America, the series was at first begun with the Nearctic, and terminated with the Australian and Neotropical regions; and it was not till the whole of the vertebrate families had been gone through, and their distribution carefully studied, that these last two regions were seen to be really wider apart than any others of the series. It was therefore decided to alter the arrangement, beginning with the Neotropical, and ending with the Australian {175}regions; and a careful inspection of the diagrams themselves, taken in their entirety, will, it is believed, show that this is the most natural plan, and most truly exhibits the relations of the several regions.

In the portion of our work now commencing, we are not, however, by any means bound to begin at either end of this series. Each region is studied by itself, but reference will often have to be made to all the other regions; and wherever we begin, we must occasionally refer to facts which will be given further on. As, however, the great northern continents form the central mass from which the southern regions, as it were, diverge, and as the Palæarctic region is both more extensive and much better known than any other, it undoubtedly forms the most convenient starting-point for our proposed survey of the zoological history of the earth. We thus pass from the better known to the less known--from Europe to Africa and tropical Asia, and thence to Australia, completing the series of regions of the Eastern Hemisphere. Beginning again with the Neotropical region, we pass to the Nearctic, which has such striking relations with the preceding and with the Palæarctic region, that it can only be properly understood by constant reference to both. We thus keep separate the Eastern and Western hemispheres, which form, from our point of view, the most radical and most suggestive division of terrestrial faunas; and as we are able to make this also the dividing point of our two volumes, reference to the work will be thereby facilitated.

Cosmopolitan Groups.--Before proceeding to sketch the zoological features of the several Regions it will be well to notice those family groups which belong to the earth as a whole, and which are so widely and universally distributed over it that it will be unnecessary, in some cases, to do more than refer to them under the separate geographical divisions.

The only absolutely cosmopolitan families of Mammalia are those which are aerial or marine; and this is one of the striking proofs that their distribution has been effected by natural causes, and that the permanence of barriers is one of the chief {176}agencies in the limitation of their range. Even among the aerial bats, however, only one family--the Vespertilionidæ--is truly cosmopolitan, the others having a more or less restricted range. Neither are the Cetacea necessarily cosmopolitan, most of the families being restricted either to warm or to cold seas; but one family, the dolphins (Delphinidæ), is truly so. This order however will not require further notice, as, being exclusively marine the groups do not enter into any of our terrestrial regions. The only other family of mammals that may be considered to be cosmopolitan, is the Muridæ (rats and mice); yet these are not entirely so, since none are known to be truly indigenous in any part of the Australian region except Australia itself.

In the class of Birds, a number of families are cosmopolites, if we reckon as such all which are found in each region and sub-region; but several of these are so abundant in some parts, while they are so sparingly represented in others, that they cannot fairly be considered so. We shall confine that term therefore, to such as, there is reason to believe, inhabit every important sub-division of each region. Such are, among the Passerine birds the crows (Corvidæ), and swallows (Hirundinidæ); among the Picariæ the kingfishers (Alcedinidæ); among other Land birds the pigeons (Columbidæ), grouse and partridges (Tetraonidæ), hawks (Falconidæ), and owls (Strigidæ); among the Waders the rails (Rallidæ), snipes (Scolopacidæ), plovers (Charadriadæ), and herons (Ardeidæ); and among the Swimmers the ducks (Anatidæ), gulls (Laridæ), petrels (Procellariidæ), pelicans (Pelecanidæ), and grebes (Podicipidæ).

In the class of Reptiles there are few absolutely cosmopolitan families, owing to the scarcity of members of this group in some insular sub-regions, such as New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Those which are most nearly so are the Colubridæ among snakes, and the Scincidæ among lizards.

There is no cosmopolitan family of Amphibia, the true frogs (Ranidæ) being the most widely distributed.

Neither is any family of Freshwater Fishes cosmopolitan, the Siluridæ, which have the widest range, being confined {177}to warm regions, and becoming very scarce in the temperate zones.

Among the Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera (butterflies and sphinges) the following families are cosmopolitan:--Satyridæ, Nymphalidæ, Lycænidæ, Pieridæ, Papilionidæ, Hesperidæ, Zygænidæ, and Sphingidæ.

Of the Coleoptera almost all, except some of the small and obscure families, are cosmopolitan.

Of the terrestrial Mollusca, the Helicidæ alone are true cosmopolites.

Tables of Distribution of Families and Genera.--Having been obliged to construct numerous tables of the distribution of the various groups for the purposes of the descriptive part of the work, I have thought it well to append the most important of them, in a convenient form, to the chapter on each region; as much information will thereby be given, which can only be obtained from existing works at the cost of great labour. All these tables are drawn up on a uniform plan, the same generic and family names being used in each; and all are arranged in the same systematic order, so as to be readily comparable with each other. This, although it seems a simple and natural thing to do, has involved a very great amount of labour, because hardly two authors use the same names or follow the same arrangement. Hence comparison between them is impossible, till all their work has been picked to pieces, their synonymy unravelled, their differences accounted for, and the materials recast; and this has to be done, not for two or three authors only, but for the majority of those whose works have been consulted on the zoology of any part of the globe.

Except in the two higher orders--Mammalia and Birds--materials do not exist for complete tables of the genera brought down to the present time. We have given therefore, first, a complete table of all the families of Vertebrata and Diurnal Lepidoptera found in each region, showing the sub-regions in which they occur, and their range beyond the limits of the region. Families which are wholly peculiar to the region, or {178}very characteristic and almost exclusively confined to it, are in italics. The number prefixed to each family corresponds to that of the series of families in the Fourth Part of this work, so that if further information is required it can be readily referred to without consulting the index. Names inclosed in parentheses--( . . . ) thus--indicate families which only just enter a region from an adjacent one, to which they properly belong. The eye is thus directed to the more, and the less important families; and a considerable amount of information as to the general features of the zoology of the region, is conveyed in the easiest manner.

The tables of genera of Mammalia and Birds, are arranged on a somewhat different plan. Each genus is given under its Family and Order, and they follow in the same succession in all the tables. The number of species of each genus, inhabiting the region, is given as nearly as can be ascertained; but in many cases this can only be a general approximation. The distribution of the genera within the region, is then given with some detail; and, lastly, the range of the genus beyond the region is given in general terms, the words "Oriental," "Ethiopian," &c., being used for brevity, to indicate that the genus occurs over a considerable part of such regions. Genera which are restricted to the region (or which are very characteristic of it though just transgressing its limits) are given in italics; while those which only just enter the region from another to which they really belong, are enclosed in parentheses--( . . . ) thus. The genera are here numbered consecutively, in order that the number of genera in each family or each order, in the region, may be readily ascertained (by one process of subtraction), and thus comparisons made with other regions or with any other area. As the tables of birds would be swelled to an inconvenient length by the insertion in each region of all the genera of Waders and Aquatics, most of which have a very wide range and would have to be repeated in several or all the regions, these have been omitted; but a list has been given of such of the genera as are peculiar to, or highly characteristic of each region.

As this is the first time that any such extensive tables of {179}distribution have been constructed for the whole of the Mammalia and Birds, they must necessarily contain many errors of detail; but with all their imperfections it is believed they will prove very useful to naturalists, to teachers, and to all who take an intelligent interest in the wider problems of geography and natural history.

{180}CHAPTER X.

THE PALÆARCTIC REGION.

This region is of immense extent, comprising all the temperate portions of the great eastern continents. It thus extends from the Azores and Canary Islands on the west to Japan on the east, a distance not far short of half the circumference of the globe. Yet so great is the zoological unity of this vast tract, that the majority of the genera of animals in countries so far removed as Great Britain and Northern Japan are identical. Throughout its northern half the animal productions of the Palæarctic region are very uniform, except that the vast elevated desert-regions of Central Asia possess some characteristic forms; but in its southern portion, we find a warm district at each extremity with somewhat contrasted features. On the west we have the rich and luxuriant Mediterranean sub-region, possessing many peculiar forms of life, as well as a few which are more especially characteristic of the Ethiopian region. On the east we have the fertile plains of Northern China and the rich and varied islands of Japan, possessing a very distinct set of peculiar forms, with others belonging to the Oriental region, into which this part of the Palæarctic region merges gradually as we approach the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the countries roughly indicated by the names--Northern Europe, the Mediterranean district, Central and Northern Asia, and China with Japan--have each well-marked minor characteristics which entitle them to the rank of sub-regions. Their boundaries are often indefinable; and those here adopted have been fixed upon to some extent by considerations of convenience, dependent on custom and on the more or less perfect knowledge we possess of some of the intervening countries.

{181}Zoological Characteristics of the Palæarctic Region.--The Palæarctic region has representatives of thirty-five families of mammalia, fifty-five of birds, twenty-five of reptiles, nine of amphibia, and thirteen of freshwater fishes. Comparing it with the only other wholly temperate region, the Nearctic, we find a much greater variety of types of mammalia and birds. This may be due in part to its greater area, but more, probably, to its southern boundary being conterminous for an enormous distance with two tropical regions, the Ethiopean and Oriental; whereas the Nearctic has a comparatively short southern boundary conterminous with the Neotropical region only. This is so very important a difference, that it is rather a matter of surprise that the two north temperate regions should not be more unequal in the number of their higher vertebrate forms, than they actually are.

It is also to the interblending of the Palæarctic with the two adjacent tropical regions, that we must attribute its possession of so few peculiar family groups. These are only three; two of reptiles, Trogonophidæ and Ophiomoridæ, and one of fishes, Comephoridæ. The number of peculiar genera is, however, considerable, as the following enumeration will show.

Mammalia.--The monkey of Gibraltar and North Africa, and an allied species found in Japan, are now considered to belong to the extensive eastern genus Macacus. The former, however, is peculiar in the entire absence of the tail, and has by many naturalists, been held to form a distinct genus, Inuus, confined to the Palæarctic region.

Of bats there are one or two genera (Barbastellus, Plecotus) which seem to be mainly or wholly Palæarctic, but the classification of these animals is in such an unsettled state that the distribution of the genera is of little importance.

In the next order, Insectivora, we have almost the entire family of the Moles confined to the region. Talpa just enters Northern India; and Urotrichus is common to Japan and {182}North-Western America, but the remaining genera, six in number, are all exclusively Palæarctic.

Among Carnivora we have Nyctereutes, the curious racoon-dog of Japan and North-Eastern Asia; Lutronectes, an otter peculiar to Japan; and the badger (Meles), which ranges over the whole region, and just enters the Oriental region as far as Hongkong; Æluropus, a curious form of the Himalayan panda, inhabiting the high mountains of Eastern Thibet; and Pelagius, a genus of seals, ranging from the shores of Madeira to the Black Sea.

The Ungulata, or hoofed animals, are still more productive of forms peculiar to this region. First we have the Camels, whose native home is the desert region of Central and Western Asia and Northern Africa, and which, even in their domesticated condition, are confined almost wholly within the limits of the Palæarctic region. Of Deer we have six peculiar genera, Dama and Capreolus found in Europe, with Elaphodus, Lophotragus, Hydropotes, and Moschus, confined to Northern China and Mongolia. The great family Bovidæ--comprising the oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes--furnishes no less than seven peculiar Palæarctic genera. These are Poephagus, the yak of Thibet; Addax, a well-known antelope of Northern Africa and Syria; Procapra, Pantholops and Budorcas, antelopine genera peculiar to Thibet and Mongolia; with Rupicapra (the chamois), and the extraordinary large-nosed antelope Saiga, confined to Europe and Western Asia. Besides these we have Capra (the wild sheep and goats), all the numerous species of which, except two, are exclusively Palæarctic.

Coming to the Rodents, we have again many peculiar forms. Of Muridæ (the mouse and rat tribe), we have six peculiar genera, the more important being Cricetus, Rhombomys Sminthus, and Myospalax. Of Spalacidæ (mole-rats) both the Palæarctic genera, Ellobius and Spalax, are peculiar. Ctenodactylus, a genus of the South American family Octodontidæ, is found only in North Africa. To these we may add Myoxus (the dormice) and Lagomys (the pikas or tail-less hares) as essentially Palæarctic, since but one species of each genus is found beyond the limits of the region.

Birds.--It appears to have been the opinion of many {183}naturalists that the Palæarctic region could not be well characterised by its peculiar genera of birds. In Mr. Sclater's celebrated paper already referred to, he remarks, "It cannot be denied that the ornithology of the Palæarctic region is more easily characterised by what it has not than by what it has," and this has been quite recently quoted by Mr. Allen, in his essay on the distribution of North American birds, as if it represented our present knowledge of the subject. But, thanks to the labours of Dr. Jerdon, Mr. Swinhoe, Père David and others, we have now learnt that a large number of birds included in the Indian list, are either mere winter emigrants from Central Asia, or only inhabit the higher ranges of the Himalayas, and thus really belong to the Palæarctic region. The result is, that a host of genera are now seen to be either exclusively or characteristically Palæarctic, and we have no further difficulty in giving positive ornithological characters to the region. In the tables appended to this chapter, all these truly Palæarctic genera will be found printed in italics, with an indication of their distribution, which will sometimes be found more fully given under the respective families in the fourth part of this work. Referring to this table for details we shall here summarise the results.

Of the Sylviidæ or warblers, no less than fourteen genera are either exclusively or characteristically Palæarctic, of which Locustella, Sylvia, Curruca and Erithacus are good examples. Of the oriental family Timaliidæ, the genus Pterorhinus is Palæarctic. Of Panuridæ, or reedlings, there are four peculiar genera (comprising almost the whole family); of Certhiidæ, or creepers, one--Tichodroma--which extends southward to the Abyssinian highlands. Of Paridæ, or tits, one--Acredula; of Corvidæ, or crows, four--Pica (containing our magpie) being a good example; of Fringillidæ, or finches and buntings, twelve, among which Acanthis, Pyrrhula and Emberiza are good illustrations; of Alaudidæ, or larks, there are two peculiar genera. Leaving the Passeres we next come to peculiar forms among the gallinaceous birds: Syrrhaptes among the Pteroclidæ or sand grouse; four genera of Tetraonidæ or grouse and partridges, and five of Phasianidæ or pheasants, comprising some of the most magnificent birds in the world. Lastly {184}among the far-wandering aquatic birds we have no less than five genera which are more especially Palæarctic,--Ortygometra, the corn-crake, and Otis, the great bustard, being typical examples. We may add to these, several genera almost confined to this region, such as Garrulus (jays), Fringilla (true finches), Yunx (wrynecks) and some others; so that in proportion to its total generic forms a very large number are found to be peculiar or characteristic.

This view, of the high degree of speciality of the Palæarctic region, will no doubt be objected to by some naturalists, on the ground that many of the genera reckoned as exclusively Palæarctic are not so, but extend more or less into other regions. It is well, therefore, to consider what principles should guide us in a matter of this kind, especially as we shall have to apply the same rules to each of the other regions. We may remark first, that the limits of the regions themselves are, when not formed by the ocean, somewhat arbitrary, depending on the average distribution of a number of characteristic forms; and that slight local peculiarities of soil, elevation, or climate, may cause the species of one region to penetrate more or less deeply into another. The land boundary between two regions will be, not a defined line but a neutral territory of greater or less width, within which the forms of both regions will intermingle; and this neutral territory itself will merge imperceptibly into both regions. So long therefore as a species or genus does not permanently reside considerably beyond the possible limits of this neutral territory, we should not claim it as an inhabitant of the adjacent region. A consideration of perhaps more importance arises, from the varying extent of the range of a genus, over the area occupied by the region. Some genera are represented by single species existing only in a very limited area; others by numerous species which occupy, entirely or very nearly, the whole extent of the region; and there is every intermediate grade between these extremes. Now, the small localised genera, are always reckoned as among the best examples of types peculiar to a region; while the more wide-spread groups are often denied that character if they extend a little beyond {185}the supposed regional limits, or send one or two, out of a large number of species, into adjacent regions; yet there is some reason to believe that the latter are really more important as characterising a zoological region than the former. In the case of a single isolated species or genus we have a dying-out group; and we have so many cases of discontinuous species of such groups (of which Urotrichus in Japan and British Columbia, Eupetes in Sumatra and New Guinea are examples), that it is quite as probable as not, that any such isolated species has only become peculiar to the region by the recent extinction of an allied form or forms in some other region. On the other hand, a genus consisting of numerous species ranging over an entire region or the greater part of one, is a dominant group, which has most likely been for some time extending its range, and whose origin dates back to a remote period. The slight extension of such a group beyond the limits of the region to which it mainly belongs, is probably a recent phenomenon, and in that case cannot be held in any degree to detract from its value as one of the peculiar forms of that region.

The most numerous examples of this class, are those birds of the temperate regions which in winter migrate, either wholly or partially, into adjacent warmer countries. This migration most likely began subsequent to the Miocene period, during that gradual refrigeration of the temperate zones which culminated in the glacial epoch, and which still continues in a mitigated form. Most of the genera, and many even of the species of birds which migrate southwards in winter, have therefore, most likely, always been inhabitants of our present Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; permanent residents during warm epochs, but only able now to maintain their existence by migration in winter. Such groups belong truly to the temperate zones, and the test of this is the fact of their not having any, or very few, representatives, which are permanent residents in the adjacent tropical regions. When there are such representative species, we do not claim them as peculiar to the Northern regions. Bearing in mind these various considerations, it will be found that we have been very moderate in our estimate of the number of genera {186}that may fairly be considered as exclusively or characteristically Palæarctic.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--The Palæarctic region possesses, in proportion to its limited reptilian fauna, a full proportion of peculiar types. We have for instance two genera of snakes, Rhinechis and Halys; seven of lizards, Trigonophis, Psammodromus, Hyalosaurus, Scincus, Ophiomorus, Megalochilus, and Phrynocephalus; eight of tailed batrachians, Proteus, Salamandra, Seiranota, Chioglossa, Hynobius, Onychodactylus, Geotriton, and Sieboldia; and eight of tail-less batrachians, Bombinator, Pelobates, Didocus, Alytes, Pelodytes, Discoglossus, Laprissa, and Latonia. The distribution of these and other Palæarctic genera will be found in our second vol. chap. xix.

Freshwater Fish.--About twenty genera of freshwater fishes are wholly confined to this region, and constitute a feature which ought not to be overlooked in estimating its claim to the rank of a separate primary division of the earth. They belong to the following families:--Percidæ (three genera), Acerina, Percarina, Aspro; Comephoridæ (one genus), Comephorus, found only in Lake Baikal; Salmonidæ (three genera), Brachymystax, Luciotrutta, and Plecoglossus; Cyprinodontidæ (one genus), Tellia, found only in Alpine pools on the Atlas Mountains; Cyprinidæ (thirteen genera), Cyprinus, Carassus, Paraphoxinus, Tinca, Achilognathus, Rhodeus, Chondrostoma, Pseudoperilampus, Ochetebius, Aspius, Alburnus, Misgurnus, and Nemachilus.

Summary of Palæarctic Vertebrata.--Summarising these details, we find that the Palæarctic region possesses thirty-five peculiar genera of mammalia, fifty-seven of birds, nine of reptiles, sixteen of amphibia, and twenty-one of freshwater fishes; or a total of 138 peculiar generic types of vertebrata. Of these, 87 are mammalia and land-birds out of a total of 274 genera of these groups; or rather less than one-third peculiar, a number which will serve usefully to compare with the results obtained in other regions.

In our chapter on Zoological Regions we have already pointed out the main features which distinguish the Palæarctic from the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The details now given will {187}strengthen our view of their radical distinctness, by showing to how considerable an extent the former is inhabited by peculiar, and often very remarkable generic types.

Insects: Lepidoptera.--The Diurnal Lepidoptera, or butterflies, are not very abundant in species, their number being probably somewhat over 500, and these belong to not more than fifty genera. But no less than fifteen of these genera are wholly confined to the region. Nine of the families are represented, as follows:--1. Danaidæ; having only a single species in South Europe. 2. Satyridæ; well represented, there being more than 100 species in Europe, and three peculiar genera. 3. Nymphalidæ; rather poorly represented, Europe having only about sixty species, but there is one peculiar genus. 4. Libytheidæ; a very small family, represented by a single species occurring in South Europe. 5. Nemeobiidæ; a rather small family, also having only one species in Europe, but which constitutes a peculiar genera. 6. Lycænidæ; an extensive family, fairly represented, having about eighty European species; there are two peculiar genera in the Palæarctic region. 7. Pieridæ; rather poorly represented with thirty-two European species; two of the genera are, however, peculiar. 8. Papilionidæ; very poorly represented in Europe with only twelve species, but there are many more in Siberia and Japan. No less than five of the small number of genera in this family are wholly confined to the region, a fact of much importance, and which to a great extent redeems the character of the Palæarctic region as regard this order of insects. Their names are Mesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Sericinus, and Thais; and besides these we have Parnassius--the "Apollo" butterflies--highly characteristic, and only found elsewhere in the mountains of the Nearctic region. 9. Hesperidæ; poorly represented with about thirty European species, and one peculiar genus.

Four families of Sphingina occur in the Palæarctic region, and there are several peculiar genera.

In the Zygænidæ there are two exclusively European genera, and the extensive genus Zygæna is itself mainly Palæarctic. The small family Stygiidæ has two out of its three genera {188}confined to the Palæarctic region. In the Ægeriidæ the genus Ægeria is mainly Palæarctic. The Sphingidæ have a wider general range, and none of the larger genera are peculiar to any one region.

Coleoptera.--The Palæarctic region is the richest portion of the globe in the great family of Carabidæ, or predacious ground-beetles, about 50 of the genera being confined to it, while many others, including the magnificent genus Carabus, have here their highest development. While several of the smaller genera are confined to the eastern or western sub-regions, most of the larger ones extend over the whole area, and give it an unmistakable aspect; while in passing from east to west or vice-versâ, allied species and genera replace each other with considerable regularity, except in the extreme south-east, where, in China and Japan, some Oriental forms appear, as do a few Ethiopian types in the south-west.

Cicindelidæ, or tiger-beetles, are but poorly represented by about 70 species of the genus Cicindela, and a single Tetracha in South Europe.

Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, are also poor, there being representatives of 8 genera. One of these, Æsalus (a single species), is peculiar to South Europe, and two others, Cladognathus and Cyclopthalmus, are only represented in Japan, China, and Thibet.

Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, are represented by 13 genera, two of which are peculiar to South Europe (Tropinota and Heterocnemis), while Stalagmosoma, ranging from Persia to Nubia, and the fine Dicranocephalus inhabiting North China, Corea, and Nipal, may also be considered to belong to it. The genera Trichius, Gnorimus, and Osmoderma are confined to the two north temperate regions.

Buprestidæ, or metallic beetles, are rather abundant in the warmer parts of the region, 27 genera being represented, nine of which are peculiar. By far the larger portion of these are confined to the Mediterranean sub-region. A considerable number also inhabit Japan and China.

The Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, are represented by no less than 196 genera, 51 of which are peculiar. They are {189}much more abundant in the southern than the northern half of the region. Several Oriental genera extend to Japan and North China, and a few Ethiopian genera to North Africa. Thirteen genera are confined, to the two north temperate regions. Several large genera, such as Dorcadion (154 species), Phytæcia (85 species), Pogonochærus (22 species), Agapanthia (22 species), and Vesperus (7 species), are altogether peculiar to the Palæarctic region; and with a preponderance of Leptura, Grammoptera, Stenocorus, and several others, strongly characterise it as distinct from the Nearctic and Oriental regions.

The other families which are well developed in the Palæarctic regions, are, the Staphylinidæ or rove-beetles, Silphidæ or burying-beetles, Histeridæ or mimic-beetles, Nitidulidæ, Aphodiidæ, Copridæ (especially in South Europe), Geotrupidæ or dung-beetles, Melolonthidæ or chafers, Elateridæ or click-beetles, the various families of Malacoderms and Heteromera, especially Pimeliidæ in the Mediterranean sub-region, Curculionidæ or weevils, the Phytophaga or leaf-eaters, and Cocinellidæ or lady-birds.

The number of species of Coleoptera in the western part of the Palæarctic region is about 15,000, and there are probably not more than 2,000 to add to this number from Siberia, Japan, and North China; but were these countries as well explored as Europe, we may expect that they would add at least 5,000 to the number above given, raising the Palæarctic Coleopterous fauna to 20,000 species. As the total number of species at present known to exist in collections is estimated (and perhaps somewhat over-estimated) at 70,000 species, we may be sure that were the whole earth as thoroughly investigated as Europe, the number would be at least doubled, since we cannot suppose that Europe, with the Mediterranean basin, can contain more than one-fifth of the whole of the Coleoptera of the globe.

Of the other orders of insects we here say nothing, because in their case much more than in that of the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, is the disproportion enormous between our knowledge of the European fauna and that of almost all the rest of the globe. {190}They are, therefore, at present of comparatively little use for purposes of geographical distribution, even were it advisable to enter into the subject in a work which will, perhaps, be too much overburdened with details only of interest to specialists.

Land Shells.--These are very numerous in the warmer parts of the region, but comparatively scarce towards the North. South Europe alone possesses over 600 species, whereas there are only 200 in all Northern Europe and Asia. The total number of species in the whole region is probably about 1,250, of which the great majority are Helicidæ; the Operculated families being very poorly represented. Several small genera or sub-genera are peculiar to the region, as Testacella (West Europe and Canaries); Leucochroa (Mediterranean district); Acicula (Europe); Craspedopoma (Atlantic Islands); Leonia (Algeria and Spain); Pomatias (Europe and Canaries); Cecina (Mongolia). The largest genera are Helix and Clausilia, which together comprise more than half the species; Pupa, very numerous; Bulimus and Achatina in moderate numbers, and all the rest small. Helix is the only genus which contains large and handsome species; Bulimus and Achatina, so magnificent in tropical countries, being here represented by small and obscure forms only. Daudebardia is confined to Central and South Europe and New Zealand; Glandina is chiefly South American; Hyalina is only American and European; Buliminus ranges over all the world except America; and the other European genera of Helicidæ are widely distributed. Of the Operculata, Cyclotus, Cyclophorus, and Pupina extend from the Oriental region into Japan and North China; Tudoria is found in Algeria and the West Indies; Hydrocena is widely scattered, and occurs in South Europe and Japan. The genera of freshwater shells are all widely distributed.

THE PALÆARCTIC SUB-REGIONS.

The four sub-regions which are here adopted, have been fixed upon as those which are, in the present state of our knowledge, at once the most natural and the only practicable ones. {191}No doubt all of them could be advantageously again subdivided, in a detailed study of the geographical distribution of species. But in a general work, which aims at treating all parts of the world with equal fulness, and which therefore is confined almost wholly to the distribution of families and genera, such further subdivision would be out of place. It is even difficult, in some of the classes of animals, to find peculiar or even characteristic genera for the present sub-regions; but they all have well marked climatic and physical differences, and this leads to an assemblage of species and of groups which are sufficiently distinctive.

I. Central and Northern Europe.

This sub-region, which may perhaps be termed the "European," is zoologically and botanically the best known on the globe. It can be pretty accurately defined, as bounded on the south by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Balkans, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus range; and by the Ural Mountains, or perhaps more correctly the valley of the Irtish and Caspian Sea, on the east; while Ireland and Iceland are its furthest outliers in the west. To the north, it merges so gradually into the Arctic zone that no demarcation is possible. The great extent to which this sub-region is interpenetrated by the sea, and the prevalence of westerly winds bringing warmth and moisture from an ocean influenced by the gulf-stream, give it a climate for the most part genial, and free from extremes of heat and cold. It is thus broadly distinguished from Siberia and Northern Asia generally, where a more extreme and rigorous climate prevails.

The whole of this sub-region is well watered, being penetrated by rivers in every direction; and it consists mainly of plains and undulating country of moderate elevation, the chief mountain ranges being those of Scandinavia in the north-west, and the extensive alpine system of Central Europe. But these are both of moderate height, and a very small portion of their surface is occupied either by permanent snow-fields, or by barren uplands inimical to vegetable and animal life. It is, in {192}fact, to these, and the numerous lesser mountains and hills which everywhere diversify the surface of Europe, that the variety and abundance of its animal life is greatly due. They afford the perennial supplies to rivers, and furnish in their valleys and ever varying slopes, stations suited to every form of existence. A considerable area of Central Europe is occupied by uplands of moderate elevation, a comparatively small portion being flat and marshy plains.

Most of the northern and much of the central portions of Europe are covered with vast forests of coniferous trees; and these, occupying as they do those tracts where the winter is most severe, supply food and shelter to many animals who could not otherwise maintain their existence. It is probable that the original condition of the greater part, if not the whole, of temperate Europe, except the flat marshes of the river valleys and the sandy downs of the coast, was that of woodland and forest, mostly of deciduous trees, but with a plentiful admixture of such hardy evergreens as holly, ivy, privet, and yew. A sufficient proportion of these primeval woods, and of artificial plantations which have replaced them, fortunately remain, to preserve for us most of the interesting forms of life, which were developed before man had so greatly modified the surface of the earth, and so nearly exterminated many of its original tenants. Almost exactly in proportion to the amount of woodland that still remains in any part of Europe, do we find (other things being equal) the abundance and variety of wild animals; a pretty clear indication that the original condition of the country was essentially that of a forest, a condition which only now exists in the thinly inhabited regions of the north.

Although the sub-region we are considering is, for its extent and latitude, richly peopled with animal life, the number of genera altogether peculiar to it is not great. There are, however, several which are very characteristic, and many species, both of the smaller mammalia and of birds, are wholly restricted to it.

Mammalia.--The genera wholly confined to this sub-region are {193}only two. Myogale, the desman, is a curious long-snouted Insectivorous animal somewhat resembling the water-rat in its habits. There are two species, one found only on the banks of streams in the French Pyrenees, the other on the great rivers of Southern Russia. The other peculiar genus, Rupicapra (the chamois of the Alps), is found on all the high mountains of Central Europe. Almost peculiar are Spalax (the mole-rat) found only in Eastern Europe and Western Siberia; and Saiga, an extraordinary large-nosed antelope which has a nearly similar distribution. Highly characteristic forms, which inhabit nearly every part of the sub-region, are, Talpa (the mole), Erinaceus, (the hedgehog), Sorex (the shrew), Meles (the badger), Ursus (the bear), Canis (the wolf and fox), Mustela (the weasel), Lutra (the otter), Arvicola (the vole), Myoxus (the dormouse), and Lepus (the hare and rabbit); while Bos (the wild bull) was, until exterminated by man, no doubt equally characteristic. Other genera inhabiting the sub-region will be found in the list given at the end of this chapter.

Birds.--It is difficult to name the birds that are most characteristic of this sub-region, because so many of the most familiar and abundant are emigrants from the south, and belong to groups that have a different range. There is perhaps not a single genus wholly confined to it, and very few that have not equal claims to be placed elsewhere. Among the more characteristic we may name Turdus (the thrushes), Sylvia (the warblers), Panurus (the reedling), Parus (the tits), Anthus (the pipits), Motacilla (the wagtails), which are perhaps more abundant here than in any other part of the world, Emberiza (the buntings), Plectrophanes (the snow buntings), Passer (the house sparrows), Loxia (the crossbills), Linota (the linnets), Pica (the magpies), Tetrao (grouse), Lagopus (ptarmigan) and many others.

I am indebted to Mr. H. E. Dresser, who is personally acquainted with the ornithology of much of the North of Europe, for some valuable notes on the northern range of many European birds. Those which are characteristic of the extreme Arctic zone, extending beyond 70° north latitude, and tolerably abundant, are two falcons (Falco gyrfalco and F. peregrinus); {194}the rough-legged buzzard (Archibuteo lagopus); the snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca); the raven (Corvus corax); three buntings (Emberiza schæniculus, Plectrophanes nivalis and P. calcarata); a lark (Otocorys alpestris); several pipits, the most northern being Anthus cervinus; a wagtail (Budytes cinereocapilla); a dipper (Cinclus melanogaster); a warbler (Cyanecula suecica); the wheatear (Saxicola oenanthe); and two ptarmigans (Lagopus albus and L. salicetus). Most of these birds are, of course, only summer visitors to the Arctic regions, the only species noted as a permanent resident in East Finmark (north of latitude 70°) being the snow-bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis).

The birds that are characteristic of the zone of pine forests, or from about 61° to 70° north latitude, are very numerous, and it will be sufficient to note the genera and the number of species (where more than one) to give an idea of the ornithology of this part of Europe. The birds of prey are, Falco (three species), Astur (two species), Buteo, Pandion, Surnia, Bubo, Syrnium, Asio, Nyctala. The chief Passerine birds are, Corvus (two species), Pica, Garrulus (two species), Nucifraga, Bombycilla, Hirundo (two species), Muscicapa (two species), Lanius, Sturnus, Passer (two species), Pyrrhula, Carpodacus, Loxia (two species), Pinicola, Fringilla (eight species), Emberiza (five species), Alauda, Anthus, Turdus (five species), Ruticilla, Pratincola, Accentor, Sylvia (four species), Hypolais, Regulus, Phylloscopus (two species), Acrocephalus, Troglodytes, and Parus (six species). Woodpeckers are abundant, Picus (four species), Gecinus, and Yunx. The kingfisher (Alcedo), goatsucker (Caprimulgus), and swift (Cypselus) are also common. The wood-pigeon (Columba) is plentiful. The gallinaceous birds are three grouse, Tetrao (two species) and Bonasa, and the common quail (Coturnix).

The remaining genera and species of temperate or north-European birds, do not usually range beyond the region of deciduous trees, roughly indicated by the parallel of 60° north latitude.

Plate I.

THE ALPS OF CENTRAL EUROPE, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{195}Plate I.--Illustrating the Zoology of Central Europe.--Before considering the distribution of the other classes of vertebrata, it will be convenient to introduce our first illustration, which represents a scene in the Alps of Central Europe, with figures of some of the most characteristic Mammalia and Birds of this sub-region. On the left is the badger (Meles Taxus) one of the weasel family, and belonging to a genus which is strictly Palæarctic. It abounds in Central and Northern Europe and also extends into North Asia, but is represented by another species in Thibet and by a third in Japan. The elegantly-formed creatures on the right are chamois (Rupicapra tragus), almost the only European antelopes, and wholly confined to the higher mountains, from the Pyrenees to the Carpathians and the Caucasus. The chamois is the only species of the genus, and is thus perhaps the most characteristic European mammal. The bird on the left, above the badgers, is the Alpine chough, (Fregilus pyrrhocorax). It is found in the high mountains from the Alps to the Himalayas, and is allied to the Cornish chough, which is still found on our south-western coasts, and which ranges to Abyssinia and North China. The Alpine chough differs in having a shorter bill of an orange colour, and vermilion red feet as in the other species. In the foreground are a pair of ruffs (Machetes pugnax) belonging to the Scolopacidæ or snipe family, and most nearly allied to the genus Tringa or sandpiper. This bird is remarkable for the fine collar of plumes which adorns the males in the breeding season, when they are excessively pugnacious. It is the only species of its genus, and ranges over all Europe and much of Northern Asia, migrating in the winter to the plains of India, and even down the east coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope; but it only breeds in the Palæarctic region, over the greater part of which it ranges.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--There are no genera of reptiles peculiar to this sub-region. Both snakes and lizards are comparatively scarce, there being about fourteen species of the former and twelve of the latter. Our common snake (Tropidonotus natrix) extends into Sweden and North Russia, but the viper (Viperus berus) goes further north, as far as Archangel (64° N.), and in Scandinavia (67° N.), and is the most Arctic of all known {196}snakes. Of the lizards, Lacerta stirpium (the sand lizard) has the most northerly range, extending into Poland and Northern Russia; and Anguis fragilis (the blind or slow-worm) has almost an equal range.

Amphibia, being more adapted to a northern climate, have acquired a more special development, and thus several forms are peculiar to the North European sub-region. Most remarkable is Proteus, a singular eel-like aquatic creature with small legs, found only in the subterranean lakes in Carniola and Carinthia; Alytes, a curious toad, the male of which carries about the eggs till they are hatched, found only in Central Europe from France to the east of Hungary; and Pelodytes, a frog found only in France. Frogs and toads are very abundant all over Europe, the common frog (Rana temporaria) extending to the extreme north. The newts (Triton) are also very abundant and widely spread, though not ranging so far north as the frogs. The genera Bombinator (a toad-like frog), and Hyla (the tree frog) are also common in Central Europe.

Freshwater Fish.--Two genera of the perch family (Percidæ) are peculiar to this sub-region,--Percarina, a fish found only in the river Dniester, and Aspro, confined to the rivers of Central Europe. Of the very characteristic forms are, Gasterosteus (stickle-back), which alone forms a peculiar family--Gasterosteidæ; Perca, Acerina and Lucioperca, genera of the perch family; Silurus, a large fish found in the rivers of Cenrtal Europe, of the family Siluridæ; Esox (the pike), of the family Esocidæ; Cyprinus (carp), Gobio (gudgeon), Leuciscus (roach, chub, dace, &c.), Tinca (tench), Abramus (bream), Alburnus (bleak), Cobitis (loach), all genera of the family Cyprinidæ.

Insects--Lepidoptera.--No genera of butterflies are actually confined to this sub-region, but many are characteristic of it. Parnassius, Aporia, Leucophasia, Colias, Melitæa, Argynnis, Vanessa, Limenitis, and Chionobas, are all very abundant and widespread, and give a feature to the entomology of most of the countries included in it.

Coleoptera.--This sub-region is very rich in Carabidæ; the genera Elaphrus, Nebria, Carabus, Cychrus, Pterostichus, Amara, {197}Trechus and Peryphus being especially characteristic. Staphylinidæ abound. Among Lamellicorns the genus Aphodius is most characteristic. Buprestidæ are scarce; Elateridæ more abundant. Among Malacoderms Telephorus and Malachius are characteristic. Curculionidæ abound: Otiorhyuchus, Omias, Erirhinus, Bagous, Rhynchites and Ceutorhynchus being very characteristic genera. Of Longicorns Callidium, Dorcadion, Pogonochærus, Pachyta and Leptura are perhaps the best representatives. Donacia, Crioceris, Chrysomela, and Altica, are typical Phytophaga; while Coccinella is the best representative of the Securipalpes.

North European Islands.--The British Islands are known to have been recently connected with the Continent, and their animal productions are so uniformly identical with continental species as to require no special note. The only general fact of importance is, that the number of species in all groups is much less than in continental districts of equal extent, and that this number is still farther diminished in Ireland. This may be accounted for by the smaller area and less varied surface of the latter island; and it may also be partly due to the great extent of low land, so that a very small depression would reduce it to the condition of a cluster of small islands capable of supporting a very limited amount of animal life. Yet further, if after such a submergence had destroyed much of the higher forms of life in Great Britain and Ireland, both were elevated so as to again form part of the Continent, a migration would commence by which they would be stocked afresh; but this migration would be a work of time, and it is to be expected that many species would never reach Ireland or would find its excessively moist climate unsuited to them.

Some few British species differ slightly from their continental allies, and are considered by many naturalists to be distinct. This is the case with the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus) among birds; and a few of the smaller Passeres have also been found to vary somewhat from the allied forms on the Continent, showing that the comparatively short interval since the glacial period, and the slightly different physical conditions dependent on {198}insularity, have sufficed to commence the work of specific modification. There are also a few small land-shells and several insects not yet found elsewhere than in Britain; and even one of the smaller Mammalia--a shrew (Sorex rusticus). These facts are all readily explained by the former union of these islands with the Continent, and the alternate depressions and elevations which are proved by geological evidence to have occurred, by which they have been more than once separated and united again in recent times. For the evidence of this elevation and depression, the reader may consult Sir Charles Lyell's Antiquity of Man.

Iceland is the only other island of importance belonging to this sub-region, and it contrasts strongly with Great Britain, both in its Arctic climate and oceanic position. It is situated just south of the Arctic circle and considerably nearer Greenland than Europe, yet its productions are almost wholly European. The only indigenous land mammalia are the Arctic fox (Canis lagopus), and the polar bear as an occasional visitant, with a mouse (Mus islandicus), said to be of a peculiar species. Four species of seals visit its shores. The birds are more interesting. According to Professor Newton, ninety-five species have been observed; but many of these are mere stragglers. There are twenty-three land, and seventy-two aquatic birds and waders. Four or five are peculiar species, though very closely related to others inhabiting Scandinavia or Greenland. Only two or three species are more nearly related to Greenland birds than to those of Northern Europe, so that the Palæarctic character of the fauna is unmistakable. The following lists, compiled from a paper by Professor Newton, may be interesting as showing more exactly the character of Icelandic ornithology.

1. Peculiar species.--Troglodytes borealis (closely allied to the common wren, found also in the Faroe Islands); Falco islandicus (closely allied to F. gyrfalco); Lagopus islandorum (closely allied to L. rupestris of Greenland).

2. European species resident in Iceland.--Emberiza nivalis, Corvus corax, Haliæetus albicilla, Rallus aquaticus, Hæmatopus ostralegus, Cygnus ferus, Mergus (two species), Phalacocorax (two {199}species), Sula bassana, Larus (two species), Stercorarius catarractes, Puffinus anglorum, Mergulus alle, Uria (three species), Alca torda.

3. American species resident in Iceland.--Clangula islandica, Histrionicus torquatus.

4. Annual visitants from Europe.--Turdus iliacus, Ruticilla tithys, Saxicola ænanthe, Motacilla alba, Anthus pratensis, Linota linaria, Chelidon urbica, Hirundo rustica, Falco æsalon, Surnia nyctea, Otus brachyotus, Charadrius pluvialis, Ægialites hiaticula, Strepsilas interpres, Phalaropus fulicarius, Totanus calidris, Limosa (species), Tringa (three species), Calidris arenaria, Gallinago media, Numenius phæopus, Ardea cinerea, Anser (two species), Bernicla (two species), Anas (four species), Fuligula marila, Harelda glacialis, Somateria mollissima, Oedemia nigra, Sterna macrura, Rissa tridactyla, Larus luecopterus, Stercorarius (two species), Fratercula artica, Colymbus (two species), Podiceps cornutus.

5. Annual visitant from Greenland.--Falco candicans.

6.--Former resident, now extinct.--Alca impennis (the great auk).

II.--Mediterranean Sub-region.

This is by far the richest portion of the Palæarctic region, for although of moderate extent much of it enjoys a climate in which the rigours of winter are almost unknown. It includes all the countries south of the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, and Caucasus mountains; all the southern shores of the Mediterranean to the Atlas range, and even beyond it to include the extra-tropical portion of the Sahara; and in the Nile valley as far as the second cataract. Further east it includes the northern half of Arabia and the whole of Persia, as well as Beluchistan, and perhaps Affghanistan up to the banks of the Indus. This extensive district is almost wholly a region of mountains and elevated plateaus. On the west, Spain is mainly a table-land of more than 2000 feet elevation, deeply penetrated by extensive valleys and rising into lofty mountain chains. Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, are all very {200}mountainous, and much of their surface considerably elevated. Further east we have all European Turkey and Greece, a mountain region with a comparatively small extent of level plain. In Asia the whole country, from Smyrna through Armenia and Persia to the further borders of Affghanistan, is a vast mountainous plateau, almost all above 2000, and extensive districts above 5000 feet in elevation. The only large tract of low-land is the valley of the Euphrates. There is also some low-land south of the Caucasus, and in Syria the valley of the Jordan. In North Africa the valley of the Nile and the coast plains of Tripoli and Algiers are almost the only exceptions to the more or less mountainous and plateau-like character of the country. Much of this extensive area is now bare and arid, and often even of a desert character; a fact no doubt due, in great part, to the destruction of aboriginal forests. This loss is rendered permanent by the absence of irrigation, and, it is also thought, by the abundance of camels and goats, animals which are exceedingly injurious to woody vegetation, and are able to keep down the natural growth of forests. Mr. Marsh (whose valuable work Man and Nature gives much information on this subject) believes that even large portions of the African and Asiatic deserts would become covered with woods, and the climate thereby greatly improved, were they protected from these destructive domestic animals, which are probably not indigenous to the country. Spain, in proportion to its extent, is very barren; Italy and European Turkey are more woody and luxuriant; but it is perhaps in Asia Minor, on the range of the Taurus, along the shores of the Black Sea, and to the south of the Caucasus range, that this sub-region attains its maximum of luxuriance in vegetation and in animal life. From the Caspian eastward extends a region of arid plains and barren deserts, diversified by a few more fertile valleys, in which the characteristic flora and fauna of this portion of the Palæarctic region abounds. Further east we come to the forests of the Hindoo Koosh, which probably form the limit of the sub-region. Beyond these we enter on the Siberian sub-region to the north, and on the outlying portion of the Oriental region on the south.

{201}In addition to the territories now indicated as forming part of the Mediterranean sub-region, we must add the group of Canary Islands off the west coast of Africa which seem to be an extension of the Atlas mountains, and the oceanic groups of Madeira and the Azores; the latter about 1,000 miles from the continent of Europe, yet still unmistakably allied to it both in their vegetable and animal productions. The peculiarities of the faunas of these islands will be subsequently referred to.

It seems at first sight very extraordinary, that so large and wide a sea as the Mediterranean should not separate distinct faunas, and this is the more remarkable when we find how very deep the Mediterranean is, and therefore how ancient we may well suppose it to be. Its eastern portion reaches a depth of 2,100 fathoms or 12,600 feet, while its western basin is about 1,600 fathoms or 9,600 feet in greatest depth, and a considerable area of both basins is more than 1,000 fathoms deep. But a further examination shows, that a comparatively shallow sea or submerged bank incloses Malta and Sicily, and that on the opposite coast a similar bank stretches out from the coast of Tripoli leaving a narrow channel the greatest depth of which is 240 fathoms. Here therefore is a broad plateau, which an elevation of about 1,500 feet would convert into a wide extent of land connecting Italy with Africa; while the same elevation would also connect Morocco with Spain, leaving two extensive lakes to represent what is now the Mediterranean Sea, and affording free communication for land animals between Europe and North Africa. That such a state of things existed at a comparatively recent period, is almost certain; not only because a considerable number of identical species of mammalia inhabit the opposite shores of the Mediterranean, but also because numerous remains of three species of elephants have been found in caves in Malta,--now a small rocky island in which it would be impossible for such animals to live even if they could reach it. Remains of hippopotami are also found at Gibraltar, and many other animals of African types in Greece; all indicating means of communication between South Europe and North Africa which no longer exist. (See Chapter VI. pp. 113-115.)

{202}Mammalia.--There are a few groups of Palæarctic Mammalia that are peculiar to this sub-region. Such are, Dama, the fallow deer, which is now found only in South Europe and North Africa; Psammomys, a peculiar genus of Muridæ, found only in Egypt and Palestine; while Ctenodactylus, a rat-like animal classed in the South American family Octodontidæ, inhabits Tripoli. Among characteristic genera not found in other sub-regions, are, Dysopes, a bat of the family Noctilionidæ; Macroscelides, the elephant shrew, in North Africa; Genetta, the civet, in South Europe; Herpestes, the ichneumon, in North Africa and (?) Spain; Hyæna, in South Europe; Gazella, Oryx, Alcephalus, and Addax, genera of antelopes in North Africa and Palestine; Hyrax, in Syria; and Hystrix, the porcupine, in South Europe. Besides these, the camel and the horse were perhaps once indigenous in the eastern parts of the sub-region; and a wild sheep (Ovis musmon) still inhabits Sardinia, Corsica, and the mountains of the south-east of Spain. The presence of the large feline animals--such as the lion, the leopard, the serval, and the hunting leopard--in North Africa, together with several other quadrupeds not found in Europe, have been thought by some naturalists to prove, that this district should not form part of the Palæarctic region. No doubt several Ethiopian groups and species have entered it from the south; but the bulk of its Mammalia still remains Palæarctic, although several of the species have Asiatic rather than European affinities. The Macacus innuus is allied to an Asiatic rather than an African group of monkeys, and thus denotes an Oriental affinity. Ethiopian affinity is apparently shown by the three genera of antelopes, by Herpestes, and by Macroscelides; but our examination of the Miocene fauna has shown that these were probably derived from Europe originally, and do not form any part of the truly indigenous or ancient Ethiopian fauna. Against these, however, we have the occurrence in North Africa of such purely Palæarctic and non-Ethiopian genera as Ursus, Meles, Putorius, Sus, Cervus, Dama, Capra, Alactaga; together with actual European or West Asiatic species of Canis, Genetta, Felis, Putorius, Lutra, many bats, Sorex, Crocidura, Crossopus, Hystrix, {203}Dipus, Lepus, and Mus. It is admitted that, as regards every other group of animals, North Africa is Palæarctic, and the above enumeration shows that even in Mammalia, the intermixture of what are now true Ethiopian types is altogether insignificant. It must be remembered, also, that the lion inhabited Greece even in historic times, while large carnivora were contemporary with man all over Central Europe.

Birds.--So many of the European birds migrate over large portions of the region, and so many others have a wide permanent range, that we cannot expect to find more than a few genera, consisting of one or two species, each, confined to a sub-region; and such appear to be, Lusciniola and Pyrophthalma, genera of Sylviidæ. But many are characteristic of this, as compared with other Palæarctic sub-regions; such as, Bradyptetus, Aedon, Dromoloea, and Cercomela, among Sylviidæ; Crateropus and Malacocercus, among Timaliidæ; Telophonus among Laniidæ; Certhilauda and Mirafra among larks; Pastor among starlings; Upupa, the hoopoe; Halycon and Ceryle among kingfishers; Turnix and Caccabis among Gallinæ, and the pheasant as an indigenous bird; together with Gyps, Vultur and Neophron, genera of vultures. In addition to these, almost all our summer migrants spend their winter in some part of this favoured land, mostly in North Africa, together with many species of Central Europe that rarely or never visit us. It follows, that a large proportion of all the birds of Europe and Western Asia are to be found in this sub-region, as will be seen by referring to the list of the genera of the region. Palestine is one of the remote portions of this region which has been well explored by Canon Tristram, and it may be interesting to give his summary of the range of the birds. We must bear in mind that the great depression of the Dead Sea has a tropical climate, which accounts for the presence here only, of such a tropical form as the sun-bird (Nectarinea osea).

The total number of the birds of Palestine is 322, and of these no less than 260 are European, at once settling the question of the general affinities of the fauna. Of the remainder eleven belong to North and East Asia, four to the Red Sea, and {204}thirty-one to East Africa, while twenty-seven are peculiar to Palestine. It is evident therefore that an unusual number of East African birds have extended their range to this congenial district, but most of these are desert species and hardly true Ethiopians, and do not much interfere with the general Palæarctic character of the whole assemblage. As an illustration of how wide-spread are many of the Palæarctic forms, we may add, that seventy-nine species of land birds and fifty-five of water birds, are common to Palestine and Britain. The Oriental and Ethiopian genera Pycnonotus and Nectarinea are found here, while Bessornis and Dromolæa are characteristically Ethiopian. Almost all the other genera are Palæarctic.

Persia is another remote region generally associated with the idea of Oriental and almost tropical forms, but which yet undoubtedly belongs to the Palæarctic region. Mr. Blanford's recent collections in this country, with other interesting information, is summarised in Mr. Elwes's paper on the "Geographical Distribution of Asiatic Birds" (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 647). No less than 127 species are found also in Europe, and thirty-seven others belong to European genera; seven are allied to birds of Central Asia or Siberia, and fifteen to those of North-East Africa, while only three are purely of Indian affinities. This shows a preponderance of nearly nine-tenths of Palæarctic forms, which is fully as much as can be expected in any country near the limits of a great region.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--The climatal conditions being here more favourable to these groups, and the genera being often of limited range, we find some peculiar, and several very interesting forms. Rhinechis, a genus of Colubrine snakes, is found only in South Europe; Trogonophis, one of the Amphisbænians--curious snake-like lizards--is known only from North Africa; Psammosaurus, belonging to the water lizards (Varanidæ) is found in North Africa and North-West India; Psammodromus, a genus of Lacertidæ, is peculiar to South Europe; Hyalosaurus, belonging to the family Zonuridæ, is a lizard of especial interest, as it inhabits North Africa while its nearest ally is the Ophisaurus or "glass snake" of North America; the family of {205}the scinks is represented by Scincus found in North Africa and Arabia. Besides these Seps, a genus of sand lizards (Sepidæ) and Agama, a genus of Agamidæ, are abundant and characteristic.

Of Amphibia we have Seiranota, a genus of salamanders found only in Italy and Dalmatia; Chioglossa, in Portugal, and Geotriton, in Italy, belonging to the same family, are equally peculiar to the sub-region.

Freshwater Fish.--One of the most interesting is Tellia, a genus of Cyprinodontidæ found only in alpine pools in the Atlas mountains. Paraphoxinius, found in South-East Europe, and Chondrostoma, in Europe and Western Asia, genera of Cyprimidæ, seem almost peculiar to this sub-region.

Insects--Lepidoptera.--Two genera of butterflies, Thais and Doritis, are wholly confined to this sub-region, the former ranging over all Southern Europe, the latter confined to Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Anthocharis and Zegris are very characteristic of it, the latter only extending into South Russia, while Danais, Charaxes, and Libythea are tropical genera unknown in other parts of Europe.

Coleoptera.--This sub-region is very rich in many groups of Coleoptera, of which a few only can be noticed here. Among Carabidæ it possesses Procerus and Procrustes, almost exclusively, while Brachinus, Cymindis, Lebia, Graphipterus, Scarites, Chlænius, Calathus, and many others, are abundant and characteristic. Among Lamellicorns--Copridæ, Glaphyridæ, Melolonthidæ, and Cetoniidæ abound. Buprestidæ are plentiful, the genera Julodis, Acmæodera, Buprestis, and Sphenoptera being characteristic. Among Malacoderms--Cebrionidæ, Lampyridæ, and Malachiidæ abound. The Tenebrioid Heteromera are very varied and abundant, and give a character to the sub-region. The Mylabridæ, Cantharidæ, and Oedemeridæ are also characteristic. Of the immense number of Curculionidæ--Thylacites, Brachycerus, Lixus, and Acalles may be mentioned as among the most prominent. Of Longicorns there are few genera especially characteristic, but perhaps Prinobius, Purpuricenus, Hesperophanes, and Parmena are most so. Of the remaining families, we may mention Clythridæ, Hispidæ, and Cassididæ as being abundant.

{206}The Mediterranean and Atlantic Islands.--The various islands of the Mediterranean are interesting to the student of geographical distribution as affording a few examples of local species of very restricted range, but as a rule they present us with exactly the same forms as those of the adjacent mainland.[6] Their peculiarities do not, therefore, properly come within the scope of this work. The islands of the Atlantic Ocean belonging to this sub-region are, from their isolated position and the various problems they suggest, of much more interest, and their natural history has been carefully studied. We shall therefore give a short account of their peculiar features.

Of the three groups of Atlantic islands belonging to this sub-region, the Canaries are nearest to the Continent, some of the islands being only about fifty miles from the coast of Africa. They are, however, separated from the mainland by a very deep channel (more than 5,000 feet), as shown on our general map. The islands extend over a length of 300 miles; they are very mountainous and wholly volcanic, and the celebrated peak of Teneriffe rises to a height of more than 12,000 feet. The small Madeira group is about 400 miles from the coast of Morocco and 600 from the southern extremity of Portugal; and there is a depth of more than 12,000 feet between it and the continent. The Azores are nearly 1,000 miles west of Lisbon. They are quite alone in mid-Atlantic, the most westerly islands being nearer Newfoundland than Europe, and are surrounded by ocean depths of from 12,000 to 18,000 feet. It will be convenient to take these islands first in order.

Azores.--Considering the remoteness of this group from every other land, it is surprising to find as many as fifty-three species of birds inhabiting or visiting the Azores; and still more to {207}find that they are of Palæarctic genera and, with one exception, all of species found either in Europe, North Africa, Madeira, or the Canaries. The exception is a bullfinch peculiar to the islands, but closely allied to a European species. Of land birds there are twenty-two, belonging to twenty-one genera, all European. These genera are Cerchneis, Buteo, Asio, Strix, Turdus, Oriolus, Erithacus, Sylvia, Regulus, Saxicola, Motacilla, Plectrophanes, Fringilla, Pyrrhula, Serinus, Sturnus, Picus, Upupa, Columba, Caccabis, and Coturnix. Besides the bullfinch (Pyrrhula) other species show slight differences from their European allies, but not such as to render them more than varieties. The only truly indigenous mammal is a bat of a European species. Nine butterflies inhabit the Azores; eight of them are European species, one North American. Of beetles 212 have been collected, of which no less than 175 are European species; of the remainder, nineteen are found in the Canaries or Madeira, three in South America, while fourteen are peculiar to the islands.

Now these facts (for which we are indebted to Mr. Godman's Natural History of the Azores) are both unexpected and exceedingly instructive. In most other cases of remote Oceanic islands, a much larger proportion of the fauna is endemic, or consists of peculiar species and often of peculiar genera; as is well shown by the case of the Galapagos and Juan Fernandez, both much nearer to a continent and both containing peculiar genera and species of birds. Now we know that the cause and meaning of this difference is, that in the one case the original immigration is very remote and has never or very rarely been repeated, so that under the unchecked influence of new conditions of life the species have become modified; in the other case, either the original immigration has been recent, or if remote has been so frequently repeated that the new comers have kept up the purity of the stock, and have not allowed time for the new conditions to produce the effect we are sure they would in time produce if not counteracted. For Mr. Godman tells us that many of the birds are modified--instancing the gold-crested wren, blackcap, and rock dove--and he adds, that the {208}modification all tends in one direction--to produce a more sombre plumage, a greater strength of feet and legs, and a more robust bill. We further find, that four of the land-birds, including the oriole, snow-bunting, and hoopoe, are not resident birds, but straggle accidentally to the islands by stress of weather; and we are told that every year some fresh birds are seen after violent storms. Add to this the fact, that the number of species diminishes in the group as we go from east to west, and that the islands are subject to fierce and frequent storms blowing from every point of the compass,--and we have all the facts requisite to enable us to understand how this remote archipelago has become stocked with animal life without ever probably being much nearer to Europe than it is now. For the islands are all volcanic, the only stratified rock that occurs being believed to be of Miocene date.

Madeira and the Canaries.--Coming next to Madeira, we find the number of genera of land birds has increased to twenty-eight, of which seventeen are identical with those of the Azores. Some of the commonest European birds--swallows, larks, sparrows, linnets, goldfinches, ravens, and partridges, are among the additions. A gold-crested warbler, Regulus Maderensis, and a pigeon, Columba Trocaz, are peculiar to Madeira.

In the Canaries we find that the birds have again very much increased, there being more than fifty genera of land birds; but the additions are wholly European in character, and almost all common European species. We find a few more peculiar species (five), while some others, including the wild canary, are common to all the Atlantic Islands or to the Canaries and Madeira. Here, too, the only indigenous mammalia are two European species of bats.

Land Shells.--The land shells of Madeira offer us an instructive contrast to the birds of the Atlantic Islands. About fifty-six species have been found in Madeira, and forty-two in the small adjacent island of Porto Santo, but only twelve are common to both, and all or almost all are distinct from their nearest allies in Europe and North Africa. Great numbers of fossil shells are also found in deposits of the Newer Pliocene period; and {209}although these comprise many fresh species, the two faunas and that of the continent still remain almost as distinct from each other as before. It has been already stated (p. 31) that the means by which land mollusca have been carried across arms of the sea are unknown, although several modes may be suggested; but it is evidently a rare event, requiring some concurrence of favourable conditions not always present. The diversity and specialization of the forms of these animals is, therefore, easily explained by the fact, that, once introduced they have been left to multiply under the influence of a variety of local conditions, which inevitably lead, in the course of ages, to the formation of new varieties and new species.

Coleoptera.--The beetles of Madeira and the Canaries have been so carefully collected and examined by Mr. T. V. Wollaston, and those of the Azores described and compared by Mr. Crotch, and they illustrate so many curious points in geographical distribution, that it is necessary to give some account of them. No less than 1,480 species of beetles have been obtained from the Canaries and Madeira, only 360 of which are European, the remainder being peculiar to the islands. The Canaries are inhabited by a little over 1,000 species, Madeira by about 700, while 240 are common to both; but it is believed that many of these have been introduced by man. In the Azores, 212 species have been obtained, of which 175 are European; showing, as in the birds, as closer resemblance to the European fauna than in the other islands which, although nearer to the continent, offer more shelter and are situated in a less tempestuous zone. Of the non-European species in the Azores, 19 are found also in the other groups of islands, 14 are peculiar, while 3 are American. Of the European species, 132 are found also in the other Atlantic islands, while 43 have reached the Azores only. This is interesting as showing to how great an extent the same insects reach all the islands, notwithstanding the difference of latitude and position; and it becomes of great theoretical importance, when we find how many extensive families and genera are altogether absent.

The Madeira group has been more thoroughly explored than {210}any other, and its comparatively remote situation, combined with its luxuriant vegetation, have been favourable to the development and increase of the peculiar forms which characterize all the Atlantic islands in a more or less marked degree. A consideration of some of its peculiarities will, therefore, best serve to show the bearing of the facts presented by the insect fauna of the Atlantic islands, on the general laws of distribution. The 711 species of beetles now known from the Madeira group, belong to 236 genera; and no less than 44 of these genera are not European but are peculiar to the Atlantic islands. Most of them are, however, closely allied to European genera, of which they are evidently modifications. A most curious general feature presented by the Madeiran beetles, is the total absence of many whole families and large genera abundant in South Europe. Such are the Cicindelidæ, or tiger beetles; the Melolonthidæ, or chafers; the Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers; the Eumolpidæ and Galerucidæ, large families of Phytophagous, or leaf-eating beetles; and also the extensive groups of Elateridæ and Buprestidæ, which are each represented by but one minute species. Of extensive genera abundant in South Europe, but wholly absent in Madeira, are Carabus, Rhizotrogus, Lampyris, and other genera of Malacoderms; Otiorhynchus, Brachycerus, and 20 other genera of Curculionidæ, comprising more than 300 South European and North African species; Pimelia, Tentyra, Blaps, and 18 other genera of Heteromera, comprising about 550 species in South Europe and North Africa; and Timarcha, containing 44 South European and North African species.

Another most remarkable feature of the Madeiran Coleoptera is the unusual prevalence of apterous or wingless insects. This is especially the case with groups which are confined to the Atlantic islands, many of which consist wholly of wingless species; but it also affects the others, no less than twenty-two genera which are usually or sometimes winged in Europe, having only wingless species in Madeira; and even the same species which is winged in Europe becomes, in at least three cases, wingless in Madeira, without any other perceptible change having taken place. But there is another most curious fact noticed by {211}Mr. Wollaston; that those species which possess wings in Madeira, often have them rather larger than their allies in Europe. These two facts were connected by Mr. Darwin, who suggested that flying insects are much more exposed to be blown out to sea and lost, than those which do not fly (and Mr. Wollaston had himself supposed that the "stormy atmosphere" of Madeira had something to do with the matter); so that the most frequent fliers would be continually weeded out, while the more sluggish individuals, who either could not or would not fly, remained to continue the race; and this process going on from generation to generation, would, on the well-ascertained principles of selection and abortion by disuse, in time lead to the entire loss of wings by those insects to whom wings were not a necessity. But those whose wings were essential to their existence would be acted upon in another way. All these must fly to obtain their food or provide for their offspring, and those that flew best would be best able to battle with the storms, and keep themselves safe, and thus those with the longest and most powerful wings would be preserved. If however all the individuals of the species were too weak on the wing to resist the storms, they would soon become extinct.[7]

Now this explanation of the facts is not only simple and probable in itself, but it also serves to explain in a remarkable manner some of the peculiarities and deficiencies of the Madeiran insect fauna, in harmony with the view (supported by the distribution of the birds and land shells, and in particular by the immigrant birds and insects of the Azores) that all the insects have been derived from the continent or from other islands, by {212}immigration across the ocean, in various ways and during a long period. These deficiencies are, on the other hand, quite inconsistent with the theory (still held by some entomologists) that a land communication is absolutely necessary to account for the origin of the Madeiran fauna.

First, then, we can understand how the tiger-beetles (Cicindelidæ) are absent; since they are insects which have a short weak flight, but yet to whom flight is necessary. If a few had been blown over to Madeira, they would soon have become exterminated. The same thing applies to the Melolonthidæ, Cetoniidæ, Eumolpidæ, and Galerucidæ,--all flower and foliage-haunting insects, yet bulky and of comparatively feeble powers of flight. Again, all the large genera abundant in South Europe, which have been mentioned above as absent from Madeira, are wholly apterous (or without wings), and thus their absence is a most significant fact; for it proves that in the case of all insects of moderate size, flight was essential to their reaching the island, which could not have been the case had there been a land connection. There are, however, one or two curious exceptions to the absence of these wholly apterous European genera in Madeira, and as in each case the reason of their being exceptions can be pointed out, they are eminently exceptions that prove the rule. Two of the apterous species common to Europe and Madeira are found always in ants' nests; and as ants, when winged, fly in great swarms and are carried by the wind to great distances, they may have conveyed the minute eggs of these very small beetles. Two European species of Blaps occur in Madeira, but these are house beetles, and are admitted to have been introduced by man. There are also three species of Meloe, of which two are European and one peculiar. These are large, sluggish, wingless insects, but they have a most extraordinary and exceptional metamorphosis, the larvae in the first state being minute active insects parasitic on bees, and thus easily conveyed across the ocean. This case is most suggestive, as it accounts for what would be otherwise a difficult anomaly. Another case, not quite so easily explained, is that of the genus Acalles, which is very abundant in all the Atlantic {213}islands and also occurs in South Europe, but is always apterous. It is however closely allied to another genus, Cryptorhynchus, which is apterous in some species, winged in others. We may therefore well suppose that the ancestors of Acalles were once in the same condition, and that some of the winged forms reached Madeira, the genus having since become wholly apterous.

We may look at this curious subject in another way. The Coleoptera of Madeira may be divided into those which are found also in Europe or the other islands, and those which are peculiar to it. On the theory of introduction by accidental immigration across the sea, the latter must be the more ancient, since they have had time to become modified; while the former are comparatively recent, and their introduction may be supposed to be now going on. The peculiar influence of Madeira in aborting the wings should, therefore, have acted on the ancient and changed forms much more powerfully than on the recent and unchanged forms. On carefully comparing the two sets of insects (omitting those which have almost certainly been introduced by man) we find, that out of 263 species which have a wide range, only 14 are apterous; while the other class, consisting of 393 species, has no less than 178 apterous; or about 5 per cent in the one case, and 45 per cent in the other.[8] On the theory of a land connection as the main agent in introducing the fauna, both groups must have been introduced at or about the same time, and why one set should have lost their wings and the other not, is quite inexplicable.

Taking all these singular facts, in connection with the total absence of all truly indigenous terrestrial mammalia and reptiles from these islands--even from the extensive group of the Canaries so comparatively near to the continent, we are forced to reject the theory of a land connection as quite untenable; and this view becomes almost demonstrated by the case of the Azores, which being so much further off, and surrounded by such a vast expanse of deep ocean, could only have been {214}connected with Europe at a far remoter epoch, and ought therefore to exhibit to us a fauna composed almost entirely of peculiar forms both of birds and insects. Yet, so far from this being the case, the facts are exactly the reverse. Far more of the birds and insects are identical with those of Europe than in the other islands, and this difference is clearly traced to the more tempestuous atmosphere, which is shown to be even now annually bringing fresh immigrants (both birds and insects) to its shores. We here see nature actually at work; and if the case of Madeira rendered her mode of action probable, that of the Azores may be said to demonstrate it.

Mr. Wollaston has objected to this view that "storms and hurricanes" are somewhat rare in the latitude of Madeira and the Canaries; but this little affects the question, since the time allowed for such operations is so ample. If but one very violent storm happened in a century, and ten such storms recurred before a single species of insect was introduced into Madeira, that would be more than sufficient to people it, as we now find it, with a varied fauna. But he also adds the important information that the ordinary winds blow almost uninterruptedly from the north-east, so that there would be always a chance of a little stronger wind than usual bringing insect, or larva, or egg, attached to leaves or twigs. Neither Mr. Wollaston, Mr. Crotch, Mr. A. Murray, nor any other naturalist who upholds the land-connection theory, has attempted to account for the fact of the absence of so many extensive groups of insects that ought to be present, as well as of all small mammalia and reptiles.

Cape Verd Islands.--There is yet another group of Atlantic islands which is very little known, and which is usually considered to be altogether African--the Cape Verd Islands, situated between 300 and 400 miles west of Senegal, and a little to the south of the termination of the Sahara. The evidence that we possess as to the productions of these islands, shows that, like the preceding groups, they are truly oceanic, and have probably derived their fauna from the desert and the Canaries to the north-east of them rather than from the fertile and more truly {215}Ethiopian districts of Senegal and Gambia to the east. There is a mingling of the two faunas, but the preponderance seems to be undoubtedly with the Palæarctic rather than with the Ethiopian. I owe to Mr. R. B. Sharpe of the British Museum, a MS. list of the birds of these islands, twenty-three species in all. Of these eight are of wide distribution and may be neglected. Seven are undoubted Palæarctic species, viz.:--Milvus ictinus, Sylvia atricapilla, S. conspicillata, Corvus corone, Passer salicarius, Certhilauda desertorum, Columba livia. Three are peculiar species, but of Palæarctic genera and affinities, viz.:--Calamoherpe brevipennis, Ammomanes cinctura, and Passer jagoensis. Against this we have to set two West African species, Estrilda cinerea and Numida meleagris, both of which were probably introduced by man; and three which are of Ethiopian genera and affinities, viz.:--Halcyon erythrorhyncha, closely allied to H. semicærulea of Arabia and North-east Africa, and therefore almost Palæarctic; Accipiter melanoleucus; and Pyrrhulauda nigriceps, an Ethiopian form; but the same species occurs in the Canaries.

The Coleoptera of these islands have been also collected by Mr. Wollaston, and he finds that they have generally the same European character as those of the Canaries and Madeira, several of the peculiar Atlantic genera, such as Acalles and Hegeter, occurring, while others are represented by new but closely allied genera. Out of 275 species 91 were found also in the Canaries and 81 in the Madeiran group; a wonderful amount of similarity when we consider the distance and isolation of these islands and their great diversity of climate and vegetation.

This connection of the four groups of Atlantic islands now referred to, receives further support from the occurrence of land-shells of the subgenus Leptaxis in all the groups, as well as in Majorca; and by another subgenus, Hemicycla, being common to the Canaries and Cape Verd islands. Combining these several classes of facts, we seem justified in extending the Mediterranean sub-region to include the Cape Verd Islands.

{216}III.--The Siberian Sub-region, or Northern Asia.

This large and comparatively little-known subdivision of the Palæarctic region, extends from the Caspian Sea to Kamschatka and Behring's Straits, a distance of about 4,000 miles; and from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the high Himalayas of Sikhim in North Latitude 29°, on the same parallel as Delhi. To the east of the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains is a great extent of lowland which is continued round the northern coast, becoming narrower as it approaches the East Cape. Beyond this, in a general E.N.E. direction, rise hills and uplands, soon becoming lofty mountains, which extend in an unbroken line from the Hindu Koosh, through the Thian Shan, Altai and Yablonoi Mountains, to the Stanovoi range in the north-eastern extremity of Asia. South of this region is a great central basin, which is almost wholly desert; beyond which again is the vast plateau of Thibet, with the Kuenlun, Karakorum, and Himalayan snow-capped ranges, forming the most extensive elevated district on the globe.

The superficial aspects of this vast territory, as determined by its vegetable covering, are very striking and well contrasted. A broad tract on the northern coast, varying from 150 to 300 and even 500 miles wide, is occupied by the Tundras or barrens, where nothing grows but mosses and the dwarfest Arctic plants, and where the ground is permanently frozen to a great depth. This tract has its greatest southern extension between the rivers Obi and Yenesi, where it reaches the parallel of 60° north latitude. Next to this comes a vast extent of northern forests, mostly of conifers in the more northern and lofty situations, while deciduous trees preponderate in the southern portions and in the more sheltered valleys. The greatest extension of this forest region is north of Lake Baikal, where it is more than 1,200 miles wide. These forests extend along the mountain ranges to join those of the Hindu Koosh. South of the forests the remainder of the sub-region consists of open pasture-lands and vast intervening deserts, of which the Gobi, and those of Turkestan between the Aral and Balkash lakes, are the most {217}extensive. The former is nearly 1,000 miles long, with a width of from 200 to 350 miles, and is almost as complete a desert as the Sahara.

With very few exceptions, this vast territory is exposed to an extreme climate, inimical to animal life. All the lower parts being situated to the north, have an excessively cold winter, so that the limit of constantly frozen ground descends below the parallel of 60° north latitude. To the south, the land is greatly elevated, and the climate extremely dry. In summer the heat is excessive, while the winter is almost as severe as further north. The whole country, too, is subject to violent storms, both in summer and winter; and the rich vegetation that clothes the steppes in spring, is soon parched up and replaced by dusty plains. Under these adverse influences we cannot expect animal life to be so abundant as in those sub-regions subject to more favourable physical conditions; yet the country is so extensive and so varied, that it does actually, as we shall see, possess a very considerable and interesting fauna.

Mammalia.--Four genera seem to be absolutely confined to this sub-region, Nectogale, a peculiar form of the mole family (Talpidæ); Poephagus, the yak, or hairy bison of Thibet; with Procapra and Pantholops, Thibetan antelopes. Some others more especially belong here, although they just enter Europe, as Saiga, the Tartarian antelope; Sminthus, a desert rat;, and Ellobius, a burrowing mole-rat; while Myospalax, a curious rodent allied to the voles, is found only in the Altai mountains and North China; and Moschus, the musk-deer, is almost confined to this sub-region. Among the characteristic animals of the extreme north, are Mustela, and Martes, including the ermine and sable; Gulo, the glutton; Tarandus, the reindeer; Myodes, the lemming; with the lynx, arctic fox, and polar bear; and here, in the Post-pliocene epoch, ranged the hairy rhinoceros and Siberian mammoth, whose entire bodies still remain preserved in the ice-cliffs near the mouths of the great rivers. Farther south, species of wild cat, bear, wolf, deer, and pika (Lagomys) abound; while in the mountains we find wild goats and sheep of several species, and in the plains and deserts wild horses {218}and asses, gazelles, two species of antelopes, flying squirrels (Pteromys), ground squirrels (Tamias), marmots, of the genus Spermophilus, with camels and dromedaries, probably natives of the south-western part of this sub-region. The most abundant and conspicuous of the mammalia are the great herds of reindeer in the north, the wolves of the steppes, with the wild horses, goats, sheep, and antelopes of the plateaus and mountains.

Among the curiosities of this sub-region we must notice the seal, found in the inland and freshwater lake Baikal, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet above the sea. It is a species of Callocephalus, closely allied to, if not identical with, one inhabiting northern seas as well as the Caspian and Lake Aral. This would indicate that almost all northern Asia was depressed beneath the sea very recently; and Mr. Belt's view, of the ice during the glacial epoch having dammed up the rivers and converted much of Siberia into a vast freshwater or brackish lake, perhaps offers the best solution of the difficulty.[9]

Plate II.--Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary.--Several of the most remarkable animals of the Palæarctic region inhabit Western Tartary, and are common to the European and Siberian sub-regions. We therefore choose this district for one of our illustrative plates. The large animals in the centre are the remarkable saiga antelopes (Saiga Tartarica), distinguished from all others by a large and fleshy proboscis-like nose, which gives them a singular appearance. They differ so much from all other antelopes that they have been formed into a distinct family by some naturalists, but are here referred to the great family Bovidæ. They inhabit the open plains from Poland to the Irtish River. On the left is the mole-rat, or sand-rat (Spalax murinus). This animal burrows under ground like a mole, feeding on bulbous roots. It inhabits the same country as the saiga, but extends farther south in Europe. On the right is a still more curious animal, the desman (Myogale Muscovitica), a long-snouted water-mole. This creature is fifteen inches long, including the tail; it burrows in the banks of streams, feeding on insects, {219}worms, and leeches; it swims well, and remains long under water, raising the tip of the snout, where the nostrils are situated, to the surface when it wants to breathe. It is thus well concealed; and this may be one use of the development of the long snout, as well as serving to follow worms into their holes in the soft earth. This species is confined to the rivers Volga and Don in Southern Russia, and the only other species known inhabits some of the valleys on the north side of the Pyrenees. In the distance are wolves, a characteristic feature of these wastes.

Plate II.

CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA OF WESTERN TARTARY.

Birds.--But few genera of birds are absolutely restricted to this sub-region. Podoces, a curious form of starling, is the most decidedly so; Mycerobas and Pyrrhospiza are genera of finches confined to Thibet and the snowy Himalayas; Leucosticte, another genus of finches, is confined to the eastern half of the sub-region and North America; Tetraogallus, a large kind of partridge, ranges west to the Caucasus; Syrrhaptes, a form of sand-grouse, and Lerwa (snow-partridge), are almost confined here, only extending into the next sub-region; as do Grandala, and Calliope, genera of warblers, Uragus, a finch allied to the North American cardinals, and Crossoptilon, a remarkable group of pheasants.

Almost all the genera of central and northern Europe are found here, and give quite a European character to the ornithology, though a considerable number of the species are different. There are a few Oriental forms, such as Abrornis and Larvivora (warblers); with Ceriornis and Ithaginis, genera of pheasants, which reach the snow-line in the Himalayas and thus just enter this sub-region, but as they do not penetrate farther north, they hardly serve to modify the exclusively Palæarctic character of its ornithology.

According to Middendorf, the extreme northern Asiatic birds are the Alpine ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus); the snow-bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis); the raven, the gyrfalcon and the snowy-owl. Those which are characteristic of the barren "tundras," but which do not range so far north as the preceding are,--the willow-grouse (Lagopus albus); the Lapland-bunting (Plectrophanes {220}lapponica); the shore-lark (Otocorys alpestris); the sand-martin (Cotyle riparia), and the sea-eagle (Haliæetus albicilla).

Those which are more characteristic of the northern forests, and which do not pass beyond them, are--the linnet; two crossbills (Loxia Leucoptera and L. Curvirostra); the pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator); the waxwing; the common magpie; the common swallow; the peregrine falcon; the rough-legged buzzard; and three species of owls.

Fully one-half of the land-birds of Siberia are identical with those of Europe, the remainder being mostly representative species peculiar to Northern Asia, with a few stragglers and immigrants from China and Japan or the Himalayas. A much larger proportion of the wading and aquatic families are European or Arctic, these groups having always a wider range than land birds.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--From the nature of the country and climate these are comparatively few, but in the more temperate districts snakes and lizards seem to be not uncommon. Halys, a genus of Crotaline snakes, and Phrynocephalus, lizards of the family Agamidæ, are characteristic of these parts. Simotes, a snake of the family Oligodontidæ, reaches an elevation of 16,000 feet in the Himalayas, and therefore enters this sub-region.

Insects.--Mesapia and Hypermnestra, genera of Papilionidæ, are butterflies peculiar to this sub-region; and Parnassius is as characteristic as it is of our European mountains. Carabidæ are also abundant, as will be seen by referring to the Chapter on the Distribution of Insects in the succeeding part of this work. The insects, on the whole, have a strictly European character, although a large proportion of the species are peculiar, and several new genera appear.

IV.--Japan and North China, or the Manchurian Sub-region.

This is an interesting and very productive district, corresponding in the east to the Mediterranean sub-region in the west, or rather perhaps to all western temperate Europe. Its limits are not very well defined, but it probably includes all Japan; the Corea and Manchuria to the Amour river and to the lower {221}slopes of the Khingan and Peling mountains; and China to the Nanlin mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang. On the coast of China the dividing line between it and the Oriental region seems to be somewhere about Foo-chow, but as there is here no natural barrier, a great intermingling of northern and southern forms takes place.

Japan is volcanic and mountainous, with a fine climate and a most luxuriant and varied vegetation. Manchuria is hilly, with a high range of mountains on the coast, and some desert tracts in the interior, but fairly wooded in many parts. Much of northern China is a vast alluvial plain, backed by hills and mountains with belts of forest, above which are the dry and barren uplands of Mongolia. We have a tolerable knowledge of China, of Japan, and of the Amoor valley, but very little of Corea and Manchuria. The recent researches of Père David in Moupin, in east Thibet, said to be between 31° and 32° north latitude, show, that the fauna of the Oriental region here advances northward along the flanks of the Yun-ling mountains (a continuation of the Himalayas); since he found at different altitudes representatives of the Indo-Chinese, Manchurian, and Siberian faunas. On the higher slopes of the Himalayas, there must be a narrow strip from about 8,000 to 11,000 feet elevation intervening between the tropical fauna of the Indo-Chinese sub-region and the almost arctic fauna of Thibet; and the animals of this zone will for the most part belong to the fauna of temperate China and Manchuria, except in the extreme west towards Cashmere, where the Mediterranean fauna will in like manner intervene. On a map of sufficiently large scale, therefore, it would be necessary to extend our present sub-region westward along the Himalayas, in a narrow strip just below the upper limits of forests. It is evident that the large number of Fringillidæ, Corvidæ, Troglodytidæ, and Paridæ, often of south Palæarctic forms, that abound in the higher Himalayas, are somewhat out of place as members of the Oriental fauna, and are equally so in that of Thibet and Siberia; but they form a natural portion of that of North China on the one side, or of South Europe on the other.

{222}Mammalia.--This sub-region contains a number of peculiar and very interesting forms, most of which have been recently discovered by Père David in North and West China and East Thibet. The following are the peculiar genera:--Rhinopithecus, a sub-genus of monkeys, here classed under Semnopithecus; Anurosorex, Scaptochirus, Uropsilus and Scaptonyx, new forms of Talpidæ or moles; Æluropus (Æluridæ); Nyctereutes (Canidæ); Lutronectes (Mustelidæ); Cricetulus (Muridæ); Hydropotes, Moschus, and Elaphodus (Cervidæ). The Rhinopithecus appears to be a permanent inhabitant of the highest forests of Moupin, in a cold climate. It has a very thick fur, as has also a new species of Macacus found in the same district. North China and East Thibet seem to be very rich in Insectivora. Scaptochirus is like a mole; Uropsilus between the Japanese Urotrichus and Sorex; Scaptonyx between Urotrichus and Talpa. Æluropus seems to be the most remarkable mammal discovered by Père David. It is allied to the singular panda (Ælurus fulgens) of Nepal, but is as large as a bear, the body wholly white, with the feet, ears, and tip of the tail black. It inhabits the highest forests, and is therefore a true Palæarctic animal, as most likely is the Ælurus. Nyctereutes, a curious racoon-like dog, ranges from Canton to North China, the Amoor and Japan, and therefore seems to come best in this sub-region; Hydropotes and Lophotragus are small hornless deer confined to North China; Elaphodus, from East Thibet, is another peculiar form of deer; while the musk deer (Moschus) is confined to this sub-region and the last. Besides the above, the following Palæarctic genera were found by Père David in this sub-region: Macacus: five genera or sub-genera of bats (Vespertilio, Vesperus, Vesperugo, Rhinolophus, and Murina); Erinaceus, Nectogale, Talpa, Crocidura and Sorex, among Insectivora; Mustela, Putorius, Martes, Lutra, Viverra, Meles, Ælurus, Ursus, Felis, and Canis, among Carnivora; Hystrix, Arctomys, Myospalax, Spermophilus, Gerbillus, Dipus, Lagomys, Lepus, Sciurus, Pteromys, Arvicola, and Mus, among Rodentia; Budorcas, Nemorhedus, Antilope, Ovis, Moschus, Cervulus and Cervus among Ruminants; and the wide-spread Sus or wild boar. The following Oriental genera are also {223}included in Père David's list, but no doubt occur only in the lowlands and warm valleys, and can hardly be considered to belong to the Palæarctic region: Paguma, Helictis, Arctonyx, Rhizomys, Manis. The Rhizomys from Moupin is a peculiar species of this tropical genus, but all the others inhabit Southern China.

A few additional forms occur in Japan: Urotrichus, a peculiar Mole, which is found also in north-west America; Enhydra, the sea otter of California; and the dormouse (Myoxus). Japan also possesses peculiar species of Macacus, Talpa, Meles, Canis, and Sciuropterus.

It will be seen that this sub-region is remarkably rich in Insectivora, of which it possesses ten genera; and that it has also several peculiar forms of Carnivora, Rodentia, and Ruminants.

Birds.--To give an accurate idea of the ornithology of this sub-region is very difficult, both on account of its extreme richness and the impossibility of defining the limits between it and the Oriental region. A considerable number of genera which are well developed in the high Himalayas, and some which are peculiar to that district, have hitherto always been classed as Indian, and therefore Oriental groups; but they more properly belong to this sub-region. Many of them frequent the highest forests, or descend into the Himalayan temperate zone only in winter; and others are so intimately connected with Palæarctic species, that they can only be considered as stragglers into the border land of the Oriental region. On these principles we consider the following genera to be confined to this sub-region:--

Grandala, Nemura (Sylviidæ); Pterorhinus (Timaliidæ); Cholornis, Conostoma, Heteromorpha (Panuridæ); Cyanoptila (Muscicapidæ); Eophona (Fringillidæ); Dendrotreron (Columbidæ); Lophophorus, Tetraophasis, Crossoptilon, Pucrasia, Thaumalea, and Ithaginis (Phasianidæ). This may be called the sub-region of Pheasants; for the above six genera, comprising sixteen species of the most magnificent birds in the world, are all confined to the temperate or cold mountainous regions of the Himalayas, Thibet, and China; and in addition we have {224}most of the species of tragopan (Ceriornis), and some of the true pheasants (Phasianus).

The most abundant and characteristic of the smaller birds are warblers, tits, and finches, of Palæarctic types; but there are also a considerable number of Oriental forms which penetrate far into the country, and mingling with the northern birds give a character to the Ornithology of this sub-region very different from that of the Mediterranean district at the western end of the region. Leaving out a large number of wide-ranging groups, this mixture of types may be best exhibited by giving lists of the more striking Palæarctic and Oriental genera which are here found intermingled.

PALÆARCTIC GENERA.

SYLVIIDÆ. Erithacus. Ruticilla. Locustella. Cyanecula. Sylvia. Potamodus. Reguloides. Regulus. Accentor.

CINCLIDÆ. Cinclus.

TROGLODYTIDÆ. Troglodytidæ.

CERTHIIDÆ. Certhia. Sitta. Tichodroma.

PARIDÆ. Parus. Lophophanes. Acredula.

CORVIDÆ. Fregilus. Nucifraga. Pica. Cyanopica. Garrulus.

AMPELIDÆ. Ampelis.

FRINGILLIDÆ. Fringilla. Chrysomitris. Chlorospiza. Passer. Coccothraustes. Pyrrhula. Carpodacus. Uragus. Loxia. Linota. Emberiza.

STURNIDÆ. Sturnus.

ALAUDIDÆ. Otocorys.

PICIDÆ. Picoides. Picus. Hyopicus. Dryocopus.

YUNGIDÆ. Yunx.

PTEROCLIDÆ. Syrrhaptes.

TETRAONIDÆ. Tetrao. Tetraogallus. Lerwa. Lagopus.

VULTURIDÆ. Gypaëtus. Vultur.

FALCONIDÆ. Archibuteo.

ORIENTAL GENERA.

SYLVIIDÆ. Suya. Calliope. Larvivora. Tribura. Horites. Abrornis. Copsychus.

TURDIDÆ. Oreocincla.

TIMALIIDÆ. Alcippe. Timalia. Pterocyclus. Garrulax. Trochalopteron. Pomatorhinus. {225} Suthora.

PANURIDÆ. Paradoxornis.

CINCLIDÆ. Enicurus. Myiophonus.

TROGLODYTIDÆ. Pnoepyga.

LIOTRICHIDÆ. Liothrix. Yuhina. Pteruthius.

PYCNONOTIDÆ. Microscelis. Pycnonotus. Hypsipetes.

CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. Pericrocotus.

DICRURIDÆ. Dicrurus. Chibia. Buchanga.

MUSCICAPIDÆ. Xanthopygia. Niltava. Tchitrea.

CORVIDÆ. Urocissa.

NECTARINEIDÆ. Æthopyga.

MOTACILLIDÆ. Nemoricola.

DICÆIDÆ. Zosterops.

FRINGILLIDÆ. Melophus. Pyrgilauda.

PLOCEIDÆ. Munia.

STURNIDÆ. Acridotheres. Sturnia.

PITTIDÆ. Pitta.

PICIDÆ. Vivia. Yungipicus. Gecinus.

CORACIIDÆ. Eurystomus.

ALCEDINIDÆ. Halcyon. Ceryle.

UPUPIDÆ. Upupa.

PSITTACIDÆ. Palæornis.

COLUMBIDÆ. Treron. Ianthænas. Macropygia.

PHASIANIDÆ. Phasianus. Ceriornis.

STRIGIDÆ. Scops.

In the above lists there are rather more Oriental than Palæarctic genera; but it must be remembered that most of the former are summer migrants only, or stragglers just entering the sub-region; whereas the great majority of the latter are permanent residents, and a large proportion of them range over the greater part of the Manchurian district. Many of those in the Oriental column should perhaps be omitted, as we have no exact determination of their range, and the limits of the regions are very uncertain. It must be remembered, too, that the Palæarctic genera of Sylviidæ, Paridæ, and Fringillidæ, are often represented by numerous species, whereas the corresponding Oriental genera have for the most part only single species; and we shall then find that, except towards the borders of the Oriental region the Palæarctic element is strongly predominant. Four of the more especially Oriental groups are confined to Japan, the southern {226}extremity of which should perhaps come in the Oriental region. The great richness of this sub-region compared with that of Siberia is well shown by the fact, that a list of all the known land-birds of East Siberia, including Dahuria and the comparatively fertile Amoor Valley, contains only 190 species; whereas Père David's catalogue of the birds of Northern China with adjacent parts of East Thibet and Mongolia (a very much smaller area) contains for the same families 366 species. Of the Siberian birds more than 50 per cent, are European species, while those of the Manchurian sub-region comprise about half that proportion of land-birds which are identical with those of Europe.

Japan is no doubt very imperfectly known, as only 134 land-birds are recorded from it. Of these twenty-two are peculiar species, a number that would probably be diminished were the Corea to be explored. Of the genera, only nine are Indo-Malayan, while forty-three are Palæarctic.

Plate III.--Scene on the Borders of North-West China and Mongolia with Characteristic Mammalia and Birds.--The mountainous districts of Northern China, with the adjacent portions of Thibet and Mongolia, are the head-quarters of the pheasant tribe, many of the most beautiful and remarkable species being found there only. In the north-western provinces of China and the southern parts of Mongolia may be found the species figured. That in the foreground is the superb golden pheasant (Thaumalea picta), a bird that can hardly be surpassed for splendour of plumage by any denizen of the tropics. The large bird perched above is the eared pheasant (Crossoptilon auritum), a species of comparatively sober plumage but of remarkable and elegant form. In the middle distance is Pallas's sand grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus), a curious bird, whose native country seems to be the high plains of Northern Asia, but which often abounds near Pekin, and in 1863 astonished European ornithologists by appearing in considerable numbers in Central and Western Europe, in every part of Great Britain, and even in Ireland.

Plate III.

CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF NORTH CHINA.

The quadruped figured is the curious racoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), {227}an animal confined to North China, Japan, and the Amoor Valley, and having no close allies in any other part of the globe. In the distance are some deer, a group of animals very abundant and varied in this part of the Palæarctic region.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--Reptiles are scarce in North China, only four or five species of snakes, a lizard and one of the Geckotidæ occurring in the country round Pekin. The genus Halys is the most characteristic form of snake, while Callophis, an oriental genus, extends to Japan. Among lizards, Plestiodon, Maybouya, Tachydromus, and Gecko reach Japan, the two latter being very characteristic of the Oriental region.

Amphibia are more abundant and interesting; Hynobius, Onychodactylus, and Sieboldtia (Salamandridæ) being peculiar to it, while most of the European genera are also represented.

Fresh-water Fish.--Of these there are a few peculiar genera; as Plecoglossus (Salmonidæ) from Japan; Achilognathus, Pseudoperilampus, Ochetobius, and Opsariichthys (Cyprinidæ); and there are many other Chinese Cyprinidæ belonging to the border land of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions.

Insects.--The butterflies of this sub-region exhibit the same mixture of tropical and temperate forms as the birds. Most of the common European genera are represented, and there are species of Parnassius in Japan and the Amoor. Isodema, a peculiar genus of Nymphalidæ is found near Ningpo, just within our limits; and Sericinus, one of the most beautiful genera of Papilionidæ is peculiar to North China, where four species occur, thus balancing the Thais and Doritis of Europe. The genus Zephyrus (Lycænidæ) is well represented by six species in Japan and the Amoor, against two in Europe. Papilio paris and P. bianor, magnificent insects of wholly tropical appearance, abound near Pekin, and allied forms inhabit Japan and the Amoor, as well as P. demetrius and P. alcinous belonging to the "Protenor" group of the Himalayas. Other tropical genera occurring in Japan, the Amoor, or North China are, Debis, Neope, Mycalesis, Ypthimia (Satyridæ); Thaumantis (Morphidæ), at Shanghae; Euripus, Neptis, Athyma (Nymphalidæ); Terias (Pieridæ); and the above-mentioned Papilionidæ.

{228}Coleoptera.--The beetles of Japan decidedly exhibit a mixture of tropical forms with others truly Palæarctic, and it has been with some naturalists a matter of doubt whether the southern and best known portion of the islands should not be joined to the Oriental region. An important addition to our knowledge of the insects of this country has recently been made by Mr. George Lewis, and a portion of his collections have been described by various entomologists in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. As the question is one of considerable interest we shall give a summary of the results fairly deducible from what is now known of the entomology of Japan; and it must be remembered that almost all our collections come from the southern districts, in what is almost a sub-tropical climate; so that if we find a considerable proportion of Palæarctic forms, we may be pretty sure that the preponderance will be much greater a little further north.

Of Carabidæ Mr. Bates enumerates 244 species belonging to 84 genera, and by comparing these with the Coleoptera of a tract of about equal extent in western Europe, he concludes that there is little similarity, and that the cases of affinity to the forms of eastern tropical Asia preponderate. By comparing his genera with the distributions as given in Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue, a somewhat different result is arrived at. Leaving out the generic types altogether peculiar to Japan, and also those genera of such world-wide distribution that they afford no clear indications for our purpose, it appears that no less than twenty-two genera, containing seventy-four of the Japanese species, are either exclusively Palæarctic, Palæarctic and Nearctic, or highly characteristic of the Palæarctic region; then come thirteen genera containing eighty-seven of the species which have a very wide distribution, but are also Palæarctic: we next have seventeen genera containing twenty-four of the Japanese species which are decidedly Oriental and tropical. Here then the fair comparison is between the twenty-two genera and seventy-four species whose affinities are clearly Palæarctic or at least north temperate, and seventeen genera with twenty-four species which are Asiatic and tropical; and this seems to prove that, although South {229}Japan (like North China) has a considerable infusion of tropical forms, there is a preponderating substratum of Palæarctic forms, which clearly indicate the true position of the islands in zoological geography. There are also a few cases of what may be called eccentric distribution; which show that Japan, like many other island-groups, has served as a kind of refuge in which dying-out forms continue to maintain themselves. These, which are worthy of notice, are as follows: Orthotrichus (1 sp.) has the only other species in Egypt; Trechichus (1 sp.) has two other species, of which one inhabits Madeira, the other the Southern United States; Perileptus (1 sp.) has two other species, of which one inhabits Bourbon, the other West Europe; and lastly, Crepidogaster (1 sp.) has the other known species in South Africa. These cases diminish the value of the indications afforded by some of the Japanese forms, whose only allies are single species in various remote parts of the Oriental region.

The Staphylinidæ have been described by Dr. Sharp, and his list exhibits a great preponderance of north temperate, or cosmopolitan forms, with a few which are decidedly tropical. The Pselaphidæ and Scydmenidæ, also described by Dr. Sharp, exhibit, according to that gentleman, "even a greater resemblance to those of North America than to those of Europe," but he says nothing of any tropical affinities. The water-beetles are all either Palæarctic or of wide distribution.

The Lucanidæ (Gemm. and Har. Cat., 1868) exhibit an intermingling of Palæarctic and Oriental genera.

The Cetoniidæ (Gemm. and Har. Cat., 1869) show, for North China and Japan, three Oriental to two Palæarctic genera.

The Buprestidæ collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Edward Saunders in the Journal of the Linnæan Society, vol. xi. p. 509. The collection consisted of thirty-six species belonging to fourteen genera. No less than thirteen of these are known also from India and the Malay Islands; nine from Europe; seven from Africa; six from America, and four from China. In six of the genera the Japanese species are said to be allied to those of the Oriental region; while in three they are allied to European forms, and in two to American. Considering {230}the southern latitude and warm climate in which these insects were mostly collected, and the proximity to Formosa and the Malay Islands compared with the enormous distance from Europe, this shows as much Palæarctic affinity as can be expected. In the Palæarctic region the group is only plentiful in the southern parts of Europe, which is cut off by the cold plateau of Thibet from all direct communication with Japan; while in the Oriental region it everywhere abounds and is, in fact, one of the most conspicuous and dominant families of Coleoptera.

The Longicorns collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Bates in the Annals of Natural History for 1873. The number of species now known from Japan is 107, belonging to sixty-four genera. The most important genera are Leptura, Clytanthus, Monohammus, Praonetha, Exocentrus, Glenea, and Oberea. There are twenty-one tropical genera, and seven peculiar to Japan, leaving thirty-six either Palæarctic or of very wide range. A number of the genera are Oriental and Malayan, and many characteristic European genera seem to be absent; but it is certain that not half the Japanese Longicorns are yet known, and many of these gaps will doubtless be filled up when the more northern islands are explored.

The Phytophaga, described by Mr. Baly, appear to have a considerable preponderance of tropical Oriental forms.

A considerable collection of Hymenoptera formed by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Frederick Smith; and exhibit the interesting result, that while the bees and wasps are decidedly of tropical and Oriental forms, the Tenthredinidæ and Ichneumonidæ are as decidedly Palæarctic, "the general aspect of the collection being that of a European one, only a single exotic form being found among them."

Remarks on the General Character of the Fauna of Japan.--From a general view of the phenomena of distribution we feel justified in placing Japan in the Palæarctic region; although some tropical groups, especially of reptiles and insects, have largely occupied its southern portions; and these same groups have in many cases spread into Northern China, beyond the {231}usual dividing line of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The causes of such a phenomenon are not difficult to conceive. Even now, that portion of the Palæarctic region between Western Asia and Japan is, for the most part, a bleak and inhospitable region, abounding in desert plateaus, and with a rigorous climate even in its most favoured districts, and can, therefore, support but a scanty population of snakes, and of such groups of insects as require flowers, forests, or a considerable period of warm summer weather; and it is precisely these which are represented in Japan and North China by tropical forms. We must also consider, that during the Glacial epoch this whole region would have become still less productive, and that, as the southern limit of the ice retired northward, it would be followed up by many tropical forms along with such as had been driven south by its advance, and had survived to return to their northern homes.

It is also evident that Japan has a more equable and probably moister climate than the opposite shores of China, and has also a very different geological character, being rocky and broken, often volcanic, and supporting a rich, varied, and peculiar vegetation. It would thus be well adapted to support all the more hardy denizens of the tropics which might at various times reach it, while it might not be so well adapted for the more boreal forms from Mongolia or Siberia. The fact that a mixture of such forms occurs there, is then, little to be wondered at, but we may rather marvel that they are not more predominant, and that even in the extreme south, the most abundant forms of mammal, bird, and insect, are modifications of familiar Palæarctic types. The fact clearly indicates that the former land connections of Japan with the continent have been in a northerly rather than in a southerly direction, and that the tropical immigrants have had difficulties to contend with, and have found the land already fairly stocked with northern aborigines in almost every class and order of animals.

General Conclusions as to the Fauna of the Palæarctic Region.--From the account that has now been given of the fauna {232}of the Palæarctic region, it is evident that it owes many of its deficiencies and some of its peculiarities to the influence of the Glacial epoch, combined with those important changes of physical geography which accompanied or preceded it. The elevation of the old Sarahan sea and the complete formation of the Mediterranean, are the most important of these changes in the western portion of the region. In the centre, a wide arm of the Arctic Ocean extended southward from the Gulf of Obi to the Aral and the Caspian, dividing northern Europe and Asia. At this time our European and Siberian sub-regions were probably more distinct than they are now, their complete fusion having been effected since the Glacial epoch. As we know that the Himalayas have greatly increased in altitude during the Tertiary period, it is not impossible that during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the vast plateau of Central Asia was much less elevated and less completely cut off from the influence of rain-bearing winds. It might then have been far more fertile, and have supported a rich and varied animal population, a few relics of which we see in the Thibetan antelopes, yaks, and wild horses. The influence of yet earlier changes of physical geography, and the relations of the Palæarctic to the tropical regions immediately south of it, will be better understood when we have examined and discussed the faunas of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions.

{233}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In constructing these tables showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Palæarctic region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in compiling the fourth part of this work.

Mammalia.--Lord Clement's Mammalia and Reptiles of Europe; Siebold's Fauna Japonica; Père David's List of Mammalia of North China and Thibet; Swinhoe's Chinese Mammalia; Radde's List of Mammalia of South-Eastern Siberia; Canon Tristram's Lists for Sahara and Palestine; Papers by Professor Milne-Edwards, Mr. Blanford, Mr. Sclater, and the local lists given by Mr. A. Murray in the Appendix to his Geographical Distribution of Mammalia.

Birds.--Blasius' List of Birds of Europe; Godman, On Birds of Azores, Madeira, and Canaries; Middendorf, for Siberia; Père David and Mr. Swinhoe, for China and Mongolia; Homeyer, for East Siberia; Mr. Blanford, for Persia and the high Himalayas; Mr. Elwes's paper on the Distribution of Asiatic Birds; Canon Tristram, for the Sahara and Palestine; Professor Newton, for Iceland and Greenland; Mr. Dresser, for Scandinavia; and numerous papers and notes in the Ibis; Journal für Ornithologie; Annals and Mag. of Nat. History; and Proceedings of the Zoological Society.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--Schreiber's European Herpetology.

{234}TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE PALÆARCTIC REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show families peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=Europe. | Order and Family | 2=Mediterranean. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=Siberian. | | 4=Japan. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | PRIMATES. | | | | | 3. Cynopithecidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | | | 9. (Pteropidæ) | | | | -- |Tropics of E. Hemisphere 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Warmer parts of E. Hemis. 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | | -- | | |Tropical regions | | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | | | 15. Macroscelididæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian 17. Erinaceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Africa 21. Talpidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Australia | | | | | and S. America | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 25. Viverridæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental 27. Hyænidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 31. Æluridæ | | | | -- |Oriental 32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Andes 33. Otariidæ | | | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones 34. Trichechidæ | -- | | -- | |Arctic regions 35. Phocidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. and S. temperate zones | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | | 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic | | | | | SIRENIA. | | | | | 42. Manatidæ | -- | | -- | |Tropics, from Brazil to | | | | | N. Australia | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 43. Equidæ | | -- | -- | |Ethiopian 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Nearctic | | | | | reg. and Australia 48. Camelidæ | | -- | -- | |Andes 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Ethiopian and | | | | | Australian 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical and | | | | | Australian | | | | | HYRACOIDÆ. | | | | | 54. (Hyracidæ) | | -- | | |Ethiopian family | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 56. Spalacidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Oriental 57. Dipodidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Nearctic 58. Myoxidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian 60. Castoridæ | -- | | -- | |Nearctic 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 64. Octodontidæ | | -- | | |Abyssinia, Neotropical 67. Hystricidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental 69. Lagomyidæ | | | -- | |Nearctic 70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | | -- | | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 4. Panuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental 5. Cinclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |American, Oriental 8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Nearctic 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian, | | | | | Madagascar 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian | | | | | [?] 13. Pycnonotidæ | | -- | | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 17. Muscicapidæ | | | | |Eastern Hemisphere 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and N. | | | | | America 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 23. (Nectariniidæ) | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 24. (Dicæidæ) | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 29. Ampelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 47. (Pittidæ) | | | | -- |Oriental, Australian, Ethiopian | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 52. Yungidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. W. India, N. E. Africa, | | | | | S. Africa 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 69. Upupidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Indian 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental 88. Phasianidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian, Nearctic 89. Turnicidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere, and | | | | | N. America 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearly Cosmopolite 117. Phænicopteridæ | | -- | | |Neotropical, Ethiopian, Indian | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 123. Colymbidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Arctic and N. Temperate 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 125. Alcidæ | -- | | -- | -- |N. Temperate zone | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Typhlopidæ | | -- | | -- |All regions but Nearctic 5. Calamariidæ | | -- | | |All other regions 6. Oligodontidæ | | | | -- |Oriental and Neotropical 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, and all other regions 9. Psammophidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian and Oriental 18. Erycidæ | | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian 20. Elapidæ | | | | -- |Australian and all other | | | | | regions 24. Crotalidæ | | | -- | -- |Nearctic, Neotropical, Oriental 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 26. Trogonophidæ | | -- | | | 28. Amphisbænidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical 30. Varanidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, Australian 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but American 34. Zonuridæ | | -- | | |America, Africa, N. India 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 46. Ophiomoridæ | | -- | | | 47. Sepidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian 49. Geckotidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 51. Agamidæ | | -- | -- | -- |All continents but America 52. Chamæleonidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All continents but Australia 59. Trionychidæ | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Nearctic 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | URODELA. | | | | | 3. Proteidæ | -- | | | |Nearctic 5. Menopomidæ | | | | -- |Nearctic 6. Salamandridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic to Andes of Bogota | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 10. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia 13. Bombinatoridæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, New Zealand 15. Alytidæ | -- | | | |All regions but Oriental 17. Hylidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Ethiopian 18. Polypedatidæ | | | -- | -- |All the regions 19. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 20. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic | | | | | FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 1. Gasterosteidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All regions but Australian 26. Comephoridæ | | | -- | | 37. Atherinidæ | -- | -- | | |N. America and Australia | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions 65. Salmonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, New Zealand 70. Esocidæ | -- | -- | | |Nearctic 71. Umbridæ | -- | | | |Nearctic 73. Cyprinodontidæ | | -- | | |All regions but Australia 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and | | | | | Neotropical | | | | | GANOIDEI. | | | | | 96. Accipenseridæ | -- | -- | -- | |Nearctic 97. Polydontidæ | | | | -- |Nearctic | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | DURINI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All tropical regions 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | -- | -- | | |All continents but Australia 10. Nemeobeidæ | -- | | | |Absent from Nearctic region and | | | | | Australia 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 21. Stygiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent only from Australia 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

COLEOPTERA.--Of about 80 families into which the Coleoptera are divided, all the more important are cosmopolite, or nearly so. It would therefore unnecessarily occupy space to give tables of the whole for each region.

LAND SHELLS.--The more important families being cosmopolite, and the smaller ones being somewhat uncertain in their limits, the reader is referred to the account of the families and genera under each region, and to the chapter on Mollusca in the concluding part of this work, for such information as can be given of their distribution.

{239}TABLE II.

LIST OF THE GENERA OF TERRESTIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE PALÆARCTIC REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | PRIMATES. | | | SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | (Semnopithecus | 1 |Eastern Thibet) |Oriental genus | | | CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Macacus | 4 |Gibraltar, N. Africa, |Oriental | | E. Thibet to Japan | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PTEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | (Pteropus | 2 |Egypt, Japan) |Tropics of the E. . | | | Hemis (Xantharpyia | 1 |N. Africa, Palestine) |Oriental, Austro- | | | Malayan | | | RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | | | | 2. Rhinolphus | 9 |Temperate & Southern |Warmer parts E. | | parts of Region | Hemisphere (Asellia | 1 |Egypt) |Ethiopian, Java (Rhinopoma | 1 |Egypt, Palestine) |[?] India (Nycteris | 1 |Egypt) |Nubia, Himalaya | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 3. Vesperugo | 1 |Siberia, Amoorland |[?] 4. Otonycteris | 1 |Egypt |[?] 5. Vespertilio | 35 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (Kerivoula | 1 |N. China) |Oriental, S. Africa 6. Miniopteris | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |S. Afric. Malaya, | | Japan | Austral. 7. Plecotus | 1 |S. Europe |Himalayas 8. Barbastellus | 2 |Mid. and S. Europe, |Darjeeling, Timor | | Palestine | | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 9. Molossus | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Ethiop., Neotrop., | | | Australian | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | ERINACEIDÆ. | | | | | | 10. Erinaceus | 4 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Africa. | | Japan | | | | TALPIDÆ. | | | | | | 11. Talpa | 5 |The whole region |N. India 12. Scaptochirus | 1 |N. China | 13. Anurosorex | 1 |N. China | 14. Scaptonyx | 1 |N. China | 15. Myogale | 2 |S. E. Russia, Pyrenees | 16. Nectogale | 1 |Thibet | 17. Urotrichus | 1 |Japan |N. W. America 18. Uropsilus | 1 |E. Thibet | | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | | | | 19. Sorex | 10 |The whole region |Absent from Australia | | | & S. America 20. Crocidura | 4 |W. Europe to N. China | [?] | | | CARNIVORA. | | | FELIDÆ. | | | | | | 21. Felis | 12 |The whole region; excl.|All regions but | | extreme North | Austral. 22. Lyncus | 9 |S. Europe to Arctic sea|America N. of 66° N. | | | Lat. | | | VIVERRIDÆ. | | | | | | (Viverra | 1 |N. China) |Oriental and Ethiopian 23. Genetta | 1 |S. Europe & N. Africa, |Ethiopian | | Palestine | (Herpestes | 1 |N. Africa, Spain [?], |Oriental and Ethiopian | | Palestine) | | | | HYÆNIDÆ. | | | | | | 24. Hyæna | 1 |N. Africa and S. W. |Ethiopian, India | | Asia | | | | CANIDÆ. | | | | | | 25. Canis | 4 |The whole region |All reg. but Austral. | | | [?] 26. Nyctereutes | 1 |Japan, Amoorland, N. | | | China | | | | MUSTELIDÆ. | | | | | | 27. Martes | 7 |N. Europe and Asia, E. |Oriental, Nearctic | | Thibet | 28. Putorius | 3 |W. Europe to N. E. Asia| 29. Mustela | 10 |The whole region |Nearctic, Ethiop., | | | Himalayas, Peru 30. Vison | 2 |Europe and Siberia |N. America, N. India, | | | China 31. Gulo | 1 |The Arctic regions |Arctic America 32. Lutra | 2 |The whole region |Oriental 33. Lutronectes | 1 |Japan | 34. Enhydris | 1 |N. Asia and Japan |California 35. Meles | 2 |Cen. Europe, Palestine,|China to Hongkong | | N. China, Japan | | | | ÆLURIDÆ. | | | | | | 36. Ælurus | 1 |S. E. Thibet |Nepal 37. Æluropus | 1 |E. Thibet | | | | URSIDÆ. | | | | | | 38. Thalassarctos | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America 39. Ursus | 4 |The whole region |Oriental, Nearctic, | | | Chili | | | OTARIIDÆ. | | | | | | 40. Callorhinus | 1 |Kamschatka and | | | Behring's Straits | 41. Zalophus | 1 |Japan |California 42. Eumetopias | 1 |Japan, Behring's |California | | Straits | | | | TRICHECHIDÆ. | | | | | | 43. Trichechus | 1 |Polar Seas |Arctic America | | | PHOCIDÆ. | | | | | | 44. Callocephalus | 3 |North Sea, Caspian, |Greenland | | Lake Baikal | 45. Pagomys | 2 |North Sea, Japan |N. Pacific 46. Pagophilus | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific 47. Phoca | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific 48. Halichærus | 1 |North Sea and Baltic |Greenland 49. Pelagius | 2 |Madeira to Black Sea | 50. Cystophora | 2 |N. Atlantic |N. Atlantic | | | SIRENIA. | | |Tropics & Behring's | | | Strts. | | | CETACEA. | | |Oceanic | | | UNGULATA. | | | EQUIDÆ. | | | | | | 51. Equus | 4 |Cent. and W. Asia & N. |Ethiopian | | Africa | | | | SUIDÆ. | | | | | | 52. Sus | 2 |The whole region |Oriental, Austro- | | | Malayan | | | CAMELIDÆ. | | | | | | 53. Camelus | 2 |Deserts of Cent. and W.| | | Asia and N. Africa | | | | CERVIDÆ. | | | | | | 54. Alces | 1 |North Europe and Asia |N. America 55. Tarandus | 1 |Arctic Europe and Asia |Arctic America 56. Cervus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but | | | Austral. 57. Dama | 1 |Mediterranean district | 58. Elaphodus | 1 |N. W. China | 59. Lophotragus | 1 |N. China | 60. Capreolus | 2 |Temp. Europe and W. | | | Asia and N. China | 61. Moschus | 1 |Amoor R., N. China, to | | | Himalayas | 62. Hydropotes | 1 |N. China | | | | BOVIDÆ. | | | | | | 63. { Bos | 1 |Europe, (not wild) |Oriental 64. { Bison | 1 |Poland and Caucasus |Nearctic 65. { Poephagus | 1 |Thibet | 66. Addax | 1 |N. Africa to Syria | 67. Oryx | 1 |N. Africa to Syria |Ethiopian deserts 68. { Gazella | 12 |N. Africa to Persia, |S. Africa, India { | | and Beloochistan | 69. { Procapra | 2 |W. Thibet and Mongolia | 70. {Saiga | 1 |E. Europe and W. Asia | 71. {Pantholops | 1 |W. Thibet | (Alcephalus | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus. 72. Budorcas | 2 |E. Himalayas to E. | | | Thibet | 73. Rupicapra | 2 |Pyrenees to Caucasus | 74. Nemorhedus | 7 |E. Himalayas to E. |Oriental to Sumatra, | | China and Japan | Formosa 75. Capra | 20 |Spain to Thibet and |Nilgherries, Rocky | | N.E. Africa | Mtns. | | | HYRACOIDEA. | | | HYRACIDÆ. | | | | | | (Hyrax | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus | | | RODENTIA. | | | MURIDÆ. | | | | | | 76. Mus |?15 |The whole region |E. Hemisphere 77. Cricetus | 9 |The whole region | 78. Cricetulus | 3 |N. China | 79. Meriones | 8 |W. and Central Asia to |Ethiopian, Indian. | | N. China, N. Africa | 80. Rhombomys | 6 |E. Europe, Cent. Asia, | | | N. Africa | 81. Psammomys | 3 |Egypt and Palestine | 82. Sminthus | 3 |East Europe, Siberia | 83. Arvicola |?21 |The whole region |Himalayas, Nearctic 84. Cuniculus | 1 |N. E. Europe, Siberia |Arctic America 85. Myodes | 1 |North of region |Nearctic 86. Myospalax | 3 |Altai Mountains and N. | | | China | | | | SPALACIDÆ. | | | | | | 87. Ellobius | 1 |S. Russia and S. W. | | | Siberia | 88. Spalax | 1 |Hungary and Greece to | | | W. Asia, Palestine | | | | DIPODIDÆ. | | | | | | 89. Dipus |?15 |S. E. Europe and N. |Africa, India | | Africa to N. China | | | | MYOXIDÆ. | | | | | | 90. Myoxus | 12 |Temperate parts of |Ethiopian | | whole region | | | | CASTORIDÆ. | | | | | | 91. Castor | 1 |Temperate zone, from |N. America | | France to Amoorland | | | | SCIURIDÆ. | | | | | | 92. Sciurus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but | | | Austral. 92a. Tamias | 1 |All Northern Asia |N. America 93. Sciuropterus | 4 |Finland to Siberia and |Oriental, Nearctic | | Japan | 94. Pteromys | 3 |Japan and W. China |Oriental 95. Spermophilus | 10 |E. Europe to N. China |Nearctic | | and Kamschatka | 96. Arctomys. | 4 |Alps to E. Thibet and |Nearctic | | Kamschatka | | | | OCTODONTIDÆ. | | | | | | 97.Ctenodactylus | 1 |N. Africa | | | | HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | | | | 98. Hystrix | 2 |S. Europe, Palestine, |Ethiopian, Oriental | | N. China. | | | | LAGOMYIDÆ. | | | | | | 99. Lagomys | 10 |Volga to E. Thibet and |Nearctic | | Kamschatka | | | | LEPORIDÆ. | | | | | | 100. Lepus | 12 |The whole region |All regions but | | | Austral.

BIRDS.

PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Turdus | 18 |The whole region |Almost cosmopolite | |(excluding Spitsbergen)| 2. Oreocincla | 1 |N. E. Asia and Japan, |Oriental and | | straggler to Europe | Australian 3. Monticola | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Oriental and | | Palestine, N. China | S. African (Bessornis | 1 |Palestine) |Tropical and | | | S. Africa | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | 4. Cisticola | 1 |S. W. Europe, N. |Ethiop., Orient., | | Africa, Japan | Austral. 5. {Acrocephalus | 10 |W. Europe to Japan |Orient., Ethiop., { | | | Austral. 6. {Dumeticola | 4 |Nepaul, Lake Baikal, | { | | E. Thibet high | 7. {Potamodus | 3 |W. and S. Europe, | { | | N. Africa, E. Thibet | 8. {Lusciniola | 1 |S. Europe | 9. {Locustella | 7 |W. Europe and N. Africa|India, winter { | | to Japan | migrants(?) 10. {Bradyptetus | 2 |S. Europe and Palestine|E. and S. Africa 11. {Calamodus | ?3 |Europe, N. Africa, | | | Palestine | 12. {Phylloscopus | 6 |The whole region |Oriental { | | (excluding western | { | | islands) | 13. {Hypolais | 9 |Europe, N. Africa, |China, Moluccas, { | | Palestine, China | India, Africa 14. {Abrornis | 2 |Cashmere, E. Thibet |Oriental region 15. {Reguloides | 2 |Europe and China |N. India, Formosa 16. {Regulus | 4 |The whole region |N. and Central America | | (excluding Iceland, | | | &c.) | 17. {Aedon | 2 |S. Europe, W. Asia, |E. and S. Africa { | | N. Africa | 18. {Pyrophthalma | 2 |E. Europe and Palestine| 19. {Melizophilus | 2 |W. and S. Europe, | { | | Sardinia | 20. {Sylvia | 6 |Madeira to W. India, |N. E. Africa, Ceylon { | | N. Africa | migrants(?) 21. {Curruca | 7 |Madeira to India, |E. Africa, India, | | N. Africa | migrants 22. {Luscinia | 2 |W. Europe, N. Africa, | { | | Persia | 23. {Cyanecula | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to|Abyssinia and India { | | Kamschatka | migrants 24. {Calliope | 2 |N. Asia, Himalayas, |Centl. India { | | China | (? migrant) 25. {Erithacus | 3 |Atlantic Islands to | { | | Japan | 26. {Grandala | 1 |High Himalayas and | | | E. Thibet | 27. { Ruticilla | 10 |Eu. to Japan, N. Afr., |Abyssinia, India { | | Himalayas | 28. { Larvivora | 2 |E. Thibet, Amoor, Japan|Oriental 29. Dromolæa | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian | | Palestine | 30. Saxicola | 10 |The whole region |E. and S. Africa, | | | India 31. Cercomela | 2 |Palestine (a desert |N. E. Africa, N. W. | | genus) | India 32. Pratincola | 3 |W. Europe, N. Africa to|Ethiopian to Oriental | | India | 33. Accentor | 12 |W. Europe to Japan; |Himalayas(?) in winter | | high Himalayas | | | | TIMALIIDÆ. | | | | | | 34. Pterorhinus | 3 |Thibet and N. W. China | (Malacocercus | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus (Crateropus | 2 |N. Africa, Persia) |Ethiopian genus (Trochalopteron | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus (Ianthocincla | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus | | | PANURIDÆ. | | | | | | (Paradoxornis | 3 |Himalayas and |(?)Oriental genus | | E. Thibet) | 35. Conostoma | 1 |High Himalayas | | | E. Thibet) | 36. Suthora | 3 |E. Thibet |Himalayas, China, | | | Formosa 37. Panurus | 1 |W. Europe to W. Siberia| 38. Heteromorpha | 1 |Nepaul and E. Thibet, | | | from 10,000 feet | | | altitude | 39. Cholornis | 1 |E. Thibet | | | | CINCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 40. Cinclus | 5 |The whole region |American highlands | | (Atlantic Islands | | | excluded) | (Myiophonus | 1 |Turkestan, Thian-Shan |Oriental genus | | Mountains, 6,000 feet| | | | TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | | | | 41. Troglodytes | 3 |Iceland and Britain to |Neotropical and | | Japan | Nearctic, Himalayas (Pnoepyga | 2 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus | | | CERTHIIDÆ. | | | | | | 42. Certhia | 2 |W. Europe to N. China |Himalayas, Nearctic 43. Tichodroma | 1 |S. Europe to N. China |Abyssinia, Nepaul, | | | high | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 44. Sitta | 7 |W. Europe to Himalayas India, Nearctic | | and Japan | | | | PARIDÆ. | | | | | | 45. Parus | 20 |W. Europe to Kamschatka|Nearctic, Oriental, | | N. Africa | Ethiopian 46. Lophophanes | 6 |Europe and high |Nearctic | | Himalayas | 47. Acredula | 6 |W. Europe to N. China | | | and Kamschatka | 48. Ægithalus | 1 |S. E. Europe |Ethiopian | | | LIOTRICHIDÆ. | | | | | | (Proparus | 4 |Moupin, in E. Thibet) |Oriental genus and | | | fam. | | | PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | | | | 49. Microscelis | 1 |Japan |Oriental genus 50. Pycnonotus | 2 |Palestine, N. China, |Oriental and Ethiopian | | Japan | | | | ORIOLIDÆ. | | | | | | 51. Oriolus | |S. Europe, China |Ethiopian and Oriental | | | MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | | | | 52. Muscicapa | 2 |W. and Central Europe |Ethiopian. 53. Butalis | 2 |W. Europe to Japan and |E. and S. Africa, | | China | Moluccas 54. Erythrosterna | 3 |Central Europe to N. |Oriental & Madagascar | | China and Japan | (Xanthopygia | 1 |Japan) |Oriental genus (Eumyias-- | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus (Cyanoptila | 1 |Japan and Amoor) |Oriental genus (Siphia | 1 |Moupin, E. Thibet) |Oriental genus 55. Tchitrea | 2 |N. China and Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental | | | LANIIDÆ. | | | | | | 56. Lanius | 11 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiopian, | | Atlantic Islands) | Oriental (Telephonus | 1 |N. Africa) |Ethiopian genus | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | 57. Garrulus | 7 |W. Europe, N. Africa, |Himalayas, Formosa | | to Japan | 58. Perisoreus | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |N. America (Urocissa | 2 |Cashmere, Japan) |Oriental genus 59. Nucifraga | 3 |W. Europe to Japan, |Himalayan pine forests | | and Himalayas | 60. Pica | 5 |W. Europe to China and |S. China and Formosa | | Japan | migrants[?] 61. Cyanopica | 2 |Spain, N. E. Asia and | | | Japan | 62. Corvus | 12 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl. | | | S. Am.) 63. Fregilus | 3 |W. Europe to N. China, |Abyssinian mountains | | Himalayas | | | | NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | | | | (Arachnecthra | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus | | | DICÆIDÆ. | | | | | | (Zosterops | 1 |Amoor and Japan) |Ethiop., Orien., | | | Austral. | | | AMPELIDÆ. | | | | | | 64. Ampelis | 2 |Northern half of region|North America | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 65. Hirundo | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 66. Cotyle | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiop., | | Atlan. Is.) | Orien. 67. Chelidon | 3 |The whole region |Oriental | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 68. Fringilla | 6 |The whole region |Africa 69. Acanthis | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to| | | Central Asia | 70. Procarduelis | 1 |High Himalayas and | | | E. Thibet | 71. Chrysomitris | 2 |W. Europe to Japan |N. and S. America 72. Dryospiza | 4 |Atlantic Islands to | | | Palestine, N. Africa | 73. Metoponia | 1 |N. E. Europe to | | | W. Himalayas | 74. Chlorospiza | 5 |W. Europe, N. Africa |China, E. Africa | | to Japan | 75. Passer | 8 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Oriental 76. Montifringilla | 4 |Europe to Cashmere and | | | Siberia | 77. Fringillauda | 1 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | E. Thibet, high | 78. Coccothraustes | 3 |W. Europe, High |N. America | | Himalayas to Japan | 79. Mycerobas | 2 |Central Asia & High | | | Himalayas | 80. Eophona | 2 |E. Thibet, China, and |China | | Japan | 81. Pyrrhula | 9 |Azores to Japan, High |Alaska | | Himalayas | (Crithagra | 1 |Palestine) |Ethiopian genus 82. Carpodacus | 12 |Cent. Eu. to Japan, |India & China, | | High Himalayas | N. Amer. 83. Erythrospiza | 4 |N. Africa to | | | Afghanistan and | | | Turkestan | 84. Uragus | 2 |Turkestan & E. Thibet | | | to Japan | 85. Loxia | 3 |Europe, High Himalayas |N. America | | to Japan | 86. Pinicola | 1 |N. Europe, Siberia |N. America 87. Propyrrhula | 1 |High Himalayas |Darjeeling in winter 88. Pyrrhospiza | 1 |Snowy Himalayas | 89. Linota | 6 |The whole region |N. America 90. Leucosticte | 4 |Turkestan to Kamschatka|N. W. America | | | Emberizinæ | | | | | | 91. {Euspiza | 4 |E. Europe to Japan |N. America 92. {Emberiza | 25 |Europe to Japan |N. India, China 93. {Fringillaria | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |African genus 94. {Plectrophanes | 2 |Northern half of region|N. America | | | STURNIDÆ. | | | | | | 95. Pastor | 1 |East Europe, Central |India | | Asia | 96. Sturnia | 2 |Amoor, Japan, N. China |Oriental 97. Sturnus | 3 |The whole region (excl.|India, China | | Atlantic Islands) | (Amydrus | 1 |Palestine) |N. E. African genus 98. Podoces | 3 |Cen. Asia, Turkestan, | | | Yarkand | | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | | | | 99. Otocorys | 6 |N. Europe to Japan, |India, N. America, | | N. Africa, Arabia | Andes 100. Alauda | 7 |The whole region (excl.|India, Africa | | Iceland) | 101. Galerita | 2 |Central Europe to |India, Central Africa | | N. China, N. Africa | 102. Calandrella | 4 |Central Europe to |India | | N. China, N. Africa | 103. Melanocorypha| 5 |S. Eu., N. Africa, |N. W. India | | N. & Cen. Asia | 104. Pallasia | 1 |Mongolia | (Certhilauda | 1 |N. Africa) |S. African genus (Alaemon | 1 |N. Africa, Arabia) |Ethiopian genus 105. Ammomanes | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Africa, India | | to Cashmere | | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 106. Motacilla | 6 |The whole region |Oriental, Ethiopian 107. Budytes | 4 |Europe to China |Oriental, Moluccas 108. Calobates | 2 |Atlantic Is., W. |Malaisia, Madagascar | | Europe, to China | | | | PITTIDÆ. | | | | | | (Pitta | 1 |Japan) |Oriental & Austral. | | | genus | | | PICARIÆ. | | | PICIDÆ. | | | | | | 109. Picoides | 3 |N. and Cen. Europe to |North America | | Thibet & E. Asia | 110. Picus | 16 |The whole region (excl.|India, China, N. and | | Atlantic Islands) | S. America 111. Hypopicus | 1 |N. China |Himalayas (Yungipicus | 1 |N. China) |Oriental genus 112. Dryocopus | 1 |N. & Cen. Europe to |Neotropical | | N. China | 113. Gecinus | 6 |W. Europe to Thibet, |Oriental | | Amoor & Japan | | | | YUNGIDÆ. | | | | | | 114. Yunx | 2 |W. Europe to N. W. |N. E. Africa, | | India, Thibet and | S. Africa | | Japan | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | 115. Cuculus | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiop., Oriental, | | Atlantic Islands) | Austral. 116. Coccystes | 1 |S. Europe and N. Africa|Ethiopian and Oriental | | | CORACIIDÆ. | | | | | | 117. Coracias | 1 |Cent. Europe to Cent. |Ethiopian, Oriental | | Asia | (Eurystomus | 1 |Amoor in summer) |Oriental & Austral. | | | genus | | | MEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 118. Merops | 2 |S. Europe to Cashmere, |Ethiopian and Oriental | | N. Africa | | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | | | | (Halcyon | 3 |W. Asia, N. China, |Ethiop., Orien., | | Japan) | Austral. 119. Alcedo | 2 |Europe, N. China | 120. Ceryle | 2 |S. E. Europe, Japan |Africa, India, America | | | UPUPIDÆ. | | | | | | 121. Upupa | 1 |S. Europe, N. China |Ethiop. & Oriental | | | genus | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | 122. Caprimulgus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | 123. Cypselus | 4 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiopian, America | | Iceland) | 124. Chætura | 2 |N. China, Dauria |Africa, India | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | 125. Columba | 6 |The whole region |Africa, Asia, America 126. Turtur | 4 |W. Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental (Alsæcomus | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus | | | GALLINÆ. | | | PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 127. Pterocles | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian genus | | to W. India | 128. Syrrhaptes | 2 |Central Asia, N. China | | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | 129. Francolinus | 1 |Borders of |Ethiopian, Oriental | | Mediterranean | 130. Perdix | 2 |Europe to Mongolia | 131. Coturnix | 1 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien., | | to Japan | Austral. 132. Lerwa | 1 |Snowy Himalayas to | | | E. Thibet | 133. Caccabis | 5 |Cen. Europe and N. |Abyssinia, Arabia | | Africa to N. W. | | | Himalayas | 134. Tetraogallus | 4 |Caucasus to E. Thibet | | | and Altai Mountains | 135. Tetrao | 4 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America 136. Bonasa | 1 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America 137. Lagopus | 4 |Iceland, W. Europe to |N. America, Greenland | | Japan | | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | | | | 138. Crossoptilon | 4 |Thibet, Mongolia, | | | N. China | 139. Lophophorus | 3 |Cashmere to E. Thibet | | | (highest woods) | 140. Tetraophasis | 1 |E. Thibet |E. Thibet(?) 141. Ceriornis | 1 |N. W. Himalayas (high) |Himalayas to W. China 142. Pucrasia-- | 3 |N. W. Himalayas to |Himalayas | | N. W. China | 143. Phasianus | 10 |Western Asia to Japan |W. Himalayas, Formosa 144. Thaumalea | 3 |E. Thibet to Amoor, |West China | | N. China | 145. Ithaginis | 2 |Nepaul to E. Thibet | | | (high) | | | | TURNICIDÆ. | | | | | | 146. Turnix | 2 |Spain and N. Africa, |Ethiop., Orien., | | N. China | Austral. | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | VULTURIDÆ. | | | | | | 147. Vultur | 1 |Spain and N. Africa to | | | N. China | 148. Gyps | 1 |S. Europe, Palestine, |E. Africa, India | | Cen. Asia | 149. Otogyps | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |S. Africa, India 150. Neophron | 1 |Atlantic Isds. to |Africa, India | | Palestine | | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | 151. Circus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite 152. Astur | 1 |Europe to N. China |Almost Cosmopolite 153. Accipiter | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite 154. Buteo | 4 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite (excl. | | | Australia) 155. Archibuteo | 1 |N. Europe to Japan |N. America 156. Gypaetus | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Abyssinia, Himalayas 157. Aquila | 5 |Europe to Japan |Nearctic, Ethiop., | | | Orien. 158. Nisaetus | 2 |E. Europe, N. Africa, |India, Australia | | W. Asia | 159. Circaetus | 1 |E. and S. Europe, N. |Africa, India | | Africa, W. Asia | 160. Haliæetus | 3 |Iceland and S. Europe |Cosmopolite (excl. | | to Japan | Neotropical region) 161. Milvus | 4 |Europe to Japan, |The Old World & | | N. Africa | Austral. 162. Elanus | 2 |N. Africa, N. China to |Cosmopolite (excl. | | Amoor | East U. S.) 163. Pernis | 1 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental 164. Falco | 5 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl. | | | Pacific Islands) 165. Hierofalco | 5 |The whole region |N. America 166. Cerchneis | 4 |Atlantic Islands to |Cosmop. (excl. | | Japan | Oceania) | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 167. Pandion | 1 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | 168. Surnia | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |North America 169. Nyctea | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America 170. Athene | 4 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien., | | to Japan | Austral. (Ninox | 1 |N. China and Japan) |Oriental genus 171. Glaucidium | 1 |Europe to N. China |America 172. Bubo | 2 |Europe to N. China |Africa, India, | | | America 173. Scops | 3 |S. Europe to Japan |African, Orien., | | | Austral. 174. Syrnium | 5 |Europe to Japan |African, Oriental, | | | Amer. 175. Otus | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite 176. Nyctala | 1 |N. Europe to E. Siberia|N. America 177. Strix | 1 |Europe and N. Africa |All warm & temp. | | | regions

Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds.

GRALLÆ. | | | RALLIDÆ. | | | | | | Ortygometra | 8 |Europe, N. E. Africa | | | | SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | | | | Ibidorhyncha | 1 |Cashmere & Cen. Asia, |Himalayan Valleys | | N. China | Terekia | 1 |N. E. Europe and |India, Australia | | Siberia | (migrant) Helodromas | 1 |E. and N. Europe, | | | N. India | Machetes | 1 |N. and Cen. Europe, |India in winter | | Cen. Asia | Eurinorhynchus | 1 |N. E. Asia |Bengal | | | GLAREOLIDÆ. | | | | | | Pluvianus | 1 |N. Africa, Spain | | | | CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | | | | Vanellus | 8 |Europe to the Punjaub |S. America | | | OTIDIDÆ. | | | | | | Otis | 2 |W. Europe to Mongolia, | | | N. Africa | ANSERES. | | | ANATIDÆ. | | | | | | Aix | 1 |N. China to Amoor |N. America Bucephala | 3 |Iceland, N. Europe, and|N. America | | Asia | Histrionicus | 1 |Iceland, N. Siberia |N. America Harelda | 1 |North of whole region |Arctic America Somateria | 3 |North of whole region |N. America Oedemia | 3 |North of whole region |N. America | | | LARIDÆ. | | | | | | Rissa | 1 |North coasts of whole |N. America | | region | | | | COLYMBIDÆ. | | | | | | Colymbus | 3 |North of whole region |N. America | | | ALCIDÆ. | | | | | | Alca | 2 |North coasts of whole |N. America | | region | Fratercula | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America | | region | Uria | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America | | region | Mergulus | 1 |Iceland and Arctic |Arctic America | | coasts | --------------------+-----+-----------------------+----------------------

{251}CHAPTER XI.

THE ETHIOPIAN REGION.

This is one of the best defined of the great zoological regions, consisting of tropical and South Africa, to which must be added tropical Arabia, Madagascar, and a few other islands, all popularly known as African. Some naturalists would extend the region northwards to the Atlas Mountains and include the whole of the Sahara; but the animal life of the northern part of that great desert seems more akin to the Palæarctic fauna of North Africa. The Sahara is really a debatable land which has been peopled from both regions; and until we know more of the natural history of the great plateaus which rise like islands in the waste of sand, it will be safer to make the provisional boundary line at or near the tropic, thus giving the northern half to the Palæarctic, the southern to the Ethiopian region. The same line may be continued across Arabia.

With our present imperfect knowledge of the interior of Africa, only three great continental sub-regions can be well defined. The open pasture lands of interior tropical Africa are wonderfully uniform in their productions; a great number of species ranging from Senegal to Abyssinia and thence to the Zambesi, while almost all the commoner African genera extend over the whole of this area. Almost all this extensive tract of country is a moderately elevated plateau, with a hot and dry climate, and characterised by a grassy vegetation interspersed with patches of forest. This forms our first or East African sub-region. The whole of the west coast from the south side of the Gambia River to about 10° or 12° south latitude, is a very {252}different kind of country; being almost wholly dense forests where not cleared by man, and having the hot moist uniform climate, and perennial luxuriance of vegetation, which characterise the great equatorial belt of forest all round the globe. This forest country extends to an unknown distance inland, but it was found, with its features well marked, by Dr. Schweinfurth directly he crossed the south-western watershed of the Nile; and far to the south we find it again unmistakably indicated, in the excessively moist forest country about the head waters of the Congo, where the heroic Livingstone met his death. In this forest district many of the more remarkable African types are alone found, and its productions occasionally present us with curious similarities to those of the far removed South American or Malayan forests. This is our second or West African sub-region.

Extra-tropical South Africa possesses features of its own, quite distinct from those of both the preceding regions (although it has also much in common with the first). Its vegetation is known to be one of the richest, most peculiar, and most remarkable on the globe; and in its zoology it has a speciality, similar in kind but less in degree, which renders it both natural and convenient to separate it as our third, or South African sub-region. Its limits are not very clearly ascertained, but it is probably bounded by the Kalahari desert on the north-west, and by the Limpopo Valley, or the mountain range beyond, on the north-east, although some of its peculiar forms extend to Mozambique. There remains the great Island of Madagascar, one of the most isolated and most interesting on the globe, as regards its animal productions; and to this must be added, the smaller islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and the Comoro Islands, forming together the Mascarene Islands,--the whole constituting our fourth sub-region.

Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Region.--We have now to consider briefly, what are the peculiarities and characteristics of the Ethiopian Region as a whole,--those which give it its distinctive features and broadly separate it from the other primary zoological regions.

{253}Mammalia.--This region has 9 peculiar families of mammalia. Chiromyidæ (containing the aye-aye); Potamogalidæ and Chrysochloridæ (Insectivora); Cryptoproctidæ and Protelidae (Carnivora); Hippopotamidæ and Camelopardalidæ (Ungulata); and Orycteropodidæ (Edentata). Besides these it possesses 7 peculiar genera of apes, Troglodytes, Colobus, Myiopithecus, Cercopithecus, Cercocebus, Theropithecus, and Cynocephalus; 2 sub-families of lemurs containing 6 genera, confined to Madagascar, with 3 genera of two other sub-families confined to the continent; of Insectivora a family, Centetidæ, with 5 genera, peculiar to Madagascar, and the genera Petrodromus and Rhynchocyon belonging to the Macroscelididæ, or elephant-shrews, restricted to the continent; numerous peculiar genera or sub-genera of civets; Lycaon and Megalotis, remarkable genera of Canidæ; Ictonyx, the zorilla, a genus allied to the weasels; 13 peculiar genera of Muridæ; Pectinator, a genus of the South American family Octodontidæ; and 2 genera of the South American Echimyidæ or spiny rats. Of abundant and characteristic groups it possesses Macroscelides, Felis, Hyæna, Hyrax, Rhinoceros, and Elephas, as well as several species of zebra and a great variety of antelopes.

The great speciality indicated by these numerous peculiar families and genera, is still farther increased by the absence of certain groups dominant in the Old-World continent, an absence which we can only account for by the persistence, through long epochs, of barriers isolating the greater part of Africa from the rest of the world. These groups are, Ursidæ, the bears; Talpidæ the moles; Camelidæ, the camels; Cervidæ, the deer; Caprinæ, the goats and sheep; and the genera Bos (wild ox); and Sus (wild boar). Combining these striking deficiencies, with the no less striking peculiarities above enumerated, it seems hardly possible to have a region more sharply divided from the rest of the globe than this is, by its whole assemblage of mammalia.

Birds.--In birds the Ethiopian region is by no means so strikingly peculiar, many of these having been able to pass the ancient barriers which so long limited the range of mammalia. {254}It is, however, sufficiently rich, possessing 54 families of land birds, besides a few genera whose position is not well ascertained, and which may constitute distinct families. Of these 6 are peculiar, Musophagidæ (the plantain eaters); Coliidæ (the colies); Leptosomidæ, allied to the cuckoos; Irrisoridæ, allied to the hoopoes; and Serpentaridæ, allied to the hawks. Only one Passerine family is peculiar--Paictidæ, while most of the other tropical regions possess several; but Euryceros and Buphaga, here classed with the Sturnidæ, ought, perhaps, to form two more. It has, however, many peculiar genera, especially among the fruit-thrushes, Pycnonotidæ; flycatchers, Muscicapidæ; shrikes, Lanidæ; crows, Corvidæ; starlings, Sturnidæ; and weaver-birds, Ploceidæ; the latter family being very characteristic of the region. It is also rich in barbets, Megalæmidæ (7 peculiar genera); cuckoos, Cuculidæ; rollers, Coraciidæ; bee-eaters, Meropidæ; hornbills, Bucerotidæ; and goat-suckers, Caprimulgidæ. It is poor in parrots and rather so in pigeons; but it abounds in Pterocles and Francolinus, genera of Gallinæ, and possesses 4 genera of the peculiar group of the guinea-fowls, forming part of the pheasant family. It abounds in vultures, eagles, and other birds of prey, among which is the anomalous genus Serpentarius, the secretary-bird, constituting a distinct family. Many of the most remarkable forms are confined to Madagascar and the adjacent islands, and will be noticed in our account of that sub-region.

Reptiles.--Of the reptiles there are 4 peculiar Ethiopian families;--3 of snakes, Rachiodontidæ, Dendraspidæ, and Atractaspidæ and 1 of lizards, Chamæsauridæ.

Psammophidæ (desert snakes) are abundant, as are Lycodontidæ (fanged ground-snakes), and Viperidæ (vipers). The following genera of snakes are peculiar or highly characteristic:--Leptorhynchus, Rhamnophis, Herpetethiops and Grayia (Colubridæ); Hopsidrophis and Bucephalus (Dendrophidæ); Langalia (Dryophidæ); Pythonodipsas (Dipsadidæ); Boedon, Lycophidion, Holuropholis, Simocephalus and Lamprophis (Lycodontidæ); Hortulia and Sanzinia (Pythonidæ); Cyrptophis, Elapsoidea and Poecilophis (Elapidæ); and Atheris (Viperidæ). The following genera {255}of lizards are the most characteristic:--Monotrophis (Lepidosternidæ); Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus, Cordylosaurus, Pleurostichus, Saurophis and Zonurus (Zonuridæ); Sphænops, Scelotes, Sphænocephalus and Sepsina (Sepidæ); Pachydactylus (Geckotidæ); Agama (Agamidæ); and Chameleon (Chameleonidæ). Of tortoises, Cynyxis, Pyxis and Chersina (Testudinidæ), and Cycloderma (Trionychidæ) are the most characteristic.

Amphibia.--Of the 9 families of amphibia there is only 1 peculiar, the Dactylethridæ, a group of toads; but the Alytidæ, a family of frogs, are abundant.

Fresh-water Fish.--Of the 14 families of fresh-water fishes 3 are peculiar: Mormyridæ and Gymnarchidæ, small groups not far removed from the pikes; and Polypteridæ, a small group of ganoid fishes allied to the gar-pikes (Lepidosteidæ) of North America.

Summary of Ethiopian Vertebrates.--Combining the results here indicated and set forth in greater detail in the tables of distribution, we find that the Ethiopian region possesses examples of 44 families of mammalia, 72 of birds, 35 of reptiles, 9 of amphibia, and 15 of fresh-water fishes. It has 23 (or perhaps 25) families of Vertebrata altogether peculiar to it out of a total of 175 families, or almost exactly one-eighth of the whole. Out of 142 genera of mammalia found within the region, 90 are peculiar to it; a proportion not much short of two-thirds. Of land birds there are 294 genera, of which 179 are peculiar; giving a proportion of a little less than three-fifths.

Compared with the Oriental region this shows a considerably larger amount of speciality under all the heads; but the superiority is mainly due to the wonderful and isolated fauna of Madagascar, to which the Oriental region has nothing comparable. Without this the regions would be nearly equal.

Insects: Lepidoptera.--11 out of the 16 families of butterflies have representatives in Africa, but none are peculiar. Acræidæ is one of the most characteristic families, and there {256}are many interesting forms of Nymphalidæ, Lycænidæ, and Papilionidæ. The peculiar or characteristic forms are Amauris (Danaidæ); Gnophodes, Leptoneura, Bicyclus, Heteropsis and Coenyra (Satyridæ); Acræa (Acræidæ); Lachnoptera, Precis, Salamis, Crenis, Godartia, Amphidema, Pseudacræa, Catuna, Euryphene, Romalæosoma, Hamanumida, Aterica, Harma, Meneris, Charaxes, and Philognoma (Nymphalidæ); Pentila, Liptena, Durbania, Zeritis, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Hewitsonia and Deloneura (Lycænidæ); Pseudopontia, Idmais, Teracolus, Callosune (Pieridæ); Abantis, Ceratrichia and Caprona (Hesperidæ). The total number of species known is about 750; which is very poor for an extensive tropical region, but this is not to be wondered at when the nature of much of the country is considered. It is also, no doubt, partly due to our comparative ignorance of the great equatorial forest district, which is the only part likely to be very productive in this order of insects.

Coleoptera.--In our first representative family, Cicindelidæ or tiger-beetles, the Ethiopian region is rather rich, having 13 genera, 11 of which are peculiar to it; and among these are such remarkable forms as Manticora, Myrmecoptera and Dromica; with Megacephala, a genus only found elsewhere in Australia and South America.

In Carabidæ or carnivorous ground beetles, there are about 75 peculiar genera. Among the most characteristic are Anthia, Polyrhina, Graphipterus and Piezia, which are almost all peculiar; while Orthogonius, Hexagonia, Macrochilus, Thyreopterus, Eudema, and Abacetus are common to this and the Oriental region; and Hypolithus to the Neotropical.

Out of 27 genera of Buprestidæ, or metallic beetles, only 6 are peculiar to the region, one of the most remarkable being Polybothrus, confined to Madagascar. Sternocera and Chrysochroa are characteristic of this region and the Oriental; it has Julodis in common with the Mediterranean sub-region, and Belionota with the Malayan.

The region is not rich in Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, possessing only 10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, but most of them {257}consist of single species. The other three genera, Cladognathus, Nigidius, and Figulus, are the most characteristic, though all have a tolerably wide range in the Old World.

In the elegant Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, this region stands preeminent, possessing 76 genera, 64 of which are peculiar to it. The others are chiefly Oriental, except Oxythræa which is European, and Stethodesma which is Neotropical. Preeminent in size and beauty is Goliathus, comprising perhaps the most bulky of all highly-coloured beetles. Other large and characteristic genera are Ceratorhina, Ischnostoma, Anochilia, Diplognatha, Agenius, and many others of less extent.

In the enormous tribe of Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, the Ethiopian is not so rich as the other three tropical regions; but this may be, in great part, owing to its more productive districts having never been explored by any competent entomologists. It nevertheless possesses 262 genera, 216 of which are peculiar, the others being mostly groups of very wide range. Out of such a large number it is difficult to select a few as most characteristic, but some of the peculiarities of distribution as regards other regions may be named. Among Prionidæ, Tithoes is a characteristic Ethiopian genus. A few species of the American genera Parandra and Mallodon occur here, while the North Temperate genus Prionus is only found in Madagascar. Among Cerambycidæ, Promeces is the most characteristic. The American genera Oeme and Cyrtomerus occur; while Homalachnus and Philagathes are Malayan, and Leptocera occurs only in Madagascar, Ceylon, Austro-Malaya, and Australia. The Lamiidæ are very fine; Sternotomis, Tragocephala, Ceroplesis, Phryncta, Volumnia, and Nitocris, being very abundant and characteristic. Most of the non-peculiar genera of this family are Oriental, but Spalacopsis and Acanthoderes are American, while Tetraglenes and Schoenionta have been found only in East and South Africa and in Malaya.

Terrestrial Mollusca.--In the extensive family of the Helicidæ or snails, 13 genera are represented, only one of which, Columna, is peculiar. This region is however the metropolis of Achatina, some of the species being the largest land-shells {258}known. Buliminus, Stenogyra, and Pupa are characteristic genera. Bulimus is absent, though one species inhabits St. Helena. The operculated shells are not very well represented, the great family of Cyclostomidæ having here only nine genera, with but one peculiar, Lithidion, found in Madagascar, Socotra, and Arabia. None of the genera appear to be well represented throughout the region, and they are almost or quite absent from West Africa.

According to Woodward's Manual (1868) West Africa has about 200 species of land-shells, South Africa about 100, Madagascar nearly 100, Mauritius about 50. All the islands have their peculiar species; and are, in proportion to their extent, much richer than the continent; as is usually the case.

THE ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS.

It has been already explained that these are to some extent provisional; yet it is believed that they represent generally the primary natural divisions of the region, however they may be subdivided when our knowledge of their productions becomes more accurate.

I. The East African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa.

This division includes all the open country of tropical Africa south of the Sahara, as well as an undefined southern margin of that great desert. With the exception of a narrow strip along the east coast and the valleys of the Niger and Nile, it is a vast elevated plateau from 1,000 to 4,000 feet high, hilly rather than mountainous, except the lofty table land of Abyssinia, with mountains rising to 16,000 feet and extending south to the equator, where it terminates in the peaks of Kenia and Kilimandjaro, 18,000 and 20,000 feet high. The northern portion of this sub-region is a belt about 300 miles wide between the Sahara on the north and the great equatorial forest on the south, extending from Cape Verd, the extreme western point of Africa, across the northern bend of the Niger and Lake Tchad to the mountains of Abyssinia. The greater part of this tract has a {259}moderate elevation. The eastern portion reaches from about the second cataract of the Nile, or perhaps from about the parallel of 20° N. Latitude, down to about 20° S. Latitude, and from the east coast to where the great forest region commences, or to Lake Tanganyika and about the meridian of 28° to 30° E. Longitude. The greater part of this tract is a lofty plateau.

The surface of all this sub-region is generally open, covered with a vegetation of high grasses or thorny shrubs, with scattered trees and isolated patches of forest in favourable situations. The only parts where extensive continuous forests occur, are on the eastern and western slopes of the great Abyssinian plateau, and on the Mozambique coast from Zanzibar to Sofala. The whole of this great district has one general zoological character. Many species range from Senegal to Abyssinia, others from Abyssinia to the Zambesi, and a few, as Mungos fasciatus and Phacochoerus æthiopicus, range over the entire sub-region. Fennecus, Ictonyx, and several genera of antelopes, characterise every part of it, as do many genera of birds. Coracias nævia, Corythornis cyanostigma, Tockus nasutus, T. erythrorhynchus, Parus leucopterus, Buphaga africana, Vidua paradisea, are examples of species, which are found in the Gambia, Abyssinia and South East Africa, but not in the West African sub-region; and considering how very little is known of the natural history of the country immediately south of the Sahara, it may well be supposed that these are only a small portion of the species really common to the whole area in question, and which prove its fundamental unity.

Although this sub-region is so extensive and so generally uniform in physical features, it is by far the least peculiar part of Africa. It possesses, of course, all those wide-spread Ethiopian types which inhabit every part of the region, but it has hardly any special features of its own. The few genera which are peculiar to it have generally a limited range, and for the most part belong, either to the isolated mountain-plateau of Abyssinia which is almost as much Palæarctic as Ethiopian, or to the woody districts of Mozambique where the fauna has more of a West or South African character.

{260}Mammalia.--The only forms of Mammalia peculiar to this sub-region are Theropithecus, one of the Cynopithecidæ confined to Abyssinia; Petrodromus and Rhynchocyon, belonging to the insectivorous Macroscelididæ, have only been found in Mozambique; the Antelopine genus Neotragus, from Abyssinia southward; Saccostomus and Pelomys genera of Muridæ inhabiting Mozambique; Heterocephalus from Abyssinia, and Heliophobius from Mozambique, belonging to the Spalacidæ; and Pectinator from Abyssinia, belonging to the Octodontidæ. Cynocephalus, Rhinoceros, Camelopardalis, and antelopes of the genera Oryx, Cervicapra, Kobus, Nanotragus, Cephalophus, Hippotragus, Alcephalus, and Catoblepas, are characteristic; as well as Felis, Hyæna, and numerous civets and ichneumons.

Birds.--Peculiar forms of birds are hardly to be found here; we only meet with two--Hypocolius, a genus of shrikes in Abyssinia; and Balæniceps, the great boat-billed heron of the Upper Nile. Yet throughout the country birds are abundant, and most of the typical Ethiopian forms are well represented.

Reptiles.--Of reptiles, the only peculiar forms recorded are Xenocalamus, a genus of snakes, belonging to the Calamariidæ; and Pythonodipsas, one of the Dipsadidæ, both from the Zambesi; and among lizards, Pisturus, one of the Geckotidæ, from Abyssinia.

Amphibia and Fishes.--There are no peculiar forms of amphibia or of fresh-water fishes.

Insects.--Insects are almost equally unproductive of peculiar forms. Among butterflies we have Abantis, one of the Hesperidæ, from Mozambique; and in Coleoptera, 2 genera of Cicindelidæ, 8 of Carabidæ, 1 or 2 of Cetoniidæ, and about half-a-dozen of Longicorns: a mere nothing, as we shall see, compared with the hosts of peculiar genera that characterise each of the other sub-regions. Neither do land-shells appear to present any peculiar forms.

The fact that so very few special types characterise the extensive area now under consideration is very noteworthy. It justifies us in uniting this large and widespread tract of country as forming essentially but one sub-division of the great Ethiopian region, and it suggests some curious speculations as to the former history of that region, a subject which must be deferred to the latter part of this chapter. In none of the other great tropical regions does it occur, that the largest portion of their area, although swarming with life, yet possesses hardly any distinctive features except the absence of numerous types characteristic of the other sub-regions.

Plate IV.

CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF EAST AFRICA.

{261}Plate IV.--Illustrating the Zoology of East Africa.--Although this sub-region has so little speciality, it is that which abounds most in large animals, and is, perhaps, the best representative of Africa as regards zoology. Some of the most distinctive of African animals range over the whole of it, and as, from recent explorations, many parts of this wide area have been made known to the reading public, we devote one of our plates to illustrate the especially African forms of life that here abound. The antelopes represented are the koodoo (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) one of the handsomest of the family, which ranges over all the highlands of Africa from Abyssinia to the southern districts. To the left is the aardvark, or earth pig, of North Eastern Africa (Orycteropus æthiopicus) which, to the north of the equator in East Africa, represents the allied species of the Cape of Good Hope. These Edentata are probably remnants of the ancient fauna of Africa, when it was completely isolated from the northern continents and few of the higher types had been introduced. The large bird in the foreground is the secretary-bird, or serpent-killer (Serpentarius reptilivorus), which has affinities both for the birds-of-prey and the waders. It is common over almost all the open country of Africa, destroying and feeding on the most venomous serpents. The bird on the wing is the red-billed promerops (Irrisor erythrorhynchus), a handsome bird with glossy plumage and coral-red bill. It is allied to the hoopoes, and feeds on insects which it hunts for among the branches of trees. This species also ranges over a large part of east and central Africa to near the Cape of Good Hope. Other species are found in the west; and the genus, which forms a distinct family, Irrisoridæ, is one of the best marked Ethiopian types of birds. In the distance is a rhinoceros, now one of the characteristic features of African {262}zoology, though there is reason to believe that it is a comparatively recent intruder into the country.

II. The West-African Sub-region.

This may be defined as the equatorial-forest sub-region, since it comprises all that portion of Africa, from the west coast inland, over which the great equatorial forests prevail more or less uninterruptedly. These commence to the south of the Gambia River, and extend eastwards in a line roughly parallel to the southern margin of the great desert, as far as the sources of the upper Nile and the mountains forming the western boundary of the basin of the great lakes; and southward to that high but marshy forest-country in which Livingstone was travelling at the time of his death. Its southern limits are undetermined, but are probably somewhere about the parallel of 11° S. Latitude.[10]

This extensive and luxuriant district has only been explored zoologically in the neighbourhood of the West coast. Much, no doubt, remains to be done in the interior, yet its main features are sufficiently well known, and most of its characteristic types of animal life have, no doubt, been discovered.

Mammalia.--Several very important groups of mammals are peculiar to this sub-region. Most prominent are the great anthropoid apes--the gorilla and the chimpanzee--forming the genus Troglodytes; and monkeys of the genera Myiopithecus and Cercocebus. Two remarkable forms of lemurs, Perodicticus and Arctocebus, are also peculiar to West Africa. Among the Insectivora is Potamogale, a semi-aquatic animal, forming a distinct family; and three peculiar genera of civets (Viverridæ) have been described. Hyomoschus, a small, deer-like animal, belongs to the Tragulidæ, or chevrotains, a family otherwise {263}confined to the Oriental region; and in the squirrel family is a curious genus, Anomalurus, which resembles the flying squirrels of other parts of the world, without being directly allied to them.

Birds.--In this class we find a larger proportionate number of peculiar forms. Hypergerus and Alethe, belonging to the Timaliidæ, or babblers, are perhaps allied to Malayan groups; Parinia, a peculiar form of tit, is found only in Prince's Island; Ixonotus is an abundant and characteristic form of Pycnonotidæ; Fraseria, Hypodes, Cuphopterus, and Chaunonotus, are peculiar genera of shrikes; Picathartes is one of the many strange forms of the crow family; Cinnyricinclus is a peculiar genus of sun-birds; Pholidornis is supposed to belong to the Oriental Dicæidæ, or flower-peckers; Waldenia is a recently-described new form of swallow; Ligurnus, a finch, Spermospiga, a weaver bird, and Onychognathus a starling, are also peculiar West African genera. Coming to the Picariæ we have Verreauxia, a peculiar woodpecker; three peculiar genera of barbets (Megalæmidæ); the typical plantain-eaters (Musophaga); Myioceyx, a peculiar genus of kingfishers; while Berenicornis is a genus of crested hornbills, only found elsewhere in Malaya. The grey parrots, of the genus Psittacus, are confined to this sub-region, as are two peculiar genera of partridges, and three of guinea-fowl. We have also here a species of Pitta, one of the Oriental family of ground-thrushes; and the Oriental paroquets, Palæornis, are found here as well as in Abyssinia and the Mascarene Islands.

We thus find, both in the Mammalia and birds of West Africa, a special Oriental or even Malayan element not present in the other parts of tropical Africa, although appearing again in Madagascar. In the Mammalia it is represented by the anthropoid apes; by Colobus allied to Semnopithecus, and by Cercocebus allied to Macacus; and especially by a form of the Malayan family of chevrotains (Tragulidæ). The Malayan genus of otters, Aonyx, is also said to occur in West and South Africa. In birds we have special Oriental and Malayan affinities in Alethe, Pholidornis, Berenicornis, Pitta, and Palæornis; while the Oriental genus Treron has a wide range in Africa. We shall {264}endeavour to ascertain the meaning of this special relation at a subsequent stage of our inquiries.

Plate V.--River Scene in West Africa, with Characteristic Animals.--Our artist has here well represented the luxuriance and beauty of a tropical forest; and the whole scene is such as might be witnessed on the banks of one of the rivers of equatorial West Africa. On the right we see a red river-hog (Potamochoerus penicillatus), one of the handsomest of the swine family, and highly characteristic of the West African sub-region. In a tree overhead is the potto (Perodicticus potto), one of the curious forms of lemur confined to West Africa. On the left is the remarkable Potamogale velox, first discovered by Du Chaillu,--an Insectivorous animal, with the form and habits of an otter. On the other side of the river are seen a pair of gorillas (Troglodytes gorilla), the largest of the anthropoid apes.

The bird on the wing is the Whydah finch (Vidua paradisea), remarkable for the enormous plumes with which the tail of the male bird is decorated during the breeding season. The crested bird overhead is one of the beautiful green touracos (Turacus macrorhynchus), belonging to the Musophagidæ, or plantain-eaters, a family wholly African, and most abundant in the western sub-region.

Reptiles.--In this class we find a large number of peculiar forms; 13 genera of snakes, 3 of lizards, and 2 of tortoises being confined to the sub-region. The snakes are Pariaspis, Elapops, and Prosymna (Calamariidæ), Rhamnophis, Herpetethiops, and Grayia (Colubridæ), Neusterophis and Limnophis (Homalopsidæ), Simocephalus and Holurophis (Lycodontidæ); Pelophilus (Pythonidæ); Elapsoidea (Elapidæ); and Atheris (Viperidæ). The lizards are Dalophia (Lepidosternidæ); Otosaurus (Scincidæ); Psilodactylus (Geckotidæ). The tortoises, Cinyxis (Testudinidæ) and Tetrathyra (Trionichidæ).

Amphibia.--Of Amphibia, there are 2 peculiar genera of tree-frogs, Hylambatis and Hemimantis, belonging to the Polypedatidæ.

Plate V.

SCENE IN WEST AFRICA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{265}Here, too, we find some interesting relations with the Oriental region on the one side, and the Neotropical on the other. The snakes of the family Homalopsidæ have a wide range, in America, Europe, and all over the Oriental region, but are confined to West Africa in the Ethiopian region. Dryiophis (Dryiophidæ) and Dipsadoboa (Dipsadidæ) on the other hand, are genera of tropical America which occur also in West Africa. The family of lizards, Acontiadæ, are found in West and South Africa, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The family of toads, Engystomidæ, in West and South Africa and the whole Oriental region; while the Phryniscidæ inhabit tropical Africa and Java.

Insects.--We have here a large number of peculiar genera. There are 10 of butterflies, Lachnoptera, Amphidema, and Catuna belonging to the Nymphalidæ, while four others are Lycænidæ. The genus Euxanthe is common to West Africa and Madagascar.

Of Coleoptera there are 53 peculiar genera; 20 are Carabidæ, 2 Lucanidæ, 12 Cetoniidæ, 3 Prionidæ, 16 Cerambycidæ, and 34 Lamiidæ. Besides these there are 4 or 5 genera confined to West Africa and Madagascar.

Land Shells.--West Africa is very rich in land shells, but it does not appear to possess any well-marked genera, although several of the smaller groups or sub-genera are confined to it. Helicidæ of the genera Nanina, Buliminus and Achatina are abundant and characteristic.

Islands of the West African Sub-region.--The islands in the Gulf of Guinea are, Fernando Po, very near the main land, with Prince's Island and St. Thomas, considerably further away to the south-west. Fernando Po was once thought to be a remarkable instance of an island possessing a very peculiar fauna, although close to the main land and not divided from it by a deep sea. This, however, was due to our having obtained considerable collections from Fernando Po, while the opposite coast was almost unknown. One after another the species supposed to be peculiar have been found on the continent, till it becomes probable, that, as in the case of other islands similarly situated, it contains no peculiar species whatever. The presence of numerous mammalia, among which are baboons, lemurs, Hyrax, and {266}Anomalurus, shows that this island has probably once been united to the continent.

Prince's Island, situated about 100 miles from the coast, has no mammals, but between 30 and 40 species of birds. Of these 7 are peculiar species, viz., Zosterops ficedulina, Cuphopterus dohrni (a peculiar genus of Sylviidæ), Symplectes princeps, Crithagra rufilata, Columba chlorophæa, Peristera principalis, and Strix thomensis.

In the Island of St. Thomas, situated on the equator about 150 miles from the coast, there are 6 peculiar species out of 30 known birds, viz., Scops leucopsis, Zosterops lugubris, Turdus olivaceofuscus, Oriolus crassirostris, Symplectes sancti-thomæ and Aplopelia simplex; also Strix thomensis in common with Prince's Island. The remainder are all found on the adjacent coasts. It is remarkable that in Prince's Island there are no birds of prey, any that appear being driven off by the parrots (Psittacus erithacus) that abound there; whereas in St. Thomas and Fernando Po they are plentiful.

III. South-African Sub-region.

This is the most peculiar and interesting part of Africa, but owing to the absence of existing barriers its limits cannot be well defined. The typical portion of it hardly contains more than the narrow strip of territory limited by the mountain range which forms the boundary of the Cape Colony and Natal, while in a wider sense it may be extended to include Mozambique. It may perhaps be best characterised as bounded by the Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river. It is in the more limited district of the extreme south, that the wonderful Cape flora alone exists. Here are more genera and species, and more peculiar types of plants congregated together, than in any other part of the globe of equal extent. There are indications of a somewhat similar richness and specialization in the zoology of this country; but animals are so much less closely dependent on soil and climate, that much of the original peculiarity has been obliterated, by long continued interchange of species with so vast an area as {267}that of Africa south of the equator. The extreme peculiarity and isolation of the flora must not, however, be lost sight of, if we would correctly interpret the phenomena afforded by the distribution of animal life on the African continent.

Mammalia.--A much larger number of peculiar forms of mammals are found here than in any of the other sub-regions, although it is far less in extent than either of the three divisions of the continent. Among Insectivora we have the Chrysochloridæ, or golden moles, consisting of two genera confined to South Africa; while the Macroscelididæ, or elephant shrews, are also characteristically South African, although ranging as far as Mozambique and the Zambezi, with one outlying species in North Africa. The Viverridæ are represented by three peculiar genera, Ariela, Cynictis, and Suricata. The Carnivora present some remarkable forms: Proteles, forming a distinct family allied to the hyænas and weasels; and two curious forms of Canidæ--Megalotis (the long-eared fox) and Lycaon (the hyæna-dog), the latter found also in parts of East Africa. Hydrogale is a peculiar form of Mustelidæ; Pelea one of the antelopes; Dendromys, Malacothrix, and Mystromys are peculiar genera of the mouse family (Muridæ); Bathyerges one of the mole-rats (Spalacidæ); Pedetes, the Cape-hare, a remarkable form of jerboa; and Petromys, one of the spiny-rats (Echimyidæ). The remarkable Orycteropus, or earth-pig, has one species in South and one in North East Africa. We have thus eighteen genera of mammalia almost or quite peculiar to South Africa.

Birds.--These do not present so many peculiar forms, yet some are very remarkable. Chætops is an isolated genus of thrushes (Turdidæ). Lioptilus, one of the fruit-thrushes (Pycnonotidæ). Pogonocichla, one of the fly-catchers; Urolestes, a shrike; Promerops, a sun-bird; Philetærus and Chera, weaver-birds; and three peculiar genera of larks--Spizocorys, Heterocorys, and Tephrocorys, complete the list of peculiar types of Passeres. A wood-pecker, Geocolaptes, is nearly allied to a South American genus. The Cape-dove, Oena, is confined to South and East Africa and Madagascar; and Thalassornis is a peculiar form of duck. Several genera are also confined to West and South {268}Africa;--as Phyllastrephus (Pycnonotidæ), Smithornis (Muscicapidæ), Corvinella (Laniidæ); Barbatula and Xylobucco (Megalæmidæ); Ceuthmochares, also in Madagascar, (Cuculidæ); Typanistria (Columbidæ). Other remarkable forms, though widely spread over Africa, appear to have their metropolis here, as Colius and Indicator. Others seem to be confined to South Africa and Abyssinia, as the curious Buphaga (Sturnidæ); and Apaloderma (Trogonidæ). Machærhamphus (Falconidæ) is found only in South-West Africa, Madagascar, and the Malay Peninsula.

Reptiles.--There are 4 peculiar genera of snakes,--Typhline, belonging to the blind burrowing snakes, Typhlopidæ; Lamprophis (Lycodontidæ); Cyrtophis and Pæcilophis (Elapidæ), a family which is chiefly Oriental and Australian. Of Lizards there are 10 peculiar genera; Monotrophis (Lepidosternidæ), but with an allied form in Angola; Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus, Cordylosaurus, Pleurostichus, and Saurophis, all peculiar genera of Zonuridæ; Chamæsaura, forming the peculiar family Chamæsauridæ; Colopus and Rhopitropus (Geckotidæ).

Amphibia.--Of Amphibia there are 4 peculiar genera: Schismaderma (Bufonidæ); Brachymerus (Engystomidæ); Phrynobatrachus and Stenorhynchus (Ranidæ). These last are allied to Oriental genera, and the only other Engystomidæ are Oriental and Neotropical.

Fresh-water Fish.--Of fresh-water fishes there is 1 genus--Abrostomus--belonging to the carp family, peculiar to South Africa.

Insects.--South Africa is excessively rich in insects, and the number of peculiar types surpasses that of any other part of the region. We can only here summarize the results.

Lepidoptera.--Of butterflies there are 7 peculiar genera; 2 belonging to the Satyridæ, 1 to Acræidæ, 3 to Lycænidæ, and 1 to Hesperidæ. Zeritis (Lycænidæ) is also characteristic of this sub-region, although 1 species occurs in West Africa.

Coleoptera.--These are very remarkable. In the family of Cicindelidæ, or tiger-beetles, we have the extraordinary Manticora and Platychile, forming a sub-family, whose nearest allies are in North America; as well as Ophryodera and Dromica, the latter an extensive genus, which ranges as far north as Mozambique {269}and Lake Ngami. Another genus of this family, Jansenia, is common to South Africa and South India.

In the large family of Carabidæ, or ground-beetles, there are 17 peculiar South African genera, the most important being Crepidogaster, Hytrichopus, Arsinoë, and Piezia. Three others--Eunostus, Glyphodactyla, and Megalonychus--are common to South Africa and Madagascar only. There is also a genus in common with Java, and one with Australia.

Of Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, there are 3 peculiar genera; of Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, 14; and of Buprestidæ, 2.

In the great family of Longicorns there are no less than 67 peculiar genera--an immense number when we consider that the generally open character of the country, is such as is not usually well suited to this group of insects. They consist of 5 peculiar genera of Prionidæ, 25 of Cerambycidæ, and 37 of Lamiidæ.

Summary of South-African Zoology.--Summarizing these results, we find that South Africa possesses 18 peculiar genera of Mammalia, 12 of Birds, 18 of Reptiles, 1 of Fishes, 7 of Butterflies, and 107 of the six typical families of Coleoptera. Besides this large amount of speciality it contains many other groups, which extend either to West Africa, to Abyssinia, or to Madagascar only, a number of which are no doubt to be referred as originating here. We also find many cases of direct affinity with the Oriental region, and especially with the Malay districts, and others with Australia; and there are also less marked indications of a relation to America.

Atlantic Islands of the Ethiopian Region. St. Helena.--The position of St. Helena, about 1,000 miles west of Africa and 16° south of the equator, renders it difficult to place it in either of the sub-regions; and its scanty fauna has a general rather than any special resemblance to that of Africa. The entire destruction of its luxuriant native forests by the introduction of goats which killed all the young trees (a destruction which was nearly completed two centuries ago) must have led to the extermination of most of the indigenous birds and insects. At present there is no land bird that is believed to be really indigenous, and but one {270}wader, a small plover (Ægialitis sanctæ-helenæ) which is peculiar to the island, but closely allied to African species. Numerous imported birds, such as canaries, Java sparrows, some African finches, guinea-fowls, and partridges, are now wild. There are no native butterflies, but a few introduced species of almost world-wide range. The only important remnant of the original fauna consists of beetles and land shells. The beetles are the more numerous and have been critically examined and described by Mr. T. V. Wollaston, whose researches in the other Atlantic islands are so well known.

Coleoptera of St. Helena.--Omitting those beetles which get introduced everywhere through man's agency, there are 59 species of Coleoptera known from St. Helena; and even of these there are a few widely distributed species that may have been introduced by man. It will be well, therefore, to confine ourselves almost wholly to the species peculiar to the island, and, therefore, almost certainly forming part of the endemic or original fauna. Of these we find that 10 belong to genera which have a very wide range, and thus afford no indication of geographical affinity; 2 belong to genera which are characteristic of the Palæarctic fauna (Bembidium, Longitarsus); 3 to African genera (Adoretus, Sciobius, Aspidomorpha); and two species of Calosoma are most allied to African species. There are also 4 African species, which may be indigenous in St. Helena. The peculiar genera, 7 in number, are, however, the most interesting. We have first Haplothorax, a large beetle allied to Carabus and Calosoma, though of a peculiar type. This may be held to indicate a remote Palæarctic affinity. Melissius, one of the Dynastidæ, is allied to South African forms. Microxylobius, one of the Cossonides (a sub-family of Curculionidæ) is the most important genus, comprising as it does 13 species. It is, according to Mr. Wollaston, an altogether peculiar type, most allied to Pentarthrum, a genus found in St. Helena, Ascension, and the south of England, and itself very isolated. Nesiotes, another genus of Curculionidæ, belongs to a small group, the allied genera forming which inhabit Europe, Madeira, and Australia. A third peculiar and isolated genus is Trachyphlæosoma. The Anthribidæ are represented by {271}2 genera, Notioxenus and Homoeodera, which are altogether peculiar and isolated, and contain 9 species. Thus no less than 27 species, or more than half of the undoubtedly indigenous beetles, belong to 5 peculiar and very remarkable genera of Rhyncophora.

It appears from this enumeration, that the peculiar species as a whole, exhibit most affinity to the Ethiopian fauna; next to the South European fauna; and lastly to that of the islands of the North Atlantic; while there is such a large amount of peculiarity in the most characteristic forms, that no special geographical affinity can be pointed out.

Land Shells.--These consist of about a dozen living species, and about as many extinct found in the surface soil, and probably exterminated by the destruction of the forests. The genera are Succinea, Zonites, Helix, Bulimus, Pupa, and Achatina. The Bulimi (all now extinct but one) comprise one large, and several small species, of a peculiar type, most resembling forms now inhabiting South America and the islands of the Pacific. Zonites is chiefly South European, but the other genera are of wide range, and none are peculiar to the island.

The marine shells are mostly Mediterranean, or West Indian species, with some found in the Indian Ocean; only 4 or 5 species being peculiar to the island.

Tristan d'Acunha.--This small island is situated nearly midway between the Cape of Good Hope and the mouth of the La Plata, but it is rather nearer Africa than America, and a little nearer still to St. Helena. An island so truly oceanic and of whose productions so little is known, cannot be placed in any region, and is only noticed here because it comes naturally after St. Helena. It is known to possess three peculiar land birds. One is a thrush (Nesocichla eremita) whose exact affinities are not determined; the other a small water-hen (Gallinula nesiotis) allied to our native species, but with shorter and softer wings, which the bird does not use for flight. A finch of the genus Crithagra shows African affinities; while another recently described as Nesospiza acunhæ (Journ. für Orn. 1873, p. 154) forms a new genus said to resemble more nearly some American forms.

{272}The only known land-shells are 2 peculiar species of Balea, a genus only found elsewhere in Europe and Brazil.

IV. Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, or the Malagasy Sub-region.

This insular sub-region is one of the most remarkable zoological districts on the globe, bearing a similar relation to Africa as the Antilles to tropical America, or New Zealand to Australia, but possessing a much richer fauna than either of these, and in some respects a more remarkable one even than New Zealand. It comprises, besides Madagascar, the islands of Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and Comoro islands. Madagascar itself is an island of the first class, being a thousand miles long and about 250 miles in average width. It lies parallel to the coast of Africa, near the southern tropic, and is separated by 230 miles of sea from the nearest part of the continent, although a bank of soundings projecting from its western coast reduces this distance to about 160 miles. Madagascar is a mountainous island, and the greater part of the interior consists of open elevated plateaus; but between these and the coast there intervene broad belts of luxuriant tropical forests. It is this forest-district which has yielded most of those remarkable types of animal life which we shall have to enumerate; and it is probable that many more remain to be discovered. As all the main features of this sub-region are developed in Madagascar, we shall first endeavour to give a complete outline of the fauna of that country, and afterwards show how far the surrounding islands partake of its peculiarities.

Mammalia.--The fauna of Madagascar is tolerably rich in genera and species of mammalia, although these belong to a very limited number of families and orders. It is especially characterized by its abundance of Lemuridæ and Insectivora; it also possesses a few peculiar Carnivora of small size; but most of the other groups in which Africa is especially rich--apes and monkeys, lions, leopards and hyænas, zebras, giraffes, antelopes, elephants and rhinoceroses, and even porcupines and squirrels, are wholly wanting. No less than 40 distinct families of land {273}mammals are represented on the continent of Africa, only 11 of which occur in Madagascar, which also possesses 3 families peculiar to itself. The following is a list of all the genera of Mammalia as yet known to inhabit the island:--

PRIMATES. LEMURIDÆ. Indrisinæ. Species. Indris 6

Lemurinæ. Lemur 15 Hapalemur 2 Microcebus 4 Chirogaleus 5 Lepilemur 2

CHIROMYIDÆ. Chiromys 1

BATS--(Chiroptera). PTEROPIDÆ. Pteropus 2

RHINOLOPHIDÆ. Rhinolophus 1

VESPERTILIONIDÆ. Vespertilio 1 Taphozous 1

NOCTILIONIDÆ. Nyctinomus 1

INSECTIVORA. CENTETIDÆ. Centetes 2 Hemicentetes 2 Ericulus 2 Oryzorictes 1 Echinops 3

SORICIDÆ. Sorex 1

CARNIVORA. CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. Cryptoprocta 1

VIVERRIDÆ. Fossa 2 Galidia 3 Galidictis 2 Eupleres 1

UNGULATA. SUIDÆ. Potamochoerus 1

RODENTIA. MURIDÆ. Nesomys 1 Hypogeomys 1 Brachytarsomys 1

We have here a total of 12 families, 27 genera, and 65 species of Mammals; 3 of the families and 20 of the genera (indicated by italics) being peculiar. All the species are peculiar, except perhaps one or two of the wandering bats. Remains of a Hippopotamus have been found in a sub-fossil condition, showing that this animal probably inhabited the island at a not very remote epoch.

The assemblage of animals above noted is remarkable, and seems to indicate a very ancient connection with the southern portion of Africa, before the apes, ungulates, and felines had entered it. The lemurs, which are here so largely developed, are {274}represented by a single group in Africa, with two peculiar forms on the West coast. They also re-appear under peculiar and isolated forms in Southern India and Malaya, and are evidently but the remains of a once wide-spread group, since in Eocene times they inhabited North America and Europe, and very probably the whole northern hemisphere. The Insectivora are another group of high antiquity, widely scattered over the globe under a number of peculiar forms; but in no equally limited area represented by so many peculiar types as in Madagascar. South and West Africa are also rich in this order.

The Carnivora of Madagascar are mostly peculiar forms of Viverridæ, or civets, a family now almost confined to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but which was abundant in Europe during the Miocene period.

The Potamochoerus is a peculiar species only, which may be perhaps explained by the unusual swimming powers of swine, and the semi-aquatic habits of this genus, leading to an immigration at a later period than in the case of the other Mammalia. The same remark will apply to the small Hippopotamus, which was coeval with the great Struthious bird Æpiornis.

Rodents are only represented by three peculiar forms of Muridæ, but it is probable that others remain to be discovered.

Birds.--Madagascar is exceedingly rich in birds, and especially in remarkable forms of Passeres. No less than 88 genera and 111 species of land-birds have been discovered, and every year some additions are being made to the list. The African families of Passeres are almost all represented, only two being absent--Paridæ and Fringillidæ, both very poorly represented in Africa itself. Among the Picariæ, however, the case is very different, no less than 7 families being absent, viz.--Picidæ, or woodpeckers; Indicatoridæ, or honey-guides; Megalæmidæ, or barbets; Musophagidæ, or plantain-eaters; Coliidæ, or colies; Bucerotidæ, or hornbills; and Irrisoridæ, or mockers. Three of these are peculiar to Africa, and all are well represented there, so that their absence from Madagascar is a very remarkable fact. The number of peculiar genera in Madagascar constitutes one of the main features of its ornithology, and many of these are so {275}isolated that it is very difficult to classify them, and they remain to this day a puzzle to ornithologists. In order to exhibit clearly the striking characteristics of the bird-fauna of this island, we shall first give a list of all the peculiar genera; another, of the genera of which the species only are peculiar; and, lastly, a list of the species which Madagascar possesses in common with the African continent.

GENERA OF BIRDS PECULIAR TO MADAGASCAR, OR FOUND ELSEWHERE ONLY IN THE MASCARENE ISLANDS.

SYLVIIDÆ. Species. 1. Bernieria 2 2. Ellisia 1 3. Mystacornis 1 4. Eroessa 1 5. Gervasia 1

TIMALIIDÆ. 6. Oxylabes 2

CINCLIDÆ(?). 7. Mesites 1

SITTIDÆ. 8. Hypherpes 1

PYCNONOTIDÆ(?) 9. Tylas 1

ORIOLIDÆ. 10. Artamia 3 11. Cyanolanius 1

MUSCICAPIDÆ. 12. Newtonia 1 13. Pseudobias 1

LANIIDÆ. 14. Calicalicus(?) 1 15. Vanga 4

NECTARINIIDÆ. 16. Neodrepanis 1

HIRUNDINIDÆ. 17. Phedina 1

PLOCEIDÆ. 18. Nelicurvius 1

STURNIDÆ. 19. Euryceros(?) 1 20. Hartlaubia 1 21. Falculia 1

PAICTIDÆ. 22. Philepitta 1

CUCULIDÆ. 23. Coua 9 24. Cochlothraustes 1

LEPTOSOMIDÆ. 25. Leptosomus 1

CORACIIDÆ. 26. Atelornis 2 27. Brachypteracias 1 28. Geobiastes 1

PSITTACIDÆ. 29. Coracopsis 2

COLUMBIDÆ. 30. Alectrænas 1

TETRAONIDÆ. 31. Margaroperdix 1

FALCONIDÆ. 32. Nisoides 1 33. Eutriorchis 1 -- Total species of peculiar genera 50

ÆPYORNITHIDÆ(extinct). 34. Æpyornis 1

{276}ETHIOPIAN OR ORIENTAL GENERA WHICH ARE REPRESENTED IN MADAGASCAR BY PECULIAR SPECIES.

TURDIDÆ. Species. 1. Bessonornis 1

SYLVIIDÆ. 2. Acrocephalus 1 3. Copsychus (Or.) 1 4. Pratincola 1

PYCNONOTIDÆ. 5. Hypsipetes (Or.) 1 6. Andropadus 1

CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. 7. Campephaga 1

DICRURIDÆ. 8. Dicrurus 1

MUSCICAPIDÆ. 9. Tchitrea 1

LANIIDÆ. 10. Laniarius 1

NECTARINIIDÆ. 11. Nectarinia 1

PLOCEIIDÆ. 12. Foudia 2 13. Hypargos 1 14. Spermestes 1

ALAUDIDÆ. 15. Mirafra 1

MOTACILLIDÆ. 16. Motacilla 1

CUCULIDÆ. 17. Ceuthmochares 1 18. Centropus 1 19. Cuculus 1

CORACIIDÆ. 20. Eurystomus 1

ALCEDINIDÆ. 21. Corythornis 1 22. Ispidina 1

UPUPIDÆ. 23. Upupa (?) 1

CAPRIMULGIDÆ. 24. Caprimulgus 1

CYPSELIDÆ. 25. Cypselus 2 26. Chætura 1

PSITTACIDÆ. 27. Poliopsitta 1

COLUMBIDÆ. 28. Treron 1 29. Columba 1 30. Turtur 1

PTEROCLIDÆ. 31. Pterocles 1

TETRAONIDÆ. 32. Francolinus 1

PHASIANIDÆ. 33. Numida 1

TURNICIDÆ. 34. Turnix 1

FALCONIDÆ. 35. Polyboroides 1 36. Circus 1 37. Astur 3 38. Accipiter 1 39. Buteo 1 40. Haliæetus 1 41. Pernis 1 42. Baza 1 43. Cerchneis 1

STRIGIDÆ. {277} 44. Athene 1 45. Scops 1

RALLIDÆ. 46. Rallus 3 47. Porzana 1

SCOLOPACIDÆ. 48. Gallinago 1

PLATALEIDÆ. 49. Ibis 1

PODICIPIDÆ. 50. Podiceps 1 -- Total peculiar species of Eth. } or Or. genera } 56

SPECIES OF BIRDS COMMON TO MADAGASCAR AND AFRICA OR ASIA.

1. Cisticola cursitans. 2. Corvus scapulatus. 3. Crithagra canicollis. 4. Merops superciliosus. 5. Collocalia fuciphaga. 6. Oena capensis. 7. Aplopelia tympanistria. 8. Falco minor. 9. Falco concolor. 10. Milvus ægyptius. 11. Milvus migrans. 12. Strix flammea.

These three tables show us an amount of speciality hardly to be found in the birds of any other part of the globe. Out of 111 land-birds in Madagascar, only 12 are identical with species inhabiting the adjacent continents, and most of these belong to powerful-winged, or wide-ranging forms, which probably now often pass from one country to the other. The peculiar species--49 land-birds and 7 waders, or aquatics--are mostly well-marked forms of African genera. There are, however, several genera (marked by italics) which have Oriental or Palæarctic affinities, but not African, viz.--Copsychus, Hypsipetes, Hypherpes, Alectrænas, and Margaroperdix. These indicate a closer approximation to the Malay countries than now exists.

The table of 33 peculiar genera is of great interest. Most of these are well-marked forms, belonging to families which are fully developed in Africa; though it is singular that not one of the exclusively African families is represented in any way in Madagascar. Others, however, are of remote or altogether doubtful affinities. Sittidæ is Oriental and Palæarctic, but not Ethiopian. Oxylabes and Mystacornis are of doubtful affinities. Artamia and Cyanolanius still more so, and it is quite undecided what family they belong to. Calicalicus is almost equally obscure. Neodrepanis, one of the most recent discoveries, seems to connect the Nectariniidæ with the Pacific {278}Depanididæ. Euryceros is a complete puzzle, having been placed with the hornbills, the starlings, or as a distinct family. Falculia is an exceedingly aberrant form of starling, long thought to be allied to Irrisor. Philepitta, forming a distinct family, (Paictidæ), is most remarkable and isolated, perhaps with remote South American affinities. Leptosoma is another extraordinary form, connecting the cuckoos with the rollers. Atelornis, Brachypteracias, and Geobiastes, are terrestrial rollers, with the form and colouring of Pitta. So many perfectly isolated and remarkable groups are certainly nowhere else to be found; and they fitly associate with the wonderful aye-aye (Chiromys), the insectivorous Centetidæ, and carnivorous Cryptoprocta among the Mammalia. They speak to us plainly of enormous antiquity, of long-continued isolation; and not less plainly of a lost continent or continental island, in which so many, and various, and peculiarly organized creatures, could have been gradually developed in a connected fauna, of which we have here but the fragmentary remains.

Plate VI.--Illustrating the characteristic features of the Zoology of Madagascar.--The lemurs, which form the most prominent feature in the zoology of Madagascar, being comparatively well-known from the numerous specimens in our zoological gardens; and good figures of the Insectivorous genera not being available, we have represented the nocturnal and extraordinary aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis) to illustrate its peculiar and probably very ancient mammalian fauna; while the river-hogs in the distance (Potamochoerus edwardsii) allied to African species, indicate a later immigration from the mainland than in the case of most of the other Mammalia. The peculiar birds being far less generally known, we have figured three of them. The largest is the Euryceros prevosti, here classed with the starlings, although its remarkable bill and other peculiarities render it probable that it should form a distinct family. Its colours are velvety black and rich brown with the bill of a pearly grey. The bird beneath (Vanga curvirostris) is one of the peculiar Madagascar shrikes whose plumage, variegated with green-black and pure white is very conspicuous; while that in the right hand corner is the Leptosoma discolor, a bird which appears to be intermediate between such very distinct families as the cuckoos and the rollers, and is therefore considered to form a family by itself. It is a coppery-green above and nearly white beneath, with a black bill and red feet. The fan-shaped plant on the left is the traveller's tree (Urania speciosa), one of the peculiar forms of vegetation in this marvellous island.

Plate VI.

SCENE IN MADAGASCAR, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{279}Reptiles.--These present some very curious features, comparatively few of the African groups being represented, while there are a considerable number of Eastern and even of American forms. Beginning with the snakes, we find, in the enormous family of Colubridæ, none of the African types; but instead of them three genera--Herpetodryas, Philodryas, and Heterodon--only found elsewhere in South and North America. The Psammophidæ, which are both African and Indian, are represented by a peculiar genus, Mimophis. The Dendrophidæ are represented by Ahætulla, a genus which is both African and American. The Dryiophidæ, which inhabit all the tropics but are most developed in the Oriental region, are represented by a peculiar genus, Langaha. The tropical Pythonidæ are represented by another peculiar genus, Sanzinia. The Lycodontidæ and Viperidæ, so well developed in Africa, are entirely absent.

The lizards are no less remarkable. The Zonuridæ, abundantly developed in Africa, are represented by one peculiar genus, Cicigna. The wide-spread Scincidæ by another peculiar genus, Pygomeles. The African Sepsidæ, are represented by three genera, two of which are African, and one, Amphiglossus, peculiar. The Acontiadæ are represented by a species of the African genus Acontias. Of Scincidæ there is the wide-spread Euprepes. The Sepidæ are represented by the African genera Seps and Scelotes. The Geckotidæ are not represented by any purely African genera, but by Phyllodactylus, which is American and Australian; Hemidactylus, which is spread over all the tropics; by two peculiar genera; and by Uroplatis, Geckolepis, and Phelsuma, confined to Madagascar, Bourbon, and the Andaman Islands. The Agamidæ, which are mostly Oriental and are represented in {280}Africa by the single genus Agama, have here three peculiar genera, Tracheloptychus, Chalarodon, and Hoplurus. Lastly, the American Iguanidæ are said to be represented by a species of the South American genus Oplurus. The classification of Reptiles is in such an unsettled state that some of these determinations of affinities are probably erroneous; but it is not likely that any corrections which may be required will materially affect the general bearing of the evidence, as indicating a remarkable amount of Oriental and American relationship.

The other groups are of less interest. Tortoises are represented by two African or wide-spread genera of Testudinidæ, Testudo and Chersina, and by one peculiar genus, Pyxis; and there are also two African genera of Chelydidæ.

The Amphibia are not very well known. They appear to be confined to species of the wide-spread Ethiopian and Oriental genera--Hylarana, Polypedates, and Rappia (Polypedatidæ); and Pyxicephalus (Ranidæ).

Fresh-water Fishes.--These appear to be at present almost unknown. When carefully collected they will no doubt furnish some important facts.

The Mascarene Islands.

The various islands which surround Madagascar--Bourbon, Mauritius, Rodriguez, the Seychelles, and the Comoro Islands--all partake in a considerable degree of its peculiar fauna, while having some special features of their own.

Indigenous Mammalia (except bats) are probably absent from all these islands (except the Comoros), although Lemur and Centetes are given as natives of Bourbon and Mauritius. They have, however, perhaps been introduced from Madagascar. Lemur mayottensis, a peculiar species, is found in the Comoro Islands, where a Madagascar species of Viverra also occurs.

Bourbon and Mauritius may be taken together, as they much resemble each other. They each possess species of a peculiar genus of Campephagidæ, or caterpillar shrikes, Oxynotus; while the remarkable Fregilupus, belonging to the starling family, inhabits Bourbon, if it is not now extinct. They also have {281}peculiar species of Pratincola, Hypsipetes, Phedina, Tchitrea, Zosterops, Foudia, Collocalia, and Coracopsis; while Mauritius has a very peculiar form of dove of the sub-genus Trocaza; an Alectrænas, extinct within the last thirty years; and a species of the Oriental genus of parroquets, Palæornis. The small and remote island of Rodriguez has another Palæornis, as well as a peculiar Foudia, and a Drymoeca of apparently Indian affinity.

Coming to the Seychelle Islands, far to the north, we find the only mammal an Indian species of bat (Pteropus edwardsii). Of the twelve land-birds all but one are peculiar species, but all belong to genera found also in Madagascar, except one--a peculiar species of Palæornis. This is an Oriental genus, but found also in several Mascarene Islands and on the African continent. A species of black parrot (Coracopsis barklayi) and a weaver bird of peculiar type (Foudia seychellarum) show, however, a decided connection with Madagascar. There are also two peculiar pigeons--a short-winged Turtur and an Alectrænas.

Most of the birds of the Comoro Islands are Madagascar species, only two being African. Five are peculiar, belonging to the genera Nectarinia, Zosterops, Dicrurus, Foudia, and Alectrænas.

Reptiles are scarce. There appear to be no snakes in Mauritius and Bourbon, though some African species are said to be found in the Seychelle Islands. Lizards are fairly represented. Mauritius has Cryptoblepharus, an Australian genus of Gymnopthalmidæ; Hemidactylus (a wide-spread genus); Peropus (Oriental and Australian)--both belonging to the Geckotidæ. Bourbon has Heteropus, a Moluccan and Australian genus of Scincidæ; Phelsuma (Geckotidæ), and Chameleo, both found also in Madagascar; as well as Pyxis, one of the tortoises. The Seychelles have Theconyx, a peculiar genus of Geckotidæ, and Chameleo. Gigantic land-tortoises, which formerly inhabited most of the Mascarene Islands, now only survive in Aldabra, a small island north of the Seychelles. These will be noticed again further on. Amphibia seem only to be recorded from the Seychelles, where two genera of tree-frogs of the family Polypedatidæ are found; one (Megalixalus) peculiar, the other (Rappia) found also in Madagascar and Africa.

{282}The few insect groups peculiar to these islands will be noted when we deal with the entomology of Madagascar.

Extinct fauna of the Mascarene Islands and Madagascar.--Before quitting the vertebrate groups, we must notice the remarkable birds which have become extinct in these islands little more than a century ago. The most celebrated is the dodo of the Mauritius (Didus ineptus), but an allied genus, Pezophaps, inhabited Rodriguez, and of both of these almost perfect skeletons have been recovered. Other species probably existed in Bourbon. Remains of two genera of flightless rails have also been found, Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus; and even a heron (Ardea megacephala) which was short-winged and seldom flew; while in Madagascar there lived a gigantic Struthious bird, the Æpyornis. Some further details as to these extinct forms will be found under the respective families, Dididæ, Rallidæ, and Æpyornithidæ, in the fourth part of this work; and their bearing on the past history of the region will be adverted to in the latter part of this chapter. Dr. Günther has recently distinguished five species of fossil tortoises from Mauritius and Rodriguez,--all of them quite different from the living species of Aldabra.

Insects.--The butterflies of Madagascar are not so remarkable as some other orders of insects. There seems to be only one peculiar genus, Heteropsis (Satyridæ). The other genera are African, Leptoneura being confined to Madagascar and South Africa. There are some fine Papilios of uncommon forms. The most interesting lepidopterous insect, however, is the fine diurnal moth (Urania), as all the other species of the genus inhabit tropical America and the West Indian Islands.

The Coleoptera have been better collected, and exhibit some very remarkable affinities. There is but one peculiar genus of Cicindelidæ, Pogonostoma, which is allied to the South American genus, Ctenostoma. Another genus, Peridexia, is common to Madagascar and South America. None of the important African genera are represented, except Eurymorpha; while Meglaomma is common to Madagascar and the Oriental region.

In the Carabidæ we have somewhat similar phenomena on a {283}wider scale. Such large and important African genera as Polyhirma and Anthia, are absent; but there are four genera in common with South Africa, and two with West Africa; while three others are as much Oriental as African. One genus, Distrigus, is wholly Oriental; and another, Homalosoma, Australian. Colpodes, well developed in Bourbon and Mauritius, is Oriental and South American. Of the peculiar genera, Sphærostylis has South American affinities; Microchila, Oriental; the others being related to widely distributed genera.

The Lucanidæ are few in number, and all have African affinities. Madagascar is very rich in Cetoniidæ, and possesses 20 peculiar genera. Bothrorhina, and three other genera belonging to the Ichnostoma group, have wholly African relations. Doryscelis and Chromoptila are no less clearly allied to Oriental genera. A series of eight peculiar genera belong to the Schizorhinidæ, a family the bulk of which are Australian, while there are only a few African forms. The remaining genera appear to have African affinities, but few of the peculiarly African genera are represented. Glyciphana is characteristic of the Oriental region.

The Buprestidæ of Madagascar consist mainly of one large and peculiar genus, Polybothris, allied to the almost cosmopolite Psiloptera. Most of the other genera are both Ethiopian and Oriental; but Polycesta is mainly South American, and the remarkable and isolated genus Sponsor is confined to the Mauritius with a species in Celebes and New Guinea.

The Longicorns are numerous and interesting, there being no less than 24 peculiar genera. Two of the genera of Prionidæ are very isolated, while a third, Closterus, belongs to a group which is Malayan and American.

Of the Cerambycidæ, Philematium ranges to Africa and the West Indies; Leptocera is only found eastward in Ceylon and the New Hebrides; while Euporus is African. Of the peculiar genera, 2 are of African type; 3 belong to the Leptura group, which are mostly Palæarctic and Oriental, with a few in South Africa; while Philocalocera is allied to a South American genus.

Among the Lamiidæ there are several wide-ranging and 7 {284}African genera; but Coptops is Oriental, and the Oriental Praonetha occurs in the Comoro Islands. Among the peculiar genera several have African affinities, but Tropidema belongs to a group which is Oriental and Australian; Oopsis is found also in the Pacific Islands; Mythergates, Sulemus, and Coedomæa, are allied to Malayan and American genera.

General Remarks on the Insect-fauna of Madagascar.--Taking the insects as a whole, we find the remarkable result that their affinities are largely Oriental, Australian, and South American: while the African element is represented chiefly by special South African or West African forms, rather than by such as are widely spread over the Ethiopian region.[11] In some families--as Cetoniidæ and Lamiidæ--the African element appears to preponderate; in others--as Cicindelidæ--the South American affinity seems strongest; in Carabidæ, perhaps the Oriental; while in Buprestidæ and Cerambycidæ the African and foreign elements seem nearly balanced. We must not impute too much importance to these foreign alliances among insects, because we find examples of them in every country on the globe. The reason they are so much more pronounced in Madagascar may be, that during long periods of time this island has served as a refuge for groups that have been dying out on the great continents; and that, owing to the numerous deficiencies of a somewhat similar kind in the series of vertebrata in Australia and South America, the same groups have often been able to maintain themselves in all these countries as well as in Madagascar. It must be remembered too, that these peculiarities in the Malagasy and Mascarene insect-fauna are but exaggerations of a like phenomenon on the mainland. Africa also has numerous affinities with South America, with the Malay countries, and with Australia; but they do not bear anything like so large a proportion to the whole fauna, and do not, therefore, attract so much attention. The special conditions of existence and the long-continued isolation of Madagascar, will account for much of this difference; and it will evidently not be necessary {285}to introduce, as some writers are disposed to do, a special land connection or near approach between Madagascar and all these countries, independently of Africa; except perhaps in the case of the Malay Islands, as will be discussed further on.

Land-shells.--Madagascar and the adjacent islands are all rich in land-shells. The genera of Helicidæ are Vitrina, Helix, Achatina, Columna (peculiar to Madagascar and West Africa), Buliminus, Cionella (chiefly Oriental and South American, but not African), Pupa, Streptaxis, and Succinea. Among the Operculata we have Truncatella (widely scattered, but not African); Cyclotus (South American, Oriental, and South African); Cyclophorus (mostly Oriental, with a few South African); Leptopoma (Oriental); Megalomastoma (Malayan and South American); Lithidion (peculiar to Madagascar, Socotra, and South-West Arabia); Otopoma (with the same range, but extending to West India and New Ireland); Cyclostomus (widely spread but not African); and Omphalotropis (wholly Oriental and Australian). We thus find the same general features reproduced in the land-shells as in the insects, and the same remarks will to a great extent apply to both. The classification of the former is, however, by no means so satisfactory, and we have no extensive and accurate general catalogues of shells, like those of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, which have furnished us with such valuable materials for the comparison of the several faunas.

On the probable Past History of the Ethiopian Region.

Perhaps none of the great zoological regions of the earth present us with problems of greater difficulty or higher interest than the Ethiopian. We find in it the evidence of several distinct and successive faunas, now intermingled; and it is very difficult, with our present imperfect knowledge, to form an adequate conception of how and when the several changes occurred. There are, however, a few points which seem sufficiently clear, and these afford us a secure foundation in our endeavour to comprehend the rest.

Let us then consider what are the main facts we have to account for.--1. In Continental Africa, more especially in the south {286}and west, we find, along with much that is peculiar, a number of genera showing a decided Oriental, and others with an equally strong South American affinity; this latter more particularly showing itself among reptiles and insects. 2. All over Africa, but more especially in the east, we have abundance of large ungulates and felines--antelopes, giraffes, buffaloes, elephants, and rhinoceroses, with lions, leopards, and hyænas, all of types now or recently found in India and Western Asia. 3. But we also have to note the absence of a number of groups which abound in the above-named countries, such as deer, bears, moles, and true pigs; while camels and goats--characteristic of the desert regions just to the north of the Ethiopian--are equally wanting. 4. There is a wonderful unity of type and want of speciality in the vast area of our first sub-region extending from Senegal across to the east coast, and southward to the Zambezi; while West Africa and South Africa each abound in peculiar types. 5. We have the extraordinary fauna of Madagascar to account for, with its evident main derivation from Africa, yet wanting all the larger and higher African forms; its resemblances to Malaya and to South America; and its wonderful assemblage of altogether peculiar types.

Here we find a secure starting-point, for we are sure that Madagascar must have been separated from Africa before the assemblage of large animals enumerated above, had entered it. Now, it is a suggestive fact, that all these belong to types which abounded in Europe and India about the Miocene period. It is also known, from the prevalence of Tertiary deposits over the Sahara and much of Arabia, Persia, and Northern India, that during early Tertiary times a continuous sea from the Bay of Bengal to the British Isles completely cut off all land communication between Central and Southern Africa on the one side, and the great continent of the Eastern hemisphere on the other. When Africa was thus isolated, its fauna probably had a character somewhat analogous to that of South America at the same period. Most of the higher types of mammalian life were absent, while lemurs, Edentates, and Insectivora took their place. At this period Madagascar was no doubt united with Africa, {287}and helped to form a great southern continent which must at one time have extended eastward as far as Southern India and Ceylon; and over the whole of this the lemurine type no doubt prevailed.

During some portion of this period, South Temperate Africa must have had a much greater extension, perhaps indicated by the numerous shoals and rocks to the south and east of the Cape of Good Hope, and by the Crozets and Kerguelen Islands further to the south-east. This would have afforded means for that intercommunion with Western Australia which is so clearly marked in the flora, and to some extent also in the insects of the two countries; and some such extension is absolutely required for the development of that wonderfully rich and peculiar temperate flora and fauna, which, now crowded into a narrow territory, is one of the greatest marvels of the organic world.

During this early period, when the great southern continents--South America, Africa, and Australia--were equally free from the incursions of the destructive felines of the north, the Struthious or ostrich type of birds was probably developed into its existing forms. It is not at all necessary to suppose that these three continents were at any time united, in order to account for the distribution of these great terrestrial birds; as this may have arisen by at least two other easily conceivable modes. The ancestral Struthious type may, like the Marsupial, have once spread over the larger portion of the globe; but as higher forms, especially of Carnivora, became developed, it would be exterminated everywhere but in those regions where it was free from their attacks. In each of these it would develope into special forms adapted to surrounding conditions; and the large size, great strength, and excessive speed of the ostrich, may have been a comparatively late development caused by its exposure to the attacks of enemies which rendered such modification necessary. This seems the most probable explanation of the distribution of Struthious birds, and it is rendered almost certain by the discovery of remains of this order in Europe in Eocene deposits, and by the occurrence of an ostrich among the fossils of the Siwalik hills; but it is just possible, also, that the {288}ancestral type may have been a bird capable of flight, and that it spread from one of the three southern continents to the others at the period of their near approach, and more or less completely lost the power of flight owing to the long continued absence of enemies.

During the period we have been considering, the ancestors of existing apes and monkeys flourished (as we have seen in Chapter VI.) along the whole southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent; and it seems likely that they first entered Africa by means of a land connection indicated by the extensive and lofty plateaus of the Sahara, situated to the south-east of Tunis and reaching to a little north-west of Lake Tchad; and at the same time the elephant and rhinoceros type may have entered. This will account for the curious similarity between the higher faunas of West Africa and the Indo-Malay sub-region, for owing to the present distribution of land and sea and the narrowing of the tropical zone since Miocene times, these are now the only lowland, equatorial, forest-clad countries, which were in connection with the southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent at the time of its greatest luxuriance and development. This western connection did not probably last long, the junction that led to the greatest incursion of new forms, and the complete change in the character of the African fauna, having apparently been effected by way of Syria and the shores of the Red Sea at a somewhat later date. By this route the old South-Palæarctic fauna, indicated by the fossils of Pikermi and the Siwalik Hills, poured into Africa; and finding there a new and favourable country, almost wholly unoccupied by large Mammalia, increased to an enormous extent, developed into new forms, and finally overran the whole continent.

Before this occurred, however, a great change had taken place in the geography of Africa. It had gradually diminished on the south and east; Madagascar had been left isolated; while a number of small islands, banks, and coral reefs in the Indian Ocean alone remained to indicate the position of a once extensive equatorial land. The Mascarene Islands appear to represent the portion which separated earliest, before any carnivora had {289}reached the country; and it was in consequence of this total exemption from danger, that several groups of birds altogether incapable of flight became developed here, culminating in the huge and unwieldy Dodo, and the more active Aphanapteryx. To the same cause may be attributed the development, in these islands, of gigantic land-tortoises, far surpassing any others now living on the globe. They appear to have formerly inhabited Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodriguez, and perhaps all the other Mascarene islands, but having been recklessly destroyed, now only survive in the small uninhabited Aldabra islands north of the Seychelle group. The largest living specimen (5½ feet long) is now in our Zoological Gardens. The only other place where equally large tortoises (of an allied species) are found, is the Galapagos islands, where they were equally free from enemies till civilized man came upon the scene; who, partly by using them for food, partly by the introduction of pigs, which destroy the eggs, has greatly diminished their numbers and size, and will probably soon wholly exterminate them. It is a curious fact, ascertained by Dr. Günther, that the tortoises of the Galapagos are more nearly related to the extinct tortoises of Mauritius than is the living tortoise of Aldabra. This would imply that several distinct groups or sub-genera of Testudo have had a wide range over the globe, and that some of each have survived in very distant localities. This is rendered quite conceivable by the known antiquity of the genus Testudo, which dates back to at least the Eocene formation (in North America) with very little change of form. These sluggish reptiles, so long-lived and so tenacious of life, may have remained unchanged, while every higher animal type around them has become extinct and been replaced by very different forms; as in the case of the living Emys tectum, which is the sole survivor of the strange Siwalik fauna of the Miocene epoch. The ascertained history of the genus and the group, thus affords a satisfactory explanation of the close affinity of the gigantic tortoises of Mauritius and the Galapagos.

The great island of Madagascar seems to have remained longer united with Africa, till some of the smaller and more active {290}carnivora had reached it; and we consequently find there, no wholly terrestrial form of bird but the gigantic and powerful Æpyornis, well able to defend itself against such enemies. As already intimated, we refer the South American element in Madagascar, not to any special connection of the two countries independently of Africa, but to the preservation there of a number of forms, some derived from America through Africa, others of once almost cosmopolitan range, but which, owing to the severer competition, have become extinct on the African continent, while they have continued to exist under modified forms in the two other countries.

The depths of all the great oceans are now known to be so profound, that we cannot conceive the elevation of their beds above the surface without some corresponding depression elsewhere. And if, as is probable, these opposite motions of the earth's crust usually take place in parallel bands, and are to some extent dependent on each other, an elevation of the sea bed could hardly fail to lead to the submergence of large tracts of existing continents; and this is the more likely to occur on account of the great disproportion that we have seen exists between the mean height of the land and the mean depth of the ocean. Keeping this principle in view, we may, with some probability, suggest the successive stages by which the Ethiopian region assumed its present form, and acquired the striking peculiarities that characterise its several sub-regions. During the early period, when the rich and varied temperate flora of the Cape, and its hardly less peculiar forms of insects and of low type mammalia, were in process of development in an extensive south temperate land, we may be pretty sure that the whole of the east and much of the north of Africa was deep sea. At a later period, when this continent sank towards the south and east, the elevation may have occurred which connected Madagascar with Ceylon; and only at a still later epoch, when the Indian Ocean had again been formed, did central, eastern, and northern Africa gradually rise above the ocean, and effect a connection with the great northern continent by way of Abyssinia and Arabia. And if this last change took place with {291}tolerable rapidity, or if the elevatory force acted from the north towards the south, there would be a new and unoccupied territory to be taken possession of by immigrants from the north, together with a few from the south and west. The more highly-organised types from the great northern continent, however, would inevitably prevail; and we should thus have explained the curious uniformity in the fauna of so large an area, together with the absence from it of those peculiar Ethiopian types which so abundantly characterise the other three sub-regions.

We may now perhaps see the reason of the singular absence from tropical Africa of deer and bears; for these are both groups which live in fertile or well-wooded countries, whereas the line of immigration from Europe to Africa was probably always, as now, to a great extent a dry and desert tract, suited to antelopes and large felines, but almost impassable to deer and bears. We find, too, that whereas remains of antelopes and giraffes abound in the Miocene deposits of Greece, there were no deer (which are perhaps a somewhat later development); neither were there any bears, but numerous forms of Felidæ, Viverridæ, Mustelidæ, and ancestral forms of Hyæna, exactly suited to be the progenitors of the most prevalent types of modern African Zoology.

There appears to have been one other change in the geography of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean that requires notice. The rather numerous cases of close similarity in the insect forms of tropical Africa and America, seem to indicate some better means of transmission, at a not very remote epoch, than now exists. The vast depth of the Atlantic, and the absence of any corresponding likeness in the vertebrate fauna, entirely negative the idea of any union between the two countries; but a moderate extension of their shores towards each other is not improbable, and this, with large islands in the place of the Cape Verd group, St. Paul's Rocks, and Fernando Noronha, to afford resting places in the Atlantic, would probably suffice to explain the amount of similarity that actually exists.

Our knowledge of the geology and palæontology of Africa {292}being so scanty, it would be imprudent to attempt any more detailed explanation of the peculiarities of its existing fauna. The sketch now given is, it is believed, founded on a sufficient basis of facts to render it not only a possible but a probable account of what took place; and it is something gained to be able to show, that a large portion of the peculiarities and anomalies of so remarkable a fauna as that of the Ethiopian region, can be accounted for by a series of changes of physical geography during the tertiary epoch, which can hardly be considered extreme, or in any way unlikely to have occurred.

{293}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Ethiopian Region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues, used for the Fourth Part of this work:--

Mammalia.--Blanford's Abyssinia; Peters's Mozambique; Heuglin and Schweinfurth for North East Africa; Grandidier Schlegel, &c., for Madagascar; the local lists given by Mr. Andrew Murray; numerous papers by Fraser, Gray, Kirk, Mivart, Peters, Sclater, and Speke; and a MS. list of Bovidæ from Sir Victor Brooke.

Birds.--Finsch and Hartlaub for East Africa; Heuglin for North-East Africa; Blanford for Abyssinia; Layard for South Africa; Hartlaub for West Africa; Dohrn for Princes Island; Andersson for Damaraland; and papers by Gurney, Hartlaub, Kirk, Newton, Peters, Sharpe, Sclater, Schlegel, and Pollen and a MS. list of Madagascar Birds from Mr. Sharpe.

{294}TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show families peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=East Africa. | Order and Family | 2=West Africa. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=South Africa. | | 4=Madagascar. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | PRIMATES. | | | | | 1. Simiidæ | | -- | | |Oriental 2. Semnopithecidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Palæarctic 6. Lemuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental 8. Chiromyidæ | | | | -- | | | | | | CHEIROPTERA. | | | | | 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All Tropical regions | | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | | | 15. Macroscelididæ | -- | | -- | |South Palæarctic 17. Erinaceidæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic, Oriental 18. Centetidæ | | | | -- |Greater Antilles 19. Potamogalidæ | | -- | | | 20. Chrysochloridæ | -- | | -- | | 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and | | | | | Neotropical | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 24. Cryptoproctidæ | | | | -- | 25. Viverridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Palæarctic 26. Protelidæ | | | -- | | 27. Hyænidæ | -- | -- | -- | |S. Palæarctic, India 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Almost cosmopolite 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 33. Otariidæ | | | -- | |All temperate regions | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | | 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic | | | | | SIRENIA. | | | | | 42. Manatidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Oriental, | | | | | Australian | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 43. Equidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic 45. Rhinocerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental 46. Hippopotamidæ | -- | -- | -- | | 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite; excl. Australia 49. Tragulidæ | | -- | | |Oriental 51. Camelopardidæ | -- | | -- | | 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotrop. and | | | | | Australian | | | | | PROBOSCIDEA. | | | | | 53. Elephantidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental | | | | | HYRACOIDEA. | | | | | 54. Hyracidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Syria | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite; excl. Oceania 56. Spalacidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic, Oriental 57. Dipodidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic, Nearctic 58. Myoxidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 64. Octodontidæ | -- | | | |N. Africa, Neotropical 65. Echimyidæ | -- | | -- | |Neotropical 67. Hystricidæ | -- | -- | -- | |S. Palæarctic, Oriental 70. Leporidæ | -- | | -- | |All regions but Australian | | | | | EDENTATA. | | | | | 72. Manididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental 74. Orycteropodidæ | -- | | -- | | | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | | | | | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 5. Cinclidæ? | | | | -- |Widely scattered 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Almost Cosmopolite 9. Sittidæ | | | | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | | | Australian 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and | | | | | North America 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, except Australian | | | | | region 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and North | | | | | America 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 47. Pittidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Australian 48. Paictidæ | | | | -- | | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite, excl. Australian | | | | | region 52. Yungidæ | -- | | -- | |Palæarctic 53. Indicatoridæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental 54. Megalæmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical 56. Musophagidæ | -- | -- | -- | | 57. Coliidæ | -- | -- | -- | | 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 59. Leptosomidæ | | | | -- | 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian 66. Trogonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental and to N. Guinea 69. Upupidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental 70. Irrisoridæ | -- | -- | -- | | 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite | | | | | PSITTACI. | | | | | 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Oriental 81. Psittacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 85. Dididæ | | | | -- |(Extinct) | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and | | | | | N. America 88. Phasianidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Old World and N. America 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere. | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All the continents but | | | | | Australia 95. Serpentariidæ | -- | -- | -- | | 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Eastern Hemisphere 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotropical 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 117. Phoenicopteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Neotropical | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 122. Spheniscidæ | | | -- | |South temperate regions 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 126. Struthionidæ | -- | | -- | |Temperate S. America 131. Æpyornithidæ | | | | -- |(Extinct) | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Warm parts of all regions 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, and all other regions 9. Psammophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and S. Palæarctic 10. Rachiodontidæ | | -- | -- | | 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 12. Dryiophidæ | | -- | | -- |Oriental, Neotropical 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions 18. Erycidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, S. Palæarctic 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, S. U. States | | | | | and Japan 21. Dendraspididæ | -- | -- | | | 22. Atractaspididæ | | -- | -- | | 23. Hydrophidæ | | | | -- |Oriental, Australian, Panama 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Palæarctic | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 28. Amphisbænidæ | -- | -- | | |S. Europe, Neotropical 29. Lepidosternidæ | | -- | -- | |N. America 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Warm parts of E. Hemisphere 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All continents but America 34. Zonuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All America, N. India, | | | | | S. Europe 40. Chamæsauridæ | | | -- | | 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 47. Sepidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |South 48. Acontiadæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ceylon and Moluccas 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian, | | | | | S. Palæarctic 52. Chamæleonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Palæarctic | | | | | CROCODILIA. | | | | | 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Neotropical | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia 58. Chelydidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australia, S. America 59. Trionychidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Japan, E. United | | | | | States 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | PSEUDOPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Cæciliadæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 7. Phryniscidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Australia, Java 9. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 11. Engystomidæ | | -- | -- | |All regions but Palæarctic 14. Alytidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Oriental 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the regions 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 19. Discoglossidæ | | -- | -- | |All regions but Nearctic 21. Dactylethridæ | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 3. Percidæ | -- | | | |All regions but Australian 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 35. Labyrinthici | | | -- | -- |Oriental, Moluccas 38. Mugillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Neotropical 52. Chromidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Neotropical | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions 60. Characinidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical 68. Mormyridæ | -- | -- | | | 69. Gymnarchidæ | -- | -- | | | 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental, American 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia and | | | | | S. America 78. Osteoglossidæ | -- | -- | | |All tropical regions 82. Notopteridæ | | -- | | |Oriental | | | | | GANOIDEI. | | | | | 92. Sirenoidei | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Australian 94. Polypteridæ | -- | -- | | | | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm countries and Canada 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Elymniidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Moluccas 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | | -- | | -- |Absent from Australia only 10. Nemeobiidæ | | -- | | -- |Absent from Australia and | | | | | Nearctic region 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Oriental 20. Uraniidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Australia 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

{300}TABLE II.

LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | PRIMATES. | | | SIMIIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Troglodytes | 2 |W. Africa to Western | | | Nile Sources | | | | SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | 2. Colobus | 11 |Abyssinia to West | | | Africa | | | | CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | 3. Myiopithecus | 1 |West Africa | 4. Cercopithecus| 24 |Tropical Africa | 5. Cercocebus | 5 |West Africa | 6. Theropithecus| 2 |North-east Africa, |Palestine | | Arabia | 7. Cynocephalus | 10 |Nubia to Cape, | | | W. Africa, Arabia | | | | (Sub-Order) | | | LEMUROIDEA. | | | LEMURIDÆ. | | | | | | 8. Indris | 6 |Madagascar | 9. Lemur | 15 |Madagascar | 10. Hapalemur | 2 |Madagascar | 11. Microcebus | 4 |Madagascar | 12. Chirogaleus | 5 |Madagascar | 13. Lepilemur | 2 |Madagascar | 14. Perodicticus | 1 |Sierra Leone | 15. Arctocebus | 1 |Old Calabar | 16. Galago | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | CHIROMYIDÆ. | | | | | | 17. Chiromys | 1 |Madagascar | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PTEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 18. Pteropus | 7 |Africa and Madagascar |Tropics of Eastern | | | Hemisphere 19. Xantharpya | 1 |All Africa |Oriental, Austro- | | | Malayan 20. Cynopterus | 1 |Tropical Africa |Oriental 21. Epomophorus | 6 |Tropical Africa and | | | Abyssinia | 22. Hypsignathus | 1 |W. Africa | | | | RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | | | | 23. Rhinolophus | 6 |Africa and Madagascar |Warmer parts of | | | Eastern Hemisphere 24. Macronycterys| 1 |W. Africa | 25. Phyllorhina | 4 |Tropical Africa |Indo-Malaya, Austro- | | | Malaya 26. Asellia | 1 |Nubia |Indo-Malaya, Austro- | | | Malaya 27. Megaderma | 1 |Senegal, Upper Nile |Oriental, Moluccas 28. Nycteris | 3 |All Africa |Java | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 29. Vespertilio | 14 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite 30. Kerivoula | 1 |S. Africa |Oriental 31. Miniopteris | 1 |S. Africa |Indo-Malaya 32. Nycticejus | 7 |Tropical Africa |India 33. Taphozous | 2 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Austro- | | | Malayan, Neotropical | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 34. Nyctinomus | 1 |Madagascar |Oriental, American, | | | S. Palæarctic 35. Molossus | 3 |Africa, Bourbon |Neotropical, | | | S. Palæarctic | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | MACROSCELIDIDÆ. | | | | | | 36. Macroscelides| 2 |South and East Africa |N. Africa 37. Petrodromus | 1 |Mozambique | 38. Rhynchocyon | 1 |Mozambique | | | | ERINACEIDÆ. | | | | | | 39. Erinaceus | 2 |Cen. and South Africa |Palæarctic, N. India | | | CENTETIDÆ. | | | | | | 40. Centetes | 2 |Madagascar and | | | Mauritius | 41. Hemicentetes | 2 |Madagascar | 42. Ericulus | 2 |Madagascar | 43. Oryzorictes | 1 |Madagascar | 44. Echinops | 3 |Madagascar | | | | POTAMOGALIDÆ. | | | | | | 45. Potamogale | 1 |Old Calabar | | | | CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ. | | | | | | 46. Chrysochloris| 3 |Cape to Mozambique | | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | | | | 47. Sorex | 15 |All Africa and |Palæarc., Nearc., Ori | | Madagascar | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | FELIDÆ. | | | | | | 48. Felis | 8 |All Africa |All reg. but | | | Australian 49. Lynx[?] | 1 |N. and S. Africa |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic 50. Cynælurus | 1 |Cape of Good Hope | | | | CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. | | | | | | 51. Cryptoprocta | 1 |Madagascar | | | | VIVERRIDÆ. | | | | | | 52. Viverra | 1 |Tropical Africa |Oriental 53. Genetta | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic 54. Fossa | 2 |Madagascar | 55. Poiana | 1 |W. Africa | 56. Galidia | 3 |Madagascar | 57. Nandinia | 1 |W. Africa | 58. Galidictis | 2 |Madagascar | 59. Herpestes | 13 |All Africa |S. Europe, Oriental 60. Athylax | 3 |S. and E. Africa(?) | | | Madagascar | 61. Calogale | 9 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental 62. Galerella | 1 |E. Africa | 63. Ariela | 1 |S. Africa | 64. Ichneumia | 4 |E. Africa, Senegal, | | | S. Africa | 65. Bdeogale | 3 |Tropical Africa | 66. Helogale | 2 |E. and S. Africa | 67. Cynictis | 3 |S. Africa | 68. Rhinogale | 1 |E. Africa | 69. Mungos | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa | 70. Crossarchus | 1 |Tropical Africa | 71. Eupleres | 1 |Madagascar | 72. Suricata | 1 |S. Africa | | | | PROTELIDÆ. | | | | | | 73. Proteles | 1 |S. Africa | | | | HYÆNIDÆ. | | | | | | 74. Hyæna | 3 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, India | | | CANIDÆ. | | | | | | 75. Lycaon | 1 |S., Central, and | | | E. Africa | 76. Canis | 5 |All Africa |Almost Cosmopolitan 77. Megalotis | 1 |S. Africa | | | | MUSTELIDÆ. | | | | | | 78. Mustela | 1 |Angola |Palæarctic, Nearctic 79. Gymnopus[?] | 1 |S. Africa |Oriental 80. Aonyx | 1 |S. and W. Africa |Oriental 81. Hydrogale | 1 |S. Africa | 82. Mellivora | 2 |South and Tropical |India | | Africa | 83. Ictonyx | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | OTARIIDÆ. | | | | | | 84. Arctocephalus | 1 |Cape of Good Hope |South Temperate Zone | | | SIRENIA. | | | MANATIDÆ. | | | | | | 85. Manatus | 1 |W. Africa |Tropical America 86. Halicore | 1 |E. Africa |Oriental and | | | Australian | | | UNGULATA. | | | EQUIDÆ. | | | | | | 87. Equus | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa |Palæarctic | | | RHINOCEROTIDÆ. | | | | | | 88. Rhinoceros | 4 |All Tropical and |Oriental | | S. Africa | | | | HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ. | | | | | | 89. Hippopotamus | 2 |Great Rivers of Africa | | | | SUIDÆ. | | | | | | 90. Potamochoerus| 3 |Tropical Africa and | | | Madg. | 91. Phacochoerus | 2 |Abyssinia to Caffraria | | | | TRAGULIDÆ. | | | | | | 92. Hyomoschus | 1 |W. Africa | | | | CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. | | | | | | 93.Camelopardalis| 1 |All open country | | | | BOVIDÆ. | | | | | | 94. Bubalus | 3 |Trop. and S. Africa |India 95. Oreas | 2 |Africa S. of Sahara | 96. Tragelaphus | 8 |Africa S. of Sahara | 97. Oryx | 3 |Arabian and African |S. Palæarctic | | deserts | 98. Gazella | 12 |Africa N. of Equator |Palæarctic Deserts | | and S. Africa | 99. Æpyceros | 1 |S. E. Africa | 100. Cervicapra | 4 |All Tropical Africa | 101. Kobus | 6 |Pastures of all Africa | 102. Pelea | 1 |South Africa | 103. Nanotragus | 9 |Africa S. of Sahara | 104. Neotragus | 1 |Abyssinia and | | | N. E. Africa | 105. Cephalophus | 22 |All tropical Africa | 106. Hippotragus | 3 |Gambia, Central Africa | | | to Cape | 107. Alcephalus | 9 |All Africa | 108. Catoblepas | 2 |Africa S. of Equator | (Capra | 1 |Abyssinia, high) |Palæarctic genus | | | PROBOSCIDEA. | | | | | | ELEPHANTIDÆ. | | | | | | 109. Elephas | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental | | | HYRACOIDEA. | | | HYRACIDÆ. | | | | | | 110. Hyrax | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa |Syria | | | RODENTIA. | | | MURIDÆ. | | | | | | 111. Mus | 26 |All Africa |E. Hemis. excl. | | | Oceania 112. Lasiomys | 1 |W. Africa | 113. Acanthomys | 4 |Tropical Africa |India 114. Cricetomys | 1 |Tropical Africa | 115. Saccostomus | 2 |Mozambique | 116. Dendromys | 2 |S. Africa | 117. Nesomys | 1 |Madagascar | 118. Steatomys | 2 |East and S. Africa | 119. Pelomys | 1 |Mozambique | 120. Otomys | 6 |S. and E. Africa | 121. Meriones | 14 |Africa |Palæarctic, India 122. Malacothrix | 2 |S. Africa | 123. Mystromys | 1 |S. Africa | 124.Brachytarsomys| 1 |Madagascar | 125. Hypogeomys | 1 |Madagascar | 126. Lophiomys | 1 |S. Arabia and | | | N. E. Africa | | | | SPALACIDÆ. | | | | | | 127. Rhizomys | 4 |Abyssinia |Oriental to Malacca 128. Bathyerges | 1 |S. Africa | 129. Georychus | 6 |E. Central, and | | | S. Africa | 130. Heliophobius | 1 |Mozambique | | | | DIPODIDÆ. | | | | | | 131. Dipus | 7 |N. and Central Africa |Central Palæarctic 132. Pedetes | 1 |S. Af. to Mozambique | | | and Angola | | | | MYOXIDÆ. | | | | | | 133. Myoxus | 1 |Africa to Cape |Palæarctic | | | SCIURIDÆ. | | | | | | 134. Sciurus | 18 |All woody districts of |All regions but | | Africa | Australia 135. Anomalurus | 5 |W. Africa and Fernando | | | Po. | | | | OCTODONTIDÆ. | | | | | | 136. Pectinator | 1 |Abyssinia | | | | ECHIMYIDÆ. | | | | | | 137. Petromys | 1 |S. Africa | 138. Aulacodes | 1 |W., E., and S. Africa | | | | HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | | | | 139. Hystrix | 1 |Africa to Cape |S. Palæarctic Oriental 140. Atherura | 1 |W. Africa |Palæarctic | | | LEPORIDÆ. | | | | | | 141. Lepus | 5 |East and South Africa |All regions but | | | Australian | | | EDENTATA. | | | MANIDIDÆ. | | | | | | 142. Manis | 4 |Sennaar to W. Africa |Oriental | | and Cape | | | | ORYCTEROPODIDÆ. | | | | | | 143. Orycteropus | 2 |N. E. Africa to Nile | | | Sources, and S. Africa|

BIRDS.

PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Turdus | 13 |The whole reg. (excl. |Almost Cosmopolite | | Madagas.) | 2. Monticola | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic and | | | Oriental 3. Chætops | 3 |S. Africa | 4. Bessonornis | 15 |The whole region |Palestine | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | 5. { Drymoeca | 70 |The whole region |Palestine 6. { Cisticola | 13 |The whole region |Palæarc., Orien., { | | | Austral. 7. { Sphenoeacus | 1 |S. Africa |Australian 8. { Camaroptera| 5 |Africa | | | | 9. { Acrocephalus | 8 |The whole region |Palæarc., Orien., { | | | Austral. 10. { Bradyptetus | 8 |Abyssinia and S. Africa|S. Europe, Palestine 11. { Catriscus | 3 |All Africa | 12. { Bernieria | 1 |Madagascar | 13. { Ellisia | 1 |Madagascar | 14. { Mystacornis| 1 |Madagascar | | | | 15. { Phylloscopus | 1 |S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 16. { Eremomela | 16 |All Africa | 17. { Eroessa | 1 |Madagascar | 18. { Hypolais | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental | | | 19. { Aedon | 8 |E. and S. Africa |Palæarctic 20. { Sylvia | 3 |N. E. Africa, Gambia, |Palæarctic, Oriental { | | Cape Verd Ids. | 21. { Curruca | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic | | | 22. { Ruticilla | 2 |Abyssinia and Senegal |Palæarctic, Oriental 23. { Cyanecula | 2 |N. E. Africa |Palæarctic | | | 24. { Copsychus | 2 |Madagascar and |Oriental { | | Seychelle Ids. | 25. { Thamnobia | 7 |All Africa |Oriental 26. {Cercotrichas| 2 |W. and N. E. Africa | 27. { Poeoptera | 1 |W. Africa | 28. { Gervasia | 2 |Madagascar and | { | | Seychelle Ids. | 29. { Dromolæa | 13 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, India 30. { Saxicola | 14 |Central, E. and |Palæarctic, India { | | S. Africa | 31. { Cercomela | 3 |N. E. Africa |Palestine, N. W. India 32. { Pratincola | 7 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarctic, Oriental | | | TIMALIIDÆ. | | | | | | 33. Chatarrhæa | 1 |Abyssinia |Oriental, Palestine 34. Crateropus | 17 |All Africa |N. Africa, Persia 35. Hypergerus | 1 |W. Africa | 36. Cichladusa | 3 |W. and E. Africa | 37. Alethe | 4 |W. Africa | 38. Oxylabes | 2 |Madagascar | | | | CINCLIDÆ.[?] | | | | | | 39. Mesites | 1 |Madagascar | | | | TROGLODYTIDÆ.[?] | | | | | | 40. Sylvietta | 2 |Central, E. and | | | S. Africa | | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 41. Hypherpes | 1 |Madagascar | | | | PARIDÆ. | | | | | | 42. Parus | 5 |All Africa |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Nearc. 43. Parisoma | 5 |All Africa | 44. Ægithalus | 4 |W., Central, and |Palæarctic | | S. Africa | 45. Parinia | 1 |W. Africa, Prince's | | | Island | | | | PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | | | | 46. Pycnonotus | 8 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, | | | Oriental 47.Phyllastrephus| 4 |W. and S. Africa | 48. Hypsipetes | 4 |Madagascar and |Oriental | | Mascarene Ids. | 49. Tylas | 1 |Madagascar | 50. Criniger | 14 |W. and S. Africa |Oriental 51. Ixonotus | 8 |W. Africa | 52. Andropadus | 9 |Africa and Madagascar | 53. Lioptilus | 1 |S. Africa | | | | ORIOLIDÆ. | | | | | | 54. Oriolus | 10 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 55. Artamia[?] | 3 |Madagascar | 56.Cyanolanius[?]| 1 |Madagascar | | | | CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | | | | 57. Lanicterus | 5 |All Africa | 58. Oxynotus | 2 |Mauritius and Bourbon | 59. Campephaga | 5 |The whole region |Celebes to New | | | Caledonia | | | DICRURIDÆ. | | | | | | 60. Dicrurus | 11 |The whole region |Oriental, Australian | | | MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | | | | 61. Butalis | 3 |All Africa |Palæarctic, | | | N. Oriental 62. Muscicapa | 10 |All tropical Africa |Palæarctic 63. Alseonax | 4 |S. Africa |Oriental 64. Newtonia | 1 |Madagascar | 65. Hyliota | 2 |W. Africa | 66. Erythrocercus| 2 |Tropical Africa | 67. Artomyias | 2 |W. Africa | 68. Pseudobias | 1 |Madagascar | 69. Smithorius | 2 |W. and S. Africa | 70. Megabias | 1 |W. Africa | 71. Cassinia | 2 |W. Africa | 72. Bias | 1 |Tropical Africa | 73. Elminia | 2 |Tropical Africa | 74. Platystira | 12 |All Africa | 75. Tchitrea | 18 |The whole region |Oriental 76. Pogonocichla | 1 |S. Africa | 77. Bradyornis | 7 |All Africa | | | | LANIIDÆ. | | | | | | 78. Parmoptila[?]| 1 |W. Africa. | 79. Calicalicus | 1 |Madagascar | 80. Lanius | 15 |All Africa |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Nearc. 81. Hypocolius | 1 |Abyssinia | 82. Corvinella | 1 |S. and W. Africa | 83. Urolestes | 1 |S. Africa | 84. Fraseria | 2 |W. Africa | 85. Hypodes | 1 |W. Africa | 86. _Cuphoterus _ | 1 |Prince's Island | 87. Nilaus | 1 |All Africa | 88. Prionops | 9 |All Africa | 89. Eurocephalus | 2 |N. E. and S. Africa | 90. Chaunonotus | 1 |W. Africa | 91. Vanga | 4 |Madagascar | 92. Laniarius | 38 |All Africa, | | | Madagascar[?] | 93. Meristes | 2 |W. and S. E. Africa | 94. Nicator | 1 |E. Africa | 95. Telephonus | 10 |All Africa |N. Africa | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | 96. Ptilostomus | 2 |W. and E. Africa | 97. Corvus | 7 |All Africa and |Cosmop., excl. | | Madagascar | S. Amer. 98. Corvultur | 2 |N. E. to S. Africa | 99. Picathartes | |W. Africa | (Fregilus | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus | | | NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | | | | 100. Nectarinia | 55 |The whole region | 101. Promerops | 1 |S. Africa | 102.Cinnyricinclus| 4 |W. Africa | 103. Neodrepanis | 1 |Madagascar | | | | DICÆIDÆ. | | | | | | 104. Zosterops | 23 |The whole region |Oriental and | | | Australian 105. Pholidornis | 1 |W. Africa | | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 106. Hirundo | 17 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 107. Psalidoprogne| 10 |The whole region | 108. Phedina | 2 |Madagascar and | | | Mauritius | 109. Petrochelidon | 1 |S. Africa |Neotropical 110. Chelidon | 1 |Bogos-land |Palæarctic, Oriental 111. Cotyle | 6 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 112. Waldenia | 1 |W. Africa | | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 113. Dryospiza | 8 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic 114. Chlorospiza | 4 |Abyssinia to Cape |Palæarctic 115. Passer | 18 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 116. Crithagra | 12 |All Africa |N. Africa, Syria 117. Ligurnus | 2 |W. Africa | (Erythrospiza | 1 |Nubia, Arabia) |S. Palæarctic genus 118. Pinicola[?] | 1 |Cameroons, W. Africa |N. Temperate genus 119. Fringillaria | 9 |All Africa |South Palæarctic | | | PLOCEIDÆ. | | | | | | 120. Textor | 5 |All Africa | 121. Hyphantornis | 32 |Tropical and S. Africa | 122. Symplectes | 8 |Tropical and S. Africa | 123. Malimbus | 9 |W. and E. Africa | 124. Ploceus | 2 |W. and E. Africa |Oriental 125. Nelicurvius | 1 |Madagascar | 126. Foudia | 11 |Tropical Africa, | | | Madagascar, &c. | 127. Sporopipes | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | 128. Pyromelana | 12 |Tropical and S. Africa | 129. Philetærus | 1 |S. Africa | 130. Nigrita | 7 |W. and N. E. Africa | 131. Plocepasser | 4 |E. and S. Africa | 132. Vidua | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | 133. Colliuspasser| 9 |Tropical and S. Africa | 134. Chera | 1 |S. Africa | 135. Spermospiza | 2 |W. Africa | 136. Pyrenestes | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | 137. Estrilda | 16 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental 138. Pytelia | 20 |Tropical and S. Africa | 139. Hypargos | 2 |E. Africa, Madagascar | 140. Amadina | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | 141. Spermestes | 7 |The whole region | 142. Amauresthes | 1 |E. and W. Africa | 143. Hypochera | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | STURNIDÆ. | | | | | | 144. Dilophus | 1 |S. Africa, Loanda, | | | Sennaar | 145. Buphaga | 2 |Trop. and S. Africa | | | ([?] a family) | 146. Euryceros | 1 |Madagascar ([?] a | | | family) | 147. Juida | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | 148. Lamprocolius | 16 |Tropical and S. Africa | 149.Cinnyricinclus| 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | 150. Onychognathus| 2 |W. Africa | 151. Spreo | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | 152. Amydrus | 5 |N. E. Africa |Palestine 153. Hartlaubius | 1 |Madagascar | 154. Falculia | 1 |Madagascar | 155. Fregilupus | 1 |Bourbon | | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | | | | 156. Alauda | 3 |Abyssinia and |Palæarctic, Indian | | S. W. Africa | 157. Spizocorys | 1 |South Africa | 158. Galerida | 4 |North of tropical |Palæarctic, Indian | | Africa | 159. Calendula | 2 |Abyssinia, S. Africa | (Melanocorypha | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus 160. Certhilauda | 3 |South Africa |S. Europe 161. Alaemon | 3 |South Africa |S. Palæarctic 162. Heterocorys | 1 |South Africa | 163. Mirafra | 10 |South Africa, |Oriental, Australian | | Madagascar | 164. Ammomanes | 4 |African deserts |S. Palæarctic, Indian 165. Megalophonus | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | 166. Tephrocorys | 2 |S. Africa | 167. Pyrrhulauda | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental, Canary | | | Islands | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 168. Budytes | 8 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Oriental, | | |Australian | | | 169. Anthus | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa |All regions, exc. | | | Australia 170. Macronyx | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | PITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 171. Pitta | 1 |W. Africa |Oriental, Australian | | | PAICTIDÆ. | | | | | | 172. Philepitta | 2 |Madagascar | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | | PICIDÆ. | | | | | | 173. Verreauxia | 1 |W. Africa | 174. Dendropicus | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | 175. Campethera | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | 176. Geocolaptes | 1 |South Africa | | | | YUNGIDÆ. | | | | | | 177. Yunx | 1 |N. E. Africa, S. Africa|Palæarctic | | | INDICATORIDÆ. | | | | | | 178. Indicator | 8 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental | | | MEGALÆMIDÆ. | | | | | | 179.Pogonorhynchus| 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | 180. Buccanodon | 1 |West Africa | 181. Stactolæma | 1 |West Africa | 182. Barbatula | 9 |West and South Africa | 183. Xylobucco | 3 |West and South Africa | 184. Gymnobucco | 3 |West Africa | 185. Trachyphonus | 6 |Tropical and South | | | Africa | | | | MUSOPHAGIDÆ. | | | | | | 186. Musophaga | 2 |West Africa | 187. Turacus | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa | 188. Schizorhis | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | COLIIDÆ. | | | | | | 189. Colius | 7 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | 190. Ceuthmochares| 2 |Africa and Madagascar | 191. Coua | 9 |Madagascar | 192.Cochlothraustes 1 |Madagascar | 193. Centropus | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Australian 194. Cuculus | 10 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Austral. 195. Chrysococcyx | 7 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental, Australian 196. Coccystes | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic, | | | Oriental | | | LEPTOSOMIDÆ. | | | | | | 197. Leptosomus | 1 |Madagascar | | | | CORACIIDÆ. | | | | | | 198. Coracias | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, | | | Oriental 199. Eurystomus | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Australian 200. Atelornis | 2 |Madagascar | 201.Brachypteracias 1 |Madagascar | 202. Geobiastes | 1 |Madagascar | | | | MEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 203. Merops | 11 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæar., Orien., | | | Austral. 204. Melittophagus| 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | TROGONIDÆ. | | | | | | 205. Apaloderma | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 206. Alcedo | 2 |W. Africa, Abyssinia, |Palæar., Orien., | | Natal | Austral. 207. Corythornis | 3 |Africa and Madagascar | 208. Ceryle | 1 |W. Africa, Abyssinia, |American, Palæarctic | | Natal | 209. Myioceyx | 2 |West Africa | 210. Ispidina | 4 |Africa and Madagascar | 211. Halcyon | 10 |Africa, Prince's Is., |S. Palæar., Orien., | | St. Thomé | Austral. | | | BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | | | | 212. Berenicornis | 1 |West Africa |Malaya 213. Tockus | 12 |Tropical and S. Africa | 214. Bycanistes | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | 215. Bucoreus | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | UPUPIDÆ. | | | | | | 216. Upupa | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, | | | Oriental | | | IRRISORIDÆ. | | | | | | 217. Irrisor | 12 |Africa and Madagascar | | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | 218. Caprimulgus | 18 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarc., Orien., | | | Austral. 219. Scortornis | 3 |Tropical Africa | 220. Macrodipteryx| 2 |W. Africa to Abyssinia | 221. Cosmetornis | 1 |Tropical Africa to the | | | Zambesi | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | 222. Cypselus | 6 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Oriental 223. Collocalia | 1 |Mascarene Ids., |Oriental, Australian | | Madagascar | 224. Chætura | 4 |Tropical Africa and |Cosmop., exc. | | Madagascar | W. Palæarctic | | | PSITTACI. | | | PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | | | | 225. Palæornis | 3 |W. Africa to Abys. & |Oriental | | Mauritius | | | | PSITTACIDÆ. | | | | | | 226. Coracopsis | 5 |Madagascar and | | | Seychelle Ids. | 227. Psittacus | 2 |W. Africa | 228. Poeocephalus | 9 |Tropical and S. Africa | 229. Agapornis | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa | 230. Poliopsitta | 2 |Trop. Africa and | | | Madagascar | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | 231. Treron | 6 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental 232. Alectrænas | 5 |Madagascar and Masc. | | | Ids. (extct. in | | | Mauritius and | | | Rodriguez) | 233. Columba | 12 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarctic, Oriental 234. Oena | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | 235. Turtur | 10 |Africa, Madagascar, |Palæarctic, Oriental | | Comoro and Seychelle | | | Islands | 236. Aplopelia | 4 |Abyssinia, S. Africa | | | and West African | | | Islands | 237. Chalcopelia | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | DIDIDÆ. (extinct) | | | | | | 238. Didus | 5 |Mascarene Islands | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 239. Pterocles | 9 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, Indian | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | 240. Ptilopachus | 1 |West Africa | 241. Francolinus | 30 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, Indian 242. Peliperdix | 1 |West Africa | 243. Margaroperdix| 1 |Madagascar | 244. Coturnix | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa |Palæar., Orient., | | | Austral. (Caccabis | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | | | | 245. Phasidus | 1 |West Africa | 246. Agelastes | 1 |West Africa | 247. Acryllium | 1 |West Africa | 248. Numida | 9 |Africa to Natal and | | | Madagascar | | | | TURNICIDÆ. | | | | | | 249. Turnix | 4 |S. Africa and |Palæarc., Orient., | | Madagascar | Austrl. 250. Ortyxelos | 1 |Africa | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | VULTURIDÆ. | | | | | | 251. Gyps | 2 |Africa, except W. |Palæarctic, Oriental | | sub-region | 252. Pseudogyps | 1 |N. E. Africa to Senegal|Oriental 253. Otogyps | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 254. Lophogyps | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa and| | | Senegal | 255. Neophron | 2 |Africa, excl. west |S. Palæarctic, | | coast | Oriental | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | 256. Polyboroides | 2 |Africa and Madagascar | 257. Circus | 4 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite 258. Urotriorchis | 1 |W. Africa | 259. Melierax | 5 |Africa, excl. west | | | coast | 260. Astur | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite 261. Nisoides | 1 |Madagascar | 262. Eutriorchis | 1 |Madagascar | 263. Accipiter | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite 264. Buteo | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmop., excl. | | | Austral. 265. Gypaëtus | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic 266. Aquila | 5 |All Africa |Nearc., Palæarc., | | | Indian 267. Nisaëtus | 1 |W. Africa |S. Palæarctic, | | | Oriental, Australia 268. Spizaëtus | 3 |All Africa |Neotropical, Oriental | | | to N. Guinea 269. Lophoætus | 1 |All Africa | 270. Asturinula | 1 |Tropical Africa | 271. Dryotriorchis| 1 |W. Africa | 272. Circaëtus | 5 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental 273. Butastur | 1 |N. E. Africa |Oriental to New Guinea 274. Helotarsus | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | 275. Haliæetus | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite, excl. | | | Neotropical region 276. Gypohierax | 1 |West and East Africa | 277. Elanoides | 1 |West and N. E. Africa | 278. Milvus | 1 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere 279. Elanus | 1 |Africa |India to Australia 280. Machærhamphus | 1 |S. W. Africa and |Malacca | | Madagascar | 281. Pernis | 1 |S. Africa and |Palæarctic, Oriental | | Madagascar | 282. Baza | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |India to N. Australia 283. Poliohierax | 1 |East Africa |Burmah 284. Falco | 4 |All Africa |Almost Cosmopolite 285. Cerchneis | 8 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite | | | SERPENTARIIDÆ. | | | | | | 286. Serpentarius | 1 |The greater part of | | | Africa | | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 287. Pandion | 1 |All Africa |Cosmopolite | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | 288. Athene | 5 |Africa and Madagascar, |Palæarctic, Oriental, | | Rodriquez (extinct) | Australian 289. Bubo | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite 290. Scotopelia | 2 |West and S. Africa to | | | Zambesi | 291. Scops | 3 |W. and S. Africa, |Almost Cosmopolite | | Madagascar, Comoro | | | Islands | 292. Syrnium | 2 |Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | American 293. Asio | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |Cosmopolite 294. Strix | 4 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite

Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading or Swimming Birds.

GRALLÆ. | | | RALLIDÆ. | | | | | | Himantornis | 1 |West Africa | Podica | 3 |Africa |Burmah | | | GLAREOLIDÆ. | | | | | | Cursorius | 8 |All Africa |S. Europe, India | | | OTIDIDÆ. | | | | | | Eupodotis | 16 |All Africa |India, Australia | | | GRUIDÆ. | | | | | | Balearica | 2 |All Africa | | | | ARDEIDÆ. | | | | | | Balæniceps | 1 |Upper Nile | | | | PLATALEIDÆ. | | | | | | Scopus | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | | | | ANSERES. | | | ANATIDÆ. | | | | | | Thalassornis| 1 |South Africa | | | | STRUTHIONES. | | | STRUTHIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 295. Struthio | 2 |All Africa |Syria | | | ÆPYORNITHIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | | | | 296. Æpyornis | 3[?]|Madagascar |

{314}CHAPTER XII.

THE ORIENTAL REGION.

This region is of comparatively small extent, but it has a very diversified surface, and is proportionately very rich. The deserts on the north-west of India are the debatable land that separates it from the Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions. The great triangular plateau which forms the peninsula of India is the poorest portion of the region, owing in part to its arid climate and in part to its isolated position; for there can be little doubt that in the later Tertiary period it was an island, separated by an arm of the sea (now forming the valleys of the Ganges and Indus) from the luxuriant Himalayan and Burmese countries. Its southern extremity, with Ceylon, has a moister climate and more luxuriant vegetation, and exhibits indications of a former extension southwards, with a richer and more peculiar fauna, partly Malayan and partly Mascarene in its character. The whole southern slopes of the Himalayas, with Burmah, Siam and Western China, as well as the Malay peninsula and the Indo-Malay islands, are almost everywhere covered with tropical forests of the most luxuriant character, which abound in varied and peculiar forms of vegetable and animal life. The flora and fauna of this extensive district are essentially of one type throughout; yet it may be usefully divided into the Indo-Chinese and the Malayan sub-regions, as each possesses a number of peculiar or characteristic animals. The former sub-region, besides having many tropical and sub-tropical types of its own, also possesses a large number of peculiarly modified temperate forms on the mountain ranges of its northern boundary, which are wholly wanting in the Malayan sub-region. The Philippine islands are best classed with the Indo-Malay group, although they are strikingly deficient in many Malayan types, and exhibit an approach to the Celebesian division of the Austro-Malay sub-region.

{315}Zoological Characteristics of the Oriental Region.--The Oriental Region possesses examples of 35 families of Mammalia, 71 of Birds, 35 of Reptiles, 9 of Amphibia, and 13 of Fresh-water Fishes. Of these 163 families, 12 are peculiar to the region; namely, Tarsiidæ, Galeopithecidæ, and Tupaiidæ among Mammalia, while Æluridæ, though confined to the higher Himalayas, may perhaps with more justice be claimed by the Palæarctic region; Liotrichidæ, Phyllornithidæ, and Eurylæmidæ among birds; Xenopeltidæ (extending, however, to Celebes), Uropeltidæ, and Acrochordidæ among reptiles; Luciocephalidæ, Ophiocephalidæ and Mastacembelidæ among fresh-water fishes. A number of other families are abundant, and characteristic of the region; and it possesses many peculiar and characteristic genera, which must be referred to somewhat more in detail.

Mammalia.--The Oriental region is rich in quadrumana, and is especially remarkable for its orang-utans and long-armed apes (Simia, Hylobates, and Siamanga); its abundance of monkeys of the genera Presbytes and Macacus; its extraordinary long-nosed monkey (Presbytes nasalis); its Lemuridæ (Nycticebus and Loris); and its curious genus Tarsius, forming a distinct family of lemurs. All these quadrumanous genera are confined to it, except Tarsius which extends as far as Celebes. It possesses more than 30 genera of bats, which are enumerated in the lists given at the end of this chapter. In Insectivora it is very rich, and possesses several remarkable forms, such as the flying lemur (Galeopithecus); the squirrel-like Tupaiidæ consisting of three genera; and the curious Gymnura allied to the hedgehogs. In Carnivora, it is especially rich in many forms of civets (Viverridæ), possessing 10 peculiar genera, among which Prionodon and Cynogale are remarkable; numerous Mustelidæ, of which Gymnopus, Mydaus, Aonyx and Helictis are the most conspicuous; Ælurus, a curious animal, cat-like in appearance but {316}more allied to the bears, forming a distinct family of Carnivora, and confined to the high forest-districts of the Eastern Himalayas and East Thibet; Melursus and Helarctos, peculiar forms of bears; Platanista, a dolphin peculiar to the Ganges and Indus. Among Ruminants it has the beautiful chevrotain, forming the genus Tragulus in the family Tragulidæ; with one peculiar genus and three peculiar sub-genera of true deer. The Antilopinæ and Caprinæ are few, confined to limited districts and not characteristic of the region; but there are everywhere wild cattle of the genera Bibos and Bubalus, which, with species of Rhinoceros and Elephas, form a prominent feature in the fauna. The Rodents are less developed than in the Ethiopian region, but several forms of squirrels everywhere abound, together with some species of porcupine; and the Edentata are represented by the scaly manis.

Birds.--The families and genera of birds which give a character to Oriental lands, are so numerous and varied, that we can here only notice the more prominent and more remarkable. The Timaliidæ, represented by the babblers (Garrulax, Pomatorhinus, Timalia, &c.), are almost everywhere to be met with, and no less than 21 genera are peculiar to the region; the elegant fork-tailed Enicurus and rich blue Myiophonus, though comparatively scarce, are characteristic of the Malayan and Indo-Chinese faunas; the elegant little "hill-tits" (Liotrichidæ) abound in the same part of the region; the green bulbuls (Phyllornis) are found everywhere; as are various forms of Pycnonotidæ, the black and crimson "minivets" (Pericrocotus), and the glossy "king-crows" (Dicrurus); Urocissa, Platylophus and Dendrocitta are some of the interesting and characteristic forms of the crow family; sun-birds (Nectariniidæ) of at least three genera are found throughout the region, as are the beautiful little flower-peckers (Dicæidæ), and some peculiar forms of weaver-birds (Ploceus and Munia). Of the starling family, the most conspicuous are the glossy mynahs (Eulabes). The swallow-shrikes (Artamus) are very peculiar, as are the exquisitely coloured pittas (Pittidæ), and the gaudy broad-bills (Eurylæmidæ). Leaving the true Passeres, we find woodpeckers, barbets, and cuckoos everywhere, often of peculiar and {317}remarkable forms; among the bee-eaters we have the exquisite Nyctiornis with its pendent neck-plumes of blue or scarlet; brilliant kingfishers and strangely formed hornbills abound everywhere; while brown-backed trogons with red and orange breasts, though far less frequent, are equally a feature of the Ornithology. Next we have the frog-mouthed goatsuckers (Battrachostomus), and the whiskered swifts (Dendrochelidon), both wide-spread, remarkable, and characteristic groups of the Oriental region. Coming to the parrot tribe, we have only the long-tailed Palæornis and the exquisite little Loriculus, as characteristic genera. We now come to the pigeons, among which the fruit-eating genera Treron and Carpophaga are the most conspicuous. The gallinaceous birds offer us some grand forms, such as the peacocks (Pavo); the argus pheasants (Argusianus); the fire-backed pheasants (Euplocamus); and the jungle-fowl (Gallus), all strikingly characteristic; and with these we may close our sketch, since the birds of prey and the two Orders comprising the waders and swimmers offer nothing sufficiently remarkable to be worthy of enumeration here.

Reptiles.--Only the more abundant and characteristic groups will here be noticed. In the serpent tribe, the Oligodontidæ, a small family of ground-snakes; the Homalopsidæ, or fresh-water snakes; the Dendrophidæ, or tree-snakes; the Dryiophidæ, or whip-snakes; the Dipsadidæ, or nocturnal tree-snakes; the Lycodontidæ or fanged ground-snakes; the Pythonidæ, or rock-snakes; the Elapidæ, or venomous colubrine snakes (including the "cobras"); and the Crotalidæ, or pit-vipers, are all abundant and characteristic, ranging over nearly the whole region, and presenting a great variety of genera and species. Among lizards, the Varanidæ or water-lizards; the Scincidæ or "scinks;" the Geckotidæ, or geckoes; and the Agamidæ, or eastern iguanas; are the most universal and characteristic groups. Among crocodiles the genus Crocodilus is widely spread, Gavialis being characteristic of the Ganges. Among Chelonia, or shielded reptiles, forms of fresh-water Testudinidæ and Trionychidæ (soft tortoises) are tolerably abundant.

Amphibia.--The only abundant and characteristic groups of {318}this class are toads of the family Engystomidæ; tree-frogs of the family Polypedatidæ; and several genera of true frogs, Ranidæ.

Fresh-water Fishes.--The more remarkable and characteristic fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of the Oriental region belong to the following families: Nandidæ, Labyrinthici, Ophiocephalidæ, Siluridæ, and Cyprinidæ; the last being specially abundant.

The sketch here very briefly given, must be supplemented by an examination of the tables of distribution of the genera of all the Mammalia and Birds inhabiting the region. We will now briefly summarize the results.

Summary of the Oriental Vertebrata.--The Oriental region possesses examples of 163 families of Vertebrata of which 12 are peculiar, a proportion of a little more than one-fourteenth of the whole.

Out of 118 genera of Mammalia 54 seem to be peculiar to the region, equal to a proportion of 9/20 or a little less than half. Of Land-Birds there are 342 genera of which 165 are peculiar, bringing the proportion very close to a half.

In the Ethiopian region the proportion of peculiar forms both of Mammalia and Birds is greater; a fact which is not surprising when we consider the long continued isolation of the latter region--an isolation which is even now very complete, owing to the vast extent of deserts intervening between it and the Palæarctic region; while the Oriental and Palæarctic were, during much of the Tertiary epoch, hardly separable.

Insects.

Lepidoptera.--We can only glance hastily at the more prominent features of the wonderfully rich and varied butterfly-fauna of the Oriental region. In the first family Danaidæ, the genera Danais and Euploea are everywhere abundant, and the latter especially forms a conspicuous feature in the entomological aspect of the country; the large "spectre-butterflies" (Hestia) are equally characteristic of the Malayan sub-region. Satyridæ, though abundant are not very remarkable, Debis, Melanitis, Mycalesis, and Ypthima being the most characteristic {319}genera. Morphidæ are well represented by the genera Amathusia, Zeuxidia, Discophora, and Thaumantis, some of the species of which almost equal the grand South American Morphos. The Nymphalidæ furnish us with a host of characteristic genera, among the most remarkable of which are, Terinos, Adolias, Cethosia, Cyrestis, Limenitis, and Nymphalis, all abounding in beautiful species. Among the Lycænidæ are a number of fine groups, among which we may mention Ilerda, Myrina, Deudoryx, Aphneus, Iolaus, and Amblypodia, as characteristic examples. The Pieridæ furnish many fine forms, such as Thyca, Iphias, Thestias, Eronia, Prioneris, and Dercas, the last two being peculiar. The Papilionidæ are unsurpassed in the world, presenting such grand genera as Teinopalpus and Bhutanitis; the yellow-marked Ornithopteræ; the superb "Brookiana;" the elegant Leptocercus; and Papilios of the "Coon," "Philoxenus," "Memnon," "Protenor," and especially the 'green-and-gold-dusted' "Paris" groups.

The Moths call for no special observations, except to notice the existence in Northern India of a number of forms which resemble in a striking manner some of the most remarkable of the above mentioned groups of the genus Papilio, especially the "Protenor" group, which there is reason to believe protected by a peculiar smell or taste like the Heliconias and Danaidæ.

Coleoptera.--The most characteristic Oriental form of the Cicindelidæ or tiger beetles, is undoubtedly the elegant genus Collyris, which is found over the whole region and is almost confined to it. Less abundant, but equally characteristic, is the wingless ant-like Tricondyla. Two small genera Apteroessa and Dromicidia are confined to the Indian Peninsula, while Therates only occurs in the Malayan sub-region.

The Carabidæ, or ground carnivorous beetles, are so numerous that we can only notice a few of the more remarkable and characteristic forms. The wonderful Mormolyce of the Indo-Malay sub-region, stands pre-eminent for singularity in the entire family. Thyreopterus, Orthogonius, Catascopus, and Pericallus are very characteristic forms, as well as Planetes and {320}Distrigus, the latter having a single species in Madagascar. There are 80 genera of this family peculiar to the region, 10 of which have only been found in Ceylon.

Among the Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, Lucanus, Odontolabris, and Cladognathus are the most characteristic forms. Sixteen genera inhabit the region, of which 7 are altogether peculiar, while three others only extend eastward to the Austro-Malayan sub-region.

The beautiful Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, are well represented by Rhomborhina, Heterorhina, Clinteria, Macronota, Agestrata, Chalcothea and many fine species of Cetonia. There are 17 peculiar genera, of which Mycteristes, Phædimus, Plectrone, and Rhagopteryx, are Malayan; while Narycius, Clerota, Bombodes, and Chiloloba are Indian.

In Buprestidæ--those elongate metallic-coloured beetles whose elytra are used as ornaments in many parts of the world--this region stands pre-eminent, in its gigantic Catoxantha, its fine Chrysochroa, its Indian Sternocera, its Malayan Chalcophora and Belionota, as well as many other beautiful forms. It possesses 41 genera, of which 14 are peculiar to it, the rest being generally of wide range or common to the Ethiopian and Australian regions.

In the extensive and elegant group of Longicorns, the Oriental region is only inferior to the Neotropical. It possesses 360 genera, 25 of which are Prionidæ, 117 Cerambicidæ, and 218 Lamiidæ;--about 70 per cent. of the whole being peculiar. The most characteristic genera are Rhaphidopodus and Ægosoma among Prionidæ; Neocerambyx, Euryarthrum, Pachyteria, Acrocyrta, Tetraommatus, Chloridolum, and Polyzonus among Cerambycidæ; and Coelosterna, Rhytidophora, Batocera, Agelasta, and Astathes among Lamiidæ.

Of remarkable forms in other families, we may mention the gigantic horned Chalcosoma among Scarabæidæ; the metallic Campsosternus among Elateridæ; the handsome but anomalous Trictenotoma forming a distinct family; the gorgeous Pachyrhynchi of the Philippine Islands among Curculionidæ; Diurus {321}among Brenthidæ; with an immense number and variety of Anthotribidæ, Heteromera, Malacoderma, and Phytophaga.

THE ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS.

The four sub-regions into which we have divided the Oriental region, are very unequal in extent, and perhaps more so in productiveness, but they each have well-marked special features, and serve well to exhibit the main zoological characteristics of the region. As they are all tolerably well defined and their faunas comparatively well-known, their characteristics will be given with rather more than usual detail.

I. Hindostan, or Indian Sub-region.

This includes the whole peninsula of India from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to somewhere near Seringapatam on the south, the boundary of the Ceylonese sub-region being unsettled. The deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra mark its eastern limits, and it probably reaches to about Cashmere in the north-west, and perhaps to the valley of the Indus further south; but the great desert tract to the east of the Indus forms a transition to the south Palæarctic sub-region. Perhaps on the whole the Indus may be taken as a convenient boundary. Many Indian naturalists, especially Mr. Blyth and Mr. Blanford, are impressed with the relations of the greater part of this sub-region to the Ethiopian region, and have proposed to divide it into several zoological districts dependent on differences of climate and vegetation, and characterized by possessing faunas more or less allied either to the Himalayan or the Ethiopian type. But these subdivisions appear far too complex to be useful to the general student, and even were they proved to be natural, would be beyond the scope of this work. I agree, however, with Mr. Elwes in thinking that they really belong to local rather than to geographical distribution, and confound "station" with "habitat." Wherever there is a marked diversity of surface and vegetation the productions of a country will correspondingly differ; the groups peculiar to forests, for example, will be absent from open {322}plains or arid deserts. It happens that the three great Old World regions are separated from each other by a debatable land which is chiefly of a desert character; hence we must expect to find a resemblance between the inhabitants of such districts in each region. We also find a great resemblance between the aquatic birds of the three regions; and as we generally give little weight to these in our estimate of the degree of affinity of the faunas of different countries, so we should not count the desert fauna as of equal weight with the more restricted and peculiar types which are found in the fertile tracts,--in the mountains and valleys, and especially in the primeval forests. The supposed preponderance of exclusively Ethiopian groups of Mammalia and Birds in this, sub-region, deserves however a close examination, in order to ascertain how far the facts really warrant such an opinion.

Mammalia.--The following list of the more important genera of Mammalia which range over the larger part of this sub-region will enable naturalists to form an independent judgment as to the preponderance of Ethiopian, or of Oriental and Palæarctic types, in this, the most important of all the classes of animals for geographical distribution.

RANGE OF THE GENERA OF MAMMALIA WHICH INHABIT THE SUB-REGION OF HINDOSTAN.

1. Presbytes Oriental only. 2. Macacus Oriental only. 3. Erinaceus Palæarctic genus. 4. Sorex Widely distributed. 5. Felis Almost Cosmopolitan. 6. Cynælurus Ethiopian and S. Palæarctic. 7. Viverra Ethiopian and Oriental to China and Malaya. 8. Viverricula Oriental only. 9. Paradoxurus Oriental only. 10. Herpestes Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic, and Oriental to Malaya. 11. Calogale Ethiopian, Oriental to Cambodja. 12. Tæniogale Oriental. 13. Hyæna Palæarctic and Ethiopian (a Palæarctic species.) 14. Canis Palæarctic and Oriental to Malaya. 15. Cuon Oriental to Malaya. 16. Vulpes Very wide range. 17. Lutra Oriental and Palæarctic. 18. Mellivora Ethiopian. 19. Melursus Oriental only; family not Ethiopian. 20. Sus Palæarctic and Oriental, not Ethiopian. 21. Tragulus Oriental. {323} 22. Cervus Oriental and Palæarctic; family not Ethiopian. 23. Cervulus Oriental; family not Ethiopian. 24. Bibos Palæarctic and Oriental. 25. Portax Oriental. 26. Gazella Palæarctic and Ethiopian. 27. Antilope Oriental. 28. Tetraceros Oriental. 29. Elephas Oriental species. 30. Mus Cosmopolite nearly. 31. Platacanthomys Oriental. 32. Meriones Very wide range. 33. Spalacomys Oriental. 34. Sciurus Almost Cosmopolite. 35. Pteromys Palæarctic and Oriental to China and Malaya, 36. Hystrix Wide range. 37. Lepus Wide range. 38. Manis Ethiopian and Oriental to Malaya,

Out of the above 38 genera, 8 have so wide a distribution as to give no special geographical indications. Of the remaining 30, whose geographical position we have noted, 14 are Oriental only; 5 have as much right to be considered Oriental as Ethiopian, extending as they do over the greater part of the Oriental region; 2 (the hyæna and gazelle) show Palæarctic rather than Ethiopian affinity; 7 are Palæarctic and Oriental but not Ethiopian; and only 2 (Cynælurus and Mellivora) can be considered as especially Ethiopian. We must also give due weight to the fact that we have here Ursidæ and Cervidæ, two families entirely absent from the Ethiopian region, and we shall then be forced to conclude that the affinities of the Indian peninsula are not only clearly Oriental, but that the Ethiopian element is really present in a far less degree than the Palæarctic.

Birds.--The naturalists who have adopted the "Ethiopian theory" of the fauna of Hindostan, have always supported their views by an appeal to the class of birds; maintaining, that not only are almost all the characteristic Himalayan and Malayan genera absent, but that their place is to a great extent supplied by others which are characteristic of the Ethiopian region. After a careful examination of the subject, Mr. Elwes, in a paper read before the Zoological Society (June 1873) came to the conclusion, that this view was an erroneous one, founded on the fact that the birds of the plains are the more abundant and more {324}open to observation; and that these are often of wide-spread types, and some few almost exclusively African. The facts he adduced do not, however, seem to have satisfied the objectors; and as the subject is an important one, I will here give lists of all the genera of Passeres, Picariæ, Psittaci, Columbæ, and Gallinæ, which inhabit the sub-region, leaving out those which only just enter within its boundaries from adjacent sub-regions. These are arranged under four heads:--1. Oriental genera; which are either wholly confined to, or strikingly prevalent in, the Oriental region beyond the limits of the Indian peninsula. 2. Genera of Wide Range; which are fully as much entitled to be considered Oriental or Palæarctic as Ethiopian, and cannot be held to prove any Ethiopian affinity. 3. Palæarctic genera; which are altogether or almost absent from the Ethiopian region. 4. Ethiopian genera; which are confined to, or very prevalent in, the Ethiopian region, whence they extend into the Indian peninsula but not over the whole Oriental region. The last are the only ones which can be fairly balanced against those of the first list, in order to determine the character of the fauna.

1. ORIENTAL GENERA IN CENTRAL INDIA.

Geocichla, Orthotomus, Prinia, Megalurus, Abrornis, Larvivora, Copsychus, Kittacincla, Pomatorhinus, Malacocercus, Chatarrhæa, Layardia, Garrulax, Trochalopteron, Pellorneum, Dumetia, Pyctoris, Alcippe, Myiophonus, Sitta, Dendrophila, Phyllornis, Iora, Hypsipetes, Pericrocotus, Graucalus, Volvocivora, Chibia, Chaptia, Irena, Erythrosterna, Hemipus, Hemichelidon, Niltava, Cyornis, Eumyias, Hypothymis, Myialestes, Tephrodornis, Dendrocitta, Arachnechthra, Nectarophila, Arachnothera, Dicæum, Piprisoma, Munia, Eulabes, Pastor, Acridotheres, Sturnia, Sturnopastor, Artamus, Nemoricola, Pitta, Yungipicus, Chrysocolaptes, Hemicircus, Gecinus, Mulleripicus, Brachypternus, Tiga, Micropternus, Megalæma, Xantholæma, Rhopodytes, Taccocoua, Surniculus, Hierococcyx, Eudynamnis, Nyctiornis, Harpactes, Pelargopsis, Ceyx, Hydrocissa, Meniceros, Batrachostomus, Dendrochelidon, Collocalia, Palæornis, Treron, Carpophaga, Chalcophaps, Ortygornis, Perdix, Pavo, Gallus, Galloperdix;--87 genera; and {325}one peculiar genus, Salpornis, whose affinities are Palæarctic or Oriental.

2. GENERA OF WIDE RANGE OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

Tardus, Monticola, Drymoeca, Cisticola, Acrocephalus, Phylloscopus, Pratincola, Parus, Pycnonotus, Criniger, Oriolus, Dicrurus, Tchitrea, Lanius, Corvus, Zosterops, Hirundo, Cotyle, Passer, Ploceus, Estrilda, Alauda, Calandrella, Mirafra, Ammomanes, Motacilla, Anthus, Picus, Yunx, Centropus, Cuculus, Chrysoccocyx, Coccystes, Coracias, Eurystomus, Merops, Alcedo, Ceryle, Halcyon, Upupa, Caprimulgus, Cypselus, Chætura, Columba, Turtur, Pterocles, Coturnix, Turnix;--48 genera.

3. PALÆARCTIC GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

Hypolais, Sylvia, Curruca, Cyanecula, Calliope, Chelidon, Euspiza, Emberiza, Galerita, Calobates, Corydalla;--11 genera.

4. ETHIOPIAN GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

Thamnobia, Pyrrhulauda, Pterocles, Francolinus;--4 genera.

A consideration of the above lists shows us, that the Hindostan sub-region is by no means so poor in forms of bird-life as is generally supposed (and as I had myself anticipated, it would prove to be), possessing, as it does, 151 genera of land-birds, without counting the Accipitres. It must also set at rest the question of the zoological affinities of the district, since a preponderance of 88 genera, against 4, cannot be held to be insufficient, and cannot be materially altered by any corrections in details that may be proposed or substantiated. Even of these four, only the first two are exclusively Ethiopian, Pterocles and Francolinus both being Palæarctic also. It is a question, indeed, whether anywhere in the world an outlying sub-region can be found, exhibiting less zoological affinity for the adjacent regions; and we have here a striking illustration of the necessity of deciding all such cases, not by examples, which may be so chosen as to support any view, but by carefully weighing and contrasting the whole of the facts on which the solution of the {326}problem admittedly depends. It will, perhaps, be said that a great many of the 88 genera above given are very scarce and very local; but this is certainly not the case with the majority of them; and even where it is so, that does not in any degree affect their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities. It is the presence of a type in a region, not its abundance or scarcity, that is the important fact; and when we have to do, as we have here, with many groups whose habits and mode of life necessarily seclude them from observation, their supposed scarcity may not even be a fact.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--Reptiles entirely agree with Mammalia and Birds in the main features of their distribution. Out of 17 families of snakes inhabiting Hindostan, 16 range over the greater part of the entire region, and only two can be supposed to show any Ethiopian affinity. These are the Psammophidæ and Erycidæ, both desert-haunting groups, and almost as much South Palæarctic as African. The genus Tropidococcyx is peculiar to the sub-region, and Aspidura, Passerita and Cynophis to the peninsula and Ceylon; while a large number of the most characteristic genera, as Dipsas, Simotes, Bungarus, Naja, Trimeresurus, Lycodon and Python, are characteristically Oriental.

Of the six families of lizards all have a wide range. The genera Eumeces, Pentadactylus, Gecko, Eublepharis, and Draco, are characteristically or wholly Oriental; Ophiops and Uromastix are Palæarctic; while Chamæleon is the solitary case of decided Ethiopian affinity.

Of the Amphibia not a single family exhibits special Ethiopian affinities.

II. Sub-region of Ceylon and South-India.

The Island of Ceylon is characterised by such striking peculiarities in its animal productions, as to render necessary its separation from the peninsula of India as a sub-region; but it is found that most of these special features extend to the Neilgherries and the whole southern mountainous portion of India, and that the two must be united in any zoo-geographical {327}province. The main features of this division are,--the appearance of numerous animals allied to forms only found again in the Himalayas or in the Malayan sub-region, the possession of several peculiar generic types, and an unusual number of peculiar species.

Mammalia.--Among Mammalia the most remarkable form is Loris, a genus of Lemurs altogether peculiar to the sub-region; several peculiar monkeys of the genus Presbytes; the Malayan genus Tupaia; and Platacanthomys, a peculiar genus of Muridæ.

Birds.--Among birds it has Ochromela, a peculiar genus of flycatchers; Phoenicophaës (Cuculidæ) and Drymocataphus (Timaliidæ), both Malayan forms; a species of Myiophonus whose nearest ally is in Java; Trochalopteron, Brachypteryx, Buceros and Loriculus, which are only found elsewhere in the Himalayas and Malayana. It also possesses about 80 peculiar species of birds, including a large jungle fowl, one owl and two hornbills.

Reptiles.--It is however by its Reptiles, even more than by its higher vertebrates, that this sub-region is clearly characterised. Among snakes it possesses an entire family, Uropeltidæ, consisting of 5 genera and 18 species altogether confined to it,--Rhinophis and Uropeltis in Ceylon, Silybura, Plecturus and Melanophidium in Southern India. Four other genera of snakes, Haplocercus, Cercaspis, Peltopelor, and Hypnale are also peculiar; Chersydrus is only found elsewhere in Malaya; while Aspidura, Passerita, and Cynophis, only extend to Hindostan; and species of Eryx, Echis, and Psammophis show an affinity with Ethiopian and Palæarctic forms. Among lizards several genera of Agamidæ are peculiar, such as Otocryptis, Lyricoephalus, Ceratophora, Cophotis, Salea, Sitana and Charasia. In the family Acontiadæ, Nessia is peculiar to Ceylon, while a species of the African genus Acontias shows an affinity for the Ethiopian region.

Amphibia.--The genera of Amphibians that occur here are generally of wide range, but Nannophrys, Haplobatrachus, and Cacopus are confined to the sub-region; while Megalophrys is Malayan, and the species found in Ceylon also inhabit Java.

{328}Insects.--The insects of Ceylon also furnish some curious examples of its distinctness from Hindostan, and its affinity with Malaya. Among its butterflies we find Papilio jophon, closely allied to P. antiphus of Malaya. The remarkable genus Hestia, so characteristic of the Malay archipelago, only occurs elsewhere on the mountains of Ceylon; while its Cynthia and Parthenos are closely allied to, if not identical with, Malayan species. Among Coleoptera we have yet more striking examples. The highly characteristic Malayan genus Tricondyla is represented in Ceylon by no less than 10 species; and among Longicorns we find the genera Tetraommatus, Thranius, Cacia, Praonetha, Ropica, and Serixia, all exclusively Malayan or only just entering the Indo-Chinese peninsula, yet all represented in Ceylon, while not a single species occurs in any part of India or the Himalayas.

The Past History of Ceylon and South-India as indicated by its Fauna.--In our account of the Ethiopian region we have already had occasion to refer to an ancient connection between this sub-region and Madagascar, in order to explain the distribution of the Lemurine type, and some other curious affinities between the two countries. This view is supported by the geology of India, which shows us Ceylon and South India consisting mainly of granitic and old metamorphic rocks, while the greater part of the peninsula, forming our first sub-region, is of tertiary formation, with a few isolated patches of secondary rocks. It is evident therefore, that during much of the tertiary period, Ceylon and South India were bounded on the north by a considerable extent of sea, and probably formed part of an extensive southern continent or great island. The very numerous and remarkable cases of affinity with Malaya, require however some closer approximation to these islands, which probably occurred at a later period. When, still later, the great plains and table-lands of Hindostan were formed, and a permanent land communication effected with the rich and highly developed Himalo-Chinese fauna, a rapid immigration of new types took place, and many of the less specialised forms of mammalia and birds (particularly those of ancient Ethiopian type) became extinct. Among reptiles and insects the competition was less severe, or the older forms were too well {329}adapted to local conditions to be expelled; so that it is among these groups alone that we find any considerable number, of what are probably the remains of the ancient fauna of a now submerged southern continent.

III. Himalayan or Indo-Chinese Sub-region.

This, which is probably the richest of all the sub-regions, and perhaps one of the richest of all tracts of equal extent on the face of the globe, is essentially a forest-covered, mountainous country, mostly within the tropics, but on its northern margin extending some degrees beyond it, and rising in a continuous mountain range till it meets and intercalates with the Manchurian sub-division of the Palæarctic region. The peculiar mammalia, birds and insects of this sub-region begin to appear at the very foot of the Himalayas, but Dr. Gunther has shown that many of the reptiles characteristic of the plains of India are found to a height of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

In Sikhim, which may be taken as a typical example of the Himalayan portion of the sub-region, it seems to extend to an altitude of little less than 10,000 feet, that being the limit of the characteristic Timaliidæ or babbling thrushes; while the equally characteristic Pycnonotidæ, or bulbuls, and Treronidæ, or thick-billed fruit-pigeons, do not, according to Mr. Blanford, reach quite so high. We may perhaps take 9,000 feet as a good approximation over a large part of the Himalayan range; but it is evidently not possible to define the line with any great precision. Westward, the sub-region extends in diminishing breadth, till it terminates in or near Cashmere, where the fauna of the plains of India almost meets that of the Palæarctic region, at a moderate elevation. Eastward, it reaches into East Thibet and North-west China, where Père David has found a large number of the peculiar types of the Eastern Himalayas. A fauna, in general features identical, extends over Burmah and Siam to South China; mingling with the Palæarctic fauna in the mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang river, and with that of Indo-Malaya in Tenasserim, and to a lesser extent in Southern Siam and Cochin China.

{330}Zoological Characteristics of the Himalayan Sub-region.--Taking this sub-region as a whole, we find it to be characterised by 3 genera of mammalia (without counting bats), and 44 genera of land-birds, which are altogether peculiar to it; and by 13 genera of mammalia and 36 of birds, which it possesses in common with the Malayan sub-region; and besides these it has almost all the genera before enumerated as "Oriental," and several others of wide range, more especially a number of Palæarctic genera which appear in the higher Himalayas. The names of the more characteristic genera are as follows:--

PECULIAR HIMALO-CHINESE GENERA.

Mammalia.--Urva, Arctonyx, Ælurus.

Birds.--Suya, Horites, Chæmarrhornis, Tarsiger, Oreicola, Acanthoptila, Grammatoptila, Trochalopteron, Actinodura, Sibia, Suthora, Paradoxornis, Chlenasicus, Tesia, Rimator, Ægithaliscus, Cephalopyrus, Liothrix, Siva, Minla, Proparus, Cutia, Yuhina, Ixulus, Myzornis, Erpornis, Hemixus, Chibia, Niltava, Anthipes, Chelidorhynx, Urocissa, Pachyglossa, Heterura, Hæmatospiza, Ampeliceps, Saroglossa, Psarisomus, Serilophus, Vivia, Hyopicus, Gecinulus, Aceros, Ceriornis.

GENERA COMMON TO THE HIMALO-CHINESE AND MALAYAN SUB-REGIONS.

Mammalia.--Hylobates, Nycticebus, Viverricula, Prionodon, Arctitis, Paguma, Arctogale, Cuon, Gymnopus, Aonyx, Helictis, Rhinoceros, Nemorhedus, Rhizomys.

Birds.--Oreocincla, Notodela, Janthocincla, Timalia, Stachyris, Mixornis, Trichastoma, Enicurus, Pnoepyga, Melanochlora, Allotrius, Microscelis, Iole, Analcipus, Cochoa, Bhringa, Xanthopygia, Hylocharis, Cissa, Temnurus, Crypsirhina, Chalcostetha, Anthreptes, Chalcoparia, Cymbirhynchus, Hydrornis, Sasia, Venilia, Indicator, Carcineutes, Lyncornis, Macropygia, Argusianus, Polyplectron, Euplocamus, Phodilus.

Plate VII.

SCENE IN NEPAUL, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{331}Plate VII. Scene in Nepal, with Characteristic Himalayan Animals.--Our illustration contains figures of two mammals and two birds, characteristic of the higher woody region of the Himalayas. The lower figure on the left is the Helictis nepalensis, confined to the Eastern Himalayas, and belonging to a genus of the weasel family which is exclusively Oriental. It is marked with white on a grey-brown ground. Above it is the remarkable Panda (Ælurus fulgens), a beautiful animal with a glossy fur of a reddish colour, darker feet, and a white somewhat cat-like face. It is distantly allied to the bears, and more nearly to the American racoons, yet with sufficient differences to constitute it a distinct family. The large bird on the tree, is the horned Tragopan (Ceriornis satyra), one of the fine Himalayan pheasants, magnificently spotted with red and white, and ornamented with fleshy erectile wattles and horns, of vivid blue and red colours. The bird in the foreground is the Ibidorhynchus struthersii, a rare and curious wader, allied to the curlews and sandpipers but having the bill and feet red. It frequents the river-beds in the higher Himalayas, but has also been found in Thibet.

Reptiles.--Very few genera of reptiles are peculiar to this sub-region, all the more important ranging into the Malay islands. Of snakes the following are the more characteristic genera:--Typhline, Cylindrophis, Xenopeltis, Calamaria, Xenelaphis, Hypsirhina, Fordonia, several small genera of Homalopsidæ (Herpeton and Hipistes being characteristic of Burmah and Siam), Psammodynastes, Gonyosoma, Chrysopelea, Tragops, Dipsas, Pareas, Python, Bungarus, Naja, Callophis, and Trimeresurus. Naja reaches 8,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas, Tropidonotus 9,000 feet, Ablabes 10,000 feet, and Simotes 15,000 feet.

Of lizards, Pseudopus has one species in the Khasya hills while the other inhabits South-east Europe; and there are two small genera of Agamidæ peculiar to the Himalayas, while Draco and Calotes have a wide range and Acanthosaura, Dilophyrus, Physignathus, and Liolepis are found chiefly in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. There are several genera of Scincidæ; and the extensive genus of wall-lizards, Gecko, ranges over the whole region.

Of Amphibia, the peculiar forms are not numerous. Ichthyophis {332}a genus of Ceciliadæ, is peculiar to the Khasya Hills; Tylotritron (Salamandridæ) to Yunan in Western China, and perhaps belongs to the Palæarctic region.

Of the tail-less Batrachians, Glyphoglossus is found in Pegu; Xenophys in the Eastern Himalayas; while Callula, Ixalus, Rhacophorus, Hylurana, Oxyglossus, and Phrynoglossus, are common to the Himalo-Chinese and Malayan sub-regions.

Of the lizards, Colotes, Barycephalus, and Hinulia,--and of the Batrachia, Bufo,--are found at above 11,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas.

Insects.--So little has been done in working out the insect faunas of the separate sub-regions, that they cannot be treated in detail, and the reader is referred to the chapter on the distribution of insects in the part of this work devoted to Geographical Zoology. A few particulars may, however, be given as to the butterflies, which have been more systematically collected in tropical countries than any other order of insects. The Himalayan butterflies, especially in the eastern portions of the range--in Assam and the Khasya Hills--are remarkably fine and very abundant; yet all the larger groups extend into the Malayan sub-region, many to Ceylon, and a considerable proportion even to Africa and Austro-Malaya. There are a large number of peculiar types, but most of them consist of few or single species. Such are Neope, Orenoma, and Rhaphicera, genera of Satyridæ; Enispe (Morphidæ); Hestina, Penthema, and Abrota (Nymphalidæ); Dodona (Erycinidæ); Ilerda (Lycænidæ); Calinaga, Teinopalpus, and Bhutanitis (Papilionidæ). Its more prominent features are, however, derived from what may be termed Malayan, or even Old World types, such as Euplæa, among Danaidæ; Amathusia, Clerome, and Thaumantis, among Morphidæ; Euripus, Diadema, Athyma, Limenitis, and Adolias, among Nymphalidæ; Zemeros and Taxila among Erycinidæ; Amblypodia, Miletus, Ilerda, and Myrina, among Lycænidæ; Thyca, Prioneris, Dercas, Iphias, and Thestias among Pieridæ; and Papilios of the "Amphrisius," "Coon", "Philoxenus," "Protenor," "Paris," and "Sarpedon" groups. In the Himalayas there is an unusual abundance of large and gorgeous species of the genus Papilio, {333}and of large and showy Nymphalidæ, Morphidæ, and Danaidæ, which render it, in favoured localities, only second to South America for a display of this form of beauty and variety in insect life.

Among the other orders of insects in which the Himalayas are remarkably rich, we may mention large and brilliant Cetoniidæ, chiefly of the genus Rhomborhima; a magnificent Lamellicorn, Euchirus macleayii, allied to the gigantic long-armed beetle (E. longimanus) of Amboyna; superb moths of the families Agaristidæ and Sesiidæ; elegant and remarkable Fulgoridæ, and strange forms of the gigantic Phasmidæ; most of which appear to be of larger size or of more brilliant colours than their Malayan allies.

Islands of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region.--A few important islands belong to this sub-region, the Andamans, Formosa, and Hainan being the most interesting.

Andamans.--The only mammalia are a few rats and mice, a Paradoxurus, and a pig supposed to be a hybrid race,--all of which may have been introduced by man's agency. The birds of the Andaman Islands have been largely collected, no less than 155 species having been obtained; and of these 17, (all land-birds) are peculiar. The genera are all found on the continent, and are mostly characteristic of the Indo-Chinese fauna, to which most of the species belong. Reptiles are also tolerably abundant; about 20 species are known, the majority being found also on the continent, while a few are peculiar. There are also a few Batrachia, and some fresh-water fishes, closely resembling those of Burmah. The absence of such mammalia as monkeys and squirrels, which abound on the mainland, and which are easily carried over straits or narrow seas by floating trees, is sufficient proof that these islands have not recently formed part of the continent. The birds are mostly such as may have reached the islands while in their present geographical position; and the occurrence of reptiles and fresh-water fishes, said to be identical in species with those of Burmah, must be due to the facilities, which some of these animals undoubtedly {334}possess, for passing over a considerable width of sea. We must conclude, therefore, that these islands do not owe their existing fauna to an actual union with the mainland; but it is probable that they may have been formerly more extensive, and have then been less distant from the continent than at the present time.

The Nicobar Islands, usually associated with the Andamans, are less known, but present somewhat similar phenomena. They are, however, more Malayan in their fauna, and seem properly to belong to the Indo-Malay sub-region.

Formosa.--This island has been carefully examined by Mr. Swinhoe, who found 144 species of birds, of which 34 are peculiar. There is one peculiar genus, but the rest are all Indo-Chinese, though some of the species are more allied to Malayan than to Chinese or Himalayan forms. About 30 species of mammalia were found in Formosa, of which 11 are peculiar species, the rest being either Chinese or Himalayan. The peculiar species belong to the genera Talpa, Helictis, Sciuropterus, Pteromys, Mus, Sus, Cervus, and Capricornis. A few lizards and snakes of continental species have also been found. These facts clearly indicate the former connection of Formosa with China and Malaya, a connection which is rendered the more probable by the shallow sea which still connects all these countries.

Hainan.--The island of Hainan, on the south coast of China, is not so well known in proportion, though Mr. Swinhoe collected 172 species of birds, of which 130 were land-birds. Of these about 20 were peculiar species; the remainder being either Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan. Mr. Swinhoe also obtained 24 species of mammalia, all being Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan species except a hare, which is peculiar. This assemblage of animals would imply that Hainan, as might be anticipated from its position, has been more recently separated from the continent than the more distant island of Formosa.

IV. Indo-Malaya, or the Malayan Sub-region.

This sub-region, which is almost wholly insular (including only the Malayan peninsula on the continent of Asia), is equal, if {335}not superior, in the variety and beauty of its productions, to that which we have just been considering. Like Indo-China, it is a region of forests, but it is more exclusively tropical; and it is therefore deficient in many of those curious forms of the temperate zone of the Himalayas, which seem to have been developed from Palæarctic rather than from Oriental types. Here alone, in the Oriental region, are found the most typical equatorial forms of life--organisms adapted to a climate characterised by uniform but not excessive heat, abundant moisture, and no marked departure from the average meteorological state, throughout the year. These favourable conditions of life only occur in three widely separated districts of the globe--the Malay archipelago, Western Africa, and equatorial South America. Hence perhaps it is, that the tapir and the trogons of Malacca should so closely resemble those of South America; and that the great anthropoid apes and crested hornbills of Western Africa, should find their nearest allies in Borneo and Sumatra.

Although the islands which go to form this sub-region are often separated from each other by a considerable expanse of sea, yet their productions in general offer no greater differences than those of portions of the Indo-Chinese sub-region separated by an equal extent of dry land. The explanation is easy, however, when we find that the sea which separates them is a very shallow one, so shallow that an elevation of only 300 feet would unite Sumatra, Java, and Borneo into one great South-eastern prolongation of the Asiatic continent. As we know that our own country has been elevated and depressed to a greater amount than this, at least twice in recent geological times, we can have no difficulty in admitting similar changes of level in the Malay archipelago, where the subterranean forces which bring about such changes are still at work, as manifested by the great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra and Java. Proofs of somewhat earlier changes of level are to be seen in the Tertiary coal formations of Borneo, which demonstrate a succession of elevations and subsidences, with as much certainty as if we had historical record of them.

It is not necessary to suppose, nor is it probable, that all these {336}great islands were recently united to the continent, and that their separation took place by one general subsidence of the whole. It is more consonant with what we know of such matters, that the elevations and depressions were partial, varying in their points of action and often recurring; sometimes extending one part of an island, sometimes another; now joining an island to the main land, now bringing two islands into closer proximity. There is reason to believe that sometimes an intervening island has sunk or receded and allowed others which it before separated to effect a partial union independently of it. If we recognise the probability that such varied and often-renewed changes of level have occurred, we shall be better able to understand how certain anomalies of distribution in these islands may have been brought about. We will now endeavour to sketch the general features of the zoology of this interesting district, and then proceed to discuss some of the relations of the islands to each other.

Mammalia.--We have seen that the Indo-Chinese sub-region possesses 13 species of mammalia in common with the Indo-Malay sub-region, and 4 others peculiar to itself, besides one Ethiopian and several Oriental and Palæarctic forms of wide range. Of this latter class the Malay islands have comparatively few, but they possess no less than 14 peculiar genera, viz. Simia, Siamanga, Tarsius, Galeopithecus, Hylomys, Ptilocerus, Gymnura, Cynogale, Hemigalea, Arctogale, Barangia, Mydaus, Helarctos, and Tapirus. The islands also possess tigers, deer, wild pigs, wild cattle, elephants, the scaly ant-eater, and most of the usual Oriental genera; so that they are on the whole fully as rich as, if not richer than, any part of Asia; a fact very unusual in island faunas, and very suggestive of their really continental nature.

Plate VIII.

A FOREST IN BORNEO, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{337}Plate VIII. Scene in Borneo with Characteristic Malayan Quadrupeds.--The Malayan fauna is so rich and peculiar that we devote two plates to illustrate it. We have here a group of mammalia, such as might be seen together in the vast forests of Borneo. In the foreground we have the beautiful deer-like Chevrotain (Tragulus javanicus). These are delicate little animals whose body is not larger than a rabbit's, thence often called "mouse-deer." They were formerly classed with the "musk-deer," owing to their similar tusk-like upper canines; but their anatomy shows them to form quite a distinct family, having more resemblance to the camels. On the branch above is the curious feather-tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocerus lowii), a small insectivorous animal altogether peculiar to Borneo. Above this is the strange little Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), one of the lemurs confined to the Malay islands, but so distinct from all others as to constitute a separate family. The other small animals are the Flying Lemurs (Galæopithecus volans) formerly classed with the lemurs, but now considered to belong to the Insectivora. They have a very large expansion of the skin connecting the fore and hind limbs and tail, and are able to take long flights from one tree to another, and even to rise over obstacles in their course by the elevatory power of the tail-membrane. They feed chiefly on leaves, and have a very soft and beautifully marbled fur.

In the distance is the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), a representative of a group of animals now confined to the larger Malay islands and tropical America, but which once ranged over the greater part of temperate Europe.

Birds.--Owing to several of the families consisting of very obscure and closely allied species, which have never been critically examined and compared by a competent ornithologist, the number of birds inhabiting this sub-region is uncertain. From the best available materials there appear to be somewhat less than 650 species of land-birds actually known, or excluding the Philippine Islands somewhat less than 600. The larger part of these are peculiar species, but mostly allied to those of Indo-China; 36 of the genera, as already stated, being common to these two sub-regions. There are, however, no less than 46 genera which are peculiarly or wholly Indo Malayan and, in many cases, have no close affinity with other Oriental groups. These peculiar genera are as follows:--Timalia, Malacopteron, Macronus, Napothera, Turdinus, and Trichixos--genera {338}of Timaliidæ; Eupetes, a most remarkable form, perhaps allied to Enicurus, and Cinclus; Rhabdornis (Certhiidæ) found only in the Philippines; Psaltria, a diminutive bird of doubtful affinities, provisionally classed among the tits (Paridæ); Setornis (Pycnonotidæ); Lalage (Campephagidæ) extending eastward to the Pacific Islands; Pycnosphrys, Philentoma (Muscicapidæ); Laniellus, a beautiful bird doubtfully classed with the shrikes (Laniidæ); Platylophus and Pityriasis, the latter a most anomalous form--perhaps a distinct family, at present classed with the jays, in Corvidæ; Prionochilus, a curious form classed with Dicæidæ; Erythrura (Ploceidæ), extending eastwards to the Fiji Islands; Gymnops, Calornis, (Sturnidæ); Eurylæmus, Corydon, and Calyptomena (Eurylæmidæ); Eucichla, the longest tailed and most elegantly marked of the Pittidæ; Reinwardtipicus and Miglyptes (Picidæ); Psilopogon and Calorhamphus, (Megalæmidæ); Rhinococcyx, Dasylophus, Lepidogrammus, Carpococcyx, Zanclostomus, Poliococcyx, Rhinortha, (Cuculidæ); Berenicornis, Caldo, Cranorhinus, Penelopides, Rhinoplax, (Bucerotidæ); Psittinus, (Psittacidæ); Ptilopus, Phapitreron, (Columbidæ); Rollulus, (Treronidæ); Machærhamphus, (Falconidæ). Many of these genera are abundant and wide-spread, while some of the most characteristic Himalayan genera, such as Larvivora, Garrulax, Hypsipetes, Pomatorhinus, and Dendrocitta, are here represented by only a few species.

Among the groups that are characteristic of the Malayan sub-region, the Timaliidæ and Pycnonotidæ stand pre-eminent; the former represented chiefly by the genera Timalia, Malacopteron, Macronus, and Trichastoma, the latter by Criniger, Microscelis, and many forms of Pycnonotus. The Muscicapidæ, Dicruridæ, Campephagidæ, Ploceidæ, and Nectariniidæ are also well developed; as well as the Pittidæ, and the Eurylæmidæ, the limited number of species of the latter being compensated by a tolerable abundance of individuals. Among the Picariæ are many conspicuous groups; as, woodpeckers (Picidæ); barbets (Megalæmidæ); trogons (Trogonidæ); kingfishers (Alcedinidæ); and hornbills (Bucerotidæ); five families which are perhaps the most conspicuous in the whole fauna. Lastly come the pigeons {339}(Columbidæ), and the pheasants (Phasianidæ), which are fairly represented by such fine genera as Treron, Ptilopus, Euplocamus, and Argusianus. A few forms whose affinities are Australian rather than Oriental, help to give a character to the ornithology, though none of them are numerous. The swallow-shrikes (Artamus); the wag-tail fly-catchers (Rhipidura); the green fruit-doves (Ptilopus); and the mound-makers (Megapodius), are the chief of these.

There are a few curious examples of remote geographical alliances that may be noted. First, we have a direct African connection in Machærhamphus, a genus of hawks, and Berenicornis, a genus of hornbills; the only close allies being, in the former case in South, and in the latter in West Africa. Then we have a curious Neotropical affinity, indicated by Carpococcyx, a large Bornean ground-cuckoo, whose nearest ally is the genus Neomorphus of South America; and by the lovely green-coloured Calyptomena which seems unmistakably allied to the orange-coloured Rupicola, or "Cock of the rock," in general structure and in the remarkable form of crest, a resemblance which has been noticed by many writers.

In the preceding enumeration of Malayan genera several are included which extend into the Austro-Malay Islands, our object, at present, being to show the differences and relations of the two chief Oriental sub-regions.

Plate IX. A Malayan Forest with some of its peculiar Birds.--Our second illustration of the Malayan fauna is devoted to its bird-life; and for this purpose we place our scene in the Malay peninsula, where birds are perhaps more abundant and more interesting, than in any other part of the sub-region. Conspicuous in the foreground is the huge Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), one of the most characteristic birds of the Malayan forests, the flapping of whose wings, as it violently beats the air to support its heavy body, may be heard a mile off. On the ground behind, is the Argus pheasant (Argusianus giganteus) whose beautifully ocellated wings have been the subject of a most interesting description in Mr. Darwin's Descent of Man. The wing-feathers are here so enormously {340}developed for display (as shown in our figure) that they become almost, if not quite, useless for their original purpose of flight; yet the colours are so sober, harmonizing completely with the surrounding vegetation, and the bird is so wary, that in the forests where it abounds an old hunter assured me he had never been able to see a specimen till it was caught in his snares. It is interesting to note, that during the display of the plumage the bird's head is concealed by the wings from a spectator in front, and, contrary to what usually obtains among pheasants, the head is entirely unadorned, having neither crest nor a particle of vivid colour,--a remarkable confirmation of Mr. Darwin's views, that gayly coloured plumes are developed in the male bird for the purpose of attractive display in the breeding season. The long-tailed bird on the right is one of the Drongo-shrikes (Bhringa remifer), whose long bare tail-feathers, with an oar-like web at the end, and blue-black glossy plumage, render it a very attractive object as it flies after its insect prey. On the left is another singular bird the great Broad-bill (Corydon sumatranus), with dull and sombre plumage, but with a beak more like that of a boat-bill than of a fruit-eating passerine bird. Over all, the white-handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar) swings and gambols among the topmost branches of the forest.

Reptiles and Amphibia.--These are not sufficiently known to be of much use for our present purpose. Most of the genera belong to the continental parts of the Oriental region, or have a wide range. Of snakes Rhabdosoma, Typhlocalamus, Tetragonosoma, Acrochordus, and Atropos, are the most peculiar, and there are several peculiar genera of Homalopsidæ. Of Oriental genera, Cylindrophis, Xenopeltes, Calamaria, Hypsirhina, Psammodynastes, Gonyosoma, Tragops, Dipsas, Pareas, Python, Bungarus, Naja, and Callophis are abundant; as well as Simotes, Ablabes, Tropidonotus, and Dendrophis, which are widely distributed. Among lizards Hydrosaurus and Gecko are common; there are many isolated groups of Scincidæ; while Draco, Calotes, and many forms of Agamidæ, some of which are peculiar, abound.

Plate IX.

A MALAYAN FOREST, WITH ITS CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

{341}Among the Amphibia, toads and frogs of the genera Micrhyla, Kalophrynus, Ansonia, and Pseudobufo, are peculiar: while the Oriental Megalophrys, Ixalus, Rhacophorus, and Hylorana are abundant and characteristic.

Fishes.--The fresh-water fishes of the Malay archipelago have been so well collected and examined by the Dutch naturalists, that they offer valuable indications of zoo-geographical affinity; and they particularly well exhibit the sharply defined limits of the region, a large number of Oriental and even Ethiopian genera extending eastward as far as Java and Borneo, but very rarely indeed sending a single species further east, to Celebes or the Moluccas. Thirteen families of fresh-water fishes are found in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Of these the Scienidæ and Symbranchidæ have mostly a wide range in the tropics. Ophiocephalidæ are exclusively Oriental, reaching Borneo and the Philippine islands. The Mastacembelidæ are also Oriental, but one species is found as far as Ceram. Of the Nandidæ, 3 genera range over the whole region. The Labyrinthici extend from Africa through the Oriental region to Amboyna, The single species constituting the family Luciocephalidæ is confined to Borneo and the small islands of Biliton and Banca. Of the extensive family Siluridæ 17 genera are Oriental and Malayan, and 11 are Malayan exclusively; and not one of these appears to pass beyond the limits of the sub-region. The Cyprinidæ offer an equally striking example, 23 genera ranging eastward to Java and Borneo and not one beyond; 14 of these being exclusively Malayan. It must be remembered that this is not from any want of knowledge of the countries farther east, as extensive collections have also been made in Celebes, the Moluccas, and Timor; so that the facts of distribution of fresh-water fishes come, most unexpectedly, to fortify that division of the archipelago into two primary regions, which was founded on a consideration of mammalia and birds only.

Insects.--Few countries in the world can present a richer and more varied series of insects than the Indo-Malay islands, and we can only here notice a few of their more striking peculiarities and more salient features.

{342}The butterflies of this sub-region, according to the best estimate that can be formed, amount to about 650 described species, a number that will yet, no doubt, be very considerably increased. The genera which appear to be peculiar to it are Erites (Satyridæ); Zeuxidia (Morphidæ); Amnosia, Xanthotænia, and Tanæcia (Nymphalidæ). The groups which are most characteristic of the region, either from their abundance in individuals or species, or from their size and beauty, are--the rich dark-coloured Euplæa; the large semi-transparent Hestia; the plain-coloured Mycalesis, which replace our meadow-brown butterflies (Hipparchia); the curious Elymnias, which often closely resemble Euplæas; the large and handsome Thamantis and Zeuxidia, which take the place of the giant Morphos of South America; the Cethosia, of the brightest red, and marked with a curious zigzag pattern; the velvety and blue-glossed Terinos; the pale and delicately-streaked Cyrestis; the thick-bodied and boldly coloured Adolias; the small wine-coloured Taxila; the fine blue Amblypodia; the beautiful Thyca, elegantly marked underneath with red and yellow, which represent our common white butterflies and are almost equally abundant; the pale blue Eronia, and the large red-tipped Iphias. The genus Papilio is represented by a variety of fine groups; the large Ornithoptera, with satiny yellow under-wings; the superb green-marked "brookeana;" the "paradoxa" group, often closely resembling the Euplæas that abound in the same district; the "paris" group richly dusted with golden-green specks; the "helenus" group with wide-spreading black and white wings; the black and crimson "polydorus" group; the "memnon" group, of the largest size and richly-varied colours; and the "eurypilus" group, elegantly banded or spotted with blue or green: all these are so abundant that some of them are met with in every walk, and are a constant delight to the naturalist who has the privilege of observing them in their native haunts.

The Coleoptera are far less prominent and require to be carefully sought after; but they then well repay the collector. As affording some measure of the productiveness of the tropics in insect life it will not be out of place to give a few notes of the {343}number of species collected by myself in some of the best localities. At Singapore 300 species of Coleoptera were collected in 15 days, and in a month the number had increased to 520; of which 100 were Longicorns and 140 Rhyncophora. At Sarawak in Borneo I obtained 400 species in 15 days, and 600 in a month. In two months this number had increased to about 850, and in three months to 1,000 species. This was the most prolific spot I ever collected in, especially for Longicorns which formed about one-fifth of all the species of beetles. In the Aru Islands in one month, I obtained only 235 species of Coleoptera, and about 600 species of insects of all orders; and this may be taken as a fair average, in localities where no specially favourable conditions existed. On the average 40 to 60 species of Coleoptera would be a good day's collecting; 70 exceptionally good; while the largest number ever obtained in one day was 95, and the majority of these would be very minute insects. It must be remembered, however, that many very common species were passed over, yet had every species met with been collected, not much more than 100 species would ever have been obtained in one day's collecting of four or five hours. These details may afford an interesting standard of comparison for collectors in other parts of the world.

Of Cicindelidæ the most peculiarly Malayan form is Therates, found always on leaves in the forests in the same localities as the more widely spread Collyris. Five genera of this family are Indo-Malayan.

The Carabidæ, though sufficiently plentiful, are mostly of small size, and not conspicuous in any way. But there is one striking exception in the purely Malayan genus Mormolyce, the largest and most remarkable of the whole family. It is nocturnal, resting during the days on the under side of large boleti in the virgin forest. Pericallus and Catascopus are among the few genera which are at all brillantly coloured.

Buprestidæ are abundant, and very gay; the genus Belionota being perhaps one of the most conspicuous and characteristic. The giant Catoxantha is, however, the most peculiar, though comparatively scarce. Chrysochroa and Chalcophora are also {344}abundant and characteristic. Out of the 41 Oriental genera 21 are Malayan, and 10 of these are not found in the other sub-regions.

In Lucanidæ the Malay islands are rich, 14 out of the 16 Oriental genera occurring there, and 3 being peculiar. There are many fine species of Odontolabris, which may be considered the characteristic genus of the sub-region.

The Cetoniidæ are well represented by 16 genera and about 120 species. The genera Mycteristes, Phædimus, Plectrone, Euremina, Rhagopteryx and Centrognathus are peculiar, while Agestrata, Chalcothea, and Macronota are abundant and characteristic.

The Longicorns, as in all continental forest regions near the equator, are very abundant and in endlessly varied forms. No less than 55 genera containing about 200 species are peculiar to this sub-region, the Cerambycidæ being much the most numerous. Euryarthrum, Coelosterna, Agelasta, and Astathes may be considered as most characteristic; but to name the curious and interesting forms would be to give a list of half the genera. For the relations of the Longicorns of the Indo-Malay, and those of the Austro-Malay region, the reader is referred to the chapter on the distribution of insects in the succeeding part of this work.

Terrestrial Mollusca.--The Philippine islands are celebrated as being one of the richest parts of the world for land shells, about 400 species being known. The other islands of the sub-region are far less rich, not more than about 100 species having yet been described from the whole of them. Helix and Bulimus both abound in species in the Philippines, whereas the latter genus is very scarce in Borneo and Java. Ten genera of Helicidæ inhabit the sub-region; Pfeifferia is found in the Philippines and Moluccas, while the large genus Cochlostyla is almost peculiar to the Philippines. Of the Operculata there are representatives of 20 genera, of which Dermatoma and Pupinella are peculiar, while Registoma and Callia extend to the Australian region. Cyclophorus, Leptopoma, and Pupina are perhaps the most characteristic genera.

{345}The Zoological Relations of the Several Islands of the Indo-Malay Sub-region.

Although we have grouped the Philippine islands with the Indo-Malay sub-region, to which, as we shall see, they undoubtedly belong, yet most of the zoological characteristics we have just sketched out, apply more especially to the other groups of islands and the Malay peninsula. The Philippine islands stand, to Malaya proper, in the same relation that Madagascar does to Africa or the Antilles to South America; that is, they are remarkable for the absence of whole families and genera which everywhere characterise the remainder of the district. They are, in fact, truly insular, while the other islands are really continental in all the essential features of their natural history. Before, therefore, we can conveniently compare the separate islands of Malaya[12] with each other, we must first deal with the Philippine group, showing in what its speciality consists, and why it must be considered apart from the sub-region to which it belongs.

Mammals of the Philippine Islands.--The only mammalia recorded as inhabiting the Philippine Islands are the following:--

QUADRUMANA. 1. Macacus cynomolgus. 2. Cynopithecus niger. Dr. Semper doubts this being a Philippine species. LEMUROIDEA. 3. Tarsius spectrum. INSECTIVORA. 4. Galeopithecus philippinensis. 5. Tupaia (species). On Dr. Semper's authority. CARNIVORA. 6. Viverra tangalunga. 7. Paradoxurus philippensis. UNGULATA. 8. Sus (species). On Dr. Semper's authority. 9. Cervus mariannus. 10. Cervus philippensis. 11. Cervus alfredi. 12. Bos (species). Wild cattle; perhaps introduced. RODENTIA. 13. Phlæomys cummingii. 14. Scuirus philippinensis.

Also 24 species, belonging to 17 genera, of bats.

{346}The foregoing list, although small, contains an assemblage of species which are wholly Oriental in character, and several of which (Tarsius, Galeopithecus, Tupaia) are characteristic and highly peculiar Malayan forms. At the same time these islands are completely separated from the rest of Malaya by the total absence of Semnopithecus, Hylobates, Felis, Helarctos, Rhinoceros, Manis, and other groups constantly found in the great Indo-Malay islands and peninsula of Malacca. We find apparently two sets of animals: a more ancient series, represented by the deer, Galeopithecus, and squirrel, in which the species are distinct from any others; and a more recent series, represented by Macacus cynomolgus, and Viverra tangalunga, identical with common Malayan animals. The former indicate the earliest period when these volcanic islands were connected with some part of the Malayan sub-region, and they show that this was not geologically remote, since no peculiar generic types have been preserved or differentiated. The latter may indicate either the termination of the period of union, or merely the effects of introduction by man. The reason why a larger number of mammalian forms were not introduced and established, was probably because the union was effected only with some small islands, and from these communicated to other parts of the archipelago; or it may well be that later subsidences extinguished some of the forms that had established themselves.

Birds of the Philippine Islands.--These have been carefully investigated by Viscount Walden, in a paper read before the Zoological Society of London in 1873, and we are thus furnished with ample information on the relations of this important portion of the fauna.

The total number of birds known to inhabit the Philippines is 219, of which 106 are peculiar. If, however, following our usual plan, we take only the land-birds, we find the numbers to be 159 species, of which 100 are peculiar; an unusually large proportion for a group of islands so comparatively near to various parts of the Oriental and Australian regions. The families of birds which are more especially characteristic of the Indo-Malay sub-region are about 28 in number, and examples {347}of all these are found in the Philippines except four, viz., Cinclidæ, Phyllornithidæ, Eurylæmidæ, and Podargidæ. The only Philippine families which are, otherwise, exclusively Austro-Malayan are, Cacatuidæ and Megapodiidæ. Yet although the birds are unmistakably Malayan, as a whole, there are, as in the mammalia (though in a less degree), marked deficiencies of most characteristic Malayan forms. Lord Walden gives a list of no less than 69 genera thus absent; but it will be sufficient here to mention such wide-spread and specially Indo-Malay groups as,--Eurylæmus, Nyctiornis, Arachnothera, Geocichla, Malacopteron, Timalia, Pomatorhinus, Phyllornis, Iora, Criniger, Enicurus, Chaptia, Tchitrea, Dendrocitta, Eulabes, Palæornis, Miglyptes, Tiga, and Euplocamus. These deficiencies plainly show the isolated character of the Philippine group, and imply that it has never formed a part of that Indo-Malayan extension of the continent which almost certainly existed when the peculiar Malayan fauna was developed; or that, if it has been so united, it has been subsequently submerged and broken up to such an extent, as to cause the extinction of many of the absent types.

It appears from Lord Walden's careful analysis, that 31 of the Philippine species occur in the Papuan sub-region, and 47 in Celebes; 69 occur also in India, and 75 in Java. This last fact is curious, since Java is the most remote of the Malayan islands, but it is found to arise almost wholly from the birds of that island being better known, since only one species, Xantholæma rosea, is confined to the Philippine Islands and Java.

The wading and swimming birds are mostly of wide-spread forms, only 6 out of the 60 species being peculiar to the Philippine archipelago. Confining ourselves to the land-birds, and combining several of the minutely subdivided genera of Lord Walden's paper so as to agree with the arrangement adopted in this work, we find that there are 112 genera of land-birds represented in the islands. Of these, 50 are either cosmopolitan, of wide range, or common to the Oriental and Australian regions, and may be put aside as affording few indications of geographical affinity. Of the remaining 62 no less than 40 are exclusively {348}or mainly Oriental, and most of them are genera which range widely over the region, only two (Philentoma and Rollulus) being exclusively Malayan, and two others (Megalurus and Malacocircus) more especially Indian or continental. Five other genera, though having a wide range, are typically Palæarctic, and have reached the islands through North China. They are, Monticola, Acrocephalus, Phylloscopus, Calliope, and Passer; the two first having extended their range southward into the Moluccas. The peculiarly Australian genera are only 12, the majority being characteristic Papuan and Moluccan forms; such as--Campephaga, Alcyone, Cacatua, Tanygnathus, Ptilopus, Janthænas, <Phlogænas, and Megapodius. One is peculiar to Celebes (Prioniturus); one to the Papuan group (Cyclopsitta); and one is chiefly Australian (Gerygone). The beautiful little parroquets forming the genus Loriculus, are characteristic of the Philippines, which possess 5 species, a larger number than occurs in any other group of islands, though they range from India to New Guinea. There remain six peculiar genera--Rhabdornis, an isolated form of creepers (Certhiidæ); Gymnops, a remarkable bareheaded bird belonging to the starlings (Sturnidæ); Dasylophus, and Lepidogrammus, remarkable genera of cuckoos (Cuculidæ); Penelopides, a peculiar hornbill, and Phapitreron, a genus of pigeons. Besides these there are four other types (here classed as sub-genera, but considered to be distinct by Lord Walden) which are peculiar to the Philippines. These are Pseudoptynx, an owl of the genus Athene; Pseudolalage, a sub-genus of Lalage; Zeocephus, a sub-genus of Tchitrea; and Ptilocolpa, included under Carpophaga.

When we look at the position of the Philippine group, connected by the Bashee islands with Formosa, by Palawan and the Sooloo archipelago with Borneo, and by the Tulour and other islets with the Moluccas and Celebes, we have little difficulty in accounting for the peculiarities of its bird fauna. The absence of a large number of Malayan groups would indicate that the actual connection with Borneo, which seems necessary for the introduction of the Malay types of mammalia, was not of long duration; while the large proportion of wide-spread continental genera of birds would seem to imply that greater facilities had {349}once existed for immigration from Southern China, perhaps by a land connection through Formosa, at which time the ancestors of the peculiar forms of deer entered the country. It may indeed be objected that our knowledge of these islands is far too imperfect to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions as to their former history; but although many more species no doubt remain to be discovered, experience shows that the broad characters of a fauna are always determined by a series of collections made by different persons, at various localities, and at different times, even when more imperfect than those of the Philippine birds really are. The isolated position, and the volcanic structure of the group, would lead us to expect them to be somewhat less productive than the Moluccas, close to the rich and varied Papuan district,--or than Celebes, with its numerous indications of an extensive area and great antiquity; and taking into account the excessive poverty of its mammalian fauna, which is certain to be pretty well known, I am inclined to believe that no future discoveries will materially alter the character of Philippine ornithology, as determined from the materials already at our command.

Java.--Following the same plan as we have adopted in first discussing the Philippine islands, and separating them from the body of the sub-region on account of special peculiarities, we must next take Java, as possessing marked individuality, and as being to some extent more isolated in its productions than the remaining great islands.

Java is well supplied with indigenous mammalia, possessing as nearly as can be ascertained 55 genera and 90 species. None of these genera are peculiar, and only about 5 of the species,--3 quadrumana, a deer and a wild pig. So far then there is nothing remarkable in its fauna, but on comparing it with that of the other great islands, viz., Borneo and Sumatra, and the Malay peninsula, we find an unmistakable deficiency of characteristic forms, the same in kind as that we have just commented on in the case of the Philippines, though much less in degree. First, taking genera which are found in all three of the above-named {350}localities and which must therefore be held to be typical Malayan groups, the following are absent from Java: Viverra, Gymnopus, Lutra, Helarctos, Tapirus, Elephas, and Gymnura; while of those known to occur in two, and which, owing to our imperfect knowledge, may very probably one day be discovered in the third, the following are equally wanting: Simia, Siamanga, Hemigalea, Paguma, Rhinosciurus, and Rhizomys. It may be said this is only negative evidence, but in the case of Java it is much more, because this island is not only the best known of any in the archipelago, but there is perhaps no portion of British India of equal extent so well known. It is one of the oldest of the Dutch possessions and the seat of their colonial government; good roads traverse it in every direction, and experienced naturalists have been resident in various parts of it for years together, and have visited every mountain and every forest, aided by bands of diligent native collectors. We should be almost as likely to find new species of mammalia in Central Europe as in Java; and therefore the absence of such animals as the Malay bear, the elephant, tapir, gymnura, and even less conspicuous forms, must be accepted as a positive fact.

In the other islands there are still vast tracts of forest in the hands of natives and utterly unexplored, and any similar absence in their case will prove little; yet on making the same comparison in the case of Borneo, the most peculiar and the least known of the other portions of the sub-region, we find only 2 genera absent which are found in the three other divisions, and only 3 which are found in two others. A fact to be noted also is, that the only genus found in Java but not in other parts of the sub-region (Helictis) occurs again in North India; and that some Javan species, as Rhinoceros javanicus, and Lepus kurgosa occur again in the Indo-Chinese sub-region, but not in the Malayan.

Among the birds we meet with facts of a similar import; and though the absence of certain types from Java is not quite so certain as among the mammalia, this is more than balanced by the increased number of such deficiencies, so that if a few {351}should be proved to be erroneous, the main result will remain unaltered.

Java possesses about 270 species of land birds, of which about 40 are peculiar to it. There are, however, very few peculiar genera, Laniellus, a beautiful spotted shrike, being the most distinct, while Cochoa and Psaltria are perhaps not different from their Indian allies. The island has however a marked individuality in two ways--in the absence of characteristic Malayan types, and in the presence of a number of forms not yet found in any of the other Malay islands, but having their nearest allies in various parts of the Indo-Chinese sub-region. The following 16 genera are all found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, but are absent from Java: Setornis, Temnurus, Dendrocitta, Corydon, Calyptomena, Venilia, Reinwardtipicus, Caloramphus, Rhinortha, Nyctiornis, Cranorhinus, Psittinus, Polyplectron, Argusianus, Euplocamus, and Rollulus. The following 9 are known from two of the above localities, and will very probably be found in the third, but are absent from, and not likely to occur in, Java: Trichixos, Eupetes, Melanochlora, Chaptia, Pityriasis, Lyncornis, Carpococcyx, Poliococcyx, and Rhinoplax. We have thus 25 typically Malayan genera which are not known to occur in Java.

The following genera, on the other hand, do not occur in any of the Malayan sub-divisions except Java, and they all occur again, or under closely allied forms, in the Indo-Chinese sub-region; Brachypteryx (allied species in Himalayas); Zoothera (allied species in Aracan); Notodela (allied species in Pegu); Pnoëpyga (allied species in Himalayas); Allotrius (allied species in the Himalayas); Cochoa (allied species in the Himalayas); Crypsirhina (allied species in Burmah); Estrilda (allied species in India); Psaltria (allied genus--Ægithaliscus--in Himalayas); Pavo muticus and Harpactes oreskios (same species in Siam and Burmah); Cecropis striolata (same species in Java and Formosa, and allied species in India).

Here we have 12 instances of very remarkable distribution, and considering that there are nearly as many birds known from Sumatra and Borneo as from Java, and considerably more from {352}the Malay peninsula, it is not likely that many of these well marked forms will be discovered in these countries.

There are also a considerable number of species of birds common to Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, but represented in Java by distinct though closely allied species. Such are,--

Venilia malaccensis (represented in Java by) V. miniata. Drymocataphus nigrocapitatus " " D. capistratus. Malacopteron coronatum " " M. rufifrons. Irena cyanea " " I. turcosa. Ploceus baya " " P. hypoxantha. Loriculus galgulus " " L. pusillus. Ptilopus jambu " " P. porphyreus.

Now if we look at our map of the region, and consider the position of Java with regard to Borneo, Sumatra, and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, the facts just pointed out appear most anomalous and perplexing. First, we have Java and Sumatra forming one continuous line of volcanoes, separated by a very narrow strait, and with all the appearance of having formed one continuous land; yet their productions differ considerably, and those of Sumatra show the closest resemblance to those of Borneo, an island ten times further off than Java and differing widely in the absence of volcanoes or any continuous range of lofty mountains. Then again, not only does Java differ from these two, but it agrees with a country beyond them both--a country from which they seem to have a much better chance to have been supplied by immigration than Java has, and to have (almost necessarily) participated, even more largely, in the benefits of any means of transmission capable of reaching the latter island. Yet more; whatever changes have occurred to bring about the anomalous state of things that exists must have been, zoologically and geologically, recent; for the strange cross-affinities between Java and the Indo-Chinese continent (in which Sumatra and Borneo have not participated), as well as that between Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo (in which Java has not participated) are exhibited, in many cases by community of species, in others by the presence of very closely allied forms of the same genera, of mammalia and birds. Now we know that {353}these higher animals become replaced by allied species much more rapidly than the mollusca; and it is also pretty certain that the modification by which this replacement is effected takes place more rapidly when the two sets of individuals are isolated from each other, and especially when they are restricted to islands, where they are necessarily subject to distinct and pretty constant conditions, both physical and organic. It becomes therefore almost a certainty, that Siam and Java on the one hand, and Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca on the other must have been brought into some close connexion, not earlier than the newer Pliocene period; but while the one set of countries were having their meeting, the other must have been by some means got out of the way. Before attempting to indicate the mode by which this might have been effected in accordance with what we know of the physical geography, geology, and vegetation of the several islands, it will be as well to complete our sketch of their zoological relations to each other, so as ascertain with some precision, what are the facts of distribution which we have to explain.

Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo.--After having set apart the Philippine Islands and Java, we have remaining two great islands and a peninsula, which, though separated by considerable arms of the sea, possess a fauna of wonderful uniformity having all the typical Malayan features in their full development. Their unity is indeed so complete, that we can find hardly any groups of sufficient importance by which to differentiate them from each other; and we feel no confidence that future discoveries may not take away what speciality they possess. One after another, species or genera once peculiar to Borneo or Sumatra have been found elsewhere; and this has gone to such an extent in birds, that hardly a peculiar genus and very few peculiar species are left in either island. Borneo however is undoubtedly the most peculiar. It possesses three genera of Mammalia not found elsewhere; Cynogale, a curious carnivore allied to the otters; with Dendrogale and Ptilocerus, small insectivora allied to Tupaia. It has Simia, the {354}Orang-utan, and Paguma, one of the Viverridæ, in common with Sumatra; as well as Rhinosciurus, a peculiar form of squirrel, and Hemigalea, one of the Viverridæ, in common with Malacca. Sumatra has only one genus not found in any other Malayan district--Nemorhedus, a form of antelope which occurs again in North India. It also has Siamanga in common with Malacca, Mydaus with Java, and Rhizomys with India. The Malay Peninsula seems to have no peculiar forms of Mammalia, though it is rich in all the characteristic Malay types.

The bats of the various islands have been very unequally collected, 36 species being recorded from Java, 23 from Sumatra, but only 16 each from Borneo and Malacca. Leaving these out of consideration, and taking into account the terrestrial mammals only, we find that Java is the poorest in species, while Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca are tolerably equal; the numbers being 55, 62, 66, and 65 respectively. Of these we find that the species confined to each island or district are (in the same order) 6, 16, 5, and 6. It thus appears that Borneo is, in its mammalia, the most isolated and peculiar; next comes Sumatra, and then Malacca and Java, as shown by the following table.

Peculiar Peculiar Genera. Species. Borneo 4 16 Sumatra 1 5 Malacca 0 6 Java 0 6

This result differs from that which we have arrived at by the more detailed consideration of the fauna of Java; and it serves to show that the estimate of a country by the number of its peculiar genera and species alone, may not always represent its true zoological importance or its most marked features. Java, as we have seen, is differentiated from the other three districts by the absence of numerous types common to them all, and by its independent continental relations. Borneo is also well distinguished by its peculiar genera and specific types, yet it is at the same time more closely related to Sumatra and Malacca than is Java. The two islands have evidently had a very different history, which a detailed knowledge of their geology {355}would alone enable us to trace. Should we ever arrive at a fair knowledge of the physical changes that have resulted in the present condition, we shall almost certainly find that many of the differences and anomalies of their existing fauna and flora will be accounted for.

In Birds we hardly find anything to differentiate Borneo and Sumatra in any clear manner. Pityriasis and Carpococcyx, once thought peculiar to the former, are now found also in the latter; and we have not a single genus left to characterize Borneo except Schwaneria a peculiar fly-catcher, and Indicator, an African and Indian group not known to occur elsewhere in the Malay sub-region. Sumatra as yet alone possesses Psilopogon, a remarkable form of barbet, but we may well expect that it will be soon found in the interior of Borneo or Malacca; it also has Berenicornis, an African form of hornbill. The Malay Peninsula appears to have no genus peculiar to it, but it possesses some Chinese and Indian forms which do not pass into the islands. As to the species, our knowledge of them is at present very imperfect. The Malay Peninsula is perhaps the best known, but it is probable that both Sumatra and Borneo are quite as rich in species. With the exception of the genera noted above, and two or three others as yet found in two islands only, the three districts we are now considering may be said to have an almost identical bird-fauna, consisting largely of the same species and almost wholly of these together with closely allied species of the same genera. There are no well-marked groups which especially characterise one of these islands rather than the other, so that even the amount of speciality which Borneo undoubtedly exhibits as regards mammalia, is only faintly shown by its birds. The Pittidæ may perhaps be named as the most characteristic Bornean group, that island possessing six species, three of which are peculiar to it and are among the most beautiful birds of an unusually beautiful family. Yet Sumatra possesses two peculiar, and hardly less remarkable species.

In other classes of vertebrates, in insects, and in land-shells, our knowledge is far too imperfect to allow of our making any useful comparison between the faunas.

{356}Banca.--We must, however note the fact of peculiar species occurring in Banca, a small island close to Sumatra, and thus offering another problem in distribution. A squirrel (Sciurus bangkanus) is allied to three species found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo respectively, but quite as distinct from them all as they are from each other. More curious are the two species of Pitta peculiar to Banca; one, Pitta megarhynchus, is allied to the P. brachyurus, which inhabits the whole sub-region and extends to Siam and China, but differs from it in its very large bill and differently coloured head; the other, P. bangkanus, is allied to P. cucullatus, which extends from Nepal to Malacca, and to P. sordidus, which inhabits both Borneo and Sumatra as well as the Philippines.

We have here, on a small scale, a somewhat similar problem to that of Java, and as this is comparatively easy of solution we will consider it first. Although, on the map, Banca is so very close to Sumatra, the observer on the spot at once sees that the proximity has been recently brought about. The whole south-east coast of Sumatra is a great alluvial plain, hardly yet raised above the sea level, and half flooded in the wet season. It is plainly a recent formation, caused by the washing down into a shallow sea of the débris from the grand range of volcanic mountains 150 miles distant. Banca, on the other hand is, though low, a rugged and hilly island, formed almost wholly of ancient rocks of apparently volcanic origin, and closely resembling parts of the Malay Peninsula and the intervening chain of small islands. There is every appearance that Banca once formed the extremity of the Peninsula, at which time it would probably have been separated from Sumatra by 50 or 100 miles of sea. Its productions should, therefore, most resemble those of Singapore and Malacca, and the few peculiar species it possesses will be due to their isolation in a small tract of country, surrounded by a limited number of animal and vegetable forms, and subject to the influence of a peculiar soil and climate. The parent species existing in such large tracts as Borneo or Sumatra, subjected to more varied conditions of soil, climate, vegetation, food, and enemies, would preserve, almost or quite {357}unchanged, the characteristics which had been developed under nearly identical conditions when the great island formed part of the continent. Geology teaches us that similar changes in the forms of the higher vertebrates have taken place during the Post-Tertiary epoch; and there are other reasons for believing that, under such conditions of isolation as in Banca, the change may have required but a very moderate period, even reckoned in years. We will now return to the more difficult problem presented by the peculiar continental relations of Java, as already detailed.

Probable Recent Geographical Changes in the Indo-Malay Islands.--Although Borneo is by far the largest of the Indo-Malay islands, yet its physical conformation is such that, were a depression to occur of one or two thousand feet, it would be reduced to a smaller continuous area than either Sumatra or Java. Except in its northern portion it possesses no lofty mountains, while alluvial valleys of great extent penetrate far into its interior. A very moderate depression, of perhaps 500 feet, would convert it into an island shaped something like Celebes; and its mountains are of so small an average elevation, and consist so much of isolated hills and detached ranges, that a depression of 2,000 feet would almost certainly break it up into a group of small islands, with a somewhat larger one to the north. Sumatra (and to a less extent Java) consists of an almost continuous range of lofty mountains, connected by plateaus from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high; so that although a depression of 2,000 feet would greatly diminish their size, it would probably leave the former a single island, while the latter would be separated into two principal islands of still considerable extent. The enormous amount of volcanic action in these two islands, and the great number of conical mountains which must have been slowly raised, chiefly by ejected matter, to the height of 10,000 and 12,000 feet, and whose shape indicates that they have been formed above water, renders it almost certain that for long periods they have not undergone submersion to any considerable extent. In Borneo, however, we have no such evidences. No volcano, {358}active or extinct, is known in its entire area; while extensive beds of coal of tertiary age, in every part of it, prove that it has been subject to repeated submersions, at no distant date geologically. An indication, if not a proof, of still more recent submersion is to be found in the great alluvial valleys which on the south and south-west extend fully 200 miles inland, while they are to a less degree a characteristic feature all round the island. These swampy plains have been formed by the combined action of rivers and tides; and they point clearly to an immediately preceding state of things, when that which is even now barely raised above the ocean, was more or less sunk below it.

These various indications enable us to claim, as an admissible and even probable supposition, that at some epoch during the Pliocene period of geology, Borneo, as we now know it, did not exist; but was represented by a mountainous island at its present northern extremity, with perhaps a few smaller islets to the south. We thus have a clear opening from Java to the Siamese Peninsula; and as the whole of that sea is less than 100 fathoms deep, there is no difficulty in supposing an elevation of land connecting the two together, quite independent of Borneo on the one hand and Sumatra on the other. This union did not probably last long; but it was sufficient to allow of the introduction into Java of the Rhinoceros javanicus, and that group of Indo-Chinese and Himalayan species of mammalia and birds which it alone possesses. When this ridge had disappeared by subsidence, the next elevation occurred a little more to the east, and produced the union of many islets which, aided by sub-aerial denudation, formed the present island of Borneo. It is probable that this elevation was sufficiently extensive to unite Borneo for a time with the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, thus helping to produce that close resemblance of genera and even of species, which these countries exhibit, and obliterating much of their former speciality, of which, however, we have still some traces in the long-nosed monkey and Ptilocerus of Borneo, and the considerable number of genera both of mammalia and birds confined to two only out of the three divisions of typical Malaya. The subsidence which again divided these {359}countries by arms of the sea rather wider than at present, might have left Banca isolated, as already referred to, with its proportion of the common fauna to be, in a few instances, subsequently modified.

Thus we are enabled to understand how the special relations of the species of these islands to each other may have been brought about. To account for their more deep-seated and general zoological features, we must go farther back.

Probable Origin of the Malayan Fauna.--The typical Malayan fauna is essentially an equatorial one, and must have been elaborated in an extensive equatorial area. This ancient land almost certainly extended northward over the shallow sea as far as the island of Palawan, the Paracels shoals and even Hainan. To the east, it may at one time have included the Philippines and Celebes, but not the Moluccas. To the south it was limited by the deep sea beyond Java. It included all Sumatra and the Nicobar islands, and there is every reason to believe that it stretched out also to the west so as to include the central peak of Ceylon, the Maldive isles, and the Cocos islands west of Sumatra. We should then have an area as extensive as South America to 15° south latitude, and well calculated to develop that luxuriant fauna and flora which has since spread to the Himalayas. The submergence of the western half of this area (leaving only a fragment in Ceylon) would greatly diminish the number of animals and perhaps extinguish some peculiar types; but the remaining portion would still form a compact and extensive district, twice as large as the peninsula of India, over the whole of which a uniform Malayan fauna would prevail. The first important change would be the separation of Celebes; and this was probably effected by a great subsidence, forming the deep strait that now divides that island from Borneo. During the process Celebes itself was no doubt greatly submerged, leaving only a few islands in which were preserved that remnant of the ancient Malayan fauna that now constitutes one of its most striking and anomalous features. The Philippine area would next be separated, and perhaps be almost wholly submerged; or {360}broken up into many small volcanic islets in which a limited number of Malayan types alone survived. Such a condition of things will account for the very small variety of mammalia compared with the tolerably numerous genera of birds, that now characterise its fauna; while both here and in Celebes we find some of the old Malayan types preserved, which, in the extended area of the Sunda Isles have been replaced by more dominant forms.

The next important change would be the separation of Java; and here also no doubt a considerable submergence occurred, rendering the island an unsuitable habitation for the various Malay types whose absence forms one of its conspicuous features. It has since remained permanently separated from the other islands, and has no doubt developed some peculiar species, while it may have preserved some ancient forms which in the larger area have become changed. From the fact that a number of its species are confined either to the western or the eastern half of the island, it is probable that it long continued as two islands, which have become united at a comparatively recent period. It has also been subjected to the immigration of Indo-Chinese forms, as already referred to in the earlier part of this sketch.

We have thus shown how the main zoological features of the several sub-divisions of the Malayan sub-region may be accounted for, by means of a series of suppositions as to past changes which, though for the most part purely hypothetical, are always in accordance with what we know both of the physical geography and the zoology of the districts in question and those which surround them. It may also be remarked, that we know, with a degree of certainty which may be called absolute, that alternate elevation and subsidence is the normal state of things all over the globe; that it was the rule in the earliest geological epochs, and that it has continued down to the historical era. We know too, that the amount of elevation and subsidence that can be proved to have occurred again and again in the same area, is often much greater than is required for the changes here speculated on,--while the time required for such changes is certainly less than that necessitated by the changes {361}of specific and generic forms which have coincided with, and been to a large extent dependent on them. We have, therefore, true causes at work, and our only suppositions have been as to how those causes could have brought about the results which we see; and however complex and unlikely some of the supposed changes may seem to the reader, the geologist who has made a study of such changes, as recorded in the crust of the earth, will not only admit them to be probable, but will be inclined to believe that they have really been far more complex and more unexpected than any supposition we can make about them.

There is one other external relation of the Malayan fauna about which it may be necessary to say a few words. I have supposed the greatest westward extension of the Malayan area to be indicated by the Maldive islands, but some naturalists would extend it to include Madagascar in order to account for the range of the Lemuridæ. Such an extension would, however, render it difficult to explain the very small amount of correspondence with a pervading diversity, between the Malayan and Malagasy faunas. It seems more reasonable to suppose an approximation of the two areas, without actual union having ever occurred. This approximation would have allowed the interchange of certain genera of birds, which are common to the Oriental Region and the Mascarene islands, but it would have been too recent to account for the diffusion of the lemurs, which belong to distinct genera and even distinct families. This probably dates back to a much earlier period, when the lemurine type had a wide range over the northern hemisphere. Subjected to the competition of higher forms, these imperfectly developed groups have mostly died out, except a few isolated examples, chiefly found in islands, and a few groups in Africa.

In our discussion of the origin of the Ethiopian fauna, we have supposed that a close connection once existed between Madagascar and Ceylon. This was during a very early tertiary epoch; and if, long after it had ceased and the fauna of Ceylon and South India had assumed somewhat more of their present character, we suppose the approximation or union of Ceylon {362}and Malaya to have taken place, we shall perhaps be able to account for most of the special affinities they present, with the least amount of simultaneous elevation of the ocean bed; which it must always be remembered, requires a corresponding depression elsewhere to balance it.

Concluding Remarks on the Oriental Region.--We have already so fully discussed the internal and external relations of the several sub-regions, that little more need be said. The rich and varied fauna which inhabited Europe at the dawn of the tertiary period,--as shown by the abundant remains of mammalia wherever suitable deposits of Eocene age have been discovered,--proves, that an extensive Palæarctic continent then existed; and the character of the flora and fauna of the Eocene deposits is so completely tropical, that we may be sure there was then no barrier of climate between it and the Oriental region. At that early period the northern plains of Asia were probably under water, while the great Thibetan plateau and the Himalayan range, had not risen to more than a moderate height, and would have supported a luxuriant sub-tropical flora and fauna. The Upper Miocene deposits of northern and central India, and Burmah, agree in their mammalian remains with those of central and southern Europe, while closely allied forms of elephant, hyæna, tapir, rhinoceros, and Chalicotherium have occurred in North China; leading us to conclude that one great fauna then extended over much of the Oriental and Palæarctic regions. Perim island at the mouth of the Red Sea, where similar remains are found, probably shows the southern boundary of this part of the old Palæarctic region in the Miocene period. Towards the equator there would, of course, be some peculiar groups; but we can hardly doubt, that, in that wonderful time when even the lands that stretched out furthest towards the pole, supported a luxuriant forest vegetation, substantially one fauna ranged over the whole of the great eastern continent of the northern hemisphere. During the Pliocene period, however, a progressive change went on which resulted in the complete differentiation of the Oriental and Palæarctic faunas. The {363}causes of this change were of two kinds. There was a great geographical and physical revolution effected by the elevation of the Himalayas and the Thibetan plateau, and, probably at the same time, the northward extension of the great Siberian plains. This alone would produce an enormous change of climate in all the extra-tropical part of Asia, and inevitably lead to a segregation of the old fauna into tropical and temperate, and a modification of the latter so as to enable it to support a climate far more severe than it had previously known. But it is almost certain that, concurrently with this, there was a change going on of a cosmical nature, leading to an alteration of the climate of the northern hemisphere from equable to extreme, and culminating in that period of excessive cold which drove the last remnants of the old sub-tropical fauna beyond the limits of the Palæarctic region. From that time, the Oriental and the Ethiopian regions alone contained the descendants of many of the most remarkable types which had previously flourished over all Europe and Asia; but the early history of these two regions, and the peculiar equatorial types developed in each, sufficiently separate them, as we have already shown. The Malayan sub-region is that in which characteristic Oriental types are now best developed, and where the fundamental contrast of the Oriental, as compared with the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, is most distinctly visible.

{364}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In constructing these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Oriental region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, catalogues, &c., used for the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work.

Mammalia.--Jerdon's Indian Mammalia; Kelaart's Fauna of Ceylon; Horsfield and Moore's Catalogue of the East India Museum; Swinhoe's Catalogue of Chinese Mammalia; S. Müller's Zoology of the Indian Archipelago; Dr. J. E. Gray's list of Mammalia of the Malay Archipelago (Voyage of Samarang); and papers by Anderson, Blyth, Cantor, Gray, Peters, Swinhoe, &c.

Birds.--Jerdon's Birds of India; Horsfield and Moore's Catalogue; Holdsworth's list of Ceylon Birds; Schlegel's Catalogue of the Leyden Museum; Swinhoe on the Birds of China, Formosa, and Hainan; Salvadori on the Birds of Borneo; Lord Walden on the Birds of the Philippine Islands; and papers by Blyth, Blanford, Elwes, Elliot, Stoliczka, Sclater, Sharpe, Swinhoe, Verreaux, and Lord Walden.

Reptiles.--Günther's Reptiles of British India; papers by same author, and by Dr. Stoliczka.

{365}TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ORIENTAL REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show families peculiar to the region.

Numbers correspond with those in Part IV.

Names enclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not considered really to belong to it.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=Hindostan. | Order and Family | 2=Ceylon. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=Indo-China. | | 4=Indo-Malaya. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | PRIMATES. | | | | | 1. Simiidæ | | | -- | -- |W. Africa 2. Semnopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical Africa 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All Africa, S. Palæarctic 6. Lemuridæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian 7. Tarsiidæ | | | | -- |Celebes | | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | | | 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions | | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | | | 14. Galeopithecidæ| | | | -- | 16. Tupaiidæ | | -- | -- | -- | 17. Erinaceidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, S. Africa 21. Talpidæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic, Nearctic 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | | | | N. America | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 25. Viverridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 27. Hyænidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian [?] 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 31. Æluridæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic 32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, Chili | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | |Oceanic | | | | | SIRENIA. | | | | | 42. Manatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, N. Pacific | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 43. (Equidæ) | -- | | | |Palæarctic, Ethiopian 44. Tapiridæ | | | | -- |Neotropical 45. Rinocerotidæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | | | | Neotropical 49. Tragulidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |W. Africa 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Ethiopian and | | | | | Australian 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and | | | | | Neotropical 53. Elephantidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Oceania 56. Spalacidæ | | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 67. Hystricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Palæarctic, Ethiopian 70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian | | | | | EDENTATA. | | | | | 72. Manididæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | | | | | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 4. Panuridæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic 5. Cinclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Not Ethiopian or Australian 6. Troglodytidæ | | | -- | -- |American and Palæarctic 8. Certhiidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, | | | | | Australian 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, | | | | | Australian, Madagascar 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and | | | | | North America 11. Liotrichidæ | | | -- | -- | 12. Phyllornithidæ| -- | -- | -- | -- | 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Moluccas 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 18. Pachycephalidæ | | | -- | -- |Australian 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and | | | | | North America 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 36. Artamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 43. Eurylæmidæ | | | -- | -- | 47. Pittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 52. Yungidæ | -- | | | |Palæarctic 53. Indicatoridæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian 54. Megalæmidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian 66. Trogonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical, Ethiopian 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan 69. Upupidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 71. Podargidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | PSITTACI. | | | | | 76. (Cacatuidæ) | | | | -- |Australian 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Palæarctic 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and North | | | | | America 88. Phasianidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Palæarctic, North | | | | | America 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, | | | | | S. Palæarctic 90. Megapodiidæ | | | | -- |Australian | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Eastern Hemisphere 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotropical 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 117. Phænicopteridæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical, | | | | | S. Palæarctic | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic 2. Tortricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Austro-Malaya, S. America 3. Xenopeltidæ | | | -- | -- |Celebes 4. Uropeltidæ | | -- | | | 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the warmer regions 6. Oligodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. America, Japan 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the regions 9. Psammophidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 12. Dryiophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 14. Scytalidæ | | | | -- |Tropical America 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian 16. Amblycephalidæ | | | -- | -- |Neotropical 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The tropical regions, and | | | | | California 18. Erycidæ | -- | | -- | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 19. Acrochordidæ | | -- | | -- | 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions, Japan, | | | | | S. Carolina 23. Hydrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Panama, Madagascar 24. Crotalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |America, E. Palæarctic 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Palæarctic | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Africa, Australia 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 34. Zonuridæ | | | -- | |America, S. Europe, Ethiopian 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 48. Acontiadæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Moluccas 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere 52. Chamæleonidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian | | | | | CROCODILIA. | | | | | 54. Gavialidæ | -- | | | -- |N. Australia 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical, | | | | | N. Australia | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia 59. Trionychidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Japan, E. of N. America, | | | | | Africa 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | PSEUDOPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Cæciliadæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Neotropical | | | | | URODELA. | | | | | 5. Salamandridæ | | | -- | |North temperate zone | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 7. Phryniscidæ | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, | | | | | Neotropical 9. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia 11. Engystomidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Palæarctic 16. Hylidæ | | | -- | |All regions but Ethiopian 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical and all other | | | | | regions 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite 19. Discoglossidæ | | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic | | | | | FISHES. (FRESHWATER).| | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian 33. Nandidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical 35. Labyrinthici | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Africa, Moluccas 36. Luciocephalidæ| | | | -- | 39. Ophiocephalidæ| -- | -- | -- | -- | 46. Mastacembelidæ| -- | -- | -- | -- | 52. Chromidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | | | | American 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Not in S. America and Australia 78. Osteoglossidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions 82. Notopteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |W. Africa 85. Symbranchidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Australian (? Marine) | | | | | Neotropical | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES.)| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions and to Canada 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 3. Elymniidæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Moluccas 4. Morphidæ | | | -- | -- |Neotropical, Moluccas, and | | | | | Polynesia 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia 10. Nemeobeidæ | | | -- | -- |Not in Australia or Nearctic | | | | | regions 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Ethiopian 20. Uraniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

TABLE II.

GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE ORIENTAL REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | PRIMATES. | | | SIMIIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Simia | 2 |Borneo and Sumatra | 2. Hylobates | 7 |Sylhet to Java and | | | S. China | 3. Siamanga | 1 |Malacca and Sumatra | | | | SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | 4. Presbytes | 28 |Simla to Aracan and |Moupin, Palæarctic [?] | | E. Thibet, Ceylon, | | | and Java | | | | CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | 5. Macacus | 22 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic 6. Cynopithecus | 1 |Philippines |Celebes | | | (Sub-Order) | | | LEMUROIDEA. | | | | | | LEMURIDÆ. | | | | | | 7. Nycticebus | 3 |E. Bengal to Java, and | | | S. China | 8. Loris | 1 |Ceylon and S. India | | | | TARSIIDÆ. | | | | | | 9. Tarsius | 1 |Sumatra, Borneo and | N. Celebes | | Philippines | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PTEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 10. Pteropus | 6 |The whole region |Tropics of E. Hemisp. 11. Xantharpyia | 1 |The whole region |Austro-Malaya, | | | Ethiop., | | | S. Palæarctic 12. Cynopterus | 3 |The whole region |Tropical Africa 13. Megærops | 1 |Sumatra | 14. Macroglossus | 1 |Java, Borneo, |Austro-Malaya | | Philippines | 15. Harpyia | 1 |Philippines |Austro-Malaya | | | RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | | | | 16. Aquias | 2 |Nepal to Java | 17. Phyllotis | 1 |Philippines | 18. Rhinolophus | 10 |The whole region |Warmer parts of | | | E. Hem. 19. Hipposideros | 8 |The whole region |Austro-Malaya 20. Phyllorhina | 4 |Indo-Malay subregion |Austro-Malaya, | | | Tropical Africa 21. Asellia | 1 |Java, Sumatra |Amboyna, Egypt 22. Petalia | 1 |Java | 23. Coelops | 1 |India (Bengal) | 24. Rhinopoma | 1 |All India |Egypt, Palestine 25. Megaderma | 2 |The whole region |Ternate, N. Ethiopian 26. Nycteris | 1 |Java |Ethiopian | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 27. Scotophilus | 10 |The whole region |Austral., Nearc., | | | Neotrop. 28. Vespertilio | 12 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 29. Keriovula | 8 |The whole region |S. Africa, N. China 30. Trilatitus | 2 |Indo-Malaya |? 31. Noctulina | 3 |Nepal to Philippines |? 32. Miniopteris | 3 |Java, Philippines, and |S. Africa, | | China | S. Palæarctic, | | | Australian 33. Murina | 2 |Himalayas to Java |? 34. Nycticejus | 8 |All India |Trop. Africa, Temp. . | | | Amer 35. Harpiocephalus | 2 |Java and Philippines | 36. Taphozous | 4 |The whole region |Ethiop., Austro- | | | Malayan, Neotropical 37. Myotis | 3 |Himalayas | 38. Plecotus | 1 |Darjeeling |Timor, S. Palæarctic 39. Barbastellus | 1 |Himalayas |Europe 40. Nyctophilus | 1 |Mussoorie |Australian | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 41. Chiromeles | 1 |Indo-Malaya, Siam | 42. Nyctinomus | |The whole region |Madagascar, America | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | GALEOPITHECIDÆ. | | | | | | 43. Galeopithecus| 2 |Indo-Malay and | | | Philippines, excl. | | | Java | | | | TUPAIIDÆ. | | | | | | 44. Tupaia | 7 |S. and E. of India to | | | Borneo | 45. Hylomys | 2 |Tenasserim to Java and | | | Borneo | 46. Ptilocerus | 1 |Borneo | | | | ERINACEIDÆ. | | | | | | 47. Erinaceus | 2 |Hindostan and Formosa |Palæarctic, S. Africa 48. Gymnura | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | | | | TALPIDÆ. | | | | | | 49. Talpa | 2 |Himalayas to Assam, & |Palæarctic | | Formosa | | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | | | | 50. Sorex | 21 |The whole region |All regions but | | | Austral. and | | | S. America | | | CARNIVORA. | | | FELIDÆ. | | | | | | 51. Felis | 20 |The whole region |All regions but | | | Austral. (Lynx | 1 |Central India) |Palæarctic, Ethiopian 52. Cynælurus | 1 |S. and W. India |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian | | | VIVERRIDÆ. | | | | | | 53. Viverra | 2 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Moluccas 54. Viverricula | 2 |India to China and Java| 55. Prionodon | 2 |Nepal to Borneo and | | | Java | 56. Hemigalea | 2 |Malacca and Borneo | 57. Arctitis | 1 |Nepal to Sumatra and | | | Java | 58. Paradoxurus | 8 |The whole region |Ke Islands (? | | | introduced) 59. Paguma | 3 |Nepal to Malaya and | | | China | 60. Arctogale | 1 |Tenasserim and Malaya | 61. Cynogale | 1 |Borneo | 62. Herpestes | 7 |The whole reg., excl. |S. Palæarctic, | | Philippines | Ethiopian 63. Calogale | 4 |India to Cambodjia |Ethiopian 64. Calictis | 1 |Ceylon ? | 65. Urva | |N. India | 66. Tæniogale | 1 |Central India | 67. Onychogale | 1 |Ceylon | | | | HYÆNIDÆ. | | | | | | 68. Hyæna | 1 |Hindostan, open country|S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian | | | CANIDÆ. | | | | | | 69. Canis | 2 |All India |Almost Cosmopolite 70. Cuon | 1 |India to Java | 71. Vulpes | 4 |All India |All Continents but S. | | |America and Australia (Nyctereutes | 1 |China) |Japan and Amoorland | | | MUSTELIDÆ. | | | | | | 72. Martes | 2 |India, Ceylon, Java, |Palæarctic, Nearctic | | and China | 73. Mustela | 3 |Himalayas to Bhotan and|Palæarc., Ethiop., | | China | Nearc. 74. Gymnopus | 2 |Nepal to Borneo | 75. Barangia | 1 |Sumatra | 76. Lutra | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic 77. Aonyx | 2 |N. India, Malaya |W. and S. Africa 78. Arctonyx | 1 |Nepal to Aracan | (Meles | 1 |S. China) |Palæarctic genus 79. Mydaus | 1 |Sumatra, Java | 80. Mellivora | 1 |Hindostan |Ethiopian 81. Helictis | 4 |Nepal, Formosa, China &| | | Java | | | | ÆLURIDÆ. | | | | | | 82. Ælurus | 1 |E. Himalayas to |Palæarctic ? | | E. Thibet | | | | URSIDÆ. | | | | | | 83. Ursus | 2 |Himalayas to China |Palæarctic, Nearctic 84. Helarctos | 1 |Indo-Malaya | 85. Melursus | 1 |Ganges to Ceylon | | | | CETACEA. | | | DELPHINIDÆ. | | | | | | 86. Platanista | 2 |Ganges to India | | | | SIRENIA. | | | MANATIDÆ. | | | | | | 87. Halicore | 1 |Coasts of W. India, |E. Africa, | | Ceylon, and | N. Australia | | Indo-Malaya | | | | UNGULATA. | | | TAPIRIDÆ. | | | | | | 88. Tapirus | 1 |Malay Pen., Sumatra, |Neotropical | | Borneo | | | | RHINOCEROTIDÆ. | | | | | | 89. Rhinoceros | 5 |Nepal to Bengal, Siam, |Ethiopian | | & Java | | | | SUIDÆ. | | | | | | 90. Sus | 6 |The whole region |Palæarc., Austro- | | | Malaya | | | TRAGULIDÆ. | | | | | | 91. Tragulus | 5 |India and Ceylon to | | | Cambodja and Java | | | | CERVIDÆ. | | | | | | 92. Cervus | 15 |The whole region |Palæarc., Amer., | | | Moluc. 93. Cervulus | 4 |The whole region | (Moschus | 1 |Himalayas above 8,000 |Central Asia, | | feet) | Palæarctic | | | BOVIDÆ. | | | | | | 94. Bibos | 3 |India to Burmah, | | | Formosa, and Java | 95. Bubalus | 1 |N. and N. Central India|Ethiopian, | | | S. Palæarctic 96. Portax | 1 |Peninsula of India | 97. Gazella | 1 |Deserts and plains of |Palæarctic deserts | | India | 98. Antilope | 1 |Open country of India | 99. Tetraceros | 2 |Hilly districts all | | | over India | 100. Nemorhedus | 3 |E. Himalayas and |N. China and Japan | | Sumatra | 101. Capra | 1 |Neilgherries |Palæarctic, Nearctic | | | PROBOSCIDEA. | | | ELEPHANTIDÆ. | | | | | | 102. Elephas | |India to Siam, Sumatra |Ethiopian | | & Borneo | | | | RODENTIA. | | | MURIDÆ. | | | | | | 103. Mus | 50 |The whole region |The E. Hemisphere 104. Acanthomys | 1 |India |Ethiopian, Australian 105. Phlæomys | 1 |Philippines | 106.Platacanthomys| 1 |S. W. India | 107. Meriones | 2 |India and Ceylon |Palæarctic, Ethiopian 108. Spalacomys | 1 |India | 109. Arvicola | 2 |Himalayas |Palæarctic, Nearctic | | | SPALACIDÆ. | | | | | | 110. Rhizomys | 3 |Nepal to Canton, |Abyssinia | | Malacca and Sumatra | | | | SCIURIDÆ. | | | | | | 111. Sciurus | 50 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. | | | Austral. region 112. Sciuropterus | 9 |India, and Ceylon to |N. and E. Palæarctic | | Java, Formosa | 113. Pteromys | 9 |India & Ceylon to |Japan | | Borneo, Java, Formosa| (Arctomys | 2 |W. Himalayas above |Palæarctic and | | 8,000 ft.) | Nearctic | | | HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | | | | 114. Hystrix | 3 |India and Ceylon, to |S. Palæarctic, | | Malacca & S. China | Ethiopian 115. Atherura | 2 |India to Malaya |West Africa 116. Acanthion | 2 |Nepal to Borneo and | | | Java | | | | LEPORIDÆ. | | | | | | 117. Lepus | 5 |India and Ceylon to |All regions but | | S. China and Formosa | Austral. | | | ENDENTATA. | | | MANIDIDÆ. | | | | | | 118. Manis | 2 |Nepal to Ceylon, |Ethiopian | | S. China and Java | | | |

BIRDS.

PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | 1. Brachypteryx | 8 |Himalayas, Ceylon and | | | Java | 2. Oreocincla | 8 |N. W. Himalayas to E. |Palæarctic, Australian | | Thibet Ceylon, Burmah,| | | Malaya, Formosa | 3. Turdus | 26 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite 4. Geocichla | 9 |India & Ceylon to Java,|Celebes, Lombock, to | | Formosa | N. Australia 5. Monticola | 3 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | |Moluccas 6. Orocætes | 2 |N. W. Himalayas, and | | | India | 7. Zoothera | 3 |W. Himalayas to Aracan,|Lombock, Timor ? | | Java | | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | 8. {Orthotomus | 13 |The whole region | 9. {Prinia | 11 |The whole reg., excl. | { | | Philippines | 10. {Drymæca | 13 |The whole reg., excl. |Ethiopian { | | Philippines | 11. {Cisticola | 6 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian 12. {Suya | 5 |Nepal to S. China and | { | | Formosa | 13. {Megalurus | 3 |Central India, Java, | | | Philippines | | | | 14. {Acrocephalus | 9 |India to Ceylon, S. |Palæarc., Ethiop., { | | China, and Philippines| Austral. {(Dumeticola | 2 |Nepal and E. Thibet) |A Palæarctic genus | | | 15. {Locustella | 4 |Nepal, Hindostan, |Palæarctic { | | S. China | 16. {Horites | 2 |Himalayas, Formosa |High Himal., E. Thibet | | | 17. {Phylloscopus | 10 |All India and Ceylon, |Palæarctic, Ethiopian { | | to China, Philippines| {(Gerygone | 1 |Philippine Islands) |Australian genus {(Hypolais | 1 |All India, ? migrant) |Palæarctic genus 18. {Abrornis | 26 |The whole reg., excl. |Cashmere, E. Thibet { | | Philippines | 19. {Reguloides | 2 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic { | | India | {(Regulus | 1 |N. W. Himalayas and |Palæarctic and | | E. Thibet) | Nearctic {(Sylvia | 2 |India and Ceylon) |Palæarctic genus {(Curruca | 2 |India) |Palæarctic genus | | | {(Cyanecula | 1 |India) |Palæarctic genus 20. {Calliope | 2 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic { | | India, Philippine | { | | Islands | 21. {Ruticilla | 8 |Himalayas to China and |Palæarctic, Ethiopian { | | Formosa | 22. {Chæmarrhornis 1 |Himalayas to Burmah | 23. {Larvivora | 10 |W. Himalayas to Ceylon,| { | | Malacca and China | 24. {Notodela | 3 |Himalayas to Pegu, | { | | Java, Formosa | 25. {Tarsiger | 2 |Nepal and W. Himalayas | {(Grandala | 1 |Nepal and E. Thibet, |Palæarctic genus | | high) | 26. {Copsychus | 6 |The whole region |Madagascar 27. {Kittacincla | 5 |The whole region | 28. {Thamnobia | 2 |N. W. India, Hindostan,|Ethiopian { | | and Ceylon | {(Dromolæa | 1 |N. W. India) |Ethiopian genus {(Saxicola | 2 |N. W. India) |Palæarctic and { | | | Ethiopian 29. {Oreicola ? | 1 |Burmah |Timor {(Cercomela | 1 |N. W. India, a desert |N. E. Africa, { | | genus) | S. W. Asia 30. {Pratincola | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | |Celebes, and Timor (Accentor | 2 |Himalayas, in winter) |Palæarctic genus | | | TIMALIIDÆ. | | | | | | 31. Pomatorhinus | 20 |The whole region |Australian 32. Malacocercus | 14 |All India to Burmah, |Arabia, Nubia | | Philippines | 33. Chatarrhæa | 5 |India, Burmah, |Palestine, Abyssinia | | Philippines | 34. Layardia | 3 |India and Ceylon | 35. Acanthoptila | 1 |Nepal | 36. Garrulax | 22 |The whole region | 37. Janthocincla | 8 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,| | | Sumatra, Formosa | 38.Gampsorhynchus| 1 |Nepal | 39. Grammatoptila| 1 |N. India | 40.Trochalopteron| 22 |N. W. Himalayas, India,| | | China, Formosa | 41. Actinodura | 3 |E. Himalayas, 3,000 to | | | 10,000 | 42. Pellorneum | 3 |India, Ceylon, | | | Tenasserim | 43. Dumetia | 2 |India and Ceylon | 44. Timalia | 10 |Malacca to Java | 45. Stachyris | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | China, Formosa, | | | Sumatra | 46. Pyctoris | 3 |India, Ceylon, and | | | Up. Burmah | 47. Mixornis | 8 |Himalayas to Borneo and| | | Java | 48. Malacopteron | 3 |Malacca to Java | 49. Alcippe | 16 |The whole region |New Guinea 50. Macronus | 1 |Malacca to Java | 51. Cacopitta | 5 |Java, Borneo, Sumatra | 52. Trichastoma | 9 |Nepal, Malacca to Java |Celebes 53. Napothera | 5 |Malacca to Java | 54. Drymocataphus | 6 |Malacca to Java, Ceylon|Timor 55. Turdinus | 4 |Tenasserim, Malacca | 56. Trichixos | 1 |Malacca, Borneo | 57. Sibia | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | Tenasserim, Formosa | | | | PANURIDÆ. | | | | | | 58. Paradoxornis | 3 |Nepal to Aracan and E. | | |Thibet, 3,000-6,000 ft.| 59. Suthora | 8 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,|N. W. China, E. Thibet | | China, Formosa | 60. Chlenasicus | 1 |Sikhim | | | | CINCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 61. Cinclus | 2 |Himalayas, China, and |Palæarctic and | | Formosa | American 62. Eupetes | 2 |Malacca and Sumatra |New Guinea 63. Enicurus | 9 |N. W. Himalayas (to | | | 11,000 ft.) to Java | | | and West China | 64. Myiophonus | 6 |All India (to 9,000 ft.|Turkestan | | in N. W. Himalayas) | | | S. China, Formosa, | | | Java, Sumatra | | | | TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | | | | 65. Tesia | 2 |Eastern Himalayas | 66. Pnoepyga | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | E. Thibet, Java | 67. Troglodytes | 1 |Himalayas to E. Thibet |Palæarctic and | | | American 68. Rimator | 2 |Darjeeling | | | | CERTHIIDÆ. | | | | | | 69. Certhia | 2 |Himalayas |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic 70. Salpornis | 1 |Central India | 71. Rhabdornis | 1 |Philippine Islands | (Tichodroma | 1 |Himalayas in winter) |Palæarctic genus | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | | | | 72. Sitta | 5 |Himalayas to S. India, |Palæarctic and | | S. China | Nearctic 73. Dendrophila | 2 |All India and Ceylon to| | | Pegu and Java | | | | PARIDÆ. | | | | | | 74. Parus | 16 |The whole region |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic 75. Melanochlora | 2 |Nepal to Malacca and | | | Sumatra | 76. Psaltria | 1 |West Java | 77. Ægithaliscus | 6 |W. Himalayas to China |Afghanistan 78. Sylviparus | 1 |W. Himalayas to Central| | | India and E. Thibet | 79. Cephalopyrus | 1 |N. W. Himalayas | | | | LIOTRICHIDÆ. | | | | | | 80. Liothrix | 3 |Nepal to S. W. China | 81. Siva | 3 |Himalayas:--3,000-7,000| | | ft. | 82. Minla | 4 |Nepal to E. Thibet; | | | moderate heights | 83. Proparus | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to |Perhaps also | | E. Thibet; high | Palæarctic 84. Allotrius | 7 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | Tenasserim, E. Thibet| | | and Java | 85. Cutia | 2 |Nepal and Sikhim | 86. Yuhina | 4 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,|Perhaps Palæarctic | | high | 87. Ixulus | 4 |Darjeeling to | | | Tenasserim | 88. Myzornis | 1 |Nepal and Sikhim | | | | PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. | | | | | | 89. Phyllornis | 10 |The whole region; | | | excluding China and | | | Philippines | 90. Iora | 5 |The whole reg., excl. | | | Philippines | 91. Erpornis | 2 |Nepal and Hainan | | | | PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | | | | 92. Microscelis | 5 |Burmah, China, Malaya |Japan 93. Pycnonotus | 40 |The whole region |Ethiopian 94. Hemixus | 2 |Himalayas and Hainan | 95. Hypsipetes | 15 |The whole region |Madagascar 96. Criniger | 11 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Africa, Moluccas | | Hainan | 97. Setornis | 3 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | 98. Iole | 4 |Aracan and Malaya | | | | ORIOLIDÆ. | | | | | | 99. Oriolus | 12 |The whole region |Palæarc. Ethiopian, | | | Celebes, Flores 100. Analcipus | 3 |Himalayas, Malaya, | | | Formosa, Hainan | | | | CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | | | | 101. Pericrocotus | 22 |The whole region |Lombock; the Amoor, | | | migrant 102. Graucalus | 7 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Australian | | Philippines, Hainan | | | and Formosa | 103. Campephaga | 1 |Philippine Islands |Celebes to N. Guinea 104. Volvocivora | 7 |The whole reg., excl. | | | Philippines | 105. Lalage | 2 |Malaya and Philippines |Celebes to Pacific Is. 106. Cochoa | 3 |Himalayas and Java | | | | DICRURIDÆ. | | | | | | 107. Dicrurus | 17 |The whole region |Ethiop. and Australian 108. Bhringa | 2 |Himalayas to Burmah and| | | Java | 109. Chibia | 1 |India to China |Pekin in summer 110. Chaptia | 3 |India to Borneo and | | | Formosa | 111. Irena | 3 |S. India and Ceylon, | | | Assam to Malaya and | | | Philippines | | | | MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | | | | 112. Muscicapula | 6 |Cashmere to W. China, | | | S. India | 113. Erythrosterna | 7 |The whole region, |Palæarctic and | | excluding Philippines| Madagascar 114. Xanthpygia | 2 |Malacca to China |N. China and Japan 115. Hemipus | 1 |India and Ceylon | 116. Pycnophrys | 1 |Java | 117. Hemichelidon | 3 |N. India to Ceylon, and|Eastern Asia | | China; ? Philippines | 118. Niltava | 3 |Himalayas to W. China | 119. Cyornis | 14 |The whole region |Celebes and Timor 120. Cyanoptila | 1 |Hainan to Japan |Japan and N. China 121. Eumyias | 8 |The whole reg., excl. | | | Philippines | 122. Siphia | 9 |N. W. India, Ceylon, | | | Formosa, E. Thibet | 123. Anthipes | 1 |Nepal | 124. Schwaneria | 1 |Borneo | 125. Hypothymis | 1 |The whole region |Celebes 126. Rhipidura | 7 |All India and Ceylon, | | | Malaya, Philippines |Australian 127. Chelidorhynx | 1 |N. India | 128. Cryptolopha | 1 |The whole region |Celebes | | | 129. Tchitrea | 6 |The whole region |N. China, and Japan, | | |Flores, Ethiopian 130. Philentoma | 4 |Malaya and Philippines | | | | PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. | | | | | | 131. Hylocharis | 2 |Aracan to Malaya & |Celebes, Timor | | Philippines | | | | LANIIDÆ. | | | | | | 132. Lanius | 16 |The whole region |Nearc., Palæarc., | | | Ethiop. 133. Laniellus | 1 |Java | 134. Tephrodornis | 5 |India, Ceylon, and | | | Malaya; Hainan | | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | 135. Pityriasis | 1 |Borneo, Sumatra | 136. Platylophus | 4 |Malaya | 137. Garrulus | 4 |Himalayas, S. China, |Palæarctic | | Formosa | 138. Cissa | 3 |Himalayas and Aracan to| | | Java | 139. Urocissa | 7 |N.W. Himalayas, Ceylon,|N. China and Japan | | Burmah, China, Formosa| 140. Temnurus | 3 |Malaya and Cochin China| 141. Dendrocitta | 8 |All India to S. China, | | | Formosa, and Sumatra | 142. Crypsirhina | 2 |Java and Burmah | 143. Nucifraga | 2 |Himalayas and E. Thibet|Palæarctic genus | | 8,000-10,000 feet | 144. Pica | 2 |China and Himalayas of |Palæarctic and | | Boetan | Nearctic 145. Corvus | 9 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. S. Am. (Fregilus | 2 |Himalayas, high) |Palæarctic genus | | | NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | | | | 146. Æthopaga | 13 |Himalayas to W. China &|Celebes | | Java, Central India | 147. Chalcostetha | 1 |Malaya and Siam |Celebes to New Guinea 148. Arachnothera | 12 |The whole reg., excl. |Celebes, Lombock, New | | Philippine |Guinea 149. Arachnecthera | 7 |The whole region, excl.|Celebes to New Ireland | | China | 150. Nectarophila | 4 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Celebes | | Philipp. | 151. Anthreptes | 1 |Malaya and Indo-China |Celebes | | | DICÆIDÆ. | | | | | | 152. Dicæum | 10 |The whole region |Australian 153. Pachyglossa | 1 |Nepal |Celebes 154. Piprisoma | 1 |India and Ceylon | 155. Prionochilus | 4 |Malaya | 156. Zosterops | 8 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian 157. Chalcoparia | 1 |Aracan to Malaya | | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 158. Hirundo | 10 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 159. Cotyle | 5 |India to China |Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Amer. 160. Chelidon | 3 |India, Borneo |Palæarctic | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | | | | (Fringilla | 1 |Himalayas, in winter) |Palæarctic genus (Acanthis | 1 |N. W. Himalayas, in |Palæarctic genus | | winter) | (Procarduelis | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus (Chlorospiza | 1 |China) |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian 161. Passer | 6 |The whole region |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian (Fringillauda | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus (Coccothraustes| 2 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic (Mycerobas | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus 162. Eophona | 1 |China |Palæarctic (Pyrrhula | 4 |Himalayas, winter) |Palæarctic (Carpodacus | 4 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic and | | India, in winter) | Nearctic (Loxia | 1 |Snowy Himalayas) |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic (Propyrrhula | 1 |Darjeeling, in winter) |[?] Palæarctic 163. Hæmatospiza | 1 |S. E. Himal., 5,000 to | | | 10,000 ft. | | | | (S. Fam. EMBERIZINÆ) | | | | | 164. Euspiza | 4 |N. W. India to Burmah, |Palæarctic and | | & China | Nearctic 165. Emberiza | 7 |All India and China, in|Palæarctic genus | | winter | | | | PLOCEIDÆ. | | | | | | 166. Ploceus | 4 |India & Ceylon, Burmah,|Ethiopian | | Malaya | 167. Munia | 20 |The whole region |Austro-Malayan 168. Estrilda | 2 |India and Ceylon, |Ethiopian, Australian | | Burmah, Java | 169. Erythrura | 1 |Java, Sumatra |Moluccas to Fiji | | | Islands | | | STURNIDÆ. | | | | | | 170. Eulabes | 7 |The whole reg., excl. |Flores, Papua | | Philippines | 171. Ampeliceps | 1 |Tenasserim to | | | Cochin-China | 172. Gymnops | 1 |Philippine Islands | 173. Pastor | 1 |All India to Burmah |S. Palæarctic 174. Acridotheres | 6 |The whole region |Celebes 175. Sturnia | 12 |The whole region |N. China & Japan, | | | Celebes 176. Sturnus | 3 |India and China |Palæarctic 177. Sturnopastor | 3 |Cen. India to Burmah & | | | Malaya | 178. Calornis | 2 |Malaya and Philippines |[?] Celebes, Moluccas | | | to Samoan Islands 179. Saroglossa | 1 |W. and Central | | | Himalayas | | | | ARTAMIDÆ. | | | | | | 180. Artamus | 3 |The whole region |Australian | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | | | | (Otocorys | 1 |N. India, in winter) |Palæarctic and | | | Nearctic 181. Alauda | 7 |India and China |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian 182. Galerita | 2 |Central India |Palæarctic 183. Calandrella | 2 |India and Burmah |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian (Melanocorypha | 1 |N. W. India) |Palæarctic 184. Mirafra | 5 |India, Ceylon, and Java|Ethiopian 185. Ammomanes | 1 |Central India |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian 186. Pyrrhulauda | 1 |India and Ceylon |Ethiopian | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | | | | 187. Motacilla | 6 |India and Ceylon to |Palæarctic and | | China and Philippines| Ethiopian 188. Budytes | 2 |China and Philippines |Palæarctic & | | | Ethiopian, Moluccas 189. Calobates | 1 |The whole region |Palæarctic 190. Nemoricola | 1 |India, Ceylon, and | | | Malaya | 191. Authus | 3 |India and China |Cosmopolite 192. Corydalla | 8 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Australian 193. Heterura | 1 |Himalayas | | | | EURYLÆMIDÆ. | | | | | | 194. Eurylæmus | 2 |Malaya | 195. Serilophus | 1 |Himalayas | 196. Psarisomus | 1 |Himalayas | 197. Corydon | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | 198. Cymbirhynchus| 2 |Aracan, Siam, and | | | Malaya | 199. Calyptomena | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | | | | PITTIDÆ | | | | | | 200. Pitta | 11 |The whole region |Australian, Ethiopian 201. Eucichla | 3 |Malaya | 202. Hydrornis | 3 |Himalayas and Malaya | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | PICIDÆ. | | | | | | 203. Vivia | 1 |N. W. Himalayas to E. | | |Thibet, 3,000-6,000 ft.| 204. Sasia | 2 |Nepal to Malaya and | | | Borneo | 205. Picus | 14 |The whole region, excl.|Palæarctic, American | | Philippines | 206. Hyopicus | 1 |Himalayas |N. China 207. Yungipicus | 12 |The whole region |N. China, Japan, | | | Celebes 208.Reinwardtipicus 1 |Penang to Sumatra and | | | Borneo | 209. Venilia | 2 |Nepal to Sumatra and | | | Borneo | 210.Chrysocolaptes| 8 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, | | | Philippines | 211. Hemicercus | 5 |Malabar, Pegu to Malaya| 212. Gecinus | 12 |All India and Ceylon to|Palæarctic | | Pegu and Malaya | 213. Mulleripicus | 5 |Malabar, Aracan to |Celebes | | Malaya and Philippines| 214. Brachypternus| 5 |India, Ceylon, and | | | China | 215. Tiga | 5 |India to Malaya | 216. Gecinulus | 2 |S. Himalayas to Burmah | 217. Miglyptes | 3 |Malaya | 218. Micropternus | 8 |India and Ceylon, to | | | Borneo and S. China | | | | YUNGIDÆ. | | | | | | 219. Yunx | 1 |Central and S. China |Palæarctic, S. Africa | | | INDICATORIDÆ. | | | | | | 220. Indicator | 2 |Himalayas and Borneo |Ethiopian | | | MEGALÆMIDÆ. | | | | | | 221. Megalæma | 27 |The whole region, excl.| | | Philippines | 222. Xantholæma | 4 |All India and Ceylon to| | | Pegu and Malaya | 223. Psilopogon | 1 |Sumatra | 224. Caloramphus | 2 |Malacca, Sumatra and | | | Borneo | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | 225. Phoenicophaës| 1 |Ceylon | 226. Rhinococcyx | 1 |Java | 227. Dasylophus | 1 |Philippine Islands | 228. Lepidogrammus| 1 |Philippine Islands | 229. Carpococcyx | 1 |Borneo, Sumatra | 230. Zanclostomus | 1 |Malaya | 231. Rhopodytes | 7 |Nepal to Ceylon, Hainan| | | and Malaya | 232. Taccocoua | 4 |All India, Ceylon, | | | Malacca | 233. Poliococcyx | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | 234. Rhinortha | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | | | Borneo | 235. Centropus | 14 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian 236. Cuculus | 10 |The whole region |Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Aust. 237. Cacomantis | 9 |The whole region |Australian 238. Chrysococcyx | 5 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian 239. Surniculus | 2 |India, Ceylon and | | | Malaya | 240. Hierococcyx | 6 |The whole region |Celebes, N. China and | | | Amoorland 241. Coccystes | 2 |The whole region, excl.|Ethiopian | | Philippines | 242. Eudynamis | 2 |The whole region |Australian | | | CORACIIDÆ. | | | | | | 243. Coracias | 2 |India, Ceylon and |Ethiopian, S. | | Burmah | Palæarctic, Celebes 244. Eurystomus | 1 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian | | | MEROPIDÆ. | | | | | | 245. Nyctiornis | 3 |S. India to Himalayas, | | | Burmah, Sumatra, and | | | Borneo | 246. Merops | 5 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian, | | | Australian | | | TROGONIDÆ. | | | | | | 247. Harpactes | 10 |The whole region, excl.| | | China | | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | | | | 248. Halcyon | 10 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian, | | | Australian 249. Pelargopsis | 7 |The whole region, excl.|Celebes and Timor | | China | 250. Carcineutes | 2 |Burmah, Siam, and | | | Malaya | 251. Ceyx | 6 |India and Ceylon, |Moluccas & New Guin. | | Malaya and Philippines| 252. Alcedo | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, | | |Austro-Malayan 253. Alcyone | 1 |Philippines |Australian genus 254. Ceryle | 2 |India to S. China |Ethiopian, S. | | | Palæarctic, American | | | BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | | | | 255. Buceros | 4 |Nepal to Malaya, S. | | | India, Philippines | 256. Hydrocissa | 7 |India, Ceylon and | | | Malaya | 257. Berenicornis | 1 |Sumatra |W. Africa 258. Calao | 2 |Tenasserim, Malaya |Austro-Malaya 259. Aceros | 1 |S. E. Himalayas | 260. Cranorrhinus | 2 |Malacca to Borneo and |Celebes | | Philippines | 261. Penelopides | 1 |Philippines | 262. Rhinoplax | 1 |Sumatra, Borneo | 263. Meniceros | 3 |India and Ceylon to | | | Tenasserim | | | | UPUPIDÆ. | | | | | | 264. Upupa | 3 |India, Ceylon and |Ethiopian, | | Burmah | S. Palæarctic | | | PODARGIDÆ. | | | | | | 265. Batrachostomus | 6 |India, Ceylon and |Moluccas | | Malaya | | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | 266. Caprimulgus | 13 |The whole region |The Eastern | | | Hemisphere 267. Lyncornis | 4 |Burmah, Malaya, & |Celebes | | Philippines | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | 268. Cypselus | 8 |The region, excl. |The Old World & | | Philippines | S. Amer. 269. Dendrochelidon | 3 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |Austro-Malaya | | Philipp. | 270. Collocalia | 3 |The whole region |Madagascar, Moluccas, | | | Pacific Islands 271. Chætura | 3 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |America, Africa | | Hainan | | | | PSITTACI. | | | CACATUIDÆ. | | | | | | (Cacatua | 1 |Philippines) |Australian genus | | | PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | | | | 272. Palæornis | 14 |N. W. India to Ceylon, |Ethiopian | | Siam & Malaya | 273. Prioniturus | 1 |Philippine Islands |Celebes 274. Cyclopsitta | 1 |Philippine Islands |Papuan Islands 275. Psittinus | 1 |Malaya, excl. Java | 276. Tanygnathus | 1 |Philippine Islands |Austro-Malaya 277. Loriculus | 9 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |Celebes and Moluccas, | | Philippines | Flores | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | 278. Treron | 21 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Moluccas 279. Ptilopus | 3 |Malaya and Philippines |Australian 280. Carpophaga | 10 |India and Ceylon to |Australian | | Hainan and Philippines| 281. Columba | 7 |Ceylon and India to |Palæarc., Ethiop., | | Tenasserim | Amer. 282. Janthænas | 3 |Philippine, Andaman & |Japan, Moluccas to | | Nicobar Islands | Samoan Islands 283. Macropygia | 6 |Nepal, Java, Hainan, |Austro-Malaya, | | Philippines | Australia 284. Turtur | 8 |The whole region |Old World, Austro- | | | Malay. 285. Chalcophaps | 2 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Austro-Malaya, | | Hainan, Philippines, | Australia | | Formosa | 286. Phapitreron | 2 |Philippine Islands | 287. Caloenas | 1 |Nicobar and Philippine |Austro-Malaya | | Islands | 288. Phlegoenas | 2 |Philippine and Sooloo |Austro-Mal. & | | Islands | Polynesia 289. Geopelia | 1 |Philippine Islands, |Austro-Malaya & | | Java | Austral. | | | GALLINÆ. | | | PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | | | | 290. Pterocles | 2 |Central and S. India |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | 291. Francolinus | 3 |Ceylon and India to |S. Palæarctic, | | S. China | Ethiopian 292. Ortygornis | 3 |Ceylon to Himalayas, | | | Sumatra & Borneo | 293. Perdix | 12 |India, Malaya, |Palæarctic | | Philippines, China | 294. Coturnix | 9 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere 295. Rollulus | 2 |Malacca, Siam, Borneo, | | | Philipp. | (Caccabis | 1 |W. Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | | | | 296. Pavo | 2 |Ceylon to Himalayas, | | | S. W. China and Java | | | | 297. Argusianus | 4 |Siam, Malacca, Borneo | 298. Polyplectron | 5 |Upper Assam to S. W. | | | China & Sumatra | (Lophophorus | 3 |Cashmere and E. Thibet)|Palæarctic genus (Tetraophasis | 1 |E. Thibet) |Palæarctic genus 299. Ceriornis | 5 |N. W. Himalayas to |S. E. Palæarctic | | W. China | (Pucrasia | 3 |N. W. Himalayas to N. |Palæarctic genus | | China and Mongolia) | 300. Phasianus | 3 |W. Himalayas, S. China,|S. Palæarctic | | Formosa | 301. Euplocamus | 13 |N. W. Himalayas to | | | China, Sumatra and | | | Borneo | 302. Gallus | 4 |The region, excl. China|Celebes and Timor 303. Galloperdix | 3 |Central India to Ceylon| | | | TURNICIDÆ. | | | | | | 304. Turnix | 9 |The whole region |S. Palæarc., | | | Ethiopian, Australian | | | MEGAPODIIDÆ. | | | | | | 305. Megapodius | 2 |Nicobar Is., |Celebes to Samoan Is., | | Philippines, N. W. | N. Australia | | Borneo | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | VULTURIDÆ. | | | | | | 306. Vultur | 1 |Himalayas |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian 307. Gyps | 3 |India and Siam |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian 308. Pseudogyps | 1 |India and Burmah |N. Ethiopian 309. Neophron | 1 |All India |S. Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | 310. Circus | 4 |India and China |Almost Cosmopolite 311. Astur | 4 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite 312. Accipiter | 2 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite 313. Buteo | 2 |India to China |Cosmopolite; excl. | | | Austl. 314. Aquila | 4 |India to China |Nearc, Palæarc., | | | Ethiop. 315. Nisaëtus | 2 |India and Ceylon |S. Palæar., Ethiop., | | | Aus. 316. Lophotriorchis | 1 |Indo-Malaya |Neotropical 317. Neopus | 1 |India to Burmah and |Celebes and Moluccas | | Malaya | 318. Spizaëtus | 5 |India to Malaya and |Neotropical, | | Formosa | Ethiopian, | | | Austro-Malayan 319. Circaëtus | 1 |Indian peninsula |Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Timor 320. Spilornis | 5 |The whole region |Celebes 321. Butastur | 3 |The whole region |N. E. Africa, Celebes, | | |New Guinea 322. Haliæetus | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite; excl. | | | Neotropical region 323. Haliastur | 1 |India to Malaya |Austro-Malaya, | | | Austral. 324. Milvus | 3 |The whole region |The Eastern | | | Hemisphere. 325. Elanus | 2 |India, Malaya |Africa, Australia 326. Machærhamphus | 1 |Malacca |S. W. Africa & Madag. 327. Pernis | 1 |India |Palæarctic and | | | Ethiopian, Celebes 328. Baza | 3 |India to Malaya | | |Moluccas and N. Austrl.| 329. Hierax | 4 |N. India, Burmah, | | | Malaya | 330. Poliohierax | 1 |Burmah |E. Africa 331. Falco | 8 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite 332. Cerchneis | 3 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | | | | 333. Pandion | 1 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 334. Polioaëtus | 2 |India to Malaya |Indo-Malaya & | | | Polynesia | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | 335. Athene | 9 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere 336. Ninox | 7 |The whole region |N. China and Japan 337. Bubo | 4 |India, Ceylon, Malaya |Cosmop. exc. Austr. | | and Philip. | reg. 338. Ketupa | 3 |The whole region | 339. Scops | 7 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite 340. Syrnium | 6 |The whole region |Cosmop. exc. Austr. | | | reg. (Asio | 2 |India) |Palæarc., Ethiop. | | | Amer. 341. Strix | 4 |The whole region |Cosmopolite 342. Phodilus | 2 |Nepal, Malaya |