The Book of Curiosities (part 5 of 6)

The Book of Curiosities (part 5 of 6)

Such a prodigious effect of expansion, almost double that of the most powerful steam-engines, and exerted in so small a mass, seemingly by the force of cold, was thought a very material argument in favour of those who supposed that cold, like heat, is a positive substance. Dr. Black's discovery of latent heat, however, has afforded a very easy and natural explication of this phenomenon. He has shewn, that, in the act of congelation, water is not cooled more than it was before, but rather grows warmer: that as much heat is discharged and passes from a latent and a sensible state, as, had it been applied to water in its fluid state, would have heated it to 135°. In this process, the expansion is occasioned by a great number of minute bubbles suddenly produced. Formerly these were supposed to be cold in the abstract, and to be so subtile, that, insinuating themselves into the substances of the fluid, they augmented its bulk, at the same time that, by impeding the motion of its particles upon each other, they changed it from a fluid to a solid. But Dr. Black shews, that these are only air extricated during the congelation; and to the extrication of this air he ascribes the prodigious expansive force exerted by freezing water. The only question, therefore, is, by what means this air comes to be extricated, and to take up more room than it naturally does in the fluid? To this it may be answered, that perhaps part of the heat, which is discharged from the freezing water, combines with air in its unelastic state, and, by restoring its elasticity, gives it that extraordinary force; as is seen in the case of air suddenly extricated in the explosion of gunpowder. The degree of expansion of water, in the state of ice, is by some authors computed at one tenth of its volume. Oil and quicksilver shrink and contract after freezing. Mr. Boyle relates several experiments of vessels made of metals, very thick and strong; in which, when filled with water, closely stopped, and exposed to the cold, the water being expanded in freezing, and not finding either room or vent, burst the vessels. A strong barrel of a gun, with water in it, close stopped and frozen, was rent the whole length. Huygens, to try the force with which it expands, filled a cannon with it, whose sides were an inch thick, and then closed up the mouth and vent, so that none could escape; the whole being exposed to a strong freezing air, the water froze in about twelve hours, and burst the piece in two places. Hence mathematicians have computed the force of the ice upon this occasion; and they say, that such a force would equal twenty-seven thousand seven hundred and twenty pounds.

Major Edward Williams, of the Royal Artillery, made many experiments on the force of freezing water, at Quebec, in 1784-1785. He filled all sizes of bomb shells with water, then plugged the fuze-hole close up, and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the winter in that climate; sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as possible with a sledge hammer; and yet they were all thrown out by the sudden expansion of the water in the act of freezing, like a ball shot by gunpowder, sometimes to the distance of between four and five hundred feet, though they weighed near three pounds; and when the plugs were screwed in, or furnished with hooks or barbs to lay hold of the inside of the shell by, so that they could not possibly be forced out, in this case the shell was always split in two, though the thickness of the metal of the shell was about an inch and three-quarters. Through the circular crack, round about the shells, where they burst, there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice, like a fin; and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water, there suddenly issued out from the fuze-hole a bolt of ice of the same diameter, and stood over it to the height sometimes of eight inches and a half.

CHAP. LXVII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA, OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.--(Continued.)

Water Spout--Fata Morgana--Fairy Rings--Sheet of Phosphoric Fire--Phosphorus.

--------Every object of creation Can furnish hints to contemplation. Gay.

WATER SPOUT.--This extraordinary meteor is most frequently observed at sea. It generally begins by a cloud, which appears very small, and which is called, by sailors, the Squall. This augments in a little time into an enormous cloud of a cylindrical form, or that of a cone on its apex, and produces a noise like the roaring of an agitated sea, sometimes accompanied with thunder and lightning, and also large quantities of rain or hail, sufficient to inundate large vessels; and to carry away in their course, (when they occur by land,) trees, houses, and every thing that opposes their impetuosity. Sailors, dreading the fatal consequences of water-spouts, endeavour to dissipate them by firing a cannon into them just before they approach the ship. We shall give an account of one, as described by M. Tournefort, in his Voyage to the Levant.

"The first of these (says this traveller) that we saw, was about a musket-shot from our ship. There we perceived the water begin to boil, and to rise about a foot above its level. The water was agitated, and whitish; and above its surface there seemed to stand a smoke, such as might be imagined to come from wet straw before it begins to blaze. It made a sort of a murmuring sound, like that of a torrent heard at a distance, mixed, at the same time, with a hissing noise, like that of a serpent: shortly after we perceived a column of this smoke rise up to the clouds, at the same time whirling about with great rapidity. It appeared to be as thick as one's finger; and the former sound still continued. When this disappeared, after lasting for about eight minutes, upon turning to the opposite quarter of the sky, we perceived another, which began in the manner of the former; presently after, a third appeared in the west; and instantly beside it, still another arose. The most distant of these three could not be above a musket-shot from the ship. They all appeared like so many heaps of wet straw set on fire, and continued to smoke, and to make the same noise as before. We soon after perceived each, with its respective canal, mounting up in the clouds; and spreading, where it touched the cloud, like the mouth of a trumpet; making a figure (to express it intelligibly) as if the tail of an animal was pulled at one end by a weight. These canals were of a whitish colour, and so tinged, as I suppose, by the water which was contained in them; for, previous to this, they were apparently empty, and of the colour of transparent glass. These canals were not straight, but bent in some parts, and far from being perpendicular, by rising in their clouds with a very inclined ascent.

"But what is very remarkable, the spouts crossed each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's cross. In the beginning they were all about as thick as one's finger, except at the top, where they were broader, and two of them disappeared; but shortly after, the last of the three increased considerably, and its canal, which was at first so small, soon became as thick as a man's arm, then as his leg, and at last thicker than his whole body. We saw distinctly, through this transparent body, the water, which rose up with a kind of spiral motion; and it sometimes diminished a little of its thickness, and again resumed the same, sometimes widening at top, and sometimes at the bottom, exactly resembling a gut filled with water, pressed with the fingers to make the fluid rise or fall; and I am well convinced that this alteration in the spout was caused by the wind, which pressed the cloud, and compelled it to give up its contents. After some time its bulk was so diminished as to be no thicker than a man's arm again, and thus swelling and diminishing, it at last became very small. In the end, I observed the sea which was raised about it to resume its level by degrees, and the end of the canal that touched it to become as small as if it had been tied round with a cord; and this continued till the light, striking through the cloud, took away the view. I still, however, continued to look, expecting that its parts would join again, as I had before seen in one of the others, in which the spout was more than once broken, and yet the parts again came together; but I was disappointed, for the spout appeared no more."

In the Philosophical Transactions, (volume xxii. and xxiii.) we have descriptions of several of these phenomena: their effects, in some instances, are probably much exaggerated. One at Topsham is said to have cut down an apple-tree, several inches in diameter: another, we are told, seemed to be produced by a concourse of winds, turning like a screw, the clouds dropping into it: it threw trees and branches about with a gyratory motion.--One in Deeping Fen, Lincolnshire, was first seen moving across the land and water of the fen: it raised the dust, broke some gates, and destroyed a field of turnips: it vanished with an appearance of fire.--Dr. Franklin supposes that a vacuum is made by the rotatory motion of the ascending air, as when water is running through a funnel, and that the water of the sea is thus raised. But Dr. Young says, no such cause could do more than produce a slight rarefaction of the air, much less raise the water to the height of thirty or forty feet, or more.

Professor Wolke describes a water-spout, which passed immediately over the ship in which he was sailing, in the gulf of Finland: it appeared to be twenty-five feet in diameter, consisting of drops about the size of cherries. The sea was agitated round its base, through a space of about one hundred and thirty feet in diameter. One of the latest accounts of the phenomenon of a water-spout, is that read to the Royal Society in the year 1803, from a letter written to Sir Joseph Banks, by Captain Ricketts, of the royal navy. In the month of July, 1800, Captain Ricketts was called on deck, on account of the rapid approach of a water-spout, among the Lipari islands. It had the appearance of a viscid fluid, tapering in its descent, proceeding from the cloud to join the sea. It moved at the rate of about two miles an hour, with a loud sound of rain. It passed the stern of the ship, and wetted the afterpart of the main-sail: hence it was inferred, that water-spouts are not continuous columns of water; and subsequent observations confirmed the opinion. In November, 1801, about twenty miles from Trieste, a water-spout was seen eight miles to the south; round its lower extremity was a mist, about twelve feet high, somewhat in the form of an Ionian capital, with very large volutes, the spout resting obliquely on its crown. At some distance from this spout the sea began to be agitated, and a mist rose to the height of about four feet; then a projection descended from the black cloud that was impending, and met the ascending mist about twenty feet above the sea; the last ten yards of the distance were described with very great rapidity. A cloud of a light colour appeared to ascend in this spout, something like quicksilver in a tube. The first spout then snapped at about one-third of its height, the inferior part subsiding gradually, and the superior curling upwards. Several other projections from the cloud appeared, with corresponding agitations of the water below, but not always in spots vertically under them: seven spouts in all were formed; two other projections being re-absorbed. Some of the spouts were not only oblique, but curved: the ascending cloud moved most rapidly in those which were vertical: they lasted from three to five minutes, and their dissipation was attended by no fall of rain.

FATA MORGANA.--This is a very remarkable aërial phenomenon, which is sometimes observed from the harbour of Messina, and adjacent places, at a certain height in the atmosphere. The name, which signifies the Fairy Morgana, is derived from an opinion of the superstitious Sicilians, that the whole spectacle is produced by fairies, or such like visionary invisible beings. The populace are delighted whenever it appears; and run about the streets shouting for joy, calling every body out to partake of the glorious sight. This singular meteor has been described by various authors; but the first who mentioned it with any degree of precision was Father Angelucci, whose account is thus quoted by Mr. Swinburne in his Tour through Sicily: "On the 15th of August, 1643, as I stood at my window, I was surprised with a most wonderful delectable vision. The sea that washes the Sicilian shore swelled up, and became, for ten miles in length, like a chain of dark mountains; while the waters near our Calabrian coast grew quite smooth, and in an instant appeared as one clear polished mirror, reclining against the aforesaid ridge. On this glass was depicted, in chairo scuro, a string of several thousands of pilasters, all equal in altitude, distance, and degree of light and shade. In a moment they lost half their height, and bent into arcades, like Roman aqueducts. A long cornice was next formed on the top, and above it arose castles innumerable, all perfectly alike. These soon split into towers, which were shortly after lost in colonnades, then windows, and at last ended in pines, cypresses, and other trees, even and similar. This is the Fata Morgana, which for twenty-six years I had thought a mere fable." To produce this pleasing deception, many circumstances must concur, which are not known to exist in any other situation. The spectator must stand with his back to the east, in some elevated place behind the city, that he may command a view of the whole bay; beyond which the mountains of Messina rise like a wall, and darken the back ground of the picture. The winds must be hushed, the surface quite smoothed, the tide at its height, and the waters pressed up by currents to a great elevation in the middle of the channel. All these events coinciding, as soon as the sun surmounts the eastern hills behind Reggio, and rises high enough to form an angle of forty-five degrees on the water before the city, every object existing or moving at Reggio, will be repeated one thousand-fold upon this marine looking-glass, which, by its tremulous motion, is as it were cut into facets. Each image will pass rapidly off in succession, as the day advances, and the stream carries down the wave on which it appeared. Thus the parts of this moving picture will vanish in the twinkling of an eye. Sometimes the air is at that moment so impregnated with vapours, and undisturbed by winds, as to reflect objects in a kind of aërial screen, rising about thirty feet above the level of the sea. In cloudy heavy weather, they are drawn on the surface of the water, bordered with fine prismatical colours.

To the above account we shall add the following, given by M. Houel, whose judgment and veracity render his authority highly respectable.

"In fine summer days, when the weather is calm, there rises above the great current a vapour, which acquires a certain density, so as to form in the atmosphere horizontal prisms, whose sides are disposed in such a manner, that when they come to their proper degree of perfection, they reflect and represent successively, for some time, (like a moveable mirror,) the objects on the coast, or in the adjacent country. They exhibit by turns, the city and suburbs of Messina, trees, animals, men, and mountains. They are certainly beautiful aërial moving pictures. There are sometimes two or three prisms, equally perfect; and they continue in this state eight or ten minutes. After this, some shining inequalities are observed upon the surface of the prism, which render confused to the eye, the objects which had been before so accurately delineated, and the picture vanishes. The vapour forms other combinations, and is dispersed in the air. Different accounts have been given of this singular appearance; which for my part I attribute to a bitumen that issues from certain rocks at the bottom of the sea, and which is often seen to cover a part of its surface in the canal of Messina. The subtile parts of this bitumen being attenuated, combined, and exhaled with the aqueous globules that are raised by the air, and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this condensed vapour more consistence; and contribute, by their smooth and polished particles, to the formation of a kind of aërial crystal, which receives the light, reflects it to the eye, and transmits to it all the luminous points which colour the objects exhibited in this phenomenon, and render them visible."

FAIRY RINGS,--are circles of dark green grass frequently observed in old pastures; they have long been known under the name of fairy rings, and have generally been supposed to be occasioned, in some way or other, by electricity. Dr. Wollaston has, in a late volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society, given a new and very ingenious theory, of which we shall present our readers with a brief account, premising, that Mr. Davy, in the course of his lectures at the Royal Institution, had occasion to refer to the subject, and seemed to coincide in opinion with Dr. Wollaston. That which first attracted his notice was the position of certain fungi, which are always found growing upon these circles, if examined in a proper season. The position of these fungi led him to imagine that the progressive increase from a central point was the probable mode of formation of the ring: hence he conjectured that the soil, which had once contributed to the support of the fungi, might be so exhausted of some peculiar pabulum necessary for their production, as to be rendered incapable of producing a second crop. The second year's crop would, if this theory be just, appear in a small ring surrounding the original centre of vegetation; and at every succeeding year the defect of nutriment on one side, would necessarily cause the new roots to extend themselves solely in the opposite direction, and would occasion the circle of fungi continually to proceed, by an annual enlargement, from the centre outwards. An appearance of luxuriance of the grass would follow as a natural consequence, as the soil of an interior circle would always be enriched, by the decayed roots of fungi of the year's growth. This theory is supported by some observations of Dr. Withering; and Dr. Wollaston says, by way of confirmation, that whenever two adjacent circles are found to interfere, they not only do not cross each other, but both circles are invariably obliterated between the points of contact: the exhaustion occasioned by each obstructs the progress of the other, and both are starved.--Philosophical Transactions, 1807, Part II.

Though it cannot be doubted that most fairy rings, if not all of them, have considerable relation to the running of a fungus; there, nevertheless, seems reason to conclude that electricity may likewise be concerned in their production. The electrical effect may relate to fairy rings of a different kind from those occasioned by the fungus, or it may have been antecedent to the production of the vegetable. It is a familiar effect in our experiments, that the spark proceeding from a positive conductor, breaks or radiates at about one-third of its course, and strikes the receiving conductor by a central spark surrounded by other smaller ones. The concentric rings produced upon polished metallic surfaces by the strong explosion of a battery, as first observed by Dr. Priestley, appears to be a fact of the same kind; and the forked radiations of lightning are well known. There is related, in the Philosophical Journal, volume I. 4to, some events which happened in Kensington Gardens in June, 1781, when a powerful thunder-storm passed over the western extremity of London. The explosions were very marked and distinct, and in many instances forked at the lower end, but never at the top; from which it seems proper to conclude, that the general mass of clouds, or, at least, that extremity which passed over London, was in the state called positive.

Five days afterwards, upon visiting Kensington Gardens, it was observed, that every part of that extensive piece of ground shewed marks of the agency of the lightning, chiefly by discoloration of the grass in zigzag streaks, some of which were fifty or sixty yards in length. Instances of this superficial course of the lightning along the ground, before it enters the earth, are sufficiently frequent. But the circumstance applicable to our present subject is, that several trees had been struck by the lightning. Two of them, which stood on the outside to the westward, had holes torn in the ground, close to the trunk; and round one of these trees was a space of six feet in diameter, in which the grass was very much scorched. Another tree on the west was surrounded by a faint ring of burnt or faded grass, which seemed to be occasioned by some earlier stroke, as the vegetation had begun to shoot up again. Another tree, standing on the out side to the south, was surrounded by a ring of twelve feet diameter, and eighteen inches broad. Within the ring the grass was fresh; but on the surface of the ring, the grass and the ground were much burned. To the eastward of the tree, upon the ring itself, were two holes, in which the ground had the appearance of ashes. Another tree, on the east side of the grove, had the half of a faint ring to the westward. And, lastly, a tree which stood in the middle was surrounded by a faint ring of twelve feet diameter, within which the grass was unhurt; and to the westward, at the distance of about three feet from the inner ring, was part of another similar ring, of nearly the same appearance; the verdure being unhurt in the interval between the rings.

A SHEET OF PHOSPHORIC FIRE.--A curious instance of this occurred to Monsieur Peron, in his voyage from Europe to the Isle of France. Between three and four degrees north latitude, during the obscurity of a night intensely dark, the wind blowing a hurricane, and the vessel making a rapid progress, he was struck by the sudden appearance of a vast sheet of phosphoric fire, floating before the ship, and covering a considerable space. The vessel presently made its way through this inflamed part of the sea, which enabled the observant navigator to discover that this prodigious light was occasioned entirely by an immense number of small animalcules, which swam at different depths, and appeared to assume various forms. Those which were most immersed in the water, looked like great red-hot cannon balls: whilst those on the surface resembled cylinders of red-hot iron. Some of them were soon caught, and found to vary in size, from three to seven inches. All the outside surface of the animal was bristled with thick oblong tubercles, shining like so many diamonds; and these seemed to be the principal seat of its wonderful phosphorescence. The inside, also, appeared furnished with a multitude of little, narrow, oblong glands, which possessed the phosphoric virtue in a high degree.

When in a tranquil state, the colour of these brilliant inhabitants of the ocean is an opal yellow, mixed with green; but, on the slightest movement of those voluntary contractions exercised by the creature, or those which the observer can at pleasure excite by the least irritation, the animal seems to inflame, and it becomes instantly like a piece of red-hot iron of the most vivid brilliancy. When its phosphorescency declines, it assumes a succession of light elegant tints, that are very pleasing to the eye, such as red, aurora, orange, green, and azure blue; the last is particularly lively and pure. The organization of this animal, which is called the Pyrosoma Atlanticum, ranks it amongst the most singular of the zoophite tribe; whilst its extraordinary phosphoric powers render it the most beautiful that has yet been seen.

It may be not amiss to conclude this chapter with an account of that very curious substance, PHOSPHORUS.--This singular production was accidentally discovered, in 1677, by an alchymist of Hamburgh, named Brandt, when he was engaged in searching for the philosopher's stone. Kunkel, another chemist, who had seen the new product, associated himself with one of his friends, named Krafft, to purchase the secret of its preparation; but the latter deceiving his friend, made the purchase for himself, and refused to communicate it. Kunkel, who at this time knew nothing further of its preparation, than that it was obtained by certain processes from urine, undertook the task, and succeeded. It is on this account that the substance long went under the name of Kunkel's phosphorus. Mr. Boyle is also considered as one of the discoverers of phosphorus. He communicated the secret of the process for preparing it, to the Royal Society of London, in 1680. It is asserted, indeed, by Krafft, that he discovered the secret to Mr. Boyle, having, in the year 1678, carried a small piece of it to London, to shew it to the royal family; but there is little probability that a man of such integrity as Mr. Boyle would claim the discovery of the process as his own, and communicate it to the Royal Society, if this had not been the case. Mr. Boyle communicated the process to Godfrey Hankwitz, an apothecary of London, who for many years supplied Europe with phosphorus, and hence it went under the name of English Phosphorus. In the year 1774, the Swedish chemists, Gahn and Scheele, made the important discovery, that phosphorus is contained in the bones of animals; and they improved the processes for procuring it.

When phosphorus is heated to the temperature of 148°, it takes fire, burns with a bright flame, and gives out a great quantity of white smoke. Phosphorus enters into combination with oxygen, azote, hydrogen, and carbon. Phosphorus is soluble in oils, and, when thus dissolved, forms what has been called liquid phosphorus, which may be rubbed on the face and hands without injury. It dissolves too in ether; and a very beautiful experiment consists in pouring this phosphoric ether in small portions, and in a dark place, on the surface of hot water. The phosphoric matches consist of phosphorus extremely dry, minutely divided, and perhaps a little oxygenized. The simplest mode of making them, is to put a little phosphorus, dried by blotting paper, into a small phial; heat the phial, and when the phosphorus is melted, turn it round, so that the phosphorus may adhere to the sides. Cork the phial closely, and it is prepared. On putting a common sulphur match into the bottle, and stirring it about, the phosphorus will adhere to the match, and will take fire when brought out into the air.

CHAP. LXVIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA, OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.--(Continued.)

Spots in the Sun--Diminution of the Sun--Parhelia, or Mock Suns--Eclipses--Halo, or Corona; and similar Appearances--Falling or Shooting Star--Volcanoes in the Moon.

Hail, sacred source of inexhausted light! Prodigious instance of creating might! His distance man's imagination foils; Numbers will scarce avail to count the miles. His globose body how immensely great! How fierce his burnings! how intense his heat! As swift as thought, he darts his radiance round To distant worlds, his system's utmost bound; Of all the planets the directing soul, That heightens and invigorates the whole. Brown.

SPOTS IN THE SUN.--The following account of the spots in the sun is taken from a French paper.

"The spots were seen for the first time in 1611; and nearly about the same time by J. Fabricius, at Wittenberg, by the Jesuit Scheiner, and by Galileo. This great man watched their course with so much attention, and so well developed their phenomena, that very little has been since added to the descriptions which he gave, except more precise measures. The spots of the sun are at present viewed with astronomical telescopes, in which the great brilliancy of that luminary is mitigated, and not effaced, by the coloured glass placed between the telescope and the eye. There are in the interior of the telescope, at the focus of the object, some very fine threads stretched crosswise, and moveable parallel to each other, by means of which the distance of the spot from the nearest border of the sun's disk may be ascertained, which determines its position on the disk at the moment of observation. By following in this manner the same spot for several days, it is perceived to change its place. Its size also varies much. The spots sometimes grow thinner, and disperse from one day to another: and hence it is, that, though in one month rather a large number was visible, in the following only two are to be seen. But during the whole time of their presence they pursue a regular course, of which the aspects are common to all.

"When they first come in sight, they appear on the sun's border, like a slender thread. In proportion as they advance towards the middle of the disk, they appear, from day to day, to enlarge in the direction of their movement. They then decrease periodically; and if they last long enough to traverse the whole disk, they go off by the opposite side, narrowing to a single thread. These appearances are evidently such as a small body, adhering to a spherical surface, and revolving with or upon that surface, must present. The diminution of the spots, in proportion as they approximate the borders of the disk, results from this--that they then project more obliquely, and are only seen sidewise; but when in the middle of the disk, they are seen in their full extent. In fine, upon comparing the direction and rapidity of their course, it soon becomes evident, that the supposition of their adhering to the body of the sun is the only admissible one. On thus tracing the route of all those which appear, it is ascertained that they move in courses exactly parallel, describing circles which all have their centre on a common axis, passing through the centre of the sun. The size of these circles varies on different points of the disk, according to the same laws as on a sphere; and the rate of movement is modified in such a way, that all the circles are run through in equal times. This perfect concordance of revolution in spots so changeable in other respects, evidently shews that they must be attached to one and the same round body, which makes them revolve altogether with a common motion. Hence it has been concluded, that the sun revolves upon itself with the general motion of these spots, that is, in twenty-five days and a half, in like manner as our earth revolves in twenty-four hours. The same calculation, applied to the spots which have been discovered on the other planets, has in like manner made us acquainted with their rotation.

"As to the nature of these solar spots, it is absolutely unknown. Herschel is of opinion, that luminous clouds float in the inflamed atmosphere of this luminary, as clouds of vapour float in ours. He supposes that the body of the sun is opaque and dark; and that the black spots observed there at intervals, are merely the summits of very elevated mountains, which the solar clouds permit us to see between their openings. Other astronomers think that the globe of the sun is on fire, and that the spots are merely immense scoria, launched on the surface of that mass by some terrible explosions, of which our terrestrial volcanoes afford but a feeble picture. But whatever may be thought of these conjectures, it seems sufficient for us to know, that the solar spots are trifling compared with the immense mass of that body; and that the eruptions, of which they are perhaps the effect, take place at too great a distance from our earth to produce the least effect upon it. Generally speaking, the physical state of our little world is incomparably more stable and steady than its moral state."

DIMINUTION OF THE SUN.--Baron Lindeneau, who recently published a work on the diminution of the solar mass, says, that the sun may have been imperceptibly subject to successive diminution since the science of astronomy has been cultivated. Baron Lindeneau supposes the sun's diameter to be 800,000 miles, 4,204,000,000 feet, or nearly 2000 seconds. We have not, he observes, hitherto possessed any instrument for measuring the diameter of the heavenly bodies to a second. The sun may therefore diminish 12,000 of its diameter, or 2,102,000 feet, without the possibility of being perceived. Supposing the sun to diminish daily two feet, it would require three thousand years to render the diminution of a second of its diameter visible.

Account of those singular Appearances, called, PARHELIA, OR MOCK SUNS.--

As when two suns appear in th' azure sky, Mounted in Phoebus' chariot fierie bright: Both darting forth fair beams to each man's eye; And both adorn'd with lamps of flaming light, All that behold such strange prodigious sight, Not knowing nature's work, nor what to weene, Are wrapt with wonder, and with rare affrighte. Spenser.

A Parhelion is a meteor in form of a bright light, appearing on one side of the sun. Phenomena of this kind have been mentioned both by the ancients and moderns. Aristotle observes, that in general they are seen only when the sun is near the horizon, though he takes notice of two that were seen in Bosphorus from morning till evening; and Pliny has related the times when such phenomena were observed at Rome. Gassendi says, that in 1635-1636 he often saw one mock sun. Two were observed by M. de la Hire in 1689; and the same number by Cassini in 1693; by Mr. Grey in 1700, and by Dr. Halley in 1702; but the most celebrated phenomena of this kind were seen at Rome by Scheiner; by Muschenbroek at Utrecht; and by Hevelius at Ledan. By the two former, four mock suns were observed; and by the latter, seven. Parhelia are apparently of the same size with the sun, though not always of the same brightness, nor even of the same shape; and when a number appear at once, there is some difference in both respects among them. Externally they are tinged with colours like the rainbow; and many have a long fiery tail opposite the sun, but paler towards the extremity. Parhelia are generally accompanied with coronas, some of which are tinged with rainbow colours, but others are white. (See Halo.) They differ in number and size; but all agree in breadth, which is that of the apparent diameter of the sun. A very large white circle, parallel to the horizon, generally passes through all the parhelia; and, if it were entire, it would go through the centre of the sun. Sometimes there are arcs of lesser circles concentric to this, touching those coloured circles which surround the sun. They are also tinged with colours, and contain other parhelia. Other circles are said to have been obliquely situated with respect to all these. The order of the colours in these circles is the same as in the rainbow; but on the inside, with respect to the sun, they are red, as is also observed in many haloes. Parhelia have been visible for one, two, three, and four hours together; and in North America, they are said to continue some days, and to be visible from sunrise to sunset. When the parhelia disappear, it sometimes rains, or snow falls in the form of oblong spiculæ, as Maraldi, Weidler, Krafft, and others, have observed; and because the air in North America abounds with such frozen spiculæ, which are even visible to the eye, according to Ellis and Middleton, such particles have been thought to be the cause of all coronas and parhelia.

Mr. Wales says, that at Churchill, in Hudson's Bay, the rising of the sun is always preceded by two long streams of red light, one on each side, and about twenty degrees distant from him. These rise as the sun rises; and as they grow longer, they begin to bend towards each other, till they meet directly over the sun, just as he rises, forming there a parhelion, or mock sun. These two streams of light, he says, seem to have their source in two other parhelia, which rise with the true sun; and in winter, when the sun never rises above the haze or fog, which he says is constantly seen near the horizon, all these accompany him the whole day, and set with him. Once or twice he saw a fourth parhelion, directly under the sun; but this is not common. These facts being constant, are very valuable, and may throw great light on the theory of these remarkable phenomena. Sometimes parhelia appear in a different manner; as when three suns have been seen in the same vertical circle, well defined, and touching one another. The true sun was in the middle, and the lowest touched the horizon, and they set one after the other. This appearance was seen by Maleziew, in 1722. Other appearances similar to this are recited by Mr. Muschenbroek. Sometimes the sun has risen or set with a luminous tail projecting from him, of the same breadth with his diameter, and perpendicular to the horizon. Such an appearance was seen by Cassini in 1672 and 1692; by De la Hire in 1702; and by Mr. Ellis in Hudson's Bay. As M. Feuilée was walking on the banks of the river La Plata, he saw the sun rising over the river, with a luminous tail projecting downwards, which continued till he was six degrees high. Paraselæ, or mock moons, have also been seen, accompanied with tails and coloured circles, like those which accompany the parhelia. An account of several, and a particular description of a fine appearance of this kind, may be seen in Muschenbroek.

The following account of this phenomenon is extracted from a pamphlet, entitled, 'Somewhat written by occasion of Three Sunnes' seene, at Tregorie, in Cornwall, the 22nd of December last; with other memorable occurrents in other places. Imprinted 1622: 20 pages small 4to.'

"Since this strange apparition, namely, upon the 10th of January last, there happened in Devonshire, yet not farre from the other place, being on the edge of Cornwalle, another wonder, which, did as much affrighte the eares of men, as this did their eyes: for in the afternoone of that day, being the Thursday after Twelfth-day, there were heard in the aire unusuall cracks or claps of thunder, resembling in all points the sound of many drums together, sometimes beating charges, sometimes retreats, sometimes marches, and all other points of warre: which, after it had continued a good time, it seemed that the same thunder did most lively expresse many volleyes of small-shot, and afterwards the like volleyes of ordnance, with so great and yet so distinct noyse, that many of them who dwelt neare the sea, went toward the shore to see what it might meane, as verily supposing there had beene some sea fight neere upon that coast. These severall fearfull noyses were againe and againe renewed in the same order, till at length with an horrible and extraordinary cracke of thunder, there fell in a ground of one Robert Pierce, where there were divers workemen planting apple-trees, (which ground lay neere the house of one Master George Chidley,) a thunder-bolt, if I may so call it, being a stone of three foot and an halfe in length, of two foot and an halfe in breadth, and one foot and an halfe in thicknesse, the substance whereof was in hardnesse and colour not much unlike a flint, as appeares by many pieces thereof, which are shewed up and downe by many credible and honest gentlemen, who, with their own hands, brake them off from the maine stone. After the fall of this stone, which with the weight thereof was cleane buried in the ground above a yard deepe, the thunder ceased, and people began as much to won--at that which they now saw, as they had lately done at that, which with so much feare and amazement they had heard."

Observations on ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON.--

Give me the ways of wand'ring stars to know, The depths of heav'n above and earth below; Teach me the various labours of the Moon, And whence proceed th' Eclipses of the Sun. Virg. Georg. ii

The deprivation of the light of the sun, or some heavenly body, by the interposition of another heavenly body between our sight and it is, called an Eclipse. Thus, eclipses of the sun happen by the moon's intervening between it and the earth; by which means the shadow of the moon falls upon the earth, when the latitude of the moon does not prevent it, by elevating her orb above, or depressing it below the earth. On the other hand, an eclipse of the moon can only happen when the earth is interposed between the sun and it; for then, if the latitude of the moon does not prevent it, the shadow of the earth may fall on the moon, and thereby cause either a partial, or total eclipse. A total eclipse of the sun or moon, is when their whole bodies are obscured; and a partial one, is when part only of their bodies is darkened: again, a central eclipse is when it is not only total, but the eclipsed body passes through the centre of the shadow.

As total solar eclipses are by no means common, we shall give an interesting description of one, by Dr. Stukeley, sent to his friend, the celebrated Dr. Edmund Halley.

"According to my promise, I send you what I observed of the solar eclipse, though I fear it will not be of any great use to you. I was not prepared with any instruments for measuring time or the like, and proposed to myself only to watch all the appearances that nature would present to the naked eye upon so remarkable an occasion, and which generally are overlooked, or but grossly regarded. I chose for my station a place called Haradon Hill, two miles eastward from Amsbury, and full east from the opening of Stonehenge avenue, to which it is as the point of view. Before me lay the vast plain where that celebrated work stands, and I knew that the eclipse would appear directly over it; besides, I had the advantage of a very extensive prospect every way, this being the highest hill hereabouts, and nearest the middle of the shadow. Full west of me, and beyond Stonehenge, is a pretty copped hill, like the top of a cone, lifting itself above the horizon; this is Clay-hill, near Warminster, twenty miles distant, and near the central line of darkness, which must come from thence, so that I could have notice enough beforehand of its approach. Abraham Sturgis and Stephen Ewens, both of this place, and sensible men, were with me. Though it was very cloudy, yet now and then we had gleams of sunshine, rather more than I could perceive at any other place around us. These two persons, looking through smoked glasses, while I was taking some bearings of the country with a circumferentor, both confidently affirmed the eclipse was begun, when, by my watch, I found it just half an hour after five; and accordingly from thence the progress of it was visible, and very often to the naked eye; the thin clouds doing the office of glasses. From the time of the sun's body being half covered, there was a very conspicuous circular iris round the sun, with perfect colours. On all sides we beheld the shepherds hurrying their flocks into fold, the darkness coming on; for they expected nothing less than a total eclipse for an hour and a quarter.

"When the sun looked very sharp like a new moon, the sky was pretty clear in that spot; but soon after a thicker cloud covered it, at which time the iris vanished; the copped hill before-mentioned grew very dark, together with the horizon on both sides, that is, to the north and south, and looked blue, just as it appears at the declension of day. We had scarcely time to tell them, when Salisbury steeple, six miles off southward, became very black; the copped hill was quite lost, and a most gloomy night with full career came upon us: at this instant we lost sight of the sun, whose place among the clouds was hitherto sufficiently distinguishable, but now not the least trace of it was to be found, any more than if really absent: then I saw by my watch, though with difficulty, and only by help of some light from the northern quarter, that it was six hours thirty-five minutes: just before this, the whole compass of the heavens and earth looked of a lurid complexion, properly speaking, for it was black and blue, only on the earth upon the horizon the blue prevailed; there was likewise in the heavens, among the clouds, much green interspersed, so that the whole appearance was really very dreadful, and as symptoms of sickening nature.

"Now I perceived we were involved in total and palpable darkness, as I may aptly call it; for though it came quickly, yet I was so intent, that I could perceive its steps, and feel it as it were drop upon us, and fall on the right shoulder (we looking westward) like a great dark mantle, or coverlet of a bed, thrown over us, or like the drawing of a curtain on that side. The horses we held in our hands were very sensible of it, and crowded close to us, startling with great surprise; and as much as I could see of the men's faces that stood by me, they had a horrible aspect. At this instant I looked around me, not without exclamations of admiration, and could discern colours in the heavens, but the earth had lost its blue, and was wholly black. For some time, among the clouds, there were visible streaks of rays, tending to the place of the sun as their centre; but immediately after, the whole appearance of earth and sky was entirely black: of all things I ever saw in my life, or can by imagination fancy, it was a sight the most tremendous.

"Towards the north-west, whence the eclipse came, I could not in the least find any distinction in the horizon between heaven and earth, for a good breadth of about sixty degrees, or more; nor the town of Amsbury underneath us, nor scarcely the ground we trod on. I turned myself round several times during this total darkness, and remarked at a good distance from the west on both sides, that is, to the north and south, the horizon very perfectly; the earth being black, the lower parts of the heavens light; for the darkness above hung over us like a canopy, almost reaching the horizon in those parts, or as if made with skirts of a lighter colour; so that the upper edges of all the hills were as a black line, and I knew them very distinctly by their shape or profile; and northward, I saw perfectly, that the interval of light and darkness in the horizon was between Martinsal-hill and St. Ann's-hill; but southward it was more indefinite. I do not mean that the verge of the shadow passed between those hills, which were but twelve miles distant from us; but, so far I could distinguish the horizon; beyond it not at all. The reason of it was this; the elevation of ground I was upon gave me an opportunity of seeing the light of the heavens beyond the shadow; nevertheless, this verge of light looked of a dead yellowish, and greenish colour; it was broader to the north than south; but the southern was of a tawny colour: at this time behind us, or eastward toward London, it was dark too, where otherwise I could see the hills beyond Andover; for the foremost end of the shadow was past thither; so that the whole horizon was now divided into four parts of unequal bulk, and degrees of light and dark; the part to the north-west broadest and blackest, to the south-west lightest and longest. All the change I could perceive during the totality, was, that the horizon by degrees drew into two parts, light and dark: the northern hemisphere growing still longer, lighter, and broader; and the two opposite dark parts uniting into one, and swallowing up the southern enlightened part.

"As at the beginning the shade came feelingly upon our right shoulders, so now the light from the north, where it opened as it were; though I could discern no defined light or shade upon the earth that way, which I earnestly watched for, yet it was manifestly by degrees, and with oscillation, going back a little, and quickly advancing further, till at length, upon the first lucid point appearing in the heavens, where the sun was, I could distinguish pretty plainly a rim of light running alongside of us a good while together, or sweeping by at our elbows from west to east. Just then, having reason to suppose the totality ended with us, I looked on my watch, and found it to be full three minutes and a half more. Now the hill-tops changed their black into blue again, and I could distinguish an horizon where the centre of darkness was before: the men cried out, they saw the copped-hill again, which they had eagerly looked for; but still it continued dark to the south-east, yet I cannot say that ever the horizon that way was undistinguishable. Immediately we heard the larks chirping, and singing very briskly, for joy of the restored luminary, after all things had been hushed into a most profound and universal silence. The heavens and earth now appeared exactly like morning before sunrise, of a greyish cast, but rather more blue interspersed; and the earth, so far as the verge of the hill reached, was of a dark green, or russet colour.

"As soon as the sun emerged, the clouds grew thicker, and the light was very little amended for a minute or more, like a cloudy morning slowly advancing. After about the middle of the totality, and so after the emersion of the sun, we saw Venus very plainly, but no other star. Salisbury steeple now appeared; but the clouds never removing, we could take no account of it afterwards; but in the evening it lightened very much. I hastened home to write this letter, and the impression was so vivid upon my mind, that I am sure, I could for some days after have written the same account of it, and very precisely. After supper I made a drawing of it from my imagination, upon the same paper on which I had taken a prospect of the country before.

"I must confess to you, that I was (I believe) the only person in England, that regretted not the cloudiness of the day, which added so much to the solemnity of the sight, and which incomparably exceeded, in my apprehension, that of 1715, which I saw very perfectly from the top of Boston steeple, in Lincolnshire, where the air was very clear; but the night of this was more complete and dreadful: there, indeed, I saw both sides of the shadow come from a great distance, and pass beyond us to a considerable extent; but this eclipse had much more of variety and majestic terror; so that I cannot but felicitate myself upon the opportunity of seeing these two rare accidents of nature, in so different a manner. Yet I should willingly have lost this pleasure, for your more valuable advantage of perfecting the noble theory of the celestial bodies, which, last time, you gave the world so nice a calculation of; and I wish the sky had now as much favoured us for an addition to your honour and great skill, which I doubt not to be as exact in this as before."

We now proceed to describe THE HALO, OR CORONA; AND SIMILAR APPEARANCES.--An Halo is a luminous circle surrounding the sun, moon, planets, or fixed stars. Occasionally these circles are white, and sometimes they are coloured like the rainbow. Sometimes one only is visible, and at others several concentric halos appear at the same time. Mr. Huygens observed red next the sun, and a pale blue outwards. Sometimes they are red on the inside, and white on the outside. In France, one was observed in 1683, the middle of which was white; after which followed a border of red, next to it was blue, then green, and the outermost circle was a bright red. In 1728, one was seen of a pale red outwardly, then followed yellow, and then green, terminated by a white. In Holland, M. Muschenbroek says, fifty may be seen in the day-time, almost every year; but they are difficult to be observed, except the eye be so situated, that not the body of the sun, but only the neighbouring parts of the heavens, can be seen. Mr. Middleton says, that this phenomenon is very frequent in North America; for that there is generally one or two about the sun every week, and as many about the moon every month. Halos round the sun are very frequent in Russia. M. Æpinus says, that from the 23d of April, 1758, to the 20th of September, he himself had observed no less than twenty-six, and that he has sometimes seen twice as many in the same space of time.

Similar, in some respects, to the halo, was the remarkable appearance which M. Bouguer describes, as observed on the top of Mount Pichinca, in the Cordilleras. When the sun was just rising behind them, so as to appear white, each of them saw his own shadow projected upon it, and no other. The distance was such, that all the parts of the shadow were easily distinguishable, as the arms, the legs, and the head; but what surprised them most was, that the head was adorned with a kind of glory, consisting of three or four small concentric crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting all the varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the circle of red on the outside. The intervals between these circles continued equal, though the diameters of them all were constantly changing. The last of them was very faint; and at a considerable distance was another great white circle, which surrounded the whole. This phenomenon never appeared but in a cloud consisting of frozen particles, and never in drops of rain like the rainbow. When the sun was not in the horizon, only part of the white circle was visible, as M. Bouquer frequently observed afterwards. Similar to this curious appearance, was one seen by Dr. M'Fait in Scotland; who observed a rainbow round his shadow in the mist, when he was upon an eminence above it. In this situation the whole country round seemed buried under a vast deluge, and nothing but the tops of distant hills appeared here and there above the flood. In those upper regions, the air, he says, is at that time very pure and agreeable. At another time he observed a double range of colours round his shadow. The colours of the outermost range were broad and very distinct, and every where about two feet distant from the shadow. Then there was a darkish interval, and after that another narrower range of colours, closely surrounding the shadow, which was very much contracted. He thinks that these ranges of colours are caused by the inflection of the rays of light, the same that occasions the ring of light which surrounds the shadow of all bodies, observed by M. Maraldi, and others.

We next proceed to the phenomenon generally called FALLING OR SHOOTING STAR.--This is a luminous meteor, darting rapidly through the air, and resembling a star falling from the heavens. The explication of this phenomenon had puzzled all philosophers, till the modern discoveries in electricity led to the most probable account of it. Signior Beccari makes it pretty evident, that it is an electrical appearance, and recites the following fact in proof of his opinion. About an hour after sunset, he, and some friends that were with him, observed a falling star directing its course towards them, and apparently growing larger and larger, but it disappeared not far from them. When it vanished, it left their faces, hands, and clothes, with the earth, and all the neighbouring objects, suddenly illuminated with a diffused and lambent light, but not attended with any noise. During their surprise at this appearance, a servant informed them, that he had seen a light shine suddenly in the garden, and especially upon the streams which he was throwing to water it. All these appearances were evidently electrical; and Beccari was confirmed in his conjecture, that electricity was the cause of them, by the quantity of electric matter which he had seen gradually advancing towards a kite he had elevated, which had very much the appearance of a falling star. Sometimes, also, he saw a kind of glory round the kite, which followed it when it changed its place, but left some light, for a small space of time, in the place it had quitted.

Captain Bagnold says, whilst passing through the straits of Bahama, in the autumn of 1799, he witnessed the following singular atmospheric phenomenon.

"It was a fine star-light morning, about two o'clock, the atmosphere remarkably clear, with a light air from the north-east; the sky to windward, from north-north-east to south-south-east, was illuminated by a profusion of those meteors, vulgarly denominated falling stars, but of a description far more vivid than those usually seen in the higher latitudes; the head of each was an oblong ignited mass, followed by a long luminous tail, which, after three or four seconds, gradually vanished. They were formed, to all appearance, in the air, at an elevation of from thirty-five to sixty-four degrees, none being observed in the zenith, and few to commence nearer the horizon than the first-mentioned angles. At the mean of these elevations, the greatest numbers were seen darting in different directions, forming portions of a large curve, all slightly inclined to the horizon. Multitudes were constantly visible at the same moment, and they succeeded each other so rapidly, that the eye of the spectator was kept in motion between the above points of the compass. In about ten minutes they became less frequent, and at length ceased altogether.

"The apparent distance of this phenomenon would, by a seaman, be estimated at fifteen or twenty miles; and if it really was what I have always considered it, namely, a nocturnal shower of meteoric stones, it was perhaps fortunate for all on board, that we were not within the sphere of its action: whatever it was, never shall I forget the splendour of the spectacle."--See Humboldt's Personal Narrative, volume III. page 331, 335.

We close this chapter with AN ACCOUNT OF THREE VOLCANOES IN THE MOON; by Dr. Herschel.

"It will be necessary to say a few words by way of introduction to the account I have to give of some appearances upon the moon. The phenomena of nature, especially those that fall under the inspection of the astronomer, are to be viewed, not only with the usual attention to facts as they occur, but with the eye of reason and experience. In this we are, however, not allowed to depart from plain appearances, though their origin and signification should be indicated by the most characterizing features. Thus, when we see on the surface of the moon a great number of elevations, from half a mile to a mile and a half in height, we are strictly entitled to call them mountains; but when we attend to their particular shape, in which many of them resemble the craters of our volcanoes, and thence argue that they owe their origin to the same cause which has modelled many of these, we may be said to see by analogy, or with the eye of reason. Now, in this latter case, though it may be convenient, in speaking of phenomena, to use expressions that can only be justified by reasoning upon the facts themselves, it will certainly be the safest way not to neglect a full description of them, that it may appear to others how far we have been authorized to use the mental eye. This being premised, I may safely proceed to give my observations.

"April 19th, 1787, 10h. 36', sidereal time: I perceive three volcanoes in different places of the dark part of the new moon. Two of them are either already nearly extinct, or otherwise in a state of going to break out; which, perhaps, may be decided next lunation. The third shews an actual eruption of fire, or luminous matter. I measured the distance of the crater from the northern limb of the moon, and found it 3' 57".3. Its light is much brighter than the nucleus of the comet which M. Mechain discovered at Paris the 10th of this month.--April 20th, 1787, 10h. 2', sidereal time: The volcano burns with greater violence than last night. I believe its diameter cannot be less than 3", by comparing it with that of the Georgian planet: as Jupiter was near at hand, I turned the telescope to his third satellite, and estimated the diameter of the burning part of the volcano to be equal to at least twice that of the satellite. Hence we may compute that the shining or burning matter must be above three miles in diameter. It is of an irregular round figure, and very sharply defined on the edges. The other two volcanoes are much farther towards the centre of the moon, and resemble large pretty faint nebulæ, that are gradually much brighter in the middle; but no well-defined luminous spot can be discerned in them. These three spots are plainly to be distinguished from the rest of the marks upon the moon; for the reflection of the sun's rays from the earth is, in its present situation, sufficiently bright, with a ten-feet reflector, to shew the moon's spots, even the darkest of them; nor did I perceive any similar phenomena last lunation, though I then viewed the same places with the same instrument.

"The appearance of what I have called the actual fire, or eruption of a volcano, exactly resembled a small piece of burning charcoal, when it is covered by a very thin coat of white ashes, which frequently adhere to it after it has been some time ignited; and it had a degree of brightness about as strong as that with which such a coal would be seen to glow in faint daylight. All the adjacent parts of the volcanic mountain seemed to be faintly illuminated by the eruption, and were gradually more obscure as they lay at a greater distance from the crater.

"This eruption resembled much that which I saw on the fourth of May, in the year 1783; an account of which, with many remarkable particulars relating to volcanic mountains in the moon, I shall take an early opportunity of communicating to the Royal Society. It differed, however, considerably in magnitude and brightness; for the volcano of the year 1783, though much brighter than that which is now burning, was not near so large in the dimensions of its eruption; the former seen in the telescope resembled a star of the fourth magnitude, as it appears to the natural eye: this, on the contrary, shews a visible disk of luminous matter, very different from the sparkling brightness of star-light."

CHAP. LXIX.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA, OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.--(Concluded.)

The Aurora Borealis.

--------------Silent from the north A blaze of meteors shoots: ensweeping first The lower skies, they all at once converge High to the crown of heav'n, and all at once Relapsing quick, as quickly reascend, And mix and thwart, extinguish and renew, All ether coursing in a maze of light Thomson.

THE AURORA BOREALIS, sometimes called Streamers, is an extraordinary meteor, or luminous appearance, shewing itself in the night time in the northern part of the heavens; and most usually in frosty weather. It is generally of a reddish colour, inclining to yellow, and sends out frequent corruscations of pale light, which seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidical undulating form, and shoot with great velocity up to the zenith. The Aurora Borealis appears frequently in form of an arch, chiefly in the spring and autumn, after a dry year. The arch is partly bright, partly dark, but generally transparent: and the matter of which it consists, is also found to have no effect on rays of light which pass through it. Dr. Hamilton observes, that he could plainly discern the smallest speck in the Pleiades through the density of those clouds which formed the Aurora Borealis in 1763, without the least diminution of its splendour, or increase of twinkling.

This kind of meteor, which is more uncommon as we approach towards the equator, is almost constant during the long winter, and appears with the greatest lustre in the polar regions. In the Shetland isles, the "Merry Dancers," as the northern lights are there called, are the constant attendants of clear evenings, and afford great relief amidst the gloom of the long winter nights. They commonly appear at twilight, near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; they sometimes continue in that state for several hours, without any perceptible motion; and sometimes they break out into streams of stronger light, spreading into columns, and altering slowly into ten thousand different shapes, and varying their colours from all the tints of yellow, to the most obscure russet. They often cover the whole hemisphere, and then exhibit the most brilliant appearance. Their motions at this time are most amazingly quick; and they astonish the spectator with the rapid changes of their form. They break out in places where none were seen before, skimming briskly among the heavens, are suddenly extinguished, and are succeeded by a uniform dusky tract. This again is brilliantly illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left a dark space. In some nights, they assume the appearance of large columns, on one side of the deepest yellow, and on the other, gradually changing, till it becomes undistinguished from the sky. They have generally a strong tremulous motion from one end to the other, and this continues till the whole vanishes.

As for us, who see only the extremities of these northern phenomena, we can have but a faint idea of their splendour and motions. According to the state of the atmosphere, they differ in hue; and sometimes assuming the colour of blood, they make a dreadful appearance. The rustic sages who observe them, become prophetic, and terrify the spectators with alarms of war, pestilence, and famine. Nor, indeed, were these superstitious presages peculiar to the northern islands: appearances of a similar nature are of ancient date; and they were distinguished by the appellations of "phasmata," "trabes," and "balides," according to their forms and colours. In old times they were either more rare, or less frequently noticed: they were supposed to portend great events, and the timid imagination formed of them aërial conflicts.

In the northern latitudes of Sweden and Lapland, the Auroræ Boreales are not only singularly beautiful in their appearance, but they afford travellers, by their almost constant effulgence, a very beautiful light during the whole night. In Hudson's Bay the Aurora Borealis diffuses a variegated splendour, which is said to equal that of the full moon. In the northeastern parts of Siberia, according to the description of Gmelin, these northern lights are observed to "begin with single bright pillars, rising in the north, and almost at the same time in the north-east, which, gradually increasing, comprehend a large space of the heavens, rush about from place to place with incredible velocity, and, finally, almost cover the whole sky up to the zenith, and produce an appearance as if a vast tent were expanded in the heavens, glittering with gold, rubies, and sapphire. A more beautiful spectacle cannot be painted; but whoever should see such a northern light for the first time, could not behold it without terror. For, however fine the illumination may be, it is attended, as I have learned from the relation of many persons, with such a hissing, crackling, and rushing noise through the air, as if the largest fire-works were played off. To describe what they then hear, they make use of the expression, 'The raging host is passing.' The hunters, who pursue the white and blue foxes in the confines of the Icy Sea, are often alarmed in their course by these northern lights. Their dogs are then so much frightened, that they will not move, but lie obstinately on the ground, till the noise has passed. Commonly, clear and calm weather follows this kind of northern lights. This account has been confirmed by the uniform testimony of many, who have spent part of several years in these northern regions, and inhabited different countries from the Yenisei to the Lena; so that no doubt of its truth can remain. This seems, indeed, to be the real birth-place of the Aurora Borealis."

A person who resided seven years at Hudson's Bay, confirms M. Gmelin's relation of the fine appearance and brilliant colours of the northern lights, and particularly of their rushing noise, which he affirms he has frequently heard, and he compares it to the sound produced by whirling round a stick swiftly at the end of a string. A similar noise has likewise been noticed in Sweden. Mr. Nairne also, being in Northampton at the time when the northern lights were remarkably bright, is confident he heard a hissing or whizzing sound. Mr. Belknap, of Dover, in New Hampshire, North America, testifies to this fact. M. Cavallo says, that the cracking noise is distinctly audible, and that he has heard it more than once. Similar lights, called Auroræ Australes, have been long since observed towards the south pole, and their existence has been lately ascertained by Mr. Forster, who assures us, that in his voyage round the world with Captain Cook, he observed them in high southern latitudes, though attended with phenomena somewhat different from those which are seen here.

On February 17, 1773, in south latitude 58°, "a beautiful phenomenon (he says) was observed during the preceding night, which appeared again this and several following nights. It consisted of long columns of a clear white light, shooting up from the horizon to the eastward, almost to the zenith, and gradually spreading on the whole southern part of the sky. The columns were sometimes bent sideways at their upper extremities; and though in most respects similar to the northern lights (Aurora Borealis) of our hemisphere, yet they differed from them in being always of a whitish colour, whereas ours assume various tints, especially those of a fiery and purple hue. The sky was generally clear when they appeared, and the air sharp and cold, the thermometer standing at the freezing point."

The periods of the appearance of these northern lights are very inconstant. In some years they occur very frequently, and in others they are more rare; and it has been observed, that they are more common about the time of the equinoxes than at other seasons of the year. Dr. Halley (see Philos. Trans. No. 347, p. 406,) has collected together several observations, which form a kind of history of this phenomenon. After having particularly described the various circumstances which attended that observed by himself, and many others, in March, 1716, and which was singularly brilliant, he proceeds with informing us, that the first account of similar phenomena recorded in the English annals, is that of the appearance noticed January 30, 1560, and called, Burning Spears, by the author of a book entitled, "A Description of Meteors," by W. F. D.D.; reprinted at London, in 1654. The next appearance of a like kind, recorded by Stow, occurred on October 7, 1564. In 1574, as Camden and Stow inform us, an Aurora Borealis was seen for two successive nights, viz. on the 14th and 15th of November, with appearances similar to those observed in 1716, and which are now commonly noticed. The same phenomenon was twice seen in Brabant, in 1575, viz. on the 13th of February, and the 28th of September; and the circumstances attending it were described by Cornelius Gemma, who compares them to "spears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air." In the year 1580, M. Masline observed these phasmata, as he calls them, at Baknang, in the county of Wirtemberg, in Germany, no less than seven times in the space of twelve months; and again at several different times, in 1581. On September 2d, 1621, the same phenomenon was seen over all France; and it was particularly described by Gassendus, in his "Physics," who gave it the name of Aurora Borealis. Another was seen all over Germany, in November, 1623, and was described by Kepler. Since that time, for more than eighty years, we have no account of any such phenomenon, either at home or abroad. In 1707, Mr. Neve observed one of small continuance in Ireland; and in the same year, a similar appearance was seen by Romer, at Copenhagen; and during an interval of eighteen months, in the years 1707 and 1708, this sort of light had been seen no less than five times.

Hence it should seem, (says Dr. Halley,) that the air or earth, or both, are not at all times disposed to produce this phenomenon, though it is possible it may happen in the day-time, in bright moonshine, or in cloudy weather, and so pass unobserved. Dr. Halley further observes, that the Aurora Borealis of 1716, which he described, was visible from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia, and to the east of Poland; extending at least near thirty degrees of longitude, and from about the fiftieth degree of north latitude, over almost all the north of Europe; and in all places at the same time, it exhibited appearances similar to those which he observed in London. He regrets, however, that he was unable to determine its height, for want of contemporary observations at different places.

Father Boscovich has determined the height of an Aurora Borealis, observed on the 16th of December, 1737, by the Marquis of Poleni, to have been eight hundred and twenty-five miles; and Mr. Bergman, from a mean of thirty computations, makes the average height of the Aurora Borealis to be seventy-two Swedish, or (supposing a Swedish mile to be about six and a half English miles) four hundred and sixty-eight English miles. Euler supposes the height to be several thousands of miles; and Mairan also assigns to these phenomena a very elevated region, the far greater number of them being, according to him, about two hundred leagues above the surface of the earth. Dr. Blagden, speaking of the height of some fiery meteors, (Phil. Trans. vol. lxxiv. p. 227,) says, "that the Aurora Borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher region, above the surface of the earth, as may be judged from the very distant countries to which it has been visible at the same time:" he adds, that "the great accumulation of electric matter seems to lie beyond the verge of our atmosphere, as estimated by the cessation of twilight." But as it is difficult to make such observations on this phenomenon as are sufficient to afford a just estimate of its altitude, they must be subject to considerable variation, and to material error.

Dr. Blagden informs us, that instances are recorded, in which the northern lights have been seen to join, and form luminous balls, darting about with great velocity, and even leaving a train behind them like the common fire-balls. This ingenious author, however, conjecturing that distinct regions are allotted to the electrical phenomena of our atmosphere, assigns the appearance of fire-balls to that region which lies beyond the limits of our crepuscular atmosphere; and a greater elevation above the earth, to that accumulation of electricity in a lighter and less condensed form, which produces the wonderfully diversified streams and coruscations of the Aurora Borealis.

CHAP. LXX.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING GALVANISM.

"Nature, exhaustles still, has power to warm, And every change presents a novel charm."

GALVANI, a professor of anatomy in the university of Bologna, was one day making experiments on electricity. In his laboratory, near the machine, were some frogs that had been flayed; the limbs of which became convulsed every time a spark was drawn from the apparatus. Galvani, surprised at this phenomenon, made it a subject of investigation, and discovered that metals, applied to the nerves and muscles of these animals, occasioned powerful and sudden contractions, when disposed in a certain manner. He gave the name of Animal Electricity to this order of new phenomena, from the analogy that he considered existing between these effects and those produced by electricity.

The name, Animal Electricity, has been superseded, notwithstanding the great analogy that exists between the effects of electricity and of Galvanism, in favour of the latter term; which is not only applicable to the generality of the phenomena, but likewise serves to perpetuate the memory of the discoverer.

In order to give rise to galvanic effects, it is necessary to establish a communication between two points of one series of nervous and muscular organs. In this manner a circle is formed, one arch of which consists of the animal parts, rendered the subject of experiment, while the other arch is composed of exciting instruments, which generally consists of those animal parts called supporters; others, destined to establish a communication between the latter, are called conductors. To form a complete galvanic circle, take the thigh of a frog, deprived of its skin; detach the crural nerve, as far as the knee; put it on a piece of zinc; lay the muscles of the leg on a piece of silver; then finish the exciting arch, and complete the galvanic circle by establishing a communication by means of the two supporters, by iron or copper wire, pewter, or lead. The instant that the communicators touch the two supporters, a part of the animal arch formed by the two supporters will be convulsed. Although this disposition of the animal parts, and of galvanic instruments, be most favourable to the development of the phenomena, yet the composition of the animal and excitatory arch may be much varied. Thus contractions are obtained, by placing the two supporters under the nerve, and leaving the muscle out of the circle; which proves that nerves essentially constitute the animal arch.

It is not necessary for nerves to be entire, in order to produce contractions. They take place whether the organs be tied or cut through, provided there exists a simple contiguity between the divided ends. This proves that we cannot strictly conclude what happens in muscular action, from that which takes place in galvanic phenomena; since, if a nerve be tied or divided, the muscles on which the energy is distributed lose the power of action.

The cuticle is an obstacle to galvanic effects; they are always feebly manifested in parts covered by it. When it is moist, fine, and delicate, the effect is not entirely interrupted. Humboldt, after having detached the cuticle from the posterior part of the neck and back, by means of two blisters, applied plates of metal to the bare cutis, and, at the moment of establishing a communication, he experienced sharp prickings, accompanied with a serosanguinous discharge.

If a plate of zinc be placed under the tongue, and a flat piece of silver on its superior surface, on making them touch each other, an acerb taste will be perceived, accompanied with a slight trembling.

The exciting arch may be constructed with two or three metals, or even one metal only; with alloys, amalgams, or other metallic or mineral combinations, carbonated substances, &c. It is observed, that metals, which are in general the most powerful exciters, induce contractions so much the more as they have an extent of surface. Metals are all more or less excitants; and it has been noticed that zinc, gold, silver, and pewter, are of the highest rank; then copper, lead, nickel, antimony, &c.

Galvanic susceptibility is exhausted by too long-continued exercise, and is recruited by repose. Immersion of nerves in alkohol and opiate solutions diminishes, and even destroys, this susceptibility; in the same manner, doubtless, as the immoderate use of these substances in the living man, blunts, and induces paralysis in muscular action. Immersion in oxygenated muriatic acid, revests the fatigued parts, in being acted on by the stimulus. Animals killed by the repeated discharge of an electric battery, acquire an increase of galvanic susceptibility; and this property subsists unchanged in animals destroyed by submersions in mercury, pure hydrogen gas, azote, and ammoniac; and finally, it is totally annihilated in animals suffocated by the vapour of charcoal.

Galvanic susceptibility is extinct in the muscles of animals of warm blood, in proportion as vital heat is dissipated; sometimes even when life is terminated in convulsions, contractibility cannot be put into action, although warmth be not completely gone, as though the vital property were consumed by the convulsions amidst which the animals had expired. In those of cold blood, on the contrary, it is more durable. The thighs of frogs, long after being separated from every thing, and even to the instant of incipient putrefaction, are influenced by galvanic stimuli; doubtless, because irritability, in these animals, is less intimately connected with respiration, and life more divided among the different organs, which have less occasion to act on each other for the execution of its phenomena. The galvanic chain does not produce sensible actions (that is, contractions) until the moment it is completed, by establishing a communication with the parts constituting it. During the time it is complete, that is, throughout the whole space of time that the communication remains established, every thing remains tranquil; nevertheless, galvanic influence is not suspended; in fact, excitability is evidently increased or diminished, in muscles that have been long continued in the galvanic chain, according to the difference of the reciprocal situation of the connecting metals.

If silver has been applied to the nerves, and zinc to the muscles, the irritability of the latter increases in proportion to the time they have remained in the chain. By this method, the thighs of frogs have been revivified in some degree, and afterwards became sensible to stimuli that before had ceased to act on them. By distributing the metals in an inverse manner, applying zinc to the nerves, and silver to the muscles, an effect absolutely contrary is observed; and the muscles that possessed the most lively irritability when placed in the chain, seem to be rendered entirely paralytic if they remain long in this situation.

This difference evidently depends on the direction of the galvanic fluid, determined towards the muscles or nerves, according to the manner in which these metals are disposed; and this is of some importance to be known for the application of galvanic means to the cure of diseases.

M. Volta's apparatus is as follows:--Raise a pile, by placing a plate of zinc, a flat piece of wet card, and a plate of silver, successively; then a second piece of zinc, &c. until the elevation is several feet high; for the effects are greater in proportion to its height; then touch both extremities of the pile, at the same instant, with one piece of iron wire: at the moment of contact, a spark is excited from the extremities of the pile, and luminous points are often perceived at different heights, where the zinc and silver come into mutual contact. The zinc end of this pile appears to be negatively electrified; that formed by the silver, on the contrary, indicates marks of positive electricity.

If we touch both extremities of the pile, after having dipped our hands into water, or, what is better, a saline solution, a commotion, followed by a disagreeable pricking in the fingers and elbow, is felt.

If we place, in a tube filled with water, and hermetically closed by two corks, the extremities of two wires of the same metal, which are in contact at the other extremity, one with the summit, the other with the base of the pile; these ends, even when separated only by the space of a few lines, experience evident changes at the instant the extremities of the pile are touched: the wire in contact with that part of the pile composed of zinc, becomes covered with bullæ of hydrogen gas; that which touches the extremity formed by silver, becomes oxydated. Fourcroy attributes this phenomenon to the decomposition of water by the galvanic fluid, which abandons the oxygen to the iron that touches the positive extremity of the pile; then conducts the other gas invisibly to the end of the other wire, there to be disengaged.

From the numerous experiments of Mr. Davy, many new and important facts have been established, and Galvanism has been found to be one of the most powerful agents in chemistry. By its influence, platina wire has been melted; gold, silver, copper, and most of the metals, have easily been burnt! the fixed alkalis, and many of the earths, have been made to appear as consisting of a metallic base and oxygen; compound substances, which were before extremely difficult to decompose, are now, by the aid of Galvanism, easily resolved into their constituent.

CHAP. LXXI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING MAGNETISM.

Almighty Cause! 'tis thy preserving care That keeps thy works for ever fresh and fair: Hence life acknowledges its glorious Cause, And matter owns its great Disposer's laws; Hence flow the forms and properties of things; Hence rises harmony, and order springs. Thy watchful providence o'er all intends; Thy works obey their great Creator's ends. Thee, Infinite! what finite can explore? Imagination sinks beneath thy power. Yet present to all sense that power remains, Reveal'd in nature, Nature's Author reigns. Boyse.

The obedient steel with living instinct moves, And veers for ever to the pole it loves, So turns the faithful needle to the pole, Tho' mountains rise between, and oceans roll. Darwin.

MAGNETISM is supposed to have been first rendered useful about the end of the twelfth, or at least very early in the thirteenth, century, by John de Gioja, a handicraft of Naples, who noticed the peculiar attraction of metals, and iron in particular, towards certain masses of rude ore; the touch of which communicated to other substances of a ferruginous nature, especially iron or steel bars, the property of attraction: these touched bars he observed to have a peculiar and similar tendency towards one particular point; that when suspended in equilibrio, by means of threads around their centres, they invariably turned towards the same point; and that, when placed in a row, however adversely directed, they soon disposed themselves in perfectly parallel order. In this instance he improved upon the property long known to, but not comprehended or applied to use by, the ancients, who considered the loadstone simply as a rude species of iron ore, and curious only so far as it might serve to amuse.

Gioja being possessed of a quick understanding, and of a strong mind, was not long in further ascertaining the more sensible purposes to which the magnet might be appropriated. He accordingly fixed various magnets upon pivots, supporting their centres in such a manner as allowed the bars to traverse freely. Finding that, however situated within the reach of observation and comparison, they all had the same tendency, he naturally concluded them to be governed by some attraction, which might be ultimately ascertained and acted upon. He therefore removed into various parts of Italy, to satisfy himself whether or not the extraordinary impulse which agitated these bars, that had been magnetized by friction, existed only in the vicinity of Naples, or was general. The result of his researches appears to be, that the influence was general, but that the magnets were rendered extremely variable, and fluctuated much, when near large masses of iron. The experiments of Gioja gave birth to many others, and at length to a trial of the magnetic influence on the surface of the water. To establish this, a vessel was moored out at sea, in a direction corresponding with that of the magnet; and a boat, having a magnet equipoised on a pivot at its centre, was sent out at night in the exact line indicated thereby; which, being duly followed, carried them close to the vessel that was at anchor. Thus the active power of attraction appeared to be established on both elements, and in the course of time the magnet was fixed to a card, marked with thirty-two points, whereby the mariner's compass was presented to us. The points to which the magnet always turned itself, being generally in correspondence with the meridian of the place where it acted, occasioned the extremities of the bars to be called poles. Succeeding experiments proved, that the magnetic bar never retained an exactly horizontal position; but that one of its poles invariably formed an angle with any perfect level, over which it was placed: this was not so very measurable in a short bar, but in one of a yard in length was formed to give several degrees of inclination. This, which is called "the dip of the needle," (or magnet,) seems to indicate that the attracting power is placed within the earth. What that attracting power is, we cannot determine; some consider it to be a fluid, while others conjecture it to be an immense mass of loadstone, situated somewhere about the north pole. The difficulty is, however, considerably increased by the known fact of the needles of compasses not always pointing due north; but in many places varying greatly from the meridional lines respectively; and from each other at different times and places.

The facility with which a meridional line may be drawn by solar observation, and especially by taking an azimuth, fortunately enables navigators to establish the variation between the true northern direction, and that indicated by the magnet attached to the card of the compass. Nevertheless, we have great reason to believe, that, for want either of accurate knowledge of the prevalent variations, or from inattention thereto, many vessels, of which no tidings were ever heard, have been cast away; it being obvious, that a false indication of the northern point, in many places amounting to nearly the extent of twenty-five degrees, must produce so important an error in a vessel's course, as to subject her to destruction on those very shoals, rocks, &c. of which the navigator unhappily thinks he steers perfectly clear. To obviate such danger, as far as possible, all modern sea-charts have the variations of the compass in their several parts duly noted down; and in reckoning upon the course steered by the compass, an allowance is usually made for the difference between the apparent course by the compass, and the real course, as ascertained by celestial observation. Under circumstances so completely contradictory, the principle of magnetism must remain unknown: we know not of any hypothesis which strikes conviction on our minds, or which seems to convey any adequate idea of the origin, or modus operandi, of this wondrous influence. All we can treat of is, the effect; also of the appearances which guide our practice, and of the manner in which the attractive power may be generated and increased. In regard to the latter point, namely, the generation and increase of the magnetic attraction, we shall endeavour to give a brief but distinct view of what relates thereto: observing, that where volcanic eruptions are frequent, and in those latitudes where the Aurora Borealis is distinctly seen, the needle or magnet is sensibly affected.

Previously to earthquakes, as well as during their action, and while the northern lights are in full display, no reliance can be placed on the compass; the card of which will appear much agitated. This has given rise to the opinion held by some, that the power is a fluid: to this, however, there appear so many objections, that we are more disposed to reject than to favour it, although under the necessity of confessing, that we are not able to offer one that may account satisfactorily for the various phenomena attendant upon magnetism.

We have already stated, that every magnet has two poles; that is, one end is called the north, the other the south pole: the former being considered as capable of attraction; the other, as we shall infer from the subjoined explanations, being far more inert, if at all possessed of an attractive power. When two magnets are brought together with their north poles in contact, they will, instead of cohering, be obviously repelled to a distance corresponding with their respective powers of attraction, when applied individually to unmagnetized needles. The south poles will, in like manner, repel each other; but the north pole of one, and the south pole of the other, will, when approximated, be evidently attracted, and will cohere so as to sustain considerable weights. Iron is the only metal, hitherto known, which is capable of receiving and communicating the magnetic power; but quiet, and the absence of contact, in some respects, are indispensably necessary towards its perfect retention. Thus, when a bar has been impregnated, however abundantly, with the magnetic principle, if it be heated or hammered, the power of attraction will be dissipated; or if a tube filled with iron filings have their surface magnetized, by shaking the tube the magnetic influence will likewise be lost. In some respects the magnetic influence resembles caloric; for it very rapidly communicates to iron, devoid of magnetism, a certain portion of its own powers; which, however, appear to be reproduced instantaneously. As various small fires under one large vessel will thereby heat it, and cause the water it contains to boil, though neither of them individually would produce that effect; so, many weak magnets may, by being united, communicate a power equal to its own, and be made to create an accumulated power, larger than that contained by either of them individually.

There is, however, a seeming contradiction to be found in some authors, who recommend that the weakest magnets should be first applied,--and those more forcible, in succession, according to the power they may possess; the reason assigned being, that the weaker magnets would else, in all probability, draw off some of the accumulated power from the new magnet. But of this there appears no danger, since experience proves that magnets rather gain than lose efficiency by contact, not only with each other, but even with common iron. In fact, the magnetic power may at any time be created by various means: the friction of two pieces of flat and polished bars of iron, will cause them for a short time to attract and to suspend light weights. Soft iron is more easily influenced, but steel will retain the influence longer. Lightning, electricity, and galvanism, being all of the same nature, equally render iron magnetic. It is also peculiar, that when two or more magnets are left for any time with their several north poles in contact, the whole will be thereby weakened; whereas, by leaving a piece of common iron attached to a magnet, the latter will acquire strength. It is also well known that some pieces of steel quickly receive the magnetic influence, while others require considerable labour, and after all are scarcely impregnated. The oxide of iron cannot be impregnated, and those bars that have been so, when they become partially oxydized, lose their power. Hence we see the necessity of preserving the needles of compasses from rust.

Magnets have the power to act notwithstanding the intervention of substances in any degree porous between them and the body to be acted upon: thus, if a needle be put on a sheet of paper, and a magnet be drawn under it, the needle will follow the course of the magnet. The peculiar affinity of the loadstone for iron, is employed with great success, by those who work in precious metals, for the separation of filings, &c. of iron from the smaller particles of gold, &c. A magnet being dipped into the vessel, in which the whole are blended, will attract all ferruginous particles.

To communicate the magnetic power to a needle, let it be placed horizontally; and with a magnet in each hand, let the north pole of one, and the south pole of the other, be brought obliquely in contact over the centre of the needle: draw them asunder, taking care to press firmly, and preserving the same angle or inclination to the very ends of the needles, which should be supported by two magnets, whose ends ought to correspond in polarity with those of the needle. Observe to carry the magnets you press with clear away from the ends of the needle, at least a foot therefrom; repeat the friction in the same manner several times, perhaps six, eight, or ten, and the needle will be permanently magnetized; and, as we have already stated, by using other magnets in succession, the powers of the needle will be proportionably increased.

But no effect will result from the friction if the bars are rusty, or, indeed, not highly polished; their angles must be perfect, and their several sides and ends completely flat. It is, perhaps, one of the most curious of the phenomena attendant on this occult property, that the centre of every magnet is devoid of attraction; yet, that when a needle is placed in a line with a magnet, and within the influence of its pole, that needle almost becomes magnetic, or rather, a conductor, possessing a certain portion of attractive power: and it is no less extraordinary, that the magnet retains its power even in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump; which seems to be a formidable objection to its being influenced by any fluid. Perhaps the opinion entertained by many of our most popular lecturers on this subject, viz. that the earth itself is the great attractor, may be nearest the truth. We are the more inclined towards such an hypothesis, knowing that, at the true magnetic equator, the needle does not dip; and from the well-ascertained fact, that bars of iron, placed for a length of time exactly perpendicular, receive a strong magnetic power, their lower ends repelling the south, but attracting the north poles of magnets applied to them respectively. The direction of the dipping needle was ascertained by one Robert Norman, about two hundred and fifty years ago. He suspended a small magnetic needle, by means of a fine thread round its centre, so as to balance perfectly, over a large magnet: the south pole of the former was instantly attracted by the north pole of the latter. He found, that so long as the needle was held exactly centrical, at about two inches above the magnet, it remained horizontal; but so soon as withdrawn a little more towards one end than the other of the magnet, the equilibrium was destroyed, and that pole of the needle which was nearest to either pole of the magnet was instantly attracted, and pointed downwards thereto. By the magnetic equator, we mean a circle passing round the earth at right angles with the magnetic poles, which do not correspond with the geographical poles, as may be fully understood by the indications of all compasses to points differing from the latter; and as the indications of compasses vary so much both at different times and places, we may reasonably conclude, that the magnetic poles are not fixed. The variation of the dipping-needle has not, in our latitude at least, varied more than half a degree since its depressive tendency was first discovered by Norman.

By means of the mariner's compass,

Tall navies hence their doubtful way explore, And ev'ry product waft from ev'ry shore; Hence meagre want expell'd, and sanguine strife, For the mild charms of cultivated life. Blacklock.

CHAP. LXXII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE ARTS, &c.

Early Invention of several useful Arts--Automaton--Androides-- Extraordinary Pieces of Clockwork--Heidelberg Clock--Strasburg Clock--Clepsydra--Invention of Watches.

What cannot art and industry perform, When science plans the progress of their toil! They smile at penury, disease, and storm; And oceans from their mighty mounds recoil. When tyrants scourge, or demagogues embroil A land, or when the rabble's headlong rage Order transforms to anarchy and spoil; Deep vers'd in man, the philosophic sage Prepares with lenient hand their frenzy t' assuage; 'Tis he alone, whose comprehensive mind, From situation, temper, soil, and clime Explor'd, a nation's various pow'rs can bind, And various orders, in one form sublime Of polity, that 'midst the wrecks of time, Secure shall lift its head on high, nor fear Th' assault of foreign or domestic crime, While public faith, and public LOVE sincere, And industry and law maintain their sway severe. Beattie.

EARLY INVENTION OF SEVERAL USEFUL ARTS.--Some useful arts must be nearly coeval with the human race; for food, clothing, and habitation, even in their original simplicity, require some display of ingenuity. Many arts are of such antiquity as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition; while several have gradually crept into existence without an inventor. The busy mind, however, accustomed to date the progress of science from some particular era, cannot rest till it finds or conjectures a beginning to every art. In all countries where the people are illiterate, the progress of arts is extremely slow. It is vouched by an old French poem, that the virtues of the loadstone were known in France before the year 1180. The mariner's compass was exhibited at Venice, A. D. 1260, by Paulus Venetus, as his own invention. John Goya, of Amalphi, was the first, who, many years afterwards, used it in navigation, and also passed for being the inventor. Though it was used in China for navigation long before it was known to the western nations, yet to this day it is not so perfect as in Europe. Instead of suspending it in order to make it act freely, it is placed upon a bed of sand, by which every motion of the ship disturbs its operation.

Hand-mills, termed querns, were early used for the grinding of corn; and when corn came to be raised in greater quantities, horse-mills succeeded. Water-mills for grinding corn are described by Vitruvius. Windmills were known in Greece and Arabia, so early as the seventh century; and yet no mention is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth. That they were not known in England in the reign of Henry VIII. appears from a household book of an earl of Northumberland, contemporary with that king, stating an allowance for three mill horses, "two to draw in the mill, and one to carry stuff to the mill." Water-mills for corn must in England have been of a late date.

The ancients had mirror glasses, and employed glass to imitate crystal vases and goblets; yet they never thought of using it in windows. In the thirteenth century, the Venetians were the only people who had the art of making crystal glass for mirrors. A clock that strikes the hours was unknown in Europe till the end of the twelfth century. And hence the custom of employing men to proclaim the hours during night; which to this day continues in Germany, Flanders, and England. Galileo was the first who conceived an idea that a pendulum might be useful for measuring time; and Huygens was the first who put the idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock. Hook, in 1660, invented a spiral spring for a watch, though a watch was far from being a new invention. Paper was made no earlier than the fourteenth century; and the invention of printing was a century later. Silk manufactures were long established in Greece, before silk-worms were introduced there. The manufacturers were provided with raw silk from Persia; but that commerce being frequently interrupted by war, two monks, in the reign of Justinian, brought eggs of the silk-worm from Hindoostan, and taught their countrymen the method of managing them.

The art of reading made a very slow progress. To encourage that art in England, the capital punishment for murder was remitted, if the criminal could but read, which in law language is termed benefit of clergy. One would imagine that the art must have made a very rapid progress when so greatly favoured: but there is a signal proof of the contrary, for so small an edition of the Bible as six hundred copies, translated into English in the reign of Henry VIII. was not wholly sold off in three years. The people of England must have been profoundly ignorant in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged clause, added to the twentieth article of the English creed, passed unnoticed till about sixty years ago.

The discoveries of the Portuguese on the west coast of Africa, afford a remarkable instance of the slow progress of the arts. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, they were totally ignorant of that coast beyond Cape Non, in 28 degrees, north latitude. In 1410, the celebrated Prince Henry of Portugal fitted out a fleet for discoveries, which proceeded along the coast to Cape Bajadore, in 26 degrees, but had not courage to double it: and seventy-six years elapsed before this was done by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486!

Description of AN AUTOMATON.--This is a machine, so constructed by means of weights, levers, springs, wheels, &c. as to move for a considerable time, as if it were endued with animal life. According to this definition, clocks, watches, and all machines of that kind, may be ranked as a species of automata. But the word is most commonly applied to such machines as are made in the form of men and other animals, at the same time that their internal machinery is so contrived, that they seem voluntarily to act like the animals they represent. Archytas of Tarentum, who lived A. C. 400, is said to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly. It is also recorded, that Archimedes made similar automata; that Regiomontanus made a wooden eagle, which flew forth from the city of Nuremburg, met the emperor, saluted him, and returned; also that he made an iron fly, which flew out of his hand at a feast, and returned again after flying about the room. Dr. Hook made the model of a flying chariot, capable of supporting itself in the air. Many other surprising automata have been exhibited in the present age. M. Vaucanson made a duck, which could eat, drink, and imitate exactly the voice of a natural one; and what is still more surprising, the food it swallowed was evacuated in a digested state, or at least considerably altered, on the principles of solution. The wings, viscera, and bones, were so formed, as greatly to resemble those of a living duck; and the actions of eating and drinking shewed the strongest resemblance, even to muddling the water with its bill.

M. de Droz, of la Chaux de Fonds, in the province of Neuchatel, has also executed some curious pieces of mechanism. One was a clock, presented to the king of Spain, which had, among other curiosities, a sheep that imitated the bleating of a natural one, and a dog that watched a basket of fruit, and which barked and snarled if any one attempted to take it away; if it was actually taken, it would bark till it was restored. A son of this gentleman has also made some extraordinary pieces, particularly an oval gold snuff-box, about four inches long, three broad, and one and a half thick. It is double, having an horizontal partition, with a lid to each of its parts. One contains snuff; but in the other, as soon as the lid is opened, there rises up a very small bird, (for it is only three-quarters of an inch from the beak to the extremity of the tail,) of green-enamelled gold, sitting on a gold stand, which immediately wagging its tail and shaking its wings, and opening its bill of white-enamelled gold, pours forth a clear melodious song, capable of filling a room of twenty or thirty feet square with its melody. The same gentleman exhibited an automaton in England, of the figure of a man, as large as life. It held in its hand a metal style, under which was a card of Dutch vellum. A spring was then touched, and the internal machinery being thus set a-going, the figure began to draw elegant portraits, and likenesses of the king and queen facing each other; and it was curious to observe, with what precision the figure lifted up its pencil, in the transition of it from one point of the picture to another, without making the least blunder whatever; for instance, in passing from the forehead to the eye, nose, and chin, or from the waving curls of the hair to the ear, &c. The first card being finished, the figure rested, until a second was completed, and so on through five separate cards put to it, on all of which it delineated different subjects, but five or six was the extent of its surprising powers.

ANDROIDES.--This is an automaton, in the figure of a man, which, by virtue of certain springs, &c. duly contrived, walks, and performs other external functions of a man. Albertus Magnus is recorded as having made a famous androides, which is said not only to have moved, but to have spoken. Thomas Aquinas is said to have been so frightened when he saw this head, that he broke it to pieces; upon which Albert exclaimed, "Periit opus triginta annorum!"

Artificial puppets, which, by internal springs, run upon a table, and, as they advance, move their heads, eyes, or hands, were common among the Greeks, and from thence they were brought to the Romans. Figures, or puppets, which appear to move of themselves, were formerly employed to work miracles; but this use is now superseded, and they serve only to display ingenuity, and to answer the purposes of amusement. One of the most celebrated figures of this kind, was constructed and exhibited at Paris, in 1738; and a particular account of it was published in the memoirs of the academy for that year. This figure represents a flute-player, which was capable of performing various pieces of music, by wind issuing from its mouth into a German flute, the holes of which it opened and shut with its fingers: it was about five and a half feet high, placed upon a square pedestal four and a half feet high, and three and a half broad. The air entered the body by three separate pipes, into which it was conveyed by nine pairs of bellows, that expanded and contracted, in regular succession, by means of an axis of steel turned by clock-work. These bellows performed their functions without any noise, which might have discovered the manner by which the air was conveyed to the machine.

The three tubes, which received the air from the bellows, passed into three small reservoirs in the trunk of the figure. Here they united, and, ascending towards the throat, formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in two small lips, adapted in some measure to perform their proper functions. Within this cavity was a small moveable tongue, which by its motion, at proper intervals, admitted the air, or intercepted it in its passage to the flute. The fingers, lips, and tongue, derived their proper movements from a steel cylinder, turned by clock-work. This was divided into fifteen equal parts, which, by means of pegs, pressing upon the ends of fifteen different levers, caused the other extremities to ascend. Seven of these levers directed the fingers, having wires and chains fixed to their ascending extremities, which, being attached to the fingers, made them to ascend in proportion as the other extremity was pressed down by the motion of the cylinder, and vice versâ; then the ascent or descent of one end of a lever produced a similar ascent or descent in the corresponding fingers, by which one of the holes of the flute was occasionally opened or stopped, as it might have been by a living performer. Three of the levers served to regulate the ingress of the air, being so contrived as to open and shut, by means of valves, the three reservoirs above-mentioned, so that more or less strength might be given, and a higher or lower note produced, as occasion required. The lips were, by a similar mechanism, directed by four levers, one of which opened them, to give the air a freer passage, the other contracted them, the third drew them backward, and the fourth pushed them forward. The lips were projected upon that part of the flute which receives the air, and, by the different motions already mentioned, modified the tune in a proper manner. The remaining lever was employed in the direction of the tongue, which it easily moves so as to shut or open the mouth of the flute. The just succession of the several motions, performed by the various parts of this machine, was regulated by the following simple contrivance.

The extremity of the axis of the cylinder terminated on the right side by an endless screw, consisting of twelve threads, each placed at the distance of a line and a half from the other. Above this screw was fixed a piece of copper, and in it a steel pivot, which, falling in between the threads of the screw, obliged the cylinder to follow the threads; and, instead of turning directly round, it was continually pushed to one side. Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on cylinder, in any one revolution, it could not be moved by the same peg in the succeeding revolution, because the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it by the lateral motion of the cylinder.

Thus, by an artificial disposition of these pegs in different parts of the cylinder, the statue was made, by the successive elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the different motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of every one who saw it. Another figure, constructed by the same artist, Vaucanson, played on the shepherd's pipe, held in its left hand, and with the right beat upon a drum.

The performances of Vaucanson were imitated, and even exceeded, by M. de Kempelin, of Presburg, in Hungary. The androides constructed by this gentleman in 1769, was capable of playing at chess. It was first brought over to England in 1783, and has often been exhibited since that period. It is thus described: The figure is as large as life, in a Turkish dress, seated behind a table, with doors three and a half feet long, two deep, and two and a half high. The chair on which it sits is fixed to the table, which is made to run on four wheels. It leans its right arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe; with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A chess-board of eighteen inches is fixed before it. The table, or rather chest, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, and other pieces of mechanism, all of which are publicly displayed. The vestments of the figure were then lifted over its head, and the body was seen full of similar wheels. There is a little door in its thigh, which is likewise opened: and with this, and the table also open, and the figure uncovered, the whole is wheeled about the room. The doors are then shut, and the automaton is ready to play; but it always takes the first move. At every motion the wheels are heard; the image moves its head, and looks over every part of the chess-board. When it checks the queen, it shakes its head twice; and thrice in giving check to the king. It likewise shakes its head when a false move is made, replaces the piece, and makes its own move, by which means the adversary loses one. M. de Kempelin exhibited his automaton at Petersburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, before thousands, many of whom were mathematicians, and chess players, and yet the secret by which he governed the motion of its arm was never discovered. He valued himself upon the construction of a mechanism, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve moves. It then needed to be wound up like a watch, after which it was capable of continuing the same number of motions. This automaton could not play unless M. de Kempelin, or his assistant, was near it to direct its movements. A small square box was frequently consulted by the exhibiter during the game, and in this consisted the secret, which the inventor declared he could communicate in a moment. Any person who could beat M. de Kempelin at chess, was sure of conquering the automaton.

EXTRAORDINARY PIECES OF CLOCK-WORK.--Amongst the modern clocks, those at Strasburg and Lyons are very eminent for the richness and variety of their furniture, and for their motions and figures. In the former, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the hour, and an angel opens a door, and salutes the Virgin; while the Holy Spirit descends on her, &c. In the latter, two horsemen encounter, and beat the hour on each other; a door opens, and there appears on the theatre the Virgin, with Jesus Christ in her arms; the Magi, with their retinue, marching in order, and presenting their gifts; two trumpeters sounding all the while to proclaim the procession.

These, however, are excelled by two which were lately made by English artists, and sent as a present from the East India Company to the Emperor of China. These clocks are in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious workmanship, little larger than a shilling, that strikes and repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger sits a bird finely modelled, and set with diamonds and rubies, with its wings expanded in a flying posture, and it actually flutters for a considerable time on touching a diamond button below it; the body of the bird (which contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life to it) is not the bigness of the 16th part of an inch. The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a small round box, to which a circular ornament, set with diamonds not larger than a sixpence, is fixed, which goes round nearly three hours in a constant regular motion. Over the lady's head, supported by a small fluted pillar not bigger than a quill, are two umbrellas, under the largest of which a bell is fixed, at a considerable distance from the clock, and seems to have no connection with it; but from which a communication is secretly conveyed to a hammer that regularly strikes the hour, and repeats the same to the clock below. At the feet of the lady is a golden dog; before which, from the point of the chariot, are two birds fixed on spiral springs, the wings and feathers of which are set with stones of various colours, and appear as if flying away with the chariot, which, from another secret motion, is continued to run in a straight, circular, or any other direction; while a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind, seems also to push it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers and ornaments of precious stones; and it terminates with a flying dragon set in the same manner. The whole is of gold, most curiously executed, and embellished with rubies and pearls.

HEIDELBERG CLOCK.--At Heidelberg, in Germany, upon the town-house, was a clock with divers motions; and when the clock struck, the figure of an old man pulled off his hat, a cock crowed, and clapped his wings, soldiers fought with one another, &c.: but this curious piece of workmanship, with the castle and town, were burnt by the French, who committed at the same time the most inhuman barbarities upon the people, when they took those garrisons, in the year 1693.

STRASBURG CLOCK.--At Strasburg, there is a clock, of all others the most famous, invented by Conradus Dasipodius, in the year 1573. Before the clock stands a globe on the ground, shewing the motions of the heavenly bodies. The heavens are carried about by the first mover, in twenty-four hours; Saturn, by his proper motion, is carried about in thirty years; Jupiter in twelve, Mars in two, the Sun, Mercury, and Venus, in one year; and the Moon in one month. In the clock itself there are two tables on the right and left hand, shewing the eclipses of the Sun and Moon from the year 1573, to the year 1624. The third table in the middle is divided into three parts. In the first part, the statue of Apollo and Diana shews the course of the year, and the day thereof, being carried about in one year; the second part shews the year of our Lord, and the equinoctial days, the hours of each day, the minutes of each hour, Easter-day, and all other feasts, and the Dominical Letter. The third part has the geographical description of all Germany, and particularly of Strasburg, with the names of the inventor, and of all the workmen. In the middle frame of the clock is an astrolabe, shewing the sign in which each planet is every day, and there are the statues of the seven planets, upon a round piece of iron, lying flat; so that every day the statue of the planet that rules the day comes forth, the rest being hid within the frames, till they come out by course at their day, as the sun upon Sunday, and so for all the week. And there is also a terrestrial globe, which shews the quarter, the half hour, and the minutes. There is also the skull of a dead man, and statues of two boys, one of whom turns the hour-glass when the clock has struck, the other puts forth the rod in his hand at each stroke of the clock. Moreover, there are the statues of the Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, and many observations of the moon.

In the upper part of the clock are four old men's statues, which strike the quarters of the hour; the statue of Death comes out at each quarter to strike, but is driven back by the statue of Christ, with a spear in his hand, for three-quarters; but in the fourth quarter, that of Christ goes back, and that of Death strikes the hour, with a bone in his hand, and then the chimes sound. On the top of the clock is an image of a cock, which twice in the day cries aloud, and claps his wings. Besides, this clock is decked with many rare pictures: and being on the inside of the church, carries another frame to the outside of the wall, wherein the hours of the sun, the courses of the moon, the length of the day, and such other things, are set out with great art.

CLEPSYDRA--is a water-clock, or instrument to measure time by the fall of a certain quantity of water, and is constructed on the following principles.--Suppose a cylindrical vessel, whose charge of water flows out in twelve hours, were required to be divided into parts, to be discharged each hour. 1. As the part of time is to the whole time, Twelve, so is the same time Twelve to a fourth proportional Hundred-and-forty-four. Divide the altitude of the vessel into one hundred and forty-four equal parts: here the last will fall to the last hour; the three next above, to the last part but one; the five next, to the tenth hour; lastly, the twenty-three last to the first hour. For since the times increase in the series of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the numeration be in a retrograde order from the twelfth hour, increase in the series of the unequal numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. the altitudes computed from the twelfth hour will be as the squares of the times 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. Therefore the squares of the whole time, one hundred and forty-four, comprehend all the parts of the altitude of the vessel to be emptied. But a third proportional to 1 and 12, is the square of twelve, and consequently it is the number of equal parts in which the altitude is to be distributed, according to the series of the unequal numbers, through the equal interval of hours.

There were many kinds of clepsydræ among the ancients; but they all had this in common, that the water ran generally through a narrow passage, from one vessel to another, and in the lower was a piece of cork, or light wood, which, as the vessel filled, rose up by degrees, and shewed the hour.

We shall in the next place make a few remarks on the INVENTION OF WATCHES.--The invention of spring or pocket watches belongs to the 17th century. It is true, we find mention made of a watch presented to Charles V. in the history of that prince: but this, in all probability, was no more than a kind of clock to be set on a table, some resemblance whereof we have still remaining in the ancient pieces made before the year 1670. There was also a story of a watch having been discovered in Scotland, belonging to King Robert Bruce; but this we believe has turned out altogether erroneous. The glory of this very useful invention lies between Dr. Hooke and M. Huygens; but to which of them it properly belongs, has been greatly disputed; the English ascribing it to the former, and the French, Dutch, &c. to the latter. Mr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says, roundly, that Dr. Hooke was the inventor; and adds, that he contrived various ways of regulation. One way was, with a loadstone; another with a tender straight spring, one end whereof played backwards and forwards with the balance, so that the balance was to the spring as the bob to a pendulum, and the spring as the rod thereof. A third method was, with two balances, of which there were divers sorts; some having a spiral spring to the balance for a regulator, and others not. But the way that prevailed, and which still continues to prevail, was, with one balance, and one spring running round the upper part of the verge; though this has a disadvantage, from which those with two springs, &c. were free, since a sudden jerk, or confused shake, will alter its vibrations, and disturb its motion.

The time of these inventions was about the year 1658; as appears, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the double-balance watches presented to King Charles II. viz. "Rob. Hooke inven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." The invention presently got into reputation, both at home and abroad: and two of them were sent for by the dauphin of France. Soon after this, M. Huygens' watch with a spiral spring got abroad, and made a great noise in England, as if the longitude could be found by it. It is certain, however, that his invention was later than the year 1673, when his book "De Horol. Oscillat." was published; wherein he has not one word of this, though he has of several other contrivances in the same way.

One of these the Lord Brouncker sent for out of France, where M. Huygens had got a patent for them. This watch agreed with Dr. Hooke's, in the application of the spring to the balance; only M. Huygens' had a long spiral spring, and the pulses and beats were much slower. The balance, instead of turning quite round, as Dr. Hooke's, turns several rounds every vibration.

Mr. Derham suggests, that he has reason to think M. Huygens' fancy was first set to work by some intelligence he might have of Dr. Hooke's invention from Mr. Oldensworth, or some other of his correspondents in England; and this, notwithstanding Mr. Oldensworth's attempt to vindicate himself in the Philosophical Transactions, appears to be the truth. Huygens invented divers other kinds of watches, some of them without any string or chain at all; which he called particularly, pendulum watches.

CHAP. LXXIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE ARTS.--(Continued.)

Telegraph--Spectacle of a Sea Fight at Rome--Wooden Eagle; and Iron Fly--Whitehead's Ship--Scaliot's Lock, &c.--Praxiteles' Venus--Weaving Engine--Hydraulic Birds--Herschell's Grand Telescope--Boverick's Curiosities--Bunzlau Curiosities--Artificial Flying.

TELEGRAPH.--This is a word derived from the Greek, and which is very properly given to an instrument, by means of which information may be almost instantaneously conveyed to a considerable distance. The telegraph, though it has been generally known and used by the moderns only for a few years, is by no means a modern invention. There is reason to believe, that amongst the Greeks there was some sort of telegraph in use. The burning of Troy was certainly known in Greece very soon after it happened, and before any person had returned from thence. Now that was altogether so tedious a piece of business, that conjecture never could have supplied the place of information. A Greek play begins with a scene, in which a watchman descends from the top of a tower in Greece, and gives the information that Troy was taken. "I have been looking out these ten years (says he) to see when that would happen, and this night it is done." Of the antiquity of a mode of conveying intelligence quickly to a great distance, this is certainly a proof. The Chinese, when they send couriers on the great canal, or when any great man travels there, make signals by fire, from one day's journey to another, to have every thing prepared; and most of the barbarous nations used formerly to give the alarm of war by fires lighted on the hills, or rising grounds.

It does not appear that the moderns had thought of such a machine as a telegraph, till the year 1663, when the Marquis of Worcester, in his "Century of Inventions," affirmed, that he had discovered "a method by which, at a window, as far as eye can discover black from white, a man may hold discourse with his correspondent, without noise made, or notice taken, being, according to occasion given, or means afforded, ex re nata, and no need of provision beforehand; though much better if foreseen, and course taken by mutual consent of parties." This could be done only by means of a telegraph, which, in the next sentence, is declared to have been rendered so perfect, that by means of it the correspondence could be carried on "by night as well as by day, though as dark as pitch is black."

About forty years afterwards, M. Amontons proposed a new telegraph. His method was this:--Let there be people placed in several stations, at such a distance from one another, that, by the help of a telescope, a man in one station may see a signal made in the next before him; he must immediately make the same signal, that it may be seen by persons in the station next after him, who are to communicate it to those in the following station, and so on. These signals may be as letters of the alphabet, or as a cipher, understood only by the two persons who are in the distant places, and not by those who make the signals. The person in the second station making the signal to the person in the third, the very moment he sees it in the first; the news may be carried to the greatest distance in as little time as is necessary to make the signals in the first station. The distance of the several stations, which must be as few as possible, is measured by the reach of a telescope. Amontons tried this method in a small tract of land, before several persons of the highest rank at the court of France. It was not, however, till the French revolution, that the telegraph was applied to useful purposes.

Whether M. Chappe, who is said to have invented the telegraph first used by the French about the end of 1793, knew any thing of Amonton's invention or not, it is impossible to say; but his telegraph was constructed on principles nearly similar. The manner of using this telegraph was as follows:--At the first station, which was on the roof of the palace of Louvre, at Paris, M. Chappe, the inventor, received in writing from the Committee of Public Welfare, the words to be sent to Lisle, near which the French army at that time was. An upright post was erected on the Louvre, at the top of which were two transverse arms, moveable in all directions by a single piece of mechanism, and with inconceivable rapidity. He invented a number of positions for these arms, which stood as signs for the letters of the alphabet; and these, for the greater celerity and simplicity, he reduced in number as much as possible. The grammarian will easily conceive that sixteen signs may amply supply all the letters of the alphabet, since some letters may be omitted, not only without detriment, but with advantage. These signs, as they were arbitrary, could be changed every week; so that the sign of B for one day, might be the sign of M the next; and it was only necessary that the persons at the extremities should know the key. The intermediate operators were only instructed generally in these sixteen signals; which were so distinct, so marked, so different the one from the other, that they were remembered with the greatest ease.

The construction of the machine was such, that each signal was uniformly given in precisely the same manner at all times: it did not depend on the operator's manual skill; and the position of the arm could never, for any one signal, be a degree higher or a degree lower, its movement being regulated mechanically. M. Chappe having received, at the Louvre, the sentence to be conveyed, gave a known signal to the second station (which was Mont Martre) to prepare. At each station there was a watch-tower, where telescopes were fixed, and the person on watch gave the signal of preparation which he had received, and this communicated successively through all the line, which brought them all into a state of readiness. The person at Mont Martre then received, letter by letter, the sentence from the Louvre, which he repeated with his own machine; and this was again repeated from the next height, with inconceivable rapidity, to the final station at Lisle.

Various experiments were in consequence tried upon telegraphs in this country; and one was soon after set up by government, in a chain of stations from the admiralty-office to the sea-coast. It consists of six octagon boards, each of which is poised upon an axis in a frame, in such a manner that it can be either placed vertically, so as to appear with its full size to the observer at the nearest station, or it becomes invisible to him by being placed horizontally, or with only the narrow edge exposed. These six boards make thirty-six changes, by the most plain and simple mode of working; and they will make many more, if more were necessary.

We submit to the reader the following account of a SPECTACLE OF A SEA FIGHT AT ROME.--Augustus, to divert his mind from fixing on his domestic misfortunes, exhibited the most magnificent and expensive shows that had ever been seen at Rome. Chariot-races in the circus, representations on the stage, combats by gladiators, &c. were now become common. Augustus, therefore, the better to divert both himself and the people, revived these sports, which had been for a considerable time laid aside, on account of the extraordinary charges that attended them. He caused a canal to be dug, eighteen hundred paces in length, and two hundred in breadth, conveying into it the Flaminian waters, and building scaffolds quite round it, capable of holding a prodigious multitude of spectators. And indeed the concourse of people was so great, that the emperor was obliged to place guards in all quarters of the city, lest the thieves should lay hold of that opportunity to plunder the empty and abandoned houses. Augustus had frequently entertained the people with fights of lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, &c. but now the new canal appeared all on a sudden covered with crocodiles, of which thirty-six were killed by Egyptians, brought from the banks of the Nile for that purpose. The multitude were highly delighted by this sight, which was quite new; but the sea-fight which ensued, afforded them still greater diversion: for, at the opposite ends of the lake, or canal, two fleets appeared, the galleys of one being built after the Greek, and those of the other after the Persian manner. Both fleets engaged; and, as they fought in good earnest, most of the combatants being persons sentenced to death, the battle proved very bloody.

A WOODEN EAGLE, AND AN IRON FLY.--Petrus Ramus tells us of a Wooden Eagle and an Iron Fly, made by Regiomontanus, a famous mathematician at Nuremberg: whereof the first flew forth out of the city, aloft in the air, met the Emperor Maximilian a good way off, coming towards it; and, having saluted him, returned again, waiting on him at the city gates. The second, at a feast, whereto the Emperor had invited his familiar friends, flew forth from his hand, and, taking a round, returned thither again, to the great astonishment of the beholders: both which, the excellent pen of the noble Du Bartas has expressed in the following lines:

Why should I not that Wooden Eagle mention, A learned German's late admir'd invention, Which, mounting from his fist that fram'd her, Flew far to meet the German Emperor? And, having met him, with her nimble train And pliant wings turning about again, Follow'd him close unto the castle gate Of Nuremberg; whom all their shows of state, Streets hung with arras, arches curious built, Grey-headed senate, and youth's gallantries, Grac'd not so much as only this device.

He goes on, and thus describes the Fly:

Once, as this artist, more with mirth than meat; Feasted some friends whom he esteemed great, Forth from his hand an Iron Fly flew out; Which having flown a perfect round about, With weary wings returned to his master, And as judicious on his arm he plac'd her. Oh! wit divine, that in the narrow womb Of a small Fly could find sufficient room For all those springs, wheels, counterpoise, and chains, Which stood instead of life, and blood, and veins.

WHITEHEAD'S SHIP.--George Whitehead, an Englishman, made a ship, with all her tackling, to move itself on a table, with rowers plying the oars, a woman playing on the lute, and a little whelp crying on the deck,--says Scottus, in his Itinerary.

SCALIOT'S LOCK, &c.--In the twentieth year of Queen Elizabeth, Mark Scaliot, a blacksmith, made a lock, consisting of eleven pieces of iron, steel, and brass, all which, together with a pipe-key to it, weighed but one grain of gold: he made also a chain of gold, consisting of forty-three links, whereunto having fastened the lock and key before mentioned, he put the chain about a flea's neck, which drew them all with ease. All these together, lock and key, chain and flea, being weighed, the weight of them was but one grain and a half.

PRAXITELES' VENUS.--Praxiteles, who was an ingenious worker in imagery, made a statue of Venus for the Cnidians, so much resembling life, that a certain young man became enamoured of it to such a degree, that the excess of his love deprived him of his senses. This piece of art was so eagerly coveted by king Nicomedes, that, though the Cnidians owed him an immense sum of money, he offered to take the statue in full satisfaction for his debt; but was refused.

The next subject is a curious WEAVING ENGINE.--At Dantzic in Poland, there was set up a rare invention for weaving four or five webs at a time, without any human help. It was an engine that moved of itself, and would work night and day. This invention was suppressed, because it would have ruined the poor people of the town; and the artificer was secretly destroyed, as Lancelotti, the Italian abbot, relates from the mouth of M. Muller, a Pole, who had seen the device.

HYDRAULIC BIRDS.--At Tibur, in Tivoli, near Rome, in the gardens of Hippolitus d'Este, Cardinal of Ferrara, there are the representations of sundry birds sitting on the tops of trees, which, by hydraulic art, and secret conveyances of water through the trunks and branches of the trees, are made to sing and clap their wings; but at the sudden appearance of an owl out of a bush of the same artifice, they immediately become all mute and silent. It was the work of Claudius Gallus, as Possivenus informs us.

HERSCHELL'S GRAND TELESCOPE.--The tube of this telescope is thirty-nine feet four inches in length, and four feet ten inches in diameter, every part being made of iron. It stands in the open air, appears to be considerably elevated, and is encircled with a complicated scaffolding, by which its steadiness is secured. The concave face of its speculum is forty-eight inches of polished surface in diameter, and it weighs nearly two thousand one hundred and eighteen pounds! With proper eye-glasses it magnifies above six thousand times: it is the largest instrument, and has the greatest magnifying power, of any that has been made. By its aid, Dr. Herschell has been able to observe the lightning in the atmosphere of the moon, and has found out several celestial bodies, unknown to preceding astronomers. The whole was finished on August the 28th, 1789, on which day the sixth satellite of Saturn was discovered. The observer, suspended at the end of the instrument, with his back towards the object he views, looks down the tube, and sees the image reflected from the mirror; whilst a man below turns gently round the instrument, to accord with the apparent rotatory motion of the heavens, thus preserving the image of the object on the mirror with stability.

BOVERICK'S CURIOSITIES.--Mr. Baker, in his Treatise on the Microscope, says, "I myself have seen, near Durham Yard, in the Strand, and have examined with my microscope, a chaise, (made by one Mr. Boverick, a watch-maker,) having four wheels, with all the proper apparatus belonging to them, turning readily on their axles, together with a man sitting in the chaise, all formed of ivory, and drawn along by a flea, without any seeming difficulty. I weighed it with the greatest care I was able; and found the chaise, man, and flea, were barely equal to a single grain. I weighed also, at the same time and place, a brass chain made by the same hand, about two inches long, containing two hundred links, with a hook at one end, and a padlock and key at the other; and found it less than the third part of a grain. I have seen (made by the same artist) a quadrille table with a drawer in it, an eating-table, a sideboard table, a looking-glass, twelve chairs, with skeleton backs, two dozen of plates, six dishes, a dozen knives, and as many forks, twelve spoons, two salts, a frame and castors, together with a gentleman, lady, and footman, all contained in a cherry-stone, and not filling much more than half of it."

BUNZLAU CURIOSITIES.--Mr. Adams, in his Letters on Silesia, gives the following account of two ingenious mechanics he met with at Bunzlau. Their names were Jacob, and Huttig; the one was a carpenter, the other a weaver, and they were next-door neighbours to each other. "The first (says Mr. Adams) has made a machine, in which, by the means of certain clock-work, a number of puppets, about six inches high, are made to move upon a kind of stage, so as to represent in several successive scenes the passion of Jesus Christ. The first exhibits him in the garden at prayer, while the three apostles are sleeping at a distance. In the last, he is shewn dead in the sepulchre, guarded by two Roman soldiers. The intervening scenes represent the treachery of Judas, the examination of Jesus before Caiaphas, the dialogue between Pilate and the Jews concerning him, the denial of Peter, the scourging, and the crucifixion. It is all accompanied by a mournful dirge of music; and the maker, by way of explanation, repeats the passages of Scripture which relate the events he has undertaken to shew. I never saw a stronger proof of the strength of the impression of objects, which are brought immediately home to the senses. I have heard and read more than one eloquent sermon upon the passion; but I confess, none of their most laboured efforts at the pathetic ever touched my heart with one-half the force of this puppet-show. The traitor's kiss, the blow struck by the high-priest's servant, the scourging, the nailing to the cross, the sponge of vinegar, every indignity offered, and every pain inflicted, occasioned a sensation, when thus made perceptible to the eye, which I had never felt at mere description.

"Hultig, the weaver, with an equal, or superior mechanical genius, has applied it in a different manner, and devoted it to geographical, astronomical, and historical pursuits. In the intervals of his leisure from the common weaver's work, which affords him subsistence, he has become a very learned man. The walls of his rooms are covered with maps and drawings of his own, representing, here the course of the Oder, with all the towns and villages through which it runs; there, the mountains of Switzerland, and those of Silesia, over both of which he has travelled in person. In one room he has two very large tables, one raised above the other: on one of them he has ranged all the towns and remarkable places of Germany; and on the other, of all Europe: they are placed according to their respective geographical bearings. The names of the towns are written on a small square piece of paper, and fixed in a slit on the top of a peg, which is stuck into the table. The remarkable mountains are shewn by some pyramidical black stones; and little white pyramids are stationed at all the spots which have been distinguished by any great battle, or other remarkable incident. The man himself, in explaining his work, shews abundance of learning, relative to the ancient names of places, and the former inhabitants of the countries to which he points; and amused us with anecdotes of various kinds, connected with the lands he has marked out.

"Thus, in shewing us the Alps, he pointed to the very spot over which the French army of reserve so lately passed, and where Buonaparte so fortunately escaped being taken by an Austrian officer; and then he gave us a short comment of his own, upon the character and extraordinary good fortune of the First Consul. In a second room he has a large machine, representing the Copernican system of the universe: it is made in such a manner, that the whole firmament of fixed stars moves round our solar system once in every twenty-four hours, and thus always exhibits the stars, in the exact position, relative to our earth, in which they really stand. Internally, he has stationed all the planets which belong to our system, with their several satellites, and all the comets that have been observed during the last three centuries. In a third room he has another machine, exhibiting in different parts the various phases of the moon, and those of Jupiter's satellites, the apparent motion of the sun round the earth, and the real motion of the earth round the sun.

"In his garret he has another work, upon which he is yet occupied, and which, being his last labour, seems to be that in which he takes the most delight. Upon a very large table, similar to that in the first room, he has inlaid a number of thin plates of wood, formed so as to represent a projection of the earth under Mercator's plan. All the intervals between the plates of wood designate that portion of the world which is covered with water. He has used a number of very small ropes of two colours, drawn over the surface in such a manner as to describe the tracks of all the celebrated circumnavigators of the globe. The colours of the ropes distinguish the several voyages which claim especial pre-eminence above the rest. To Columbus, Anson, and Cook, he has shewn a special honour by three little models of ships bearing their names, which are placed upon the surface of his ocean, in some spot of their respective courses. The names of all the other voyagers, and the times at which their voyages were performed, are marked by papers fixed at the points of their departure. Such is the imperfect description I can give you, from a short view of the labours of this really curious man. He must be nearly, or quite seventy years old, and has all his lifetime been of an infirm constitution. But this taste for the sciences, he told us, was hereditary in his family, and had been common to them all, from his great-grandfather down to himself. His dress and appearance were those of a common weaver: but his expressive countenance, at once full of enthusiastic fire and of amiable good-nature, was a model, upon which Lavater might expatiate with exultation. The honest and ingenious weaver, on our taking leave, made us smile by exclaiming, that now, if he could but have a traveller from Africa come to see his works, he could boast of having had visitors from all the four quarters of the globe."

ARTIFICIAL FLYING.--The art of flying has been attempted by several persons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of superstition, are reported to have had a custom of precipitating a man from a high cliff into the sea, first fixing feathers, variously expanded, round his body, in order to break his fall. Friar Bacon, who lived near five hundred years ago, not only affirms the art of flying possible, but assures us, that he himself knew how to make an engine, wherein a man, sitting, might be able to cenvey himself through the air, like a bird; and further adds, that there was one who had then tried it with success: but this method, which consisted of a couple of large thin hollow copper globes, exhausted of the air, and sustaining a person who sat thereon, Dr. Hooke shews to be impracticable. The philosophers of King Charles the Second's reign were mightily busied about this art. Bishop Wilkins was so confident of success in it, that he says, he does not question but, in future ages, it will be as usual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.

The art of flying has in some measure been brought to bear in the construction and use of balloons.

CHAP. LXXIV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE ARTS.--(Concluded.)

Burning Glasses--Ductility of Glass--Remarkable Ductility and Extensibility of Gold--Pin Making--Needles--Shoes--The Great Bell of Moscow.

BURNING GLASSES.--We have some extraordinary instances and surprising accounts of prodigious effects of burning-glasses. Those made of reflecting mirrors are more powerful than those made with lenses, because the rays from a mirror are reflected all to one point nearly; whereas by a lens, they are refracted to different points, and are therefore not so dense or ardent. The whiter also the metal or substance is, of which the mirror is made, the stronger will be the effect.

The most remarkable burning-glasses, or rather mirrors, among the ancients, were those of Archimedes and Proclus; by the first of which the Roman ships, besieging Syracuse, (according to the testimony of several writers,) and by the other, the navy of Vitalian besieging Byzantium, were reduced to ashes. Among the moderns, the burning mirrors of greatest eminence, are those of Vilette, and Tschirnhausen, and the new complex one of M. de Buffon.

That of M. de Vilette was three feet eleven inches in diameter, and its focal distance was three feet two inches. Its substance is a composition of tin, copper, and tin glass. Some of its effects, as found by Dr. Harris and Dr. Desaguliers, are, that a silver sixpence melted in seven seconds and a half; a king George's halfpenny melted in sixteen seconds, and ran in thirty-four seconds; tin melted in three seconds; and a diamond weighing four grains, lost seven-eighths of its weight. That of M. de Buffon is a polyhedron, six feet broad, and as many high, consisting of one hundred and sixty-eight small mirrors, or flat pieces of looking-glass, each six inches square; by means of which, with the faint rays of the sun in the month of March, he set on fire boards of beechwood at one hundred and fifty feet distance. Besides, his machine has the conveniency of burning downwards, or horizontally, at pleasure; each speculum being moveable, so as, by the means of three screws, to be set to a proper inclination for directing the rays towards any given point; and it turns either in its greater focus, or in any nearer interval, which our common burning-glasses cannot do, their focus being fixed and determined. M. de Buffon, at another time, burnt wood at the distance of two hundred feet. He also melted tin and lead at the distance of above one hundred and twenty feet, and silver at fifty.

Mr. Parker, of Fleet-street, London, was induced, at an expense of upwards of £700, to contrive, and at length to complete, a large transparent lens, that would serve the purpose of fusing and vitrifying such substances as resist the fires of ordinary furnaces, and more especially of applying heat in vacuo, and in other circumstances in which it cannot be applied by any other means. After directing his attention for several years to this object, and performing a great variety of experiments in the prosecution of it, he at last succeeded in the construction of a lens, of flint-glass, three feet in diameter, which, when fixed in its frame, exposes a surface two feet eight inches and a half in the clear, without any other material imperfection, except a disfigurement of one of the edges by a piece of the scoria of the mould, which unfortunately found its way into its substance. This lens was double-convex, both sides of which were a portion of a sphere of eighteen feet radius. It is difficult to form an accurate estimate of the burning power of this lens; inasmuch as it is next to impossible to discover what should be deducted for the loss of power, in consequence of the impediments that the glass of which it was made must occasion, as well as the four reflections, and two more by way of diminution; but we will endeavour to appreciate it, after a full allowance for these deductions, which must necessarily result from every means of concentrating the solar rays, and must be considered as the friction of an engine, of which nature they really partake.

The solar rays received on a circular surface of two feet eight inches and a half, when concentrated within the diameter of an inch, will be 105,626 times its intensity, or this number of times greater than the heat of the sun as it is experienced on the surface of the earth. We will suppose, that as the heat of the air, in ordinary summer weather, is 65 degrees, and in sultry weather is 75 degrees, the average of which is 70 degrees, and that we take this as the average effect, the accumulated power of the lens, on the supposition of an uniform heat over the whole surface of the focus, will be equal to 73,938 degrees. It must be recollected, by those who have an opportunity of examining the effects of this lens, that the external part of the focal light was less intense than that part which was near the centre of it; or rather, that the effect was very much accumulated in the centre; but as it is possible that the refraction of the light and of the caloric fluid may not take place in the same angles, we think it safest to consider it as of uniform effect, and alter deducting one fourth part thereof as a compensation, there remains 5545 as the expression of its power. As the application of the second lens reduced the diameter of the focus to half an inch, the effect, without allowing for the reduction of its power, would be equal to 221,816 degrees; but deducting one-fourth for the second transmission, there remains 166,362 degrees, as the expression of its power.

Mr. Parker further informs us, that a diamond, weighing ten grains, exposed to this lens for thirty minutes, was reduced to six grains; during which operation it opened and foliated like the leaves of a flower, which emitted whitish fumes, and when closed again, bore a polish, and retained its form. Gold remained in its metallic state without apparent diminution, notwithstanding an exposure at intervals of many hours: but what is remarkable, the rest, or cupel, which was composed of bone-ash, was tinctured with a beautiful pink colour.

The experiments on platina evince that the specimens were in different states of approach to a complete metallic form; several of them threw off their parts in sparks, which in most instances were metallic. Copper, after three minutes' exposure, was not found to have lost in weight.

What is remarkable with regard to experiments on iron, is, that the lower part, i. e. that part in contact with the charcoal, was first melted, when that part which was exposed to the focus remained unfused; an evidence of the effect of flux on this metal.

Several of the semi-crystalline substances, exposed to the focal heat, exhibited symptoms of fusion; such as the agate, oriental flint, cornelian, and jasper: but as the probability is, that these substances were not capable of complete vitrification, it is enough that they were rendered externally of a glassy form. Garnet completely fused on black lead in 120 seconds, lost a quarter of a grain, became darker in colour, and was attracted by the magnet. Ten cut garnets taken from a bracelet began to run the one into the other in a few seconds, and at last formed into one globular garnet. The clay used by Mr. Wedgwood to make his pyrometric test, run in a few seconds into a white enamel. Seven other kinds of clay, sent by Mr. Wedgwood, were all vitrified. Several experiments were made on limestone, some of which were vitrified, but all of which were agglutinated; it is, however, suspected that some extraneous substance must have been intermixed. A globule produced from one of the specimens, on being put into the mouth, flew into a thousand pieces, occasioned, it is presumed, by the moisture.

A subscription was proposed for raising the sum of seven hundred guineas, towards indemnifying the charges of the inventor, and retaining the very curious and useful machine above described in our own country; but from the failure or the subscription, and some other concurring circumstances, Mr. Parker was induced to dispose of it to Capt. Mackintosh, who accompanied Lord Macartney in the embassy to China: and it was left, much to the regret of philosophers in Europe, at Pekin; where it remains in the hands of persons, who most probably know neither its value nor use.

DUCTILITY OF GLASS.--We all know, that when glass is well penetrated with the heat of the fire, the workmen can figure and manage it like soft wax; but, what is most remarkable, it may be drawn, or spun out, into threads exceedingly long and fine. Our ordinary spinners do not form their threads of silk, flax, or the like, with half the ease and expedition the glass-spinners do threads of this brittle matter. We have some of them used in plumes for children's heads, and divers other works, much finer than any hair, and which bend and wave, like hair, with every wind. Nothing is more simple and easy than the method of making them. There are two workmen employed: the first holds one end of a piece of glass over the flame of a lamp; and when the heat has softened it, a second operator applies a glass hook to the metal thus in fusion, and, withdrawing the hook again, it brings with it a thread of glass, which still adheres to the mass; then, fitting his hook on the circumference of a wheel about two feet and a half in diameter, he turns the wheel as fast as he pleases, which, drawing out the thread, winds it on its run, till, after a certain number of revolutions, it is covered with a skein of glass-thread. The mass in fusion over the lamp diminishes insensibly, being wound out like a clue of silk upon the wheel; and the parts cooling as they recede from the flame, become more coherent to those next to them, and this by many degrees: the parts nearest the fire are always the least coherent, and, of consequence, must give way to the effort the rest make to draw them towards the wheel. The circumference of these threads is usually a flat oval, being three or four times as broad as thick: some of them seem scarcely bigger than the thread of a silkworm, and are surprisingly flexible. If the two ends of such threads are knotted together, they may be drawn and bent, till the aperture, or space in the middle of the knot, does not exceed one-fourth of a line, or one forty-eighth of an inch in diameter. Hence M. Reaumur maintains, that the flexibility of glass increases in proportion to the fineness of the threads; and that, probably, had we but the art of drawing threads as fine as a spider's web, we might weave stuffs and cloths of them for wear. Accordingly, he made some experiments this way; and found that he could make threads fine enough, viz. as fine, in his judgment, as spider's thread, but not long enough for the purposes of any manufacture.

REMARKABLE DUCTILITY AND EXTENSIBILITY OF GOLD.--Gold is the most ductile, as well as the most malleable, of all metals. According to Cronstedt, one grain of it may be stretched out so as to cover 98 Swedish ells, equal to 63.66 English yards of silver wire; but Wallerius asserts, that a grain may be stretched out in such a manner, as to cover 500 ells of wire. At any rate, the extension is prodigious; for, according to the least of the calculations, the millionth part of a grain of gold may be made visible to the naked eye. Nor is its malleability inferior to its ductility. Boyle, quoted by Apligny, in his treatise on Colours, says, that one grain and a half of gold may be beaten into 50 leaves of an inch square, which, if intersected by parallel lines drawn at right angles to each other, and distant only the hundredth part of an inch from each other, will produce twenty-five millions of little squares, each very easily discernible by the naked eye. Mr. Magellan tells us, that its surface may be extended by the hammer 159,092 times. "I am informed, (says he) by an intelligent goldbeater in England, that the finest gold leaf is that made in new skins, and must have an alloy of three grains of copper to the ounce of pure gold, or else it would be too soft to pass over the irregularities of the skins. He affirms, that 80 books, or 2000 leaves of gold, each leaf containing 10.89 square inches, weigh less than 384 grains. Each book, therefore, of 25 leaves, or 272.25 inches, weighs less than 4.8 grains; so that each grain of the metal will produce about 57 square inches of gold leaf." From further calculation it appears, that the thickness of these leaves is less than the 282,000th part of an inch; and that 16 ounces of gold would be sufficient to gild a silver wire, equal in length to the whole circumference of the globe we inhabit!

PIN-MAKING.--Though pins are apparently simple, their manufacture is not a little curious and complex. When the brass wire, of which the pins are formed, is first received at the manufactory, it is generally too thick for the purpose of being cut into pins. The first operation, therefore, is that of winding it off from one wheel to another with great velocity, and causing it to pass between the two, through a circle in a piece of iron of smaller diameter. The wire being thus reduced to its proper dimensions, is straightened by drawing it between iron pins, fixed in a board in a zigzag manner, but so as to leave a straight line between them: afterwards it is cut into lengths of three or four yards, and then into smaller ones, every length being sufficient to make six pins. Each end of these is ground to a point, which was performed, (where these observations were made,) by boys, who sat each with two small grinding-stones before him, turned by a wheel. Taking up a handful, he applied the ends to the coarsest of the two stones, being careful at the same time to keep each piece moving round between his fingers, so that the points may not become flat: he then gives them a smoother and sharper point by applying them to the other stone, and by that means a lad of twelve or fourteen years of age, is able to point about sixteen thousand pins in an hour. When the wire is thus pointed, a pin is taken off at each end, and this is repeated till it is cut into six pieces. The next operation is, that of forming the heads, or, as they term it, head-spinning, which is done by means of a spinning-wheel, one piece of wire being thus with astonishing rapidity wound round another, and the interior one being drawn out, leaves a hollow tube between the circumvolutions: it is then cut with shears, every two circumvolutions, or turns of the wire, forming one head; these are softened by throwing them into iron pans, and placing them in a furnace till they are red hot. As soon as they are cold, they are distributed to children, who sit with hammers and anvils before them, and catching one at the extremity, they apply them immediately to the anvil and hammer, and by a motion or two of the foot, the top and the head are fixed together in much less time than it can be described, and with a dexterity only to be acquired by practice. The pin is now finished as to its form, but still it is merely brass; it is therefore thrown into a copper containing a solution of tin and the lees of wine. Here it remains for some time, and, when taken out, assumes a white, though dull appearance: in order therefore to give it a polish, it is put into a tub containing a quantity of bran, which is set in motion by turning a shaft that runs through its centre, and thus, by means of friction, it becomes perfectly bright. The pin being complete, nothing remains but to separate it from the bran, which is perfectly similar to the winnowing of corn, the bran flying off, and leaving the pin behind it for immediate sale.

We must not forget to present to the reader some curious particulars respecting the manufacture of NEEDLES.--Needles make a very considerable article in commerce, though there is scarcely any commodity cheaper, the consumption of them being almost incredible. The sizes are from No. 1, the largest, to No. 25, the smallest. In the manufacture of needles, German and Hungarian steel are of most repute.

In the making of them, the first thing is, to pass the steel through a coal fire, and under a hammer, to bring it out of its square figure into a cylindrical one. This done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wire-drawing iron, and returned into the fire, and drawn through a second hole of the iron, smaller than the first; and thus successively from hole to hole, till it has acquired the degree of fineness required for that species of needles; observing, every time it is to be drawn, that it be greased over with lard, to render it more manageable. The steel, thus reduced to a fine wire, is cut in pieces of the length of the needles intended. These pieces are flatted at one end on the anvil, by force of a puncheon of well-tempered steel, and laid on a leaden block to bring out, with another puncheon, the little piece of steel remaining in the eye. The corners are then filed off the square of the heads, and a little cavity filed on each side of the flat of the head; this done, the point is formed with a file, and the whole filed over: they are then laid to heat red-hot on a long narrow iron, crooked at one end, in a charcoal fire; and when taken out thence, are thrown into a bason of cold water to harden. On this operation a good deal depends; too much heat burns them, and too little leaves them soft; the medium is learned by experience. When they are thus hardened, they are laid in an iron shovel on a fire more or less brisk in proportion to the thickness of the needles; taking care to move them from time to time. This serves to temper them, and take off their brittleness; great care here too must be taken of the degree of heat. They are then straightened one after another with the hammer, the coldness of the water used in hardening them having twisted the greatest part of them.

The next process is the polishing of them. To do this, they take 12,000 or 15,000 needles, and range them in little heaps against each other, on a piece of new buckram sprinkled with emery-dust. The needles being thus disposed, emery-dust is thrown over them, which is again sprinkled with oil of olives; at last the whole is made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This roll is then laid on a polishing table, and over it a thick plank loaded with stones, which two men work backwards and forwards a day and a half, or two days, successively; by which means the roll thus continually agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over it, the needles withinside being rubbed against each other with oil and emery, are insensibly polished. After polishing, they are taken out, and the filth washed off them with hot water and soap: they are then wiped in hot bran, a little moistened, placed with the needles in a round box suspended in the air by a cord, which is kept stirring till the bran and needles are dry. The needles thus wiped in two or three different brans, are taken out and put in wooden vessels, to have the good separated from those whose points or eyes have been broken either in polishing or wiping; the points are then all turned the same way, and smoothed with an emery-stone turned with a wheel. This operation finishes them, and there remains nothing but to make them into packets.

Needles were first made in England by a native of India, in 1545, but the art was lost at his death; it was, however, recovered by Christopher Greening, in 1560, who was settled, with his three children, Elizabeth, John, and Thomas, by Dr. Damar, ancestor of the present Lord Milton, at Long Crendon, in Bucks, where the manufactory has been carried on from that time to the present day.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING SHOES.--Among the Jews, shoes were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood; those of soldiers were sometimes of brass or iron. They were tied with thongs, which passed under the soles of the feet. To put off their shoes, was an act of veneration; it was also a sign of mourning and humiliation: to bear one's shoes, or to untie the latchets of them, was considered as the meanest service, as appears in the Baptist's declaration of his own inferiority to Christ.

Among the Greeks, shoes of various kinds were used. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Lacedemonians wore red shoes. The Grecian shoes generally reached to the middle of the leg. The Romans used two kinds of shoes: the calceus, which covered the whole foot, somewhat like our shoes, and was tied above with latchets or strings; and the solea, or slipper, which covered only the sole of the foot, and was fastened with leathern thongs. The calceus was always worn along with the toga, when a person went abroad: slippers were put on during a journey, and at feasts, but it was reckoned effeminate to appear in public with them. Black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank, and white ones by the women. Red shoes were sometimes worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the coxcombs of the other sex. Red shoes were put on by the chief magistrates of Rome, on days of ceremony and triumphs. The shoes of senators, patricians, and their children, had a crescent upon them, which served for a buckle; these were called calcei lunati. Slaves wore no shoes; hence they were called cretori, from their dusty feet. Phocion also, and Cato Uticensis, went without shoes. The toes of the Roman shoes were turned up in the point; hence they were called calcei rostrati, repandi, &c.

In the ninth and tenth centuries, the greatest princes of Europe wore wooden shoes, or the upper part of leather, and the sole of wood. In the reign of William Rufus, a great beau, Robert, surnamed The Horned, used shoes with long sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. It is said, the clergy being highly offended, declaimed against the long-pointed shoes with great vehemence. The points, however, continued to increase, till, in the reign of Richard II. they were of so enormous a length, that they were tied to knees with chains, sometimes of gold, sometimes of silver. The upper parts of these shoes, in Chaucer's time, were cut in imitation of a church window. The long-pointed shoes were called crackowes, and continued in fashion for three centuries, in spite of the bulls of popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of the clergy. At length the parliament of England interposed, by an act A. D. 1463, prohibiting the use of shoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length, and prohibiting all shoemakers from making shoes or boots with longer pikes, under severe penalties. But even this was not sufficient: it was necessary to denounce the dreadful sentence of excommunication against all who wore shoes or boots with points longer than two inches. The present fashion of shoes was introduced in 1633, but the buckle was not used till 1670.

In Norway, they use shoes of a particular construction, consisting of two pieces, and without heels; in which the upper-leather sits close to the foot, the sole being joined to it by many plates or folds.

The shoes or slippers of the Japanese, as we are informed by Professor Thunberg, are made of rice-straw, woven; but sometimes, for people of distinction, of fine slips of ratan. The shoe consists of a sole, without upper-leather or hind-piece: forwards, it is crossed by a strap, of the thickness of one's finger, which is lined with linen; from the tip of the shoe to the strap, a cylindrical string is carried, which passes between the great and second toe, and keeps the shoe fast on the foot. As these shoes have no hind-piece, they make a noise, when people walk in them, like slippers. When the Japanese travel, their shoes are furnished with three strings made of twisted straw, with which they are tied to the legs and feet, to prevent them from falling. Some people carry one or more pairs of shoes with them on their journeys, in order to put on new when the old ones are worn out. When it rains, or the roads are very dirty, these shoes are soon wetted through; and a great number of worn-out shoes are continually seen lying on the roads, especially near the brooks, where travellers have changed their shoes after washing their feet.

Instead of these, in rainy or dirty weather, they wear high wooden clogs, which underneath are hollowed out in the middle, and at top have a band across, like a stirrup, and a string for the great toe; so that they can walk without soiling their feet. Some of them have their straw shoes fastened to these wooden clogs. The Japanese never enter their houses with their shoes on; but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bench near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their houses, so as not to dirty their neat mats.

GREAT BELL OF MOSCOW. From Dr. Clarke's Travels.--"The great bell of Moscow, known to be the largest ever founded, is in a deep pit in the midst of the Kremlin. The history of its fall is a fable; and as writers are accustomed to copy each other, the story continues to be propagated. The fact is, the bell remains in the place where it was originally cast. It never was suspended; the Russians might as well attempt to suspend a first-rate line-of-battle ship, with all her guns and stores. A fire took place in the Kremlin; the flames caught the building erected over the pit where the bell yet remains; in consequence of this, the bell became hot, and water being thrown to extinguish the fire, fell upon the bell, causing the fracture which has taken place. The bell reaches from the bottom of the cave to the roof. The entrance is by a trap-door, placed even with the surface of the earth. We found the steps very dangerous; some were wanting, and others broken. In consequence of this, I had a severe fall down the whole extent of the first flight, and a narrow escape for my life, in not having my skull fractured upon the bell. After this accident, a sentinel was placed at the trap-door, to prevent people becoming victims to their curiosity. He might have been as well employed in mending the ladders, as in waiting all day to say they were broken. The bell is truly a mountain of metal. It is said to contain a very large proportion of gold and silver. While it was in fusion, the nobles and the people cast in, as votive offerings, their plate and money: I endeavoured in vain to assay a small part: the natives regard it with superstitious veneration, and they would not allow even a grain to be filed off. At the same time, it may be said, the compound has a white shining appearance, unlike bell-metal in general; and, perhaps, its silvery aspect has strengthened, if not excited, a conjecture respecting the costliness of its constituents.

"On festival days, peasants visit the bell as they would resort to a church; considering it an act of devotion, and crossing themselves as they descend and ascend the steps. The bottom of the pit is covered with water, mud, and large pieces of timber; these, added to the darkness, render it always an unpleasant and unwholesome place; in addition to the danger arising from the ladders leading to the bottom. I went frequently there, in order to ascertain the dimensions of the bell with exactness. To my great surprise, during one of those visits, half a dozen Russian officers, whom I found in the pit, agreed to assist me in the admeasurement. It so nearly agreed with the account published by Jonas Hanway, that the difference is not worth notice. This is somewhat remarkable, considering the difficulty of exactly measuring what is partly buried in the earth, and the circumference of which is not entire. No one, I believe, has yet ascertained the size of the base; this would afford still greater dimensions than those we obtained; but it is entirely buried. About ten persons were present when I measured the part exposed to observation. We applied a strong cord close to the metal, in all parts of its periphery, and round the lower part, where it touches the ground, taking care at the same time not to stretch the cord. From the piece of the bell broken off, it was ascertained that we had thus measured within two feet of its lower extremity. The circumference obtained was sixty-seven feet four inches; allowing a diameter of twenty-two feet five inches, and one-third. We then took the perpendicular height from the top, and found it to correspond exactly with the statement made by Hanway; namely, twenty-one feet four inches and a half. In the stoutest part, that in which it should have received the blow of the hammer, its thickness equalled twenty-three inches. We were able to ascertain this, by placing our hands under water, where the fracture has taken place; this is above seven feet high from the lip of the bell. The weight of this enormous mass of metal has been computed to be 443,772 cwt. which, if valued at three shillings a pound, amounts to £66,565 16s. lying unemployed, and of no use to any one."

It was founded, according to Augustine, in 1653, during the reign of Alexis. (See Voyage de Moscow, page 117.) The Russians and people of Moscow maintain, that it was cast during the reign of their empress Anne, probably from the female figure represented. Augustine proves that it is larger than the famous bell of Erford, and even than that of Pekin.

CHAP. LXXV.

CURIOSITIES IN HISTORY, &c.

MAN WITH THE IRON MASK.--There was a remarkable personage, so denominated, who existed as a state prisoner in France during the latter part of the seventeenth century. The circumstances of this person form an historical enigma, which has occasioned much inquiry, and many conjectures. The authenticated particulars concerning the Iron Mask are as follows:--A few months after the death of Cardinal Mazarin, there arrived at the isle of Saint Marguerite, in the sea of Provence, a young prisoner whose appearance was peculiarly attracting: his person was above the middle size, and elegantly formed; his mien and deportment were noble, and his manners graceful; and even the sound of his voice had in it something uncommonly interesting. On the road he constantly wore a mask made with iron springs, to enable him to eat without taking it off. It was at first believed that this mask was made entirely of iron, whence he acquired the title of The Man with the Iron Mask. His attendants had received orders to dispatch him, if he attempted to take off his mask or discover himself. He had been first confined at Pignerol, under the care of the governor, M. de St. Mars; and being sent thence to St. Marguerite, he was accompanied thither by the same person, who continued to have the charge of him. He was always treated with the utmost respect: he was served constantly in plate; and the governor himself placed his dishes on the table, retiring immediately after, and locking the door behind him. He tu-to' yoit (thee'd and thou'd) the governor; who, on the other hand, behaved to him in the most respectful manner, and never wore his hat before him, nor ever sat down in his presence without being desired. The Marquis of Louvoisis, who went to see him at St. Marguerite, spoke to him standing, and with those marks of attention which denote high respect.

During his residence there, he attempted twice, in an indirect manner, to make himself known. One day he wrote something with his knife on a plate, and threw it out of his window, to a boat that was drawn on shore near the foot of the tower. A fisherman picked it up, and carried it to the governor. M. de St. Mars was alarmed at the sight; and asked the man with great anxiety, whether he could read, and whether any one else had seen the plate? The man answered, that he could not read, that he had but just found the plate, and that no one else had seen it. He was, however, confined till the governor was well assured of the truth of his assertions. Another attempt to discover himself proved equally unsuccessful. A young man who lived in the isle, one day perceived something floating under the prisoner's window; and on picking it up, he discovered it to be a very fine shirt written all over. He carried it immediately to the governor; who, having looked at some parts of the writing, asked the lad, with some appearance of alarm, if he had not had the curiosity to read it? He protested repeatedly that he had not; but two days afterwards he was found dead in his bed. The Masque de Fer remained in that isle till 1698, when M. St. Mars, being promoted to the government of the Bastile, conducted his prisoner to that fortress. In his way thither, he stopt with him at his estate near Palteau. The Mask arrived there in a litter, surrounded by a numerous guard on horseback. M. de St. Mars ate at the same table with him all the time they resided at Palteau; but the latter was always placed with his back towards the windows; and the peasants, who came to pay their compliments to their master, whom curiosity kept constantly on the watch, observed that M. de St. Mars always sat opposite to him, with two pistols by the side of his plate. They were waited on by one servant only, who brought in and carried out the dishes, always carefully shutting the door, both in going out and returning. The prisoner was always masked, even when he passed through the court; but the people saw his teeth and lips, and observed that his hair was grey. The governor slept in the same room with him, in a second bed, that was placed in it on that occasion. In the course of his journey, the Mask was one day heard to ask his keeper, whether the king had any design on his life? "No, Prince," he replied; "provided that you quietly allow yourself to be conducted, your life is perfectly secure."

The stranger was accommodated as well as it was possible to be in the Bastile. An apartment had been prepared for him by order of the governor before his arrival, fitted up in the most convenient style; and every thing he expressed a wish for, was instantly procured him. His table was the best that could be provided, and he was supplied with as rich clothes as he desired; but his chief taste in this last particular was for lace, and for linen remarkably fine. He was allowed the use of such books as he requested, and he spent much of his time in reading. He also amused himself with playing on the guitar. He had the liberty of going to mass; but was then strictly forbid to speak, or uncover his face: orders were even given to the soldiers to fire upon him, if he attempted either; and their pieces were always pointed towards him as he passed through the court. When he had occasion to see a surgeon or a physician, he was obliged, under pain of death, constantly to wear his mask. An old physician of the Bastile, who had often attended him when he was indisposed, said, that he never saw his face, though he had frequently examined his tongue, and different parts of his body; and that he never complained of his confinement, nor let fall any hint, by which it might be guessed who he was. He often passed the night in walking up and down his room. This unfortunate prince died on the 19th of November, 1703, after a short illness; and was interred next day, in the burying-place of the parish of St. Paul. The expense of his funeral amounted only to forty livres. The name given him was Marchiali; and even his age, as well as his real name, it seemed of importance to conceal, for in the register made of his funeral, it was mentioned that he was about forty years old, though he had told his apothecary, some time before his death, that he thought he must be sixty. Immediately after his death, his apparel, linen clothes, mattresses, and in short, every thing that had been used by him, were burnt; the walls of his room were scraped, and the floor taken up, evidently from the apprehension that he might have found means of writing something that would have discovered who he was. Nay, such was the fear of his having left a letter, or any mark which might lead to a discovery, that his plate was melted down; the glass was taken out of the window of his room, and pounded to dust; the window-frames and doors burnt; and the ceiling of the room, and the plaster of the inside of the chimney, demolished.

Several writers have affirmed, that the body of this unfortunate personage was buried without a head; and M. de St. Foix informs us, in his Essais Historiques, that "a gentleman having bribed the sexton, had the body taken up in the night, but found a stone instead of the head." The natural inference from these extraordinary accounts, is, that the Iron Mask was not only a person of high birth, but that he must have been of great consequence; and that his being concealed was of the utmost importance to the king and ministry.

Among the various conjectures that have been formed, concerning the real name and condition of this remarkable man, none appears to have any probability except the following:--That he was a son of Anne of Austria, queen to Louis XIII. and consequently that he was a brother of Louis XIV; but whether a bastard-brother, a brother-german, or a half-brother, is a question that has given rise to three several opinions, viz. 1. That the queen proved with child at a time when it was evident it could not have been by her husband, who, for some months before, had never been with her in private. The supposed father of this child is said to have been the duke of Buckingham, who came to France, in May, 1625, to conduct the princess Henrietta, wife of Charles I. to England. The private letters and memoirs of those times speak very suspiciously of the Queen and Buckingham: his behaviour at Amiens, whither the queen and queen-mother accompanied the princess in her way to Boulogne, occasioned much whispering; and it appears, that the king, on this occasion, was extremely offended at her, and that it required all the influence and address of the queen-mother to effect a reconciliation. It is said, that this child was privately brought up in the country; that when Mazarin became a favourite, he was entrusted with the care of him; and that Louis XIV. having discovered the secret on the death of the cardinal, thought it necessary to confine him in the manner above related.

The second, and the most probable opinion, is, that he was the twin-brother of Louis XIV. born some hours after him. This opinion first appeared in a short anonymous work, published without date, or name of place, or printer. It is therein said, "Louis XIV. was born at St. Germains-en-Laye, on the 5th of September, 1638, about noon; and the illustrious prisoner, known by the appellation of the Iron Mask, was born the same day, while Louis XIII. was at supper. The king and the cardinal, fearing that the pretensions of a twin-brother might one day be employed to renew those civil wars with which France had been so often afflicted, cautiously concealed his birth, and sent him away, to be brought up privately." This opinion was confirmed, in a work, entitled, Memoires de Marechal Duc de Richelieu, written by the Abbé Soulavie; in which it is asserted, that "The birth of the prisoner happened in the evening of the 5th September, 1638, in presence of the chancellor, the bishop of Meaux, the author of the MS. a midwife, named Peronéte, and a sieur Honorat." This circumstance greatly disturbed the king's mind; he observed, that the Salic law had made no provision for such a case. By the advice of cardinal Richelieu, it was therefore resolved to conceal his birth, but to preserve his life, in case, by the death of his brother, it should be necessary to avow him. A declaration was drawn up, and signed and sworn to by all present; in which every circumstance was mentioned, and several marks on his body described. This document being sealed by the chancellor with the royal seal, was delivered to the king; and all took an oath never to speak on the subject, not even in private and among themselves. The child was delivered to the care of Madame Peronéte, to be under the direction of cardinal Richelieu, at whose death the charge devolved to cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin appointed the author of the MS. his governor, and entrusted to him the care of his education. But as the prisoner was extremely attached to Madame Peronéte, and she equally so to him, she remained with him till her death. His governor carried him to his house in Burgundy, where he paid the greatest attention to his education.

"As the prisoner grew up, he became impatient to discover his birth, and often importuned his governor on that subject. His curiosity had been roused, by observing that messengers from the court frequently arrived at the house; and a box, containing letters from the queen and the cardinal, having one day been inadvertently left out, he opened it, and saw enough to guess at the secret. From that time he became thoughtful and melancholy, which, (says the author,) I could not then account for. He shortly after asked me to get him a portrait of the late and present king; but I put him off, by saying, that I could not procure any that were good. He then desired me to let him go to Dijon; which I have known since was with an intention of seeing a portrait of the king there, and of going secretly to St. John de Las, where the court then was, on occasion of the marriage with the Infanta. He was beautiful, and love helped him to accomplish his wishes. He had captivated the affections of a young housekeeper, who procured him a portrait of the king. It might have served for either of the brothers; and the discovery put him into so violent a passion, that he immediately came to me with the portrait in his hand, saying, Voila mon frere, et voila qui je suis, shewing me at the same time a letter of the cardinal de Mazarin that he had taken out of the box!" Upon this discovery, his governor immediately sent an express to court, to communicate what had happened, and to desire new instructions; the consequence of which was, that the governor, and the young prince under his care, were arrested and confined. The author of this memoir concludes, "I have suffered with him in our common prison: I am now summoned to appear before my Judge on high; and for the peace of my soul, I cannot but make this declaration, which may point out to him the means of freeing himself from his present ignominious situation, in case the king his brother should die without children. Can an extorted oath compel me to observe secrecy on a thing so incredible, but which ought to be left on record to posterity?"

The third opinion is, that he was a son of the queen by cardinal Mazarin, born about a year after the death of her husband, Louis XIII.; that he was brought up secretly; and that, soon after the death of the cardinal, on the 9th of March, 1661, he was sent to Pignerol. To this account Father Griffet justly objects, "that it was needless to mask a face that was unknown; and therefore this opinion does not merit discussion."--(Traite de la Verité de l'Histoire, p. 318.) Indeed, it seems totally unaccountable, that so much care should have been taken to conceal a child of the queen by the cardinal, who, whether they were privately married or not, could never have had the most distant claim to the crown of France. The conjectures advanced by other authors, that he was the duke of Monmouth's, the count of Vermandois', or the duke of Beaufort's, &c. are still more improbable.

CHAP. LXXVI.

CURIOSITIES IN HISTORY, ETC.--(Continued.)

GIPSIES.--Mr. Lyons, in his entertaining work of the Environs of London, has given the following curious account of the Queen of the Gipsies, and the extraordinary people under her dominion.

From the register of the parish of Bockenham, in Kent; extract: 'Margaret Finch, buried October 24, 1740.'--"This remarkable person lived to the age of one hundred and nine years. She was one of the people called Gipsies; and had from them the title of Queen. After travelling over various parts of the kingdom, during the greater part of a century, she settled at Norwood, whither her age, and the fame of her fortune-telling, attracted numerous visitors. From a habit of sitting on the ground with her chin resting on her knees, the sinews at length became so contracted, that she could not rise from that posture. After her death, they were obliged to enclose her body in a deep square box. Her funeral was attended by two mourning coaches, a sermon was preached on the occasion, and a great concourse of people attended the ceremony. Her portrait adorns the sign-post of a house of entertainment in Norwood, called the Gipsy-House. In an adjoining cottage lives an old woman, grand-daughter of queen Margaret, who inherits her title. She is niece of queen Bridget, who was buried at Dulwich, in 1768. Her rank seems to be merely titular: I do not find that the gypsies pay her any particular deference; or that she differs in any other respect from the rest of her tribe, than that of being a householder." To the above he adds some leading facts concerning this extraordinary race of people, who are scattered over most parts of Europe, Asia, and America.

"The gipsies, (continues he,) in most places on the Continent are called Cingari, or Zingari: the Spaniards call them Gitanos. It is not certain when they first appeared in Europe; but mention is made of them, in Hungary and Germany, so early as the year 1417. Within ten years afterwards, they made their appearance in France, Switzerland, and Italy. The date of their arrival in England is more uncertain: it is most probable, that it was not till nearly a century afterwards. In the year 1530, they are thus spoken of in the penal statutes: 'Forasmuch as before this time, divers and many outlandish people, calling themselves Egyptians, using no craft nor feat of merchandise, have come into this realm, and gone from shire to shire, and from place to place, in great companies, and used great subtilty and crafty means to deceive the people; bearing them in hand, that they, by palmistry, could tell men's and women's fortunes; and so, many times, by craft and subtilty, have deceived the people of their money; and also have committed many heinous felonies and robberies, to the great hurt and deceit of the people they have come among, &c.'

"It was afterwards made death to them to continue in the kingdom; and it remains on record, that thirteen were executed for a violation of this law, a few years before the Restoration: nor was this cruel act repealed till about the year 1783.

"The gipsies were expelled from France in 1560, and from Spain in 1591; but it does not appear that they have been entirely extirpated in any country. Their collective numbers, in every quarter of the globe, have been calculated at seven or eight hundred thousand. They are most numerous in Asia, and in the northern parts of Europe. Various have been the opinions relating to their origin. That they came from Egypt has been the most prevalent. This opinion (which has procured them here the name of Gipsies, and in Spain that of Gitanos,) arose, from some of the first who arrived in Europe, pretending that they came from that country; which assertion they made, perhaps, to heighten their reputation for skill in palmistry[22] and the occult sciences. It is now, I believe, pretty generally agreed, that they came originally from Hindostan; since their language so far coincides with the Hindostanic, that even now, after a lapse of more than three centuries, during which they have been dispersed in various foreign countries, nearly one half of their words are precisely those of Hindostan; and scarcely any variation is to be found in vocabularies procured from the gipsies in Turkey, Hungary, Germany, and those in England.

"Their manners, for the most part, coincide, as well as their language, in every quarter of the world where they are found; being the same idle, wandering race of beings, and seldom professing any ostensible mode of livelihood, except that of fortune-telling. Though they are no great frequenters either of mosques or churches, they generally conform to rites and ceremonies as they find them established.

"Upon the whole, we may certainly agree with Grellman, who has written their history, by regarding them as a singular phenomenon in Europe. For the space of between three or four hundred years, they have gone wandering about like pilgrims and strangers, yet neither time nor example has made in them any alteration: they remain ever, and every where, what their fathers were. Africa makes them no blacker, nor does Europe make them whiter."

It is not the least singular feature in the history of this wandering and vagabond race, that they should have so long maintained their credit for foretelling events, when the fallacy of their predictions must have been so often experienced, and their ignorance and want of principle so well known. What reliance can be placed on the oracular decisions of a man, who has not sufficient foresight of his own affairs, to escape the hands of justice for robbing a hen-roost?

The desire of prying into futurity seems to be a natural propensity in the human mind. In the ancient world, the consultation of oracles, soothsayers, and augurs, divining by the flight of birds, the entrails of the victims, or the feeding of chickens, were so many efforts of a weak endeavour to withdraw that veil, which in mercy is appointed to conceal from our view the events that are to befal us.

In modern times, the impudent pretensions of astrologers, conjurers, and fortune-tellers, have deluded the credulous, even of that rank, in which men should set a more rational example. About sixty years ago, a celebrated professor of this dark science lived in London, in a place called Frying-pan Alley; and crowds of carriages were daily seen waiting in the neighbourhood, whilst the artful impostor was distributing different allotments to their owners, according to his arbitrary caprice, or what he thought would bring most money into his purse.

The following account is taken from a Liverpool weekly magazine, entitled 'The Freeman,' published some years since:--

"Of late years some attempts have been made to reduce the numbers, or at any rate to civilize the habits, of that vagabond and useless race, the gipsies. In pursuance of such purpose, a society of gentlemen have been making all the preliminary inquiries requisite to a proper understanding of the subject. A series of questions have been proposed to competent persons in the different counties of England and Scotland; and answers have been received. The following are specimens of these replies:

"1. All gipsies believe that Egypt was the residence of their most remote ancestors.

"2. They cannot form any idea of their number in England.

"3. The gipsies of Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, some parts of Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire, are continually making revolutions within the ranges of those counties.

"4. They are either ignorant of the number of gipsies in the counties through which they travel, or unwilling to disclose their knowledge.

"5. The most common names are Smith, Cooper, Draper, Taylor, Boswell, Lee, Lovel, Loversedge, Allen, Mansfield, Glover, Williams, Carew, Martin, Stanley, Buckley, Plunkett, and Corrie.

"6. and 7. The gangs in different towns have not any regular connection or organization; but those who take up their winter quarters in the same city or town, appear to have some knowledge of the different routes each horde will pursue; probably with a desire to prevent interference with each other.

"8. In the county of Herts, it is computed there may be sixty families, having many children. Whether they are quite so numerous in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Northamptonshire, the answers are not sufficiently definite to determine. In Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, and Dorsetshire, greater numbers are calculated upon. In various counties, the attention has not been competent to the procuring data for any estimate of families or individuals.

"9. More than half their number follow no business: some are dealers in horses and asses: while others profess themselves to be farriers, smiths, tinkers, braziers, grinders of cutlery, basket-makers, chair-bottomers, and musicians.

"10. The children are brought up in the habits of their parents, particularly to music and dancing, and are of dissolute habits.

"11. The women mostly carry baskets with trinkets and small wares; and tell fortunes.

"12. They are too ignorant to have acquired accounts of genealogy, and perhaps indisposed by the irregularity of their habits.

"13. In most counties there are particular situations to which they are partial. There is a marsh, near Newbury in Berkshire, much frequented by them; and Dr. Clark states, that in Cambridgeshire, their principal rendezvous is near the western villages.

"14. It cannot be ascertained whether this attachment to particular places has prevailed from their first coming into the nation.

"15, 16, and 17. When among strangers, they elude inquiries respecting their peculiar language, calling it Gibberish. They know of no person that can write it, or of any written specimen of it.

"18. Their habits and customs in all places are peculiar.

"19. Those who profess any religion, represent it to be that of the country in which they reside: but their description of it seldom goes beyond repeating the Lord's Prayer; and only a few of them are capable of that. Instances of their attending any place for worship are very rare.

"20. They marry for the most part by pledging to each other, without any ceremony. A few exceptions have occurred, when money was plentiful.

"21. They do not teach their children religion.

"22, and 23. Not one in a thousand can read."

CHAP. LXXVII.

CURIOSITIES IN HISTORY, ETC.--(Continued.)

FREE AND ACCEPTED MASONS.--This very ancient society is so called, either from some extraordinary knowledge of masonry, of which they are supposed to be masters, or because the first founders of the society were persons of this profession. They are now very considerable, both on account of their numbers, and the rank they hold in society, being found in every country in Europe, as well as North America; and they consist principally of persons of merit and consideration. They make no small pretensions to antiquity, for they claim a standing of some thousands of years. What the design of their institution is, seems still in some measure a secret: the members are said to be admitted into the fraternity by being put in possession of a great number of secrets, called the mason's word, which have been religiously kept from age to age. In a treatise on Masonry, published in 1792, by William Preston, master of the Lodge of Antiquity, the origin of masonry is traced from the creation. "Ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms, (says he,) our order has had a being." By other accounts the antiquity of masonry has only been traced as far back as the building of Solomon's temple.

In Dr. Henry's history of Great Britain, we find the origin of the Free Mason Society attributed to the difficulty found in former times to procure workmen to build the vast number of churches, monasteries, and other religious edifices, which either the pretended piety or the superstition of those ages prompted the people to raise. Hence the masons were greatly favoured by the popes, and many indulgences were granted, to augment their numbers. In those times, it may well be supposed, that such encouragement from the supreme pastors of the church must have been productive of the most beneficial results to the fraternity; and hence the society rapidly increased. An ancient author, who was well acquainted with their history and constitution, says, "The Italians, with some Greek refugees, and with them French, Germans, and Flemings, joined into a fraternity of architects, procuring papal bulls for their encouragement; they styled themselves Free Masons, and ranged from one nation to another, as they found churches to be built: their government was regular; and where they fixed near the building in hand, they made a camp of huts. A surveyor governed in chief; while every tenth man was called a warden, and superintended the other nine."

Masonry had a very early introduction into Britain, but never attained to any degree of importance, until the year 557 of the Christian era; when St. Austin, with forty monks, among whom the sciences had been preserved, came into England. By these Christianity was propagated; all the kings of the heptarchy were converted; masonry was patronized by St. Austin; and the Gothic style of building was introduced into England, by numerous foreigners, who resorted at this time to the kingdom. Austin appeared at the head of the fraternity in founding the old cathedral of Canterbury, in 600; that of Rochester, in 602; St. Paul's in London, in 604; St. Peter's in Westminster, in 605: to which may be added many others. The number of masons was thus greatly increased, as well as by other buildings, such as castles, &c. throughout the kingdom.

Masonry found a zealous protector in Alfred the Great, the liberal patron of all arts and manufactures. He appropriated a seventh part of his revenue for maintaining a number of masons, whom he employed in rebuilding the cities, castles, &c. ruined by the Danes. Under his successor, Edward, the masons continued to hold their lodges; they were patronized by Ethred, husband to the king's sister, and Ethelwald his brother, to whom the care of this fraternity was entrusted. The latter was a great architect, and founded the university of Cambridge. The complete re-establishment of masonry in England, however, is dated from the reign of king Athelstan: and the grand masons at York trace their existence from this period.

The Grand Lodge of York, the most ancient in England, was founded in 926, under the patronage of Edwin the king's brother, who obtained for them a charter from Athelstan, and became grand-master himself. By virtue of this charter all the masons in the kingdom were convened at a general assembly in that city, where they established a grand lodge for their government; and for many centuries afterwards, no general meetings were held in any other place. Hence the appellation of Ancient York Masons is well known both in Ireland and Scotland; and the general tradition is, that they originated at Auldby near York, which was a seat belonging to Edwin.

It was the glory and boast of the brethren, in almost every country where masonry was established, to be accounted descendants of the original York masons; and from the universality of the idea that masonry was first established at York by charter, the masons of England have received tribute from the first states in Europe. At present, however, this social intercourse is abolished. The duke of Buccleugh, who, in 1723, succeeded the duke of Wharton as grand-master, first proposed the scheme of raising a general fund for distressed masons. The duke's motion was supported by Lord Paisley, Colonel Houghton, and a few other brethren; and the grand lodge appointed a committee to consider of the most effectual means of carrying the scheme into execution. The disposal of the charity was first vested in seven brethren; but this number being found too small, nine more were added. It was afterwards resolved, that twelve masters of contributing lodges, in rotation with the grand officers, should form the committee; and by another regulation since made, it has been determined that all past and present grand officers, with the masters of all regular lodges, which shall have contributed within twelve months to the charity, shall be members of the committee. This committee meets four times in the year, by virtue of a summons from the grand-master or his deputy. The petitions of the distressed brethren are considered at these meetings; and if the petitioner be considered as a deserving object, he is immediately relieved with five pounds. If the circumstances of the case are of a peculiar nature, his petition is referred to the next communication, where he is relieved with any sum the committee may have specified, not exceeding twenty guineas at one time. Thus the distressed have always found ready relief from this general charity, which is supported by the voluntary contributions of different lodges out of their private funds, without being burdensome to any member in the society. Thus has the committee of charity for free masons been established; and so liberal have the contributions been, that though the sums annually expended, for the relief of the distressed brethren, have for several years past amounted to many thousand pounds, there still remains a considerable fund.

The most remarkable event which of late has taken place in the affairs of masonry, is the initiation of Omitul Omrah Bahauder, eldest son of the nabob of the Carnatic, who was received by the lodge of Trinchinopoly, in the year 1779. The news being officially transmitted to England, the grand lodge determined to send a congratulatory letter to his highness on the occasion, accompanied with an apron elegantly decorated, and a copy of the book of Constitutions superbly bound. The execution of this commission was entrusted to Sir John Duy, advocate-general of Bengal; and in the beginning of 1780, an answer was received from his highness, acknowledging the receipt of the present, and expressing the warmest attachment and benevolence to his brethren in England. The letter was written in the Persian language, and inclosed in an elegant cover of cloth of gold, and addressed to the grand-master and grand lodge of England. A proper reply was made; and a translation of his highness's letter was ordered to be copied on vellum; and, with the original, elegantly framed and glazed, and hung up in the hall at every public meeting of the society.

It must be natural to inquire into the uses of the institution, and for what purpose it has been patronized by so many great and illustrious personages. The profound secrecy, however, in which every thing relating to masonry is involved, prevents us from being very particular on this head. The masons themselves say in general, that it promotes philanthropy, friendship, and morality; that in proportion as masonry has been cultivated, countries have become civilized, &c. How far this can be depended upon, the fraternity best know. Another advantage, however, seems less equivocal, viz. that its signs serve as a kind of universal language; so that by means of them, people of the most distant nations may become acquainted, and enter into friendship with one another. This certainly must be accounted a very important circumstance; and considering the great numbers that have been, and daily are, admitted to the society, and their inviolable attachment to the art, we must certainly conclude, that if it contains nothing of great importance to mankind at large, it must at least be extremely agreeable, and even fascinating, to those who are once initiated.

CHAP. LXXVIII.

CURIOSITIES IN HISTORY, ETC.--(Continued.)

Peeping Tom of Coventry--Long absent Husband returned--Curious Historical Fact--The most Extraordinary Fact on Record.

PEEPING TOM OF COVENTRY.--The following are the particulars of the event which, it is said, gave birth to the above appellation.

The wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia, with her husband, founded a monastery, for an abbot and twenty-four Benedictine monks, at Coventry, in 1043; which was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, St. Peter, and St. Osburg. Leofric and his Lady, who both died about the latter end of the reign of Edward the Confessor, were buried in the church of the abbey which they had founded. The former seems to have been the first lord of Coventry, and the latter its greatest benefactress, as will appear from the following extraordinary and indeed romantic tradition, which is not only firmly believed at Coventry, but is recorded by many of our own historians:--

The earl had granted the convent and city many valuable privileges; but the inhabitants having offended him, he imposed on them very heavy taxes; for the great lords to whom the town belonged, under the Anglo-Saxons, had those privileges, which cannot be exercised at present by any but the house of commons. The people complained grievously of the severity of the taxes, and applied to Godeva, the earl's lady, a woman of great piety and virtue, to intercede in their favour. She willingly complied with the request; but the earl remained inexorable! he told his lady, that were she to ride naked through the streets of the city, he would remit the tax; meaning, that no persuasion whatever should prevail with him, and thinking to silence her by the strange proposal: but she, sensibly touched by the distress of the city, generously accepted the terms. She therefore sent notice to the magistrates of the town, with the strictest orders that all doors and windows should be shut, and that no person should attempt to look out on pain of death. These precautions being taken, the lady rode through the city, covered only with her fine flowing locks. While riding in this manner through the streets, no one dared to look at her, except a poor tailor, who, as a punishment, it is said, for his violating the injunctions of the noble lady, which had been published with so pious and benevolent a design, was struck blind. This tailor has been ever since remembered by the name of Peeping Tom; and in memory of the event, his figure is still kept up in the window of the house, from whence, it is said, he gratified his curiosity. The lady having thus discharged her engagements, the earl performed his promise, and granted the city a charter, by which the inhabitants were exempted from all taxes. As a proof of this circumstance, in a window of Trinity church are the figures of the Earl and his Lady, and beneath the following inscription:--

"I, Luriche, for the love of thee, Doe set Coventre toll free."

To this day, the love of Godeva is annually commemorated on Friday in Trinity week, when a valiant fair one rides, not literally like the good countess, but in silk, closely fitted to her limbs, and of colour emulating her complexion. The figure of Peeping Tom, in the great street, is also new dressed on the occasion. Mr. O'Keefe has produced a musical entertainment on this subject, written with all the delicacy the subject would admit.

THE LONG ABSENT HUSBAND RETURNED: (From Dr. King's Anecdotes.)--"About the year 1706, I knew," said Dr. King, "one Mr. Howe, a sensible well-natured man, possessed of an estate of £700 or £800 per annum; he married a young lady of good family, in the west of England; her maiden name was Mallet; she was agreeable in her person and manners, and proved a very good wife. Seven or eight years after they had been married, he arose one morning very early, and told his wife he was obliged to go to the Tower to transact some particular business: the same day, at noon, his wife received a note from him, in which he informed her that he was under the necessity of going to Holland, and should probably be absent three weeks or a month. He was absent from her seventeen years, during which time she never heard from him or of him. The evening before he returned, while she was at supper, and with some of her friends and relations, particularly one Dr. Rose, a physician, who had married her sister, a billet, without any name subscribed, was delivered to her, in which the writer requested the favour of her to give him a meeting the next evening, in the Birdcage-walk, in St. James's Park. When she had read the billet, she tossed it to Dr. Rose, and laughing, said, 'You see, brother, old as I am, I have got a gallant.' Rose, who perused the note with more attention, declared it to be Mr. Howe's hand-writing: this surprised all the company, and so much affected Mrs. Howe, that she fainted away; however, she soon recovered, when it was agreed that Dr. Rose and his wife, with the other gentlemen and ladies who were then at supper, should attend Mrs. Howe the next evening to the Birdcage-walk: they had not been there more than five or six minutes, when Mr. Howe came to them, and after saluting his friends, and embracing his wife, walked home with her, and they lived together in great harmony from that time to the day of his death. But the most curious part of my tale remains to be related.

"When Howe left his wife, they lived in a house in Jermyn-street, near St. James's church; he went no farther than a little street in Westminster, where he took a room, for which he paid five or six shillings a week, and changing his name, and disguising himself by wearing a black wig, (for he was a fair man,) he remained in this habitation during the whole time of his absence! He had two children by his wife when he departed from her, who were both living at that time; but they both died young, in a few years after. However, during their lives, the second or third year after their father disappeared, Mrs. Howe was obliged to apply for an act of parliament, to procure a proper settlement of her husband's estate, and a provision for herself out of it, during his absence, as it was uncertain whether he was alive or dead; this act he suffered to be solicited and passed, and enjoyed the pleasure of reading the progress of it in the votes, in a little coffee-house which he frequented, near his lodging.

"Upon quitting his house and family in the manner I have mentioned, Mrs. Howe at first imagined, as she could not conceive any other cause for such an abrupt elopement, that he had contracted a large debt unknown to her, and by that means involved himself in difficulties which he could not easily surmount; and for some days she lived in continual apprehension of demands from creditors, or seizures, executions, &c. But nothing of this kind happened; on the contrary, he did not only leave his estate free and unencumbered, but he paid the bills of every tradesman with whom he had any dealings; and upon examining his papers, in due time after he was gone, proper receipts and discharges were found from all persons, whether tradesmen or others, with whom he had any manner of transactions or money concerns. Mrs. Howe, after the death of her children, thought proper to lessen her establishment of servants, and the expenses of her housekeeping: and therefore removed from her house in Jermyn-street, to a little house in Brewer-street, near Golden-square. Just over-against her lived one Salt, a corn-chandler. About ten years after Howe's abdication, he contrived to form an acquaintance with Salt, and was at length in such a degree of intimacy with him, that he usually dined with Salt once or twice a week. From the room in which they sat, it was not difficult to look into Mrs. Howe's dining-room, where she generally ate, and received her company; and Salt, who believed Howe to be a bachelor, frequently recommended Mrs. Howe as a suitable match. During the last seven years of this gentleman's absence, he went every Sunday to St. James's church, and used to sit in Mr. Salt's seat, where he had a view of his wife, but could not be easily seen by her. After he returned home, he never would confess, even to his most intimate friends, what was the real cause of such a singular conduct: apparently there was none; but whatever there was, he was certainly ashamed to own it.

"Dr. Rose has often said to me, that he believed his brother Howe would never[23] have returned to his wife, if the money which he took with him, which was supposed to have been £1000 or £2000, had not been all spent: indeed, he must have been a good economist, and frugal in his manner of living, otherwise his money would scarcely have held out; for I imagine he had his whole fortune by him; I mean what he carried away with him in money and bank-bills: and he daily took out of his bag, like the Spaniard in Gil Blas, what was sufficient for his expenses."

A CURIOUS HISTORICAL FACT.--During the troubles in the reign of Charles I. a country girl came to London, in search of a place as a servant maid; but not succeeding, she hired herself to carry out beer from a brewhouse, and was one of those called tub-women. The brewer, observing a good looking girl in this low occupation, took her into his family as a servant, and, after a short time, married her; but he died while she was yet a young woman, and left her the bulk of his fortune. The business of the brewery was dropped, and the young widow was recommended to Mr. Hyde, as a skilful lawyer to arrange her husband's affairs. Hyde, (who was afterwards the great Earl of Clarendon,) finding her fortune considerable, married her. Of this marriage there was no other issue than a daughter, who was afterwards the wife of James II., and mother of Mary and Anne, queens of England.

The following is said to be THE MOST EXTRAORDINARY FACT ON RECORD.--In the appendix to the Rev. John Campbell's Travels in South Africa, is recorded one of the strangest occurrences in the moral annals of mankind. It will be recollected, that some years ago the Grosvenor, East Indiaman, was wrecked off the coast of Caffraria, (a district divided from the country of the Hottentots by the Great Fish River,) and that nearly the whole of the passengers and crew perished on the occasion. It was, however, discovered, that two young ladies had survived the miseries of this dreadful event, and were resident in the interior of a country uninhabited by Europeans. Mr. Campbell does not relate this occurrence from personal evidence, but we cannot doubt the extraordinary fact.

The Landdrost of Graaf Ragrel had been deputed by the British government to pay a visit to the king of Caffraria, for the purpose of ascertaining whether there were any survivors from the wreck of the Grosvenor. Finding there were two females, he succeeded in procuring an introduction to them. He saw them habited like Caffre women; their bodies were painted after the fashion of the native inhabitants; and their manners and appearance were altogether anti-European. The Landdrost, however, sought to obtain their confidence by a liberal offer of his best services to restore them to their country and friends. But they were unmoved by his solicitations. They stated that they had fallen into the hands of the natives after they had been cast ashore from the wreck; that their companions had been murdered, and that they had been compelled to give themselves in marriage; that having affectionate husbands, children, and grand-children, their attachments were bounded by their actual enjoyments. Upon being repeatedly urged to depart with the Landdrost, they replied, that probably at their return to England they might find themselves without connections or friends, and that their acquired habits ill fitted them to mingle with polished society; in short, that they would not quit Caffraria.

Such, then, is the powerful influence of habit! Two young ladies, highly educated, and in all probability lovely in their persons, are taught by habit to forget those scenes of gaiety they were so well calculated to ornament, and the anticipated enjoyments of high matrimonial connections; to forget their parents, their relations, the accomplished companions of their youth, and all the refinements of life! Among a savage people, they acquire congenial feelings, and their vitiated nature ceases to repine: they love the untutored husbands given to them by fate; they rear their children in the stupidity of Hottentot faith; they designate their wretched hovel with the sacred name of Home; they expel memory from their occupations; and regret no longer mingles with their routine of barbarous pleasures. Is this, in reality, a picture of the human mind, with all its boasted attributes, its delicacies, its refinements, its civilized superiority? Yes! for custom is a second nature.

This fact is also related by Vaillant, in his Travels in the interior parts of Africa. He says, volume i. page 286, "I was told, almost six weeks prior to my visiting that coast, that an English vessel had been wrecked on these barbarous shores; that being driven on the sands, a part of the crew had fallen into the hands of the Caffres, who had put them all to death, except a few women, whom they had cruelly reserved."

UNFORTUNATE ARTIFICER.--There was an artificer in Rome, who made vessels of glass of so tenacious a temper, that they were as little liable to be broken as those that are made of gold and silver: when therefore he had made a vial of the purer sort, and such as he thought a present worthy of Cæsar alone, he was admitted into the presence of their then Emperor Tiberius. The gift was praised, the skilful hand of the artist applauded, and the donation of the giver accepted. The artist, that he might enhance the wonder of the spectators, and promote himself yet further in the favour of the Emperor, desired the vial out of Cæsar's hand, and threw it with such force against the floor, that the most solid metal would have received some damage or bruise thereby. Cæsar was not only amazed, but affrighted with the act; but he, taking up the vial from the ground, (which was not broken, but only bruised together, as if the substance of the glass had put on the temperature of brass,) he drew out an instrument from his bosom, and beat it out to its former figure. This done, he imagined that he had conquered the world, as believing that he had merited an acquaintance with Cæsar, and raised the admiration of all the beholders; but it fell out otherwise, for the Emperor inquired if any other person besides himself was privy to the like tempering of glass? When he had told him, "No," he commanded his attendants to strike off his head, saying, "That should this artifice come once to be known, gold and silver would be of as little value as the dirt of the street." Long after this, viz. in 1610, we read, that amongst other rare presents, then sent from the Sophy of Persia to the king of Spain, were six mirrors of malleable glass, so exquisitely tempered that they could not be broken.

CHAP. LXXIX.

CURIOSITIES IN HISTORY, ETC.--(Concluded.)

Great Events from Little Causes--Dreadful Instances of the Plague, in Europe--Fire of London--Vicar of Bray--Curious Account of the Ceremonies at Queen Elizabeth's Dinner--A Blacksmith's Wife become a Queen--Swine's Concert.

GREAT EVENTS FROM LITTLE CAUSES.--The most important events sometimes take place from little and insignificant causes.

1. Sir Isaac Newton's sublime genius, set a-going by the fall of an apple, never stopped till it had explained the laws of nature.

2. Hospinian (who wrote so successfully against the Popish ceremonies) was first convinced of the necessity of such a work by the talk of an ignorant country landlord, who thought that religious fraternities were as old as the creation, that Adam was a monk, and that Eve was a nun.

3. Metius was led to the discovery of optic glasses, by observing some schoolboys play upon the ice, who made use of their copy-books, rolled up in the shape of tubes, to look at each other, to which they sometimes added pieces of ice at the end, to view distant objects.

4. Luther's quarrelling with Pope Leo. X. and bringing himself into difficult and dangerous circumstances, perhaps led him to search, think, and judge for himself, and consult the scriptures; by which he overthrew errors, which had been received as truths for ages.

5. To this we may add the marriage of Henry VIII. with Ann Boleyn, which was the occasion of England's renouncing the supremacy of the Pope, and of bringing about the Reformation.

6. "An apothecary's chariot (says one) very probably produced No. 45. of the North Briton, and its consequences the American war, the French revolution, and the dreadful events that have since taken place in Europe."

DREADFUL INSTANCES OF THE PLAGUE, IN EUROPE.--Thucydides, lib. ii. gives an account of a dreadful plague which happened in Athens about B. C. 430, and with which he was himself infected, while the Peloponnesians under the command of Archidamus wasted all her territory abroad; but of these two enemies the plague was by far the most severe. The most dreadful plague that ever raged at Rome, was in the reign of Titus, A. D. 80. The emperor left no remedy unattempted to abate the malignity of the distemper, acting during its continuance like a father to his people. The same fatal disease raged in all the provinces of the Roman empire, in the reign of M. Aurelius, A. D. 167, and was followed by a dreadful famine, earthquakes, inundations, and other calamities. About A. D. 430, the plague visited Britain, just after the Picts and Scots had made a formidable invasion of the southern part of the island. It raged with uncommon fury, and swept away most of those whom the sword and famine had spared, so that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead. About A. D. 1348, the plague became almost general over Europe. Many authors give an account of this plague, which is said to have appeared first in the kingdom of Kathay, in 1346, and to have proceeded gradually west to Constantinople and Egypt. From Constantinople it passed into Greece, Italy, France, and Africa, and by degrees along the coast of the ocean into Britain and Ireland, and afterwards into Germany, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, and the other northern kingdoms. According to Antonius, archbishop of Florence, the distemper carried off 60,000 people in that city. In 1656, the plague was brought from Sardinia to Naples, being introduced into the city by a transport with soldiers on board. It raged with excessive violence, carrying off, in less than six months, 400,000 of the inhabitants. In 1720, the city of Marseilles was visited with this destructive disease, brought in a ship from the Levant; and in seven months, during which time it continued, it carried off not less than 60,000 people. The ravages of this disease have been dreadful wherever it has made its appearance. On the first arrival of the Europeans at the island of Grand Canaria, it contained 14,000 fighting men; soon after which, two-thirds of these inhabitants fell a sacrifice to the plague. The destruction it has made in Turkey in Europe, and particularly in Constantinople, must be known to every reader; and its fatal effects have been particularly heightened there by that firm belief which prevails among the people of predestination, &c. It is generally brought into European Turkey from Egypt; where it is very frequent, especially at Grand Cairo. To give even a list of all the plagues which have desolated many flourishing countries, would extend this article beyond all bounds, and minutely to describe them all is impossible. Respecting the plague which raged in Syria in 1760, we refer to the Abbe Mariti's Travels through Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine, volume i. pages 278, 296. This plague was one of the most malignant and fatal that Syria ever experienced; for it scarcely had made its appearance in any part of the body, before it carried off the patient.

Some particulars respecting THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON.--The following is part of the inscription on the Monument, which records this calamitous event. "The second day of September, 1666, at the distance of two hundred and two feet, the height of this column, a terrible fire broke out about midnight. It consumed in its progress eighty-nine churches, the city gates, Guildhall, many public structures, hospitals, schools, libraries, a vast number of stately edifices, thirteen thousand two hundred dwelling-houses, and four hundred streets. The ruins of the city were four hundred and thirty-six acres, from the Tower by the Thames side to the Temple church, and from the north-east gate along the city wall, to Holborn bridge. Three days after, when this fatal fire had baffled all human counsels and endeavours, it stopped, as it were by a command from Heaven, and was on every side extinguished."

VICAR OF BRAY.--Every one has frequently heard this reverend son of the church mentioned; probably his name may have outlived the recollection of his pious manoeuvres: he was in his principles a SIXTUS THE FIFTH. The vicar of Bray, in Berkshire, was a Papist under the reign of Henry the Eighth, and a Protestant under Edward the Sixth; he was a Papist again under Mary, and once more became a Protestant in the reign of Elizabeth. When this scandal to the gown was reproached for his versatility of religious creeds, and taxed for being a turn-coat and an inconstant changeling, as Fuller expresses it, he replied, "Not so, neither! for if I changed my religion, I am sure I kept true to my principle; which is, to live and die the Vicar of Bray!"

This vivacious and reverend hero has given birth to a proverb peculiar to his county, "The Vicar of Bray will be Vicar of Bray still." Fuller tells us, in his facetious chronicle of his Worthies, that this vicar had seen some martyrs burnt two miles off at Windsor, and found this fire too hot for his tender temper. He was one of those who, though they cannot turn the wind, will turn their mills, and set them so, that wheresoever it bloweth, their grist shall certainly be ground.

The following ACCOUNT OF THE CEREMONIES AT QUEEN ELIZABETH'S DINNER, deserves to be recorded.--A German traveller, (Hentzner) talking of Queen Elizabeth, thus describes the solemnity of her dinner. "While she was at prayers, we saw her table set out in the following solemn manner: a gentleman entered the room, bearing a rod, and along with him another who had a table-cloth, which, after they had both kneeled three times with the utmost veneration, he spread upon the table; and, after kneeling again, they both retired. Then came two others, one with the rod again, the other with a salt-cellar, a plate, and bread: when they had kneeled, as the others had done, and placed what was brought upon the table, they too retired with the same ceremonies performed by the first. At last came an unmarried lady, (we were told she was a countess,) and along with her a married one, bearing a lasting knife: the former, who was dressed in white silk, when she had prostrated herself three times in the most graceful manner, approached the table, and rubbed the plates with bread and salt, with as much care as if the queen had been present: when they had waited there a little while, the yeomen of the guard entered, bareheaded, clothed in scarlet, with a golden rose upon their backs, bringing in at each turn a course of twenty-four dishes, served in plate, most of it gilt; these dishes were received by a gentleman in the same order they were brought, and placed upon the table, while the lady-taster gave to each of the guards a mouthful to eat, of the particular dish he had brought, for fear of any poison. During the time that this guard, which consists of the tallest and stoutest men that could be found in all England, were bringing dinner, twelve trumpets and two kettledrums made the hall ring for half an hour together. At the end of this ceremonial, a number of unmarried ladies appeared, who, with particular solemnity, lifted the meat off the table, and conveyed it into the queen's inner and more private chamber, where, after she had chosen for herself, the rest went to the ladies of the court."

A BLACKSMITH'S WIFE BECOME A QUEEN.--It is a curious circumstance, that the present queen of the Sandwich islands, was formerly, or rather is at this time, the wife of a Russian blacksmith. An English vessel lying off what we usually call the Fox Island, several years ago, one of the officers became enamoured of the fair spouse of a son of Vulcan there; and, his passion being returned, he contrived to smuggle her on board the vessel, and keep her there concealed without the knowledge of his captain, till they had cleared the port.

In the course of the voyage, however, the circumstance became known to the captain, who being highly enraged at such a breach of faith and discipline, kept her confined till they arrived at the Sandwich Islands, where she was put on shore. The forlorn Ariadne, however, found a Bacchus for her Theseus,--a royal lover, to replace her lost lieutenant. The king of the island became enamoured of the fair Russian, made her his wife, and raised her to his throne. He was no every-day king. He was a statesman and a hero, though we should call him a savage. He progressively created a respectable navy of several well-built frigates; taught his subjects to be excellent sailors; raised armies; subdued the surrounding islands; and at the close of a prosperous reign, left his possessions and his sovereignty to his queen, who now reigns as his successor. She is well obeyed by her subjects; possesses great wealth in flocks, herds, and rice-ground; and sends frequent presents to her former deserted husband, who still continues to hammer horses' shoes in a Russian colony, while his faithless, but it seems not quite ungrateful spouse, stretches her sceptre over several prosperous isles.

THE SWINE'S CONCERT.--The abbot of Baigne, a man of great wit, and who had the art of inventing new musical instruments, being in the service of Louis XI. king of France, was ordered by that prince to get him a concert of swine's voices, thinking it impossible. The abbot was not surprised, but asked money for the performance, which was immediately delivered him; and he wrought a thing as singular as ever was seen. For out of a great number of hogs, of several ages, which he got together, and placed under a tent or pavilion covered with velvet, before which he had a table of wood painted, with a certain number of keys, he made an organical instrument; and as he played upon the said keys, he, by means of little spikes, which pricked the hogs, made them cry in such order and consonance, as highly delighted the king and all his company.

CHAP. LXXX.

CURIOSITIES OF LITERATURE.

Origin of the Materials of Writing--Minute Writing--Titles of Books--Literary Labour and Perseverance--Curious Account of the Scarcity of Books--Celebrated Libraries--Book of Blunders--Curious Account of the Means of Intellectual Improvement in London.

"Of all the pleasures, noble and refin'd, Which form the taste and cultivate the mind; In ev'ry realm where science darts its beam, From Zembla's ice to Afric's golden stream; From climes where Phoebus pours his orient ray, To the fair regions of declining day: The 'feast of reason' which from reading springs, To reas'ning man the highest solace brings. 'Tis books a lasting pleasure can supply, Charm while we live, and teach us how to die."

ORIGIN OF THE MATERIALS OF WRITING.--The most ancient mode of writing was on bricks, and on tables of stone; afterwards on plates of various materials, on ivory, on the bark of trees, and on their leaves.

Specimens of most of these modes of writing may be seen in the British Museum. No. 3478, in the Sloanian library, is a Nabob's letter, on a piece of bark about two yards long, and richly ornamented with gold. No. 3207, is a book of Mexican hieroglyphics, painted on bark. In the same collection are various species, many from the Malabar coast, and other parts of the East. The latter writings are chiefly on leaves. The prophecies of the Sibyls were on leaves. There are several copies of Bibles written on palm-leaves, still preserved in various collections in Europe. The ancients, doubtless, wrote on any leaves they found adapted for the purpose. Hence the leaf of a book, as well as that of a tree, is derived.

In the book of Job, mention is made of writing on stone, and on sheets of lead. The law of Moses was written on stone. Hesiod's works were written on leaden tables; lead was used for writing, and rolled up like a cylinder, as Pliny states. The laws of the Greeks were engraven on bronze tables. In the shepherd state, they wrote their songs with thorns and awls, on leather. The Icelanders wrote on walls; and Olaf, according to one of the sagas, built a large house, on the balks and spars of which he had engraven the history of his own and more ancient times; while another northern hero appears to have had nothing better than his own chair and bed, on which to perpetuate his own heroic acts. The Arabs took the shoulder-bones of sheep, on which they carved remarkable events with a knife, and after tying them with a string, they hung these chronicles up in their cabinets.

These early inventions led to the discovery of tablets of wood; and as cedar is incorruptible, from its bitterness, they chose this wood for cases or chests to preserve their most important writings. From this custom arises the celebrated expression of the ancients, when they meant to give the highest eulogium of an excellent work, et cedro digna locuti; that it was worthy to be written on cedar. These tablets were made of the trunks of trees; the use of them still exists, but in general they are made of other materials than wood. The same reason which led them to prefer the cedar to other trees, induced them to write on wax, which is incorruptible from its nature. Men generally used it to write their testaments, in order the better to preserve them: thus Juvenal says, Ceras implere capaces. This thin paste of wax was also spread on tablets of wood, that it might more easily admit of erasure.

They wrote with an iron bodkin, as they did on the other substances we have noticed. The stylus was made sharp at one end to write with, and blunt and broad at the other, to deface and correct easily; hence the phrase vertere stylum, to turn the stylus, was used to express blotting out. But the Romans forbade the use of this sharp instrument, from the circumstance of many persons having used them as daggers. A schoolmaster was killed by the pugillares, or table-book, and the styles of his own scholars. They substituted a stylus made of the bone of a bird, or other animal, so that their writings resembled engravings. When they wrote on softer materials, they employed reeds and canes, split like our pens at the points, which the Orientalists still use to lay their colour or ink neater on the paper.

By the word pen in the translation of the Bible, we are to understand an iron style. Table-books of ivory are still used for memoranda, written by black-lead pencils. The Romans used ivory to write the edicts of the senate on; and the expression of libris elephantinis, which, some authors imagine, alludes to books which for their size were called elephantine, others more rationally conclude, were composed of ivory, the tusk of the elephant.

Pumice was likewise a writing material of the ancients, which they used to smooth the roughness of the parchment, or to sharpen their reeds.

In the progress of time, the art of writing consisted in painting with different kinds of ink. This novel mode of writing occasioned them to invent other materials proper to receive their writing. They now chose the thin bark of certain trees and plants; they wrote on linen, and at length, when this was found apt to become mouldy, they prepared the skins of animals. Those of asses are still in use; and on those of serpents, &c. were once written the Iliad and Odyssey. The first place where they began to dress these skins was Pergamus, in Asia; whence the Latin name is derived of Pergamenæ, or parchment. These skins are, however, better known amongst the authors of the purest Latin, under the name of membrana, so called from the membranes of animals of which they were composed. The ancients had parchments of three different colours, white, yellow, and purple. At Rome, white parchment was disliked, because it was more subject to be soiled than the others, and dazzled the eye. They generally wrote letters of gold and silver on purple or violet parchment. This custom continued in the early ages of the church; and copies of the Evangelists of this kind are preserved in the British Museum.

When the Egyptians employed for writing the bark of a plant or reed, called papyrus,[24] or paper-rush, it superseded all former modes, because this was the most convenient. Formerly there grew great quantities of it on the sides of the Nile. It is this plant which has given the name to our paper, although the latter is composed of linen or rags. After the eighth century the papyrus was superseded by parchment. The Chinese make their paper with silk. The use of paper is of great antiquity; it is what the ancient Latinists call charta, or chartæ. Before the use of parchment and paper passed to the Romans, they contrived to use the thin peel which was found on trees, between the wood of these trees and their bark. This second skin they called liber, whence the Latin word liber, a book, and library and librarian, in the European languages, and the French livre for book; but we of northern origin derive our book from the Danish bog, the beech-tree, because that being the most plentiful in Denmark, was used to engrave on. Anciently, instead of folding this bark, this parchment, or paper, as we fold ours, they rolled it according as they wrote on it; and the Latin name which they gave these rolls has passed into our language as well as the others. We say a volume or volumes, although our books are composed of pages cut and bound together. The books of the ancients on the shelves of their libraries, were rolled up on a pin, and placed erect, titled on the outside in red letters, or rubrics, and appeared like a number of small pillars on the shelves.

Curious information respecting small, or MINUTE WRITING.--The Iliad of Homer in a nut-shell, which Pliny says that Cicero once saw, it is pretended might have been a fact, however to some it may appear impossible. Ælian notices an artist who wrote a distich in letters of gold, which he inclosed in the rind of a grain of corn.

Antiquity, and modern times, have recorded many penmen, whose glory consisted in writing so small a hand, that it could not be legible to the naked eye. One wrote a verse of Homer on a grain of millet; and another, more indefatigably industrious in this important trifling, is said by Menage to have written whole sentences which were not perceptible to the eye without the microscope: pictures and portraits, also, appeared at first to be lines and scratches thrown down at random; one of these formed the face of the Dauphiness, with the most pleasing delicacy and correct resemblance. He read an Italian poem in praise of this princess, containing some thousands of verses, written by an officer, in the space of a foot and a half. This species of curious idleness has not been lost in our own country: about a century ago, this minute writing was a fashionable curiosity. A drawing of the head of Charles I. is in the library of St. John's college, at Oxford. It is wholly composed of minute written characters, which at a small distance resemble the lines of engraving. The lines of the head and ruff, are said to contain the book of Psalms, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer. In the British Museum we find a drawing representing the portrait of Queen Anne, not much above the size of the hand. On this drawing appear a number of lines and scratches, which, the librarian assures the marvelling spectator, includes the entire contents of a thin folio volume, that on this occasion is carried in the hand, as if to vouch for the truth of a statement so liable to be received with hesitation.

On this subject it may be worth noticing, that the learned Huet asserts that he, like the rest of the world, for a long time considered as a fiction the story of that industrious writer, who is said to have inclosed the Iliad in a nut-shell. But having examined the matter more closely, he thought it possible. One day, in company at the Dauphin's, this learned man trifled half a hour in proving it. A piece of vellum, about ten inches in length and eight in width, pliant and firm, can be folded up and enclosed in the shell of a large walnut. It can hold in its breadth one line, which can contain 30 verses, and in its length 250 lines. With a crow-quill the writing can be perfect. A page of this vellum will then contain 7500 verses, and the reverse as much; the whole 15,000 verses of the Iliad. And this he proved in their presence, by using a piece of paper, and with a common pen. The thing is possible to be effected; and if some occasion should happen, when paper is excessively rare, it may be useful to know, that a volume of matter may be contained in a very small space.

We submit the following curious particulars respecting the TITLES OF BOOKS.--The Jewish, and many Oriental authors, were fond of allegorical titles, which always shews the most puerile age of taste. The titles were usually adapted to their obscure works. It might exercise an able enigmatist to explain their allusions; for we must understand by "The Heart of Aaron," a commentary on several of the prophets. "The Bones of Joseph" is an introduction to the Talmud. "The Garden of Nuts," and "The Golden Apples," are theological questions, and "The Pomegranate with its Flower," is a treatise of ceremonies no longer practised. Jortin gives a title, which he says, of all the fantastical titles he can recollect, is one of the prettiest. A Rabbin published a catalogue of Rabbinical writers, and called it Labia Dormientium, from Cantic. vii. 9. "Like the best wine of my beloved, that goeth down sweetly, causing the lips of those that are asleep to speak." It has a double meaning, of which he was not aware, for most of his Rabbinical brethren talk very much like men in their sleep.

Almost all their works bear such titles as, Bread, Gold, Silver, Roses, Eyes, &c.; in a word, any thing that meant nothing.

Affected title-pages were not peculiar to the Orientalists; but the Greeks and the Romans have shewn a finer taste. They had their Cornucopias, or horns of abundance; Limones, or meadows; Pinakidions, or tablets; Pancarpes, or all sorts of fruits: titles not unhappily adapted for the miscellanists. The nine books of Herodotus, and the nine epistles of Æschines, were respectively honoured by the name of a Muse; and three orations of the latter, by those of the Graces.

The modern fanatics have had a most barbarous taste for titles. We could produce numbers from abroad, and also at home. Some works have been called, "Matches Lighted at the Divine Fire," and one "The Gun of Penitence:" a collection of passages from the Fathers, is called, "The Shop of the Spiritual Apothecary:" we have "The Bank of Faith," and "The Sixpennyworth of Divine Spirit:" one of these works bears the following elaborate one; "Some fine Baskets baked in the Oven of Charity, carefully conserved for the Chickens of the Church, the Sparrows of the Spirit, and the sweet Swallows of Salvation." Sometimes their quaintness has some humour. One Sir Humphrey Lind, a zealous puritan, published a work, which a Jesuit answered by another, entitled, "A Pair of Spectacles for Sir Humphrey Lind." The doughty knight retorted, by "A Case for Sir Humphrey Lind's Spectacles."

Some of these obscure titles have an entertaining absurdity; as, "The Three Daughters of Job," which is a treatise on the three virtues of patience, fortitude, and pain. "The Innocent Love, or the Holy Knight," is a description of the ardours of a saint for the Virgin. "The Sound of the Trumpet," is a work on the day of judgment; and "A Fan to drive away Flies," is a theological treatise on purgatory.

The title which George Gascoigne, who had great merit in his day, has given to his collection, may be considered as a specimen of the titles of his times. It was printed in 1576. He calls it "A hundred sundrie Floures bounde up in one small Poesie; gathered partly by translation in the fyne and outlandish gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarche, Ariosto, and others; and partly by invention out of our own fruitefull orchardes in Englande; yielding sundrie sweet savours of tragicall, comicall, and morall discourses, both pleasaunt and profitable to the well-swelling noses of learned readers."

LITERARY LABOUR AND PERSEVERANCE.--The Rev. William Davy, curate of Lustleigh, Devon, in the year 1807, finished a work in twenty-six volumes, of which the following is the title:--

"A System of Divinity, in a Course of Sermons on the first Institutions of Religion--on the Being and Attributes of God--on some of the most important Articles of the Christian Religion, in Connection--and on the several Virtues and Vices of Mankind; with Occasional Discourses. Being a Compilation of the best Sentiments of the Polite Writers and eminent sound Divines, both ancient and modern, on the same subjects, properly connected, with Improvements; particularly adapted for the Use of Chief Families, and Students in Divinity, for Churches, and for the Benefit of Mankind in general."

The author of the work bearing this astounding title, once attempted to publish it by subscription; in which he failed: he being poor, and unable to venture its publication, resolved to print it himself; for which purpose he procured as many worn-out types from a country printing-office as enabled him to print two pages at once; which, with the addition of a press of his own manufacture, he set to work in the year 1795, serving every office himself, from compositor to printer's-devil; and proceeding regularly page by page, he struck off forty copies of the first three hundred pages, half of which he distributed among the reviews, the bishops, and the universities, with a view of attracting public attention; but here also he failed: when he became determined to treat a misjudging world with contempt, and accordingly continued to print off fourteen copies of each, and at the end of twelve years finished the whole six-and-twenty volumes.

Curious account of the SCARCITY OF BOOKS--Of the scarcity and value of books during the seventh and many subsequent centuries, the following curious account is given by Mr. Warton, in his History of English Poetry, vol. i. "Towards the close of the seventh century, (says he,) even in the papal library at Rome, the number of books was so inconsiderable, that pope St. Martin requested Sanctamand, bishop of Maestricht, if possible, to supply this defect from the remotest parts of Germany. In 855, Lupus, abbot of Ferriers, in France, sent two of his monks to pope Benedict III. to beg a copy of Cicero de Oratore, and Quintilian's Institutes, and some other books: 'for (says the abbot) although we have part of these books, yet there is no whole or complete copy of them in all France.' Albert, abbot of Gemblours, who with incredible labour and immense expense had collected one hundred volumes on theological, and fifty on profane subjects, imagined he had formed a splendid library. About A. D. 790, Charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting, to the abbot and monks of Sithin, for making covers for their books of the skins of the deer they killed. These religious were probably more fond of hunting than reading; and, under these circumstances, did not manufacture many volumes. At the beginning of the tenth century, books were so scarce in Spain, that one copy of the Bible, St. Jerome's epistles, and some volumes of ecclesiastical offices and martyrologies, often served several different monasteries. In an inventory of the goods of John de Pontissara, bishop of Winchester, in his palace of Wulvesey, all the books are only septemdecim speciem librorum de diversis scientiis. This was in 1294. The same prelate, in 1299, borrows of his cathedral convent of St. Swithin, at Winchester, Bibliam bene glossatam; i. e. the Bible with marginal annotations, in two large folio volumes; but gives a bond for due return of the loan, drawn up with great solemnity. This Bible had been bequeathed to the convent by Pontissara's predecessor, bishop Nicholas de Ely: and in consideration of so important a bequest, pro bona Biblia dicti episcopi bene glossata, and one hundred marks in money, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor. When a single book was bequeathed to a friend, it was seldom without many restrictions. If any person gave a book to a religious house, he believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation; and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony. The most formidable anathemas were peremptorily denounced against those who should dare to alienate a book presented to the cloister, or library of a religious house. The prior and convent of Rochester declare, that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a Latin translation of Aristotle's Physics, or even obliterate the title. Sometimes a book was given to a monastery, on condition that the donor should have the use of it during his life; and sometimes to a private person, on the terms that he who received it should pray for the soul of his benefactor. When a book was bought, the affair was of so much importance, that it was customary to assemble persons of consequence and character, and to make a formal record that they were present."

Among the royal manuscripts in the book of the Sentences of Peter Lombard, an archdeacon of Lincoln has left this entry: "This book of the Sentences belongs to master Robert, archdeacon of Lincoln, which he bought of Geoffrey the chaplain, brother of Henry, vicar of Northelkington, in the presence of master Robert de Lee, master John of Lirling, Richard of Luda, clerk, Richard the almoner, the said Henry the vicar, and his clerk, and others: and the said archdeacon gave the said book to God and St. Oswald, and to Peter abbot of Barton, and the convent of Barden." The disputed property of a book often occasioned the most violent altercations. Many claims appear to have been made to a manuscript of Matthew Paris, belonging to the last mentioned library; in which John Russel, bishop of Lincoln, conditionally defends or explains his right of possession; and concludes thus, A. D. 1488, "Whoever shall obliterate or destroy this writing, let him be anathema."

About 1225, Roger de Insula, dean of York, gave several Latin Bibles to the university of Oxford, on the condition, that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. The library of that university, before A. D. 1300, consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept in chests in the choir of St. Mary's church. In 1327, the scholars and citizens of Oxford pillaged the opulent Benedictine abbey of the neighbouring town of Abingdon. Among the books they found there, were one hundred psalters, as many grayles, forty missals, which undoubtedly belonged to the choir of the church, and twenty-two codices, on common subjects. And although the invention of paper, at the close of the eleventh century, contributed to multiply manuscripts, and consequently to facilitate knowledge, yet, even so late as the reign of Henry VI. the following remarkable instance occurred of the inconveniences and impediments to study, which must have been produced by a scarcity of books. It is in the statutes of St. Mary's college at Oxford, founded as a seminary to Oseney abbey, in 1446: "Let no scholar occupy a book in the library above one hour, or two hours at most; so that others shall not be hindered from the use of the same!" The famous library established in the university of Oxford, by that munificent patron of literature, Humphrey duke of Gloucester, contained only six hundred volumes. About the commencement of the fourteenth century, there were only four classics in the royal library at Paris. There was one copy of Cicero, Ovid, Lucan, and Boetius. The rest were chiefly books of devotion, which included but few of the Fathers: many treatises of astrology, geomancy, chiromancy, and medicine, originally written in Arabic, and translated into Latin or French: pandects, chronicles, and romances. This collection was principally made by Charles V. who began his reign in 1365. This monarch was passionately fond of reading; and it was the fashion to send him presents of books from every part of the kingdom of France. These he ordered to be elegantly transcribed, and richly illuminated; and he placed them in a tower of the Louvre, from thence called La Toure de la Libraire. The whole consisted of nine hundred volumes. They were deposited in three chambers, wainscoted with Irish oak, and ceiled with cypress curiously carved. The windows were of painted glass, fenced with iron bars and copper wire. The English became masters of Paris in the year 1425; on which event the Duke of Bedford, regent of France, sent the whole library, then consisting of only eight hundred and fifty-three volumes, and valued at 2223 livres, into England; where perhaps they became the groundwork of Duke Humphrey's library. Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis XI. of France borrowed the works of the Arabian physician, Rhasis, from the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only deposited by way of pledge a quantity of valuable plate, but was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as a surety in a deed, by which he bound himself to return it, under a considerable forfeiture. The excessive prices of books in the middle ages afford numerous and curious proofs of the caution with which literary property was secured in those times of general ignorance.

In 1174, Walter, prior of St. Swithin's at Winchester, a writer in Latin of the lives of the bishops who were his patrons, purchased of the monks of Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, Bede's Homilies and St. Austin's Psalter, for twelve measures of barley, and a pall, on which was richly embroidered in silver the history of St. Birinus converting a Saxon king. Among the royal manuscripts in the British Museum, there is Comestor's Scholastic History in French; which, as it is recorded in a blank page at the beginning, was taken from the king of France at the battle of Poictiers; and being purchased by William Montague, Earl of Salisbury, for 100 marcs, was ordered to be sold by the last will of his countess, Elizabeth, for 40 livres. About A. D. 1400, a copy of John of Meun's Romance de la Rose, was sold before the palace gate at Paris for a sum equal to £33. 6s. 6d.

CELEBRATED LIBRARIES.--The first who erected a library at Athens was the tyrant Pisistratus. This was transported by Xerxes into Persia, and afterwards brought back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. Plutarch says, that under Eumenes there was a library at Pergamus which contained two hundred thousand books. That of Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to A. Gellius, contained forty thousand, which were all burnt by Cæsar's soldiers. The celebrated library of Alexandria, begun by Ptolemy Soter, and enlarged by his successors, consisting of seven hundred thousand volumes, contained nearly all the literary treasures of the world. This was burnt by order of the Caliph Omar, in the seventh century, and the loss must for ever remain irreparable. On this calamity, literature can never reflect without a sigh. Constantine and his successor erected a magnificent one at Constantinople, which in the eighth century contained three hundred thousand volumes, and among the rest, one in which the Iliad and Odyssey were written in letters of gold, on the entrails of a serpent; but this library was burnt, by order of Leo Isaurus. The most celebrated libraries of ancient Rome, were the Ulpian and the Palatine; and in modern Rome, that of the Vatican, the foundation of which was laid by Pope Nicholas in the year 1450. It was afterwards diminished in the sacking of Rome by the constable of Bourbon, and restored by Pope Sixtus V. and has been considerably enriched with the ruins of that of Heidelberg, plundered by count Tilly in 1682. One of the most complete libraries in Europe, was that erected by Cosmo de Medicis; though it was afterwards exceeded by that of the French king, which was begun by Francis I. augmented by cardinal Richelieu, and completed by M. Colbert. The emperor's library at Vienna, according to Lambecius, consists of eighty thousand volumes, and fifteen thousand nine hundred and forty curious medals. The Bodleian library at Oxford exceeds that of any university in Europe, and even those of any of the sovereigns, except those of the emperors of France and Germany, which are each of them older by a hundred years. It was first opened in 1602, and has since been increased by a great number of benefactors: indeed the Medicean library, that of Bessarion at Venice, and those just mentioned, exceed it in Greek manuscripts, but it outdoes them all in Oriental manuscripts; and as to printed books, the Ambrosian at Milan, and that of Wolfenbuttle, are two of the most famous libraries on the continent, and yet both are considerably inferior to the Bodleian. The Cottonian library consists wholly of manuscripts, particularly of such as relate to the history and antiquities of England; which, as they are now bound, make about one thousand volumes.

BOOK OF BLUNDERS.--One of the most egregious, shall we add illustrious, of all literary blunders, is that of the edition of the Vulgate, by Sixtus V. His holiness carefully superintended every sheet as it passed through the press; and, to the amazement of the world, the work remained without a rival--it swarmed with errata! A multitude of scraps were printed, to paste over the erroneous passages, in order to give the true text. The book makes a whimsical appearance with these pasted corrections; and the heretics exulted in the demonstration of papal infallibility! The copies were called in, and violent attempts made to suppress it; however, a few still remain for the pursuit of biblical collectors: at a late sale, the Bible of Sixtus V. fetched above sixty guineas--a tolerable sum for a mere book of blunders! The world was highly amused at the bull of the Pope and editor prefixed to the first volume, which excommunicates all printers, &c. who in reprinting the work should make any alteration in the text!

Curious account of THE MEANS OF INTELLECTUAL IMPROVEMENT IN LONDON.--The following is an estimate made of the means of intellectual improvement in London. There are four hundred and seven places of public worship; four thousand and fifty seminaries for education, including two hundred and thirty-seven parish charity schools; eight societies for the express purpose of promoting good morals; twelve societies for promoting the learned, the useful, and the polite arts; one hundred and twenty-two asylums and alms-houses for the helpless and indigent, including the Philanthropic Society for reclaiming criminal children; thirty hospitals and dispensaries for sick and lame, and for the delivery of poor pregnant women; seven hundred friendly or benefit societies; about thirty institutions for charitable and humane purposes; about thirty institutions for teaching some thousands of poor children the arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, on the plans of Mr. Lancaster and Dr. Bell; and these several establishments, including the poor's rate, are supported at the almost incredible cost of one million per annum.

CHAP. LXXXI.

CURIOSITIES OF LITERATURE.--(Continued.)

Origin of the Word "News"--Origin of Newspapers--Instances of New Studies in Old Age--Literary Shoemakers--Imprisonment of the Learned--Singular Customs annually observed by the Company of Stationers--Book of Sports--Origin of Cards--Explanation of all the Letters on a Guinea.

ORIGIN OF THE WORD "NEWS."--The four cardinal points of the compass, marked with the letters N. E. W. S. standing for North, East, West, and South, form the word News, which coming from all parts of the world, gave derivation to the word.

ORIGIN OF NEWSPAPERS.--We are indebted to the Italians for the idea of Newspapers. The title of the Gazettas, was perhaps derived from Gazzera, a magpie or chatterer; or more probably from a farthing coin, peculiar to the city of Venice, called Gazetta, which was the common price of the newspapers. Another learned etymologist is for deriving it from the Latin Gaza, which would colloquially lengthen into Gazetta, and signify a little treasury of news. The Spanish derive it indeed from the Latin Gaza; and likewise their Gazatero, and our Gazetteer, for a writer of the Gazette; and, what is peculiar to themselves, Gazetista, for a lover of the Gazette.

Newspapers then took their birth in that principal land of modern politicians, Italy, and under the government of that aristocratical republic, Venice. The first paper was a Venetian one, and only monthly: but it was the newspaper of the government only. Other governments afterwards adopted the Venetian name for it; and from one solitary government Gazette, we see what an inundation of newspapers has burst out upon us in this country.

Mr. Chalmers gives, in his life of Ruddiman, a curious particular of these Venetian Gazettes. "A jealous government did not allow a printed newspaper; and the Venetian Gazetta continued long after the invention of printing to the close of the sixteenth century, and even to our own days, to be distributed in manuscript." In the Magliabechian library at Florence are thirty volumes of Venetian Gazettas, all in manuscript.

Those who first wrote newspapers, were called by the Italians Menanti; because, says Vossius, they intended commonly by these loose papers to spread about defamatory reflections, and were therefore prohibited in Italy by Gregory XIII. in a particular bull, under the name of Menantes, from the Latin Minantes, threatening. Menage, however, derives it from the Italian Menare, which signifies, to lead at large, or spread afar.

Mr. Chalmers discovers in England the first newspaper. It may gratify national pride, says he, to be told, that mankind are indebted to the wisdom of Elizabeth and the prudence of Burleigh for the first newspaper. The epoch of the Spanish Armada is also the epoch of a genuine newspaper. In the British Museum are several newspapers which had been printed while the Spanish fleet was in the English Channel, during the year 1588. It was a wise policy to prevent, during a moment of general anxiety, the danger of false reports, by publishing real information. The earliest newspaper is entitled "The English Mercurie," which by authority "was imprinted at London by her highness's printer, 1588." These were, however, but extraordinary Gazettes, not regularly published.

The following are curious INSTANCES OF NEW STUDIES IN OLD AGE.--Socrates learnt to play on musical instruments in his old age; Cato, at eighty, thought proper to learn Greek; and Plutarch, almost as late in life, Latin.

Theophrastus began his admirable work on the characters of men, at the extreme age of ninety. He only terminated his literary labours by his death.

Peter Ronsard, one of the fathers of French poetry, applied himself late to study. His acute genius, and ardent application, rivalled those poetic models which he admired.

The great Arnauld retained the vigour of his genius, and the command of his pen, to his last day; and at the age of eighty-two was still the great Arnauld.

Sir Henry Spelman neglected the sciences in his youth, but cultivated them at fifty years of age, and produced good fruit. His early years were chiefly passed in farming, which greatly diverted him from his studies; but a remarkable disappointment respecting a contested estate, disgusted him with these rustic occupations, and resolving to attach himself to regular studies and literary society, he sold his farms, and became a most learned antiquary and lawyer.

Colbert, the famous French minister, almost at sixty returned to his Latin and law studies.

Tellier, the chancellor of France, learnt logic, merely for an amusement, to dispute with his grandchildren.

Dr. Johnson applied himself to the Dutch language but a few years before his death. But on this head the Marquis de Saint Anlaire may be regarded as a prodigy; at the age of seventy he began to court the Muses, and they crowned him with their freshest flowers. His verses are full of fire, delicacy, and sweetness. Voltaire says, that Anacreon, less old, produced less charming compositions.

Chaucer's Canterbury Tales were the composition of his latest years: they were begun in his fifty-fourth year, and finished in his sixty-first: it is on these works his fame is established, at least they are those which are most adapted to attract all classes of poetical readers.

The celebrated Boccacio was thirty-five years of age when he began his studies in polite literature. He has, however, excelled many whose whole life has been devoted to this branch of letters. Such is the privilege of genius.

Ludovico Monaldesco, at the extraordinary age of 115, wrote the memoirs of his time: a singular exertion, noticed by Voltaire, who himself is one of the most remarkable instances of the progress of age in new studies.

Koonhert began at forty to learn the Latin and Greek languages, of which he became a master; several students, who afterwards distinguished themselves, have commenced as late in life their literary pursuits. Ogilby, the translator of Homer and Virgil, knew little of Latin or Greek, till he was past fifty; and Franklin's philosophical pursuits began when he had nearly reached his fiftieth year.

Accorso, a great lawyer, being asked why he began the study of the law so late, answered, that indeed he began it late, but should therefore master it the sooner.

Dryden's complete works form the largest body of poetry from the pen of one writer in the English language; yet he gave no public testimony of poetical abilities till his twenty-seventh year. In his sixty-eighth year he proposed to translate the whole Ilias; his most pleasing productions were written in his old age.

Michael Angelo preserved his creative genius even in extreme old age; for he worked almost to his last day, and he reached his ninetieth year. He alludes, doubtless, to himself in an ingenious device, if it be of his own invention: A venerable old man is represented in a go-cart, an hour-glass upon it, with the inscription, ANCORA IMPARO! YET I AM LEARNING!

LITERARY SHOEMAKERS.--The fraternity of shoemakers have unquestionably given rise to some characters of worth and genius. The late Mr. Holcroft was originally a shoemaker. His dramatic pieces must rank among the best of those on the English stage. Robert Bloomfield wrote his poem of "The Farmer's Boy," while employed at this business, and Dr. William Carey, professor of Sanscrit and Bengalee at the college of Fort William, Calcutta, and the able and indefatigable translator of the Scriptures into many of the Eastern languages, was in early life a shoemaker in Northamptonshire. The present Mr. Gifford, the translator of Juvenal, and the supposed editor of the Quarterly Review, spent some of his early days in learning the "craft and mystery" of a shoemaker; as he tells us, in one of the most interesting pieces of auto-biography ever penned, and prefixed to his nervous and elegant version of the great Roman satirist.

IMPRISONMENT OF THE LEARNED.--Imprisonment seems not much to have disturbed the men of letters in the progress of their studies.

It was in prison that Boethius composed his excellent book on the Consolations of Philosophy.

Grotius wrote, in his confinement, his Commentary on St. Matthew.

Buchanan, in his dungeon of a monastery in Portugal, composed his excellent Paraphrases on the Psalms of David.

Pelisson, during five years' confinement for some state affairs, pursued with ardour his studies in the Greek language, in philosophy, and particularly in theology, and produced several good compositions.

Michael Cervantes composed the best and most agreeable book in the Spanish language, during his captivity in Barbary.

Fleta, a well-known and very excellent little law production, was written by a person confined in the fleet prison for debt, but whose name has not been preserved.

Louis XII. when he was Duke of Orleans, being taken prisoner at the battle of St. Aubin, was long confined in the tower of Bourges, and applying himself to his studies, which he had hitherto neglected, he became, in consequence, an able and enlightened monarch.

Margaret, Queen of Henry IV. King of France, confined in the Louvre, pursued very warmly the study of elegant literature, and composed a very skilful apology for the irregularities of her conduct.

Charles I. during his cruel confinement at Holmsby, wrote that excellent book, entitled The Portrait of a King, which he addressed to his son, and where the political reflections will be found not unworthy of Tacitus. This work, however, has been attributed, by his enemies, to a Dr. Gowden, who was incapable of writing a single paragraph of it.

Queen Elizabeth, while confined by her sister Mary, wrote some very charming poems, which we do not find she ever could equal after her enlargement: and Mary Queen of Scots, during her long imprisonment by Elizabeth, produced many beautiful poetic compositions.

SINGULAR CUSTOM ANNUALLY OBSERVED BY THE COMPANY OF STATIONERS.--On the annual aquatic procession of the Lord Mayor of London to Westminster, the barge of the Company of Stationers, which is usually the first in the show, proceeds to Lambeth palace, where for time immemorial they have received a present of sixteen bottles of the Archbishop's prime wine. This custom originated at the beginning of the last century. When archbishop Tenison enjoyed the see, a very near relation of his, who happened to be master of the Stationers' Company, thought it a compliment to call there in full state, and in his barge: when the archbishop was informed that the number of the company within the barge was thirty-two, he thought that a pint of wine for each would not be disagreeable; and ordered, at the same time, that a sufficient quantity of new bread and old cheese, with plenty of strong ale, should be given to the watermen and attendants: and from that accidental circumstance it has grown into a settled custom. The Company, in return, presents to the Archbishop a copy of the several almanacks which they have the peculiar privilege of publishing.

BOOK OF SPORTS.--A book, or declaration, drawn up by bishop Morton, in the reign of king James I. to encourage recreations and sports on the Lord's day. It was to this effect: "That for his good people's recreation, his majesty's pleasure was, that, after the end of divine service, they should not be disturbed, letted, or discouraged, from any lawful recreations; such as dancing, either of men or women; archery for men; leaping, vaulting, or any such harmless recreations; nor having of may-games, whitsun-ales, or morrice-dances; or setting up of may-poles, or other sports therewith used, so as the same may be had in due and convenient time, without impediment or let of divine service; and that women should have leave to carry rushes to the church for the decorating of it, according to their old customs: withal prohibiting all unlawful games to be used on Sundays only; as bear-bating, bull-bating, interludes, and at all times (in the meaner sort of people prohibited) bowling." Two or three restraints were annexed to the declaration, which deserve notice:--1. No recusant (i. e. papist) was to have the benefit of this declaration. 2. Nor such as were not present at the whole of divine service. 3. Nor such as did not keep to their own parish churches, that is, puritans.

This declaration was ordered to be read in all the parishes of Lancashire, which abounded with papists; and Wilson adds, that it was to have been read in all the churches of England, but that archbishop Abbot, being at Croydon, flatly forbade its being read there. In the reign of king Charles I. archbishop Laud put the king upon republishing this declaration, which was accordingly done. The court had their balls, masquerades, and plays, on the Sunday evenings; while the youth of the country were at their morrice-dances, may-games, church and clerk ales, and all such kind of revelling. The severe pressing of this declaration made sad havock among the puritans, as it was to be read in the churches. Many poor clergymen strained their consciences in submission to their superiors. Some, after publishing, immediately read the fourth commandment to the people:--"Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy:" adding, "This is the law of God;" the other, "The injunction of man." Some put it upon their curates; whilst great numbers absolutely refused to comply: the consequence of which was, that several clergymen were actually suspended for not reading it.

ORIGIN OF CARDS.--About the year 1390, cards were invented, to divert Charles VI. then king of France, who was fallen into a melancholy disposition.

That they were not in use before, appears highly probable, 1st. Because no cards are to be seen in any paintings, sculpture, tapestry, &c. more ancient than the preceding period, but are represented in many works of ingenuity since that age.

2dly. No prohibitions relative to cards, by the king's edicts, are mentioned, although, some few years before, a most severe one was published, forbidding by name, all manner of sports and pastimes, in order that the subjects might exercise themselves in shooting with bows and arrows, and be in a condition to oppose the English. Now it is not to be presumed, that so luring a game as cards would have been omitted in the enumeration, had they been in use.

3dly. In all the ecclesiastical canons prior to the said time, there occurs no mention of cards; although, twenty years after that date, card-playing was interdicted by the clergy, by a Gallican synod. About the same time is found, in the account book of the king's cofferer, the following charge:--"Paid for a pack of painted leaves bought for the king's amusement, three livres." Printing and stamping being then not discovered, the cards were painted, which made them so dear. Thence, in the above synodical canons, they are called gillæ pictæ, painted little leaves.

4thly. About thirty years after this, came a severe edict against cards in France; and another by Emanuel, duke of Savoy; only permitting the ladies this pastime, pro spinulis, for pins and needles.

Of their design.--The inventor proposed, by the figures of the four suits, or colours, as the French call them, to represent the four states, or classes, of men in the kingdom.

By the Cæsars (Hearts) are meant the gens de choeur, choir men, or ecclesiastics; and therefore the Spaniards, who certainly received the use of cards from the French, have copas, or chalices, instead of hearts.

The nobility, or prime military part of the kingdom, are represented by the ends or points of lances or pikes; and our ignorance of the meaning or resemblance of the figure induced us to call them Spades. The Spaniards have espaces (swords) in lieu of pikes, which is of similar import.

By Diamonds, are designed the order of citizens, merchants, and tradesmen, carreaux (square stone tiles or the like.) The Spaniards have a coin dineros, which answered to it; and the Dutch call the French word carreaux stieneen, stones and diamonds, from their form.

Treste, the trefoil leaf, or clover-grass (corruptly called Clubs) alludes to the husbandmen and peasants. How this suit came to be called clubs is not explained, unless, borrowing the game from the Spaniards, who have bastos (staves or clubs) instead of the trefoil, we gave the Spanish signification to the French figure.

The history of the four Kings, which the French in drollery sometimes call the cards, is David, Alexander, Cæsar, and Charles, (which names were then, and still are, on the French cards.) These respectable names represent the four celebrated monarchies of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks under Charlemagne.

By the Queens are intended Argine, Esther, Judith, and Pallas, (names retained in French cards,) typical of birth, piety, fortitude, and wisdom, the qualifications residing in each person. Argine is an anagram for Regina, queen by descent.

By the Knaves were designed the servants to knights (for knave originally meant only servant; and in an old translation of the Bible, St. Paul is called the knave of Christ) but French pages and valets, now indiscriminately used by various orders of persons, were formerly only allowed to persons of quality, esquires, (escuiers,) shield or armour-bearers.

Others fancy that the knights themselves were designed by those cards, because Hogier and Lahire, two names on the French cards, were famous knights at the time cards were supposed to be invented.

EXPLANATION OF ALL THE LETTERS ON A GUINEA.--The Inscription on a Guinea runs thus:--GEORGIUS III. DEI GRATIA, M. B. F. ET H. REX, F. D. B. ET L. D. S. R. I. A. T. ET E.

That is,--Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia, Magnæ Brittanniæ, Franciæ et Hiberniæ Rex, Fidei Defensor, Brunswicii et Lunenburgi Dux, Sacri Romani Imperii Archi-Thesaurarius et Elector.

In English,--George the Third, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick and Lunenburgh, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire.

CHAP. LXXXII.

CURIOSITIES OF LITERATURE.--(Concluded.)

Curious Address to the late Queen Charlotte--Quaint Lines on Queen Elizabeth--Curious Names adopted in the Civil Wars--Curious Extracts from the Will of an Earl of Pembroke--Curious Letter from Pomare, King of Otaheite, to the Missionary Society--Curious Love Letter and Answer--Creeds of the Jews--The Unbeliever's Creed--Explanation of the Terms "Whig" and "Tory."

CURIOUS ADDRESS TO THE LATE QUEEN CHARLOTTE.

"The Address of the Burgomaster, Magistrates, and Citizens of Strelitz, to her Royal Highness the Most Illustrious Princess Sophia Charlotte, Duchess of Mecklenburgh, Princess of Wenden, Schrouin, and Piotzburgh, and Countess of Schwerin, and the countries of Rostock and Slangard, on her leaving the Territories of the said City in her Way to England, as the Royal Bride of his Most Illustrious Majesty George the Third, King of Great Britain, &c. &c. Aug. 27, 1761.

"Illustrious Dutchess, most gracious Princess and Lady; your Royal Highness is at present leaving that country whose happiness it has hitherto been to admire you, the model of a perfect Princess; you leave it to share with the greatest monarch in Europe, a throne respected through every part of the universe. The instant is at hand when your Royal Highness will for ever be withdrawn from our eyes: but it affects us the more sensibly, from the apprehension that the many great and brilliant objects, with which you will henceforth be connected, will efface so small a place as ours from your inestimable remembrance. Yet that goodness which we have hitherto with transport admired in your Royal Highness, revives our spirits; it assures us, that you will ever from the throne condescend graciously to look back on our town; and continue the patroness of those whose happiness it is to be the subjects of your illustrious Family. We, therefore, in full confidence, give ourselves up to that lively joy excited in us all, on the glorious union to which the Divine Providence has called your Royal Highness, and beg leave to accompany you with our most cordial wishes for your safe journey and continual welfare and prosperity. May the Eternal Ruler of all things, who has appointed this great event, make your Royal Highness the most perfect instance of felicity, the delight of that Royal Family into which you are now entering, the joy of Britain, and the glory of the illustrious Mecklenburg! May our illustrious Sovereign, the beloved Adolphus Frederic, long, and in all earthly happiness, together with his faithful and happy subjects, rejoice in these felicities! Your Royal Highness will graciously permit that Twelve of our Daughters, here present in the attire of innocence, may, as a memorial of this fortunate event, second the ardent sentiments of their Fathers, and in artless words, most humbly wish you a safe and pleasant journey:--

Eleonora Dorothea Maria Bentghoven.

Hail Princess! with each shining virtue bright, All pure within, without all glorious light, Whose form divine, whose goodness we adore; Heaven bless thy parting from the German shore!

Christiana Juliana Elizabeth Berendsden.

As Consort of a mighty Monarch shine, Restore the honour of an ancient line; For this thy coming, Britain's King invites, For this he calls to Hymen's soft delights.

Dorothea Elizabeth Tetlington.

Thy soul with each divinest virtue fraught, Thy wisdom perfect, both in word and thought; Each British bosom shall with rapture fire, And faction sleep whilst gazing crowds admire.

Sophia Elizabeth Gradhandlan.

When seated by thy royal Consort's side, New lustre he shall gain from such a Bride; Her worth shall grace the sacred nuptial ties, And Britain's throne in dignity shall rise.

Carolina Henrietta Tangate.

O God! whose mercies through the world abound, Whose power supports the King thy hand has crown'd, Waft o'er the main the Bride's transcendent charms, In safety to the Bridegroom's longing arms.

Dorothea Gaven.

May she, with each endearing art possest, To pleasure ever soothe the Monarch's breast! May all the royal virtues of her heart, To faithful subjects joy sincere impart!

Anna Maria Elizabeth Christen.

Britons, rejoice, receive with loud acclaim Sophia Charlotte, ever dear to fame; Delight of Mecklenburg! she comes to shower On Britain's isle new blessings every hour.

Madalen Elizabeth Colterjahn.

Thrice happy Bride! who soon shall cross the main, Whom to behold again we wish in vain; May happiness increasing with thee dwell, To every age may fame thy glory tell!

Christiana Sophia Sealon.

From Ganges to where Mississippi flows, Diffusing wealth and plenty as it goes; From Senegal, still scorch'd by Phoebus' beams, To where St. Lawrence rolls his silver streams, Proclaim Britannia's bliss the world around, From pole to pole, to earth's remotest bound.

Christiana Elizabeth Phoelen.

It's wish auspicious Flavel hastes to bring, For fair Charlotta and his Britain's King; On Britain's isle all blessing he implores, And rolls his friendly wave to Albion's shores.

Dorothea Christiana Elizabeth Rexsehen.

Beneath the Lord's anointed may she thrive, Still may his influence keep the palm alive, Still may it flourish, branches still extend, Afford us shelter, and from heat defend.

Catharine Sophia Bertrowen.

Nought can our brothers' ardent zeal restrain, Fain would they tempt with thee the roaring main; Permit them, Queen, thy person to be near, That of thy safety tidings we may hear.

Chorus.

Yet for one favour more we must apply, But little can these barren tracts supply; Permit us, since both gold and pearls you scorn, Your royal brows with myrtle to adorn!"

QUAINT LINES ON QUEEN ELIZABETH.--Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought thence to Whitehall by water, in a grand procession. On this occasion, as Camden informs us, the following quaint lines were written:--

"The Queen was brought by water to Whitehall; At every stroke the oars did tears let fall; More clung about the barge; fish under water Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, Have row'd her thither in her people's eyes; For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, She had come by water, had she come by land."

CURIOUS NAMES ADOPTED IN THE CIVIL WARS.--A curious style of naming individuals was exceedingly common in the time of the civil wars. It was said that the genealogy of our Saviour might be learned from the names in Cromwell's regiments. The muster-master used no other list than the first chapter of Matthew.

A Jury was returned in the county of Sussex of the following names:

Accepted Trevor, of Horsham. Redeemed Compton, of Battle. Faint-not Hewet, of Heathfield. Make-peace Heaton, of Hare. God-reward Smart, of Fivehurst. Stand-fast-on-high Stringer, of Crowhurst. Earth Adams, of Warbleton. Called Lower, of Warbleton. Kill-sin Pimple, of Witham. Return Spelman, of Watling. Be-faithful Joiner, of Britling. Fly-debate Robert, of Britling. Fight-the-good-fight-of-faith White, of Emer. More-fruit Fowler, of East Hadley. Hope-for Bending, of East Hadley. Graceful Harding, of Lewes. Weep-not Billings, of Lewes. Meek Brewer, of Okeham.

A noted character in those days was a divine of the name of Praise-God Barebone. He is little known as a divine, but is celebrated for having been an active member in Cromwell's parliament, and indeed for giving a name to it which is yet preserved in history. Praise-God Barebone had two brothers, namely, Christ-came-into-the-world-to-save Barebone, and If-Christ-had-not-died-thou-hadst-been-damned Barebone: some are said to have omitted the former part of the latter name, and to have called him only "Damned Barebone."

The reader will be amused with the following CURIOUS EXTRACTS FROM THE WILL OF AN EARL OF PEMBROKE.

"Imprimis.--For my soul; I confess I have heard very much of souls, but what they are, or whom they are, or what they are for, God knows, I know not: they tell me now of another world, where I never was, nor do I know one foot of the way thither. While the king stood, I was of his religion, made my son wear a cassock, and thought to make him a bishop, but then came the Scots, and made me a Presbyterian; and since Cromwell entered, I have been an Independent. These, I believe, are the kingdom's three estates; and if any of these can save a soul, I may claim one; therefore if my executors do find I have a soul, I give it to him who gave it me.

"Item.--I give my body, for I cannot keep it, to be buried. Do not lay me in the church-porch, for I was a Lord, and would not be buried where Colonel Pride was born.

"Item.--My will is, that I have no monument, for then I must have epitaphs and verses, and all my life long I have had too much of them.

"Item.--I give all my deer to the Earl of Salisbury, who I know will preserve them, because he denied the king a buck out of one of his own parks.

"Item.--I give nothing to the Lord Say; which legacy I give him, because I know he will bestow it on the poor.

"Item.-To Tom May I give five shillings: I intended him more: but whoever has seen his history of the parliament, thinks five shillings too much.

"Item.--I give Lieutenant General Cromwell one word of mine, because hitherto he never kept his own.

"Item.--I give up the ghost, concordat cum originati."

CURIOUS LETTER FROM POMARE, KING OF OTAHEITE, TO THE MISSIONARY SOCIETY.

(Translation.)

Matavae, Otaheite, Jan. 1, 1807.

FRIENDS,

I wish you every blessing, friends, in your residence in your country, with success in teaching this bad land, this foolish land, this wicked land, this land which is ignorant of good, this land that knoweth not the true God, this regardless land.

Friends, I wish you health and prosperity; may I also live, and may Jehovah save us all!

Friends, with respect to your letter you wrote to me, I have this to say to you, that your business with me, and your wishes, I fully consent to, and shall consequently banish Ore (his chief idol) and send him to Racatea.

Friends, I do therefore believe and shall obey your word.

Friends, I hope you also will consent to my request, which is this; I wish you to send a great number of men, women, and children, here.

Friends, send also property and cloth for us, and we also will adopt English customs.

Friends, send also plenty of muskets and powder, for wars are frequent in our country:--should I be killed, you will have nothing in Tahete; do not come here when I am dead. Tahete is a regardless country; and should I die with sickness, do not come here. This also I wish, that you would send me all the curious things that you have in England: also send me every thing necessary for writing; paper, ink, and pens, in abundance; let no writing utensil be wanting.

Friends, I have done, and have nothing at all more to ask you for: as for your desire to instruct Tahete, 'tis what I fully acquiesce in. 'Tis a common thing for people not to understand at first; but your object is good, and I fully consent to it; and shall cast off all evil customs.

What I say is truth, and no lie; it is the real truth.

This is all I have to write. I have done. Friends, write to me, that I may know what you have to say. I wish you life and every blessing. May I also live, and Jehovah save us all!

POMARE, King of Tahete, &c. &c.

_For my Friends, the Missionary Society, London._

CURIOUS LOVE LETTER.

Madam,--Most worthy of estimation! After long consideration, and much meditation, on the great reputation you possess in the nation, I have a strong inclination to become your relation. On your approbation of this declaration, I shall make preparation to remove my situation, to a more convenient station, to profess my admiration; and if such oblation is worthy of observation, and can obtain commiseration, it will be an aggrandization beyond all calculation of the joy and exultation,

Of your's, SANS DISSIMULATION.

THE ANSWER.

Sir,--I perused your oration with much deliberation, and a little consternation, at the great infatuation of your imagination, to shew such veneration on so slight a foundation. But after examination and much serious contemplation, I supposed your animation was the fruit of recreation, or had sprung from ostentation, to display your education, by an odd enumeration, or rather multiplication, of words of the same termination, though of great variation in each respective signification.

Now without disputation, your laborious application in so tedious an occupation, deserves commemoration, and thinking imitation a sufficient gratification, I am, without hesitation,

Your's, MARY MODERATION.

CREEDS OF THE JEWS.--The following piece is transcribed from the Common Prayer now in use among the Jews, and is entitled the Thirteen Creeds. It will give some idea of the theoretic branch of religion now prevailing among this singular people.

1. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God is the Creator of all things; that he doth guide and support all creatures; that he alone has made every thing; and that he still acts, and will act, during the whole eternity.

2. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God is one; there is no unity like his: he alone hath been, and shall be eternally, our God.

3. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God is not corporeal; he cannot have any material properties; and no corporeal essence can be compared with him.

4. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God is the beginning and end of all things.

5. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God alone ought to be worshipped, and none but he ought to be adored.

6. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, whatever hath been taught by the Prophets.

7. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that the doctrine of Moses is true. He is the father and the head of all the doctors that lived before or since, or shall live after him.

8. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that the law we have is the same as was given by Moses.

9. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that this law shall never be altered, and God will give no other.

10. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God knoweth all the thoughts and actions of men.

11. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that God will reward the works of all those who perform his commandments, and punish those who transgress his laws.

12. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, that the Messiah is to come. Although he tarrieth, I will wait, and expect daily his coming!

13. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, the Resurrection of the Dead shall happen when God shall think fit. Blessed, and glorified eternally, be the name of the Creator! Amen.

THE UNBELIEVER'S CREED.

"I believe that there is no God, but that matter is God, and God is matter, and that it is no matter whether there is any God or not. I believe, also, that the world was not made; that the world made itself; that it had no beginning; that it will last for ever, world without end.

"I believe that a man is a beast, that the soul is the body, and the body is the soul; and that after death there is neither body nor soul.

"I believe there is no religion; that natural religion is the only religion; and that all religion is unnatural. I believe not in Moses; I believe in the first philosophy; I believe not in the Evangelists; I believe in Chubb, Collins, Toland, Tindal, Morgan, Mandeville, Woolston, Hobbes, and Shaftsbury; I believe in lord Bolingbroke; I believe not in St. Paul.

"I believe not in revelation; I believe in tradition; I believe in the Talmud; I believe in the Alcoran; I believe not in the Bible; I believe in Socrates; I believe in Confucius; I believe in Sanchoneathon; I believe in Mahomet; I believe not in Christ.

"Lastly, I believe in all unbelief."

EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS "WHIG" AND "TORY."--Burnet, who was contemporary with the introduction of these terms, gives the following account of the former:--

"The south-west counties of Scotland have seldom corn enough to serve them through the year; and the northern parts producing more than they need, those in the west come in the summer to buy at Leith, the stores that come from the north; and from a word (whiggam) used in driving their horses, all that drove were called Whiggamors, and, shorter, the Whigs. Now in that year, before the news came down of the duke of Hamilton's defeat, the ministers animated the people to rise and march to Edinburgh; and they came up, marching at the head of their parishes with an unheard-of fury, praying and preaching all the way as they came. This was called the Whiggamor's inroad; and ever after, all that opposed the court came in contempt to be called Whigs."

Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, quotes this passage; yet by placing against the term Whig, the Saxon word Whoeg, synonymous to whey, or sour milk, he seems not to reject another derivation, which has been assigned to it by some writers.

Echard says--"Great animosities were created by these petitioners and abhorrers, and they occasioned many feuds and quarrels in private conversations; and about the same time, 1680, and from the same cause, arose the pernicious terms and distinctions of Whig and Tory, both exotic names, which the parties invidiously bestowed upon each other. All that adhered to the interest of the crown and lineal succession, were by the contrary branded with the title given to the Irish robbers; and they, in return, gave the others the appellation of Whig, or sour milk, formerly appropriated to the Scotch presbyterians and rigid covenanters."--p. 988.

Tindal, in his introduction to the Continuation of Rapin's History, notices the distinction between the principles of the parties, but does not inquire into the etymology of the terms.--Vol. i. p. 15.

Toland, in his State Anatomy, considers the words as mere terms of reproach, first applied to each party by its enemies, and then adopted by each as a distinction.

"The words themselves are but late nicknames, given by each party to the other in King Charles the Second's reign: Tories in Ireland, and Whigs in Scotland, being what we in England call highwaymen; and you, public robbers."--Part I.

Hume, the historian, says--

"This year, 1680, is remarkable for being the epoch of the well-known epithets Whig and Tory, by which, and sometimes without any material difference, this island has been so long divided. The court party reproached their antagonists with their affinity to the fanatical conventiclers, who were known by the name of Whigs; and the country party found a resemblance between the courtiers and the Popish banditti in Ireland, who were known by the name of Tories."--Vol. VIII. p. 125.

These are the principal writers in which the origin of the terms is noticed.

CHAP. LXXXIII.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.

Monster--Individuation--Reproduction--Peruke--Centaurs and Lapithæ.

MONSTER.--A birth or production of a living being, degenerating from the proper and usual disposition of parts in the species to which it belongs; as, when there are too many members, or too few; or some of them are extravagantly out of proportion, either on the side of defect or excess,--is generally denominated a monster.

F. Malebranche accounts for the production of monsters in the animal world in the following manner:--"The Creator has established such a communication between the several parts of his creation, that we are naturally led to imitate one another, i. e. to have a disposition to do the same things, and assume the same manners, with those about which we converse; we have also certain natural dispositions, which incline us to compassion as well as imitation. Of these things most men are sensible, and therefore they need not be proved. The animal spirits, then, are not only naturally carried into the respective parts of the body to perform the same actions and the same motions which we see others do, but also to receive in some manner their wounds, and take part in their sufferings.

"Experience tells us, that when we look attentively on any person severely beaten, or that has a large wound, ulcer, or the like, the spirits immediately flow into those parts of our bodies which answer to those we see suffer in the other; unless their course be stopped from some other principle. This flux of spirits is very sensible in persons of delicate constitutions, who frequently shudder, and find a kind of trembling in the body on these occasions; and this sympathy in bodies produces compassion in the mind.

"Now it must be observed, that the view of a wound, &c. affects the person who views it the more strongly and sensibly, as the person is more weak and delicate; the spirits making a stronger impression on the fibres of a delicate body, than in those of a robust one. Thus, strong and vigorous men, &c. see an execution without much concern, while women, &c. are struck with pity and horror. As to children that are unborn, the fibres of their flesh being incomparably finer than those in women, the course of the animal spirits must necessarily produce much greater alterations.

"These things being laid down, monsters are easily accounted for. Suppose, for instance, a child to be born a fool, and also with its legs and arms broken in the same manner as those are of criminals executed; the phenomena may be accounted for thus: Every stroke given to the poor man struck forcibly the imagination of the mother, and, by a kind of counter-stroke, the tender and delicate brain of the child. Now, though the fibres of the woman's brain were strongly shaken by the violent flux of animal spirits on this occasion, yet they had strength and consistence enough to prevent an entire disorder; whereas the fibres of the child's brain, being unable to bear the shock of those spirits, were quite ruined, and the ravage was great enough to deprive him of reason all his lifetime.

"Again, the view of an execution frightening the mother, the violent course of the animal spirits was directed forcibly from the brain to all those parts of the body corresponding to the suffering parts of the criminal and the same thing must happen in the child. But as the bones were strong enough to resist the impulse of those spirits, they were not damaged; and yet the rapid course of these spirits could easily overpower and break the tender and delicate fibres of the bones of the child; the bones being the last parts of the body that are formed, and having a very slender consistence, while the child is yet in the womb."

To this it may here be added, that had the mother determined the course of these spirits towards some other part of her body, by tickling or scratching herself vehemently, the child would not in all probability have had its bones broken; but the part answering that to which the motion of the spirits was determined, would have been the sufferer. Hence appears the reason why women, in the time of gestation, seeing persons, &c. marked in such a manner in the face, impress the same mark on the same parts of the child; and why, upon rubbing some other part of the body when startled at the sight of any thing, or agitated with any extraordinary passion, the mark or impression is fixed on that hidden part, rather than on the face of the child. From the principles here laid down, most, if not all, of the phenomena of monsters, may be easily accounted for.

Various other theories have been formed by different philosophers and phisiologists. But, after all, it must be confessed that we seem as yet to be very little acquainted with nature in her numerous variations.

Monsters are more common and more extraordinary in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom, because the different juices are more easily deranged and confounded together. Leaves are often seen, from the internal part of which other leaves spring forth; and it is not uncommon to see flowers of the ranunculus, from the middle of which issues a stalk bearing another flower. M. Bonnet informs us, that in certain warm and rainy years he has frequently met with monsters of this kind in rose-trees. This observer saw a rose, from the centre of which issued a square stalk of a whitish colour, tender, and without prickles, which at its top bore two flower-buds opposite to each other, and totally destitute of a calix; a little above the buds issued a petal of a very irregular shape. Upon the prickly stalk which supported the rose, a leaf was observed which had the shape of trefoil, together with a broad flat pedicle. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, for 1707, p. 448, mention is made of a rose, from the centre of the leaves of which issued a rose-branch two or three inches long, and furnished with leaves. See the same Memoirs for 1724, p. 20, and for 1749, p. 44. In the Memoirs for 1755, a very singular instance is mentioned of a monstrosity observed by M. Duhamel, in an apple-tree ingrafted with clay. At the place of the insertion there appeared a bud, which produced a stalk and some leaves; the stalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy substance, and had the most perfect resemblance both in taste and smell to the pulp of a green apple.

An extraordinary chamæmelum is mentioned in the Acta Helvetica. M. Bonnet, in his Recherches sur l'Usage des Feuilles, mentions likewise some monstrous productions which have been found in fruits with kernels, analogous in their nature to those which occur in the flowers of the ranunculus and of the rose-tree. He has seen a pear, from the eye of which issued a tuft of thirteen or fourteen leaves, very well shaped, and many of them of the natural size. He has seen another pear which gave rise to a ligneous and knotty stalk, on which grew another pear somewhat larger than the first. The stalk had probably flourished, and the fruit had formed. The lilium album polyanthos, observed some years ago at Breslaw, which bore on its top a bundle of flowers, consisting of one hundred and two lilies, all of the common shape, is well-known. M. Regnier has mentioned some individuals monstrous with respect to the flower, in the Journal de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle, for November, 1785. He has likewise mentioned a monstrous tulip, which is seen in the gardens of some amateurs; juniper berries with horns; a balsamine with three spurs, &c.

INDIVIDUATION,--is the unity of a thing with itself, or that whereby a thing is what it is.

To begin with those species of body that are not properly organized, which have neither life nor sense, as stones, metals, &c. In these, individuation seems to consist in nothing but greater or less: take the less part of a stone away, you may still call it the same stone; take an equal part with the remains, that individuation ceases, and they are two new individuals. Divide a stone, &c. as often as you please, every part of it will be a stone still, another individual stone, as much as any in the mountain or quarry out of which it was first cut, even though reduced to the minutest sand, or, if possible, a thousand times less. But when we take one step farther, and proceed a degree higher, to the vegetable kingdom, the case is far otherwise; and indeed Nature seems to be still more distinct, and, as it were, careful in its individuation, the higher it rises, till at last it brings us to that great transcendental individual, the only proper uncompounded essence, the One God, blessed for ever.

To return to plants: their individuation consists in that singular form, contexture, and order of their parts, whereby they are disposed for those uses to which Nature has designed them, and by which they receive and maintain their beings. For example, in a tree, though you take away the branches, it grows, receives nourishment from the earth, maintains itself, and is still a tree, which the parts thereof are not when separated from the rest; for we cannot say that every part of a tree is a tree, as we can that every part of a stone is still a stone, but if this tree be cloven in two or more pieces, or felled by the roots, this contexture, or orderly respect of the parts one to another, ceases; its essence as a tree is destroyed; its individuation perishes; and it is no more a tree, but a stump, or piece of timber.

Let us proceed a degree higher, to merely sensible creatures, who are not so immediately depending on the earth, the common mother, as the plants, nor rooted to it as they are, but walk about, and have a kind of independent existence, and are a sort of world by themselves. And here the individuation consists in such a particular contexture of their essential parts, and their relation one toward another, as enables them to exert the operations of the sensible or animal life. Thus, cut off the legs or any other parts of an animal, it is the same animal still; but cut off its head, or take away its life, and it is no longer that individual animal, but a mere carcase, and will, by degrees, resolve itself into common matter again.

To ascend now to the highest rank of visible beings,--the rational. The individuation of man appears to consist in the union of a rational soul with any convenient portion of fitly organized matter. Any portion of matter duly qualified, and united to the soul by such a union as we experience, is immediately individuated by it, and, together with that soul, makes a man; so that, if it were possible for one soul to be clothed over and over at different times with all the matter in the universe, it would in all those distinct shapes be the same individual man. Nor can a man be supposed in this case to differ more from himself, than he does from what he really was when an infant, or just passed an embryo, when compared with what he is when of adult or decrepit age; he having, during that intermediate time, changed his portion of matter over and over; as, being fat and lean, sick and well, having been exhausted by bleeding, effluvia, perspiration, &c.; and reunited again by aliment; so that perhaps not one particle, or but very few of the first matter which he took from his parents, and brought with him into the world, is now remaining.

The preceding article is naturally followed by REPRODUCTION.--Reproduction is usually understood to mean the restoration of a thing before existing, and since destroyed. It is very well known that trees and plants may be raised from slips and cuttings; and some late observations have shewn, that there are some animals which have nearly the same property. The polype (See Hydra) was the first instance we had of this kind; but we had scarcely time to wonder at the discovery M. Trembley had made, when M. Bonnet discovered the same property in a species of water-worm. Amongst the plants which may be raised from cuttings, there are some which seem to possess this quality in so eminent a degree, that the smallest portion of them will become a complete tree again. A twig of willow, poplar, or many other trees, being planted in the earth, takes root, and becomes a tree, every piece of which will in the same manner produce other trees. The case is the same with these worms: they are cut to pieces, and these several pieces become perfect animals; and each of these may be again cut into a number of pieces, each of which will in the same manner produce an animal. It has been supposed by some, that these worms were oviparous; but, M. Bonnet, on cutting one of them to pieces, having observed a slender substance, resembling a small filament, to move at the end of one of the pieces, separated it, and on examining it with glasses, found it to be a perfect worm, of the same form with its parent, which lived and grew larger in a vessel of water into which he put it. These small bodies are easily divided, and very readily complete themselves again, a day usually serving for the production of a head to the part that wants one; and, in general, the smaller and more slender the worms are, the sooner they complete themselves after this operation. When the bodies of the large worms are examined by the microscope, it is very easy to see the appearance of the young worms alive, and moving about within them; but it requires great precision and exactness to be certain of this, since the ramifications of the great artery have very much the appearance of young worms, and they are kept in a sort of continual motion by the systoles and diastoles of the several portions of the artery, which serve as so many hearts. It is very certain, that what we force in regard to these animals by our operations, is done also naturally every day in the brooks and ditches where they live. A curious observer will find in these places many of them without heads or tails, and some without either; as also, other fragments of various kinds, all of which are in the act of completing themselves; but whether accidents have reduced them to this state, or they thus purposely throw off parts of their own bodies for the production of more animals, it is not easy to determine. They are plainly liable to many accidents, by which they lose the several parts of their bodies; and they must perish very early, if they had not a power of reproducing what was lost. They are often broken into two parts, by the resistance of some hard piece of mud which they enter; and they are subject to a disease, a kind of gangrene, rotting off the several parts of their bodies, by which they must inevitably perish, were they not possessed of this surprising property.

The reproduction of several parts of lobsters, crabs, &c. is one of the greatest curiosities in natural history. It seems, indeed, inconsistent with the modern philosophical system of generation, which supposes the animal to be wholly formed in the egg; that, in lieu of an organical part of an animal cut off, another should arise perfectly like it: the fact, however, is too well attested to be denied. The legs of lobsters, &c. consist each of five articulations; now, when any of the legs happen to break by any accident, as by walking, &c. which frequently occurs, the fracture is always found to be at the suture near the fourth articulation; and what they thus lose is exactly reproduced in some time afterwards; that is, a part of the leg shoots out, consisting of four articulations, the first whereof has two claws, as before; so that the loss is entirely repaired.

If the leg of a lobster be broken off by design at the fourth or fifth articulation, what is thus broken off is always reproduced, even after a second or third accident. But if the fracture be made in the first, second, or third articulation, the reproduction is not so certain. And it is very surprising, that if the fracture be made at these articulations, at the end of two or three days, all the other articulations are generally found broken off to the fourth, which, it is supposed, is done by the creature itself, to make the reproduction certain. The part reproduced, is not only perfectly similar in form to that retrenched, but also, in a certain space of time, it grows equal to it. The creature is, however, frequently taken before this is accomplished. Hence it is that we frequently see lobsters, which have their two large legs unequal in all proportions.

PERUKE.--It appears that this term was originally applied to describe a fine natural head of long hair, and if this appellation had been retained, we should never have associated wigs with monsters. But whatever may have been the ancient use or meaning of the word, it has now almost become obsolete, though it was for more than a century in constant application to those artificial heads of hair, made probably at first to conceal natural or accidental baldness, but which afterwards became so ridiculously fashionable, as to be worn in preference to the most beautiful locks, absurdly shaved off the head to make room for them.

Ancient authors might be quoted, to prove, that the great and luxurious of that time, had recourse to this mode of concealing defects, and of decorating the head; nay, it might perhaps be proved, that the peruke of the Emperor Commodus was more absurdly composed than any modern peruke has ever been; and indeed it must be admitted, that a wig powdered with scrapings of gold, in addition to oils and glutinous perfumes, must have made a more wonderful appearance than our immediate ancestors ever witnessed. It was in the reign of our Charles the First, that perukes were introduced throughout Europe, when the moralists attacked them without mercy, as they perceived that the folly of youth even extended to the cutting off nature's locks, to be replaced by the hair of the dead, and of horses, woven into a filthy piece of canvass. Admonition and ridicule were, however, of little avail, and the clergy began to be affected by the general mania. Those on the Continent being almost universally Roman Catholics, were so completely subject to their superiors, that the peruke was soon routed from their body; but as the dignified clergy of England conceive that their consequence is increased by the enormous bushes of hair upon their heads, and the judges have adopted their sentiments in this particular, it is probable many years will elapse before the shape and absurdity of two particular species of perukes are forgotten.

About the close of the seventeenth century, the peruke was made to represent the natural curl of the hair, but in such profusion, that ten heads would not have furnished an equal quantity, as it flowed down the back, and hung over the shoulders halfway down the arms. By 1721, it had become fashionable to tie one half of it on the left side into a club. Between 1730 and 1740, the bag-wig came into fashion, and the peruke was docked considerably, and sometimes plaited behind into a queue, though even till 1752 the long flowing locks maintained their influence. After 1770 those were rarely seen; and since that time persons wearing perukes have generally had substantial reasons for so doing, from baldness, and complaints in the head. At one time, indeed, when the stern virtues of Brutus were much in vogue, the young men of Europe wore perukes of black or dark hair, dressed from his statues. Many particulars on this subject have been preserved by Mr. Malcolm, in his "Anecdotes of the Manners and Customs of London," from which we learn, that a young countrywoman obtained £60 for her head of hair in the year 1700, when human hair sold at £3 per ounce; and in 1720, the grey locks of an aged woman sold for £50 after her decease. Wigs of peculiar excellence were sold at £40 each.

A petition from the master peruke-makers of London and Westminster, presented to the King, in 1763, points out the great decline of their use to have taken place at that time. In this they complain of the public wearing their own hair; and say, "That this mode, pernicious enough in itself to their trade, is rendered excessively more so by swarms of French hair-dressers already in those cities, and daily increasing."

We close this chapter with an account of CENTAURS AND LAPITHÆ.--Under the reign of Ixion, king of Thessaly, a company of bulls which fed upon Pelion ran mad, by which means the mountain was inaccessible. They also descended into the inhabited parts, ruining the trees and fruits, and killing the larger cattle. Upon which Ixion declared that he would give a great reward to any person that would destroy these bulls. Riding on horseback was never practised before that time. But some young men that lived in a village at the foot of Pelion, had attempted successfully to train horses fit to back, and had accustomed themselves to that exercise. These youths undertook to clear the mountain of the bulls, which they effected by pursuing them on horseback, and piercing them with their arrows as they fled; but when the bulls stopped or followed them, they retired without receiving any hurt. And from hence they were called Centaurs, viz. Pierce bulls. Having received of Ixion the recompense he promised them, they became so fierce and proud, that they committed a thousand insolences in Thessaly, not sparing even Ixion himself, who dwelt in the town of Larissa. The inhabitants of the country were at that time called Lapithæ, who one day invited the Centaurs to a feast which they celebrated: but the Centaurs abused their civility; for, having drunk too much, they took the Lapithites' women from them, set them on their horses, and carried them away. This violence kindled a long war between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ: the Centaurs in the night came down into the plain, and laid ambushes for their enemies, and, as soon as day appeared, retired again into the mountain, with whatever they had taken. Thus, as they retired, the Lapithæ saw only the hinder parts of their horses, and the men's heads; so that they seemed but as one animal, whence they believed the Centaurs had become half men and half horses, and that they were clouds, because the village where they dwelt was called Nophelus, which signified a cloud.

CHAP. LXXXIV.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.--(Continued.)

Spontaneous Inflammation--Diseases peculiar to Particular Countries--Injuries from Swallowing the Stones of Fruits--Extraordinary Surgical Operation--Extraordinary Cures by Burning--Illumination by Electricity--Divisibility of Matter.

SPONTANEOUS INFLAMMATION.--A paper on this subject, which appeared in the Repertory of Arts, vol. ii. p. 425, induced the Rev. W. Tooke to publish some remarks in vol. iii. p. 95, of that work, from which the following is an extract, respecting the spontaneous inflammation of animal and vegetable substances. "One Rüde, (says he,) an apothecary at Bautzen, had prepared a pyrophorus from rye-bran and alum. Not long after he had made the discovery, there broke out, in the next village of Nauslitz, a great fire, which did much mischief, and was said to have been occasioned by the treating of a sick cow in the cow-house. Mr. Rüde knew that the countrymen were accustomed to lay an application of parched rye-bran to their cattle, for curing the thick neck; he knew also that alum and rye-bran, by a proper process, yielded a pyrophorus; and now, to try whether parched rye-bran alone would have the same effect, he roasted a quantity of it by the fire, till it had acquired the colour of roasted coffee. This roasted bran he wrapped up in a linen cloth; in a few minutes there arose a strong smoke, with a smell of burning. Soon after, the rag grew as black as tinder, and the bran, now become hot, fell through it on the ground in little balls. Mr. Rüde repeated the experiment, and always with the same result. Who now will doubt, that the frequency of fires in cow-houses, which in those parts are mostly wooden buildings, is occasioned by this practice, of binding roasted bran about the necks of the cattle?"

Montet relates, in the Memoires de l'Académie de Paris, 1748, that animal substances kindle into flame; and that he himself has been witness to the spontaneous accension of dunghills. The woollen stuff prepared at Sevennes, named Emperor's stuff, has kindled of itself, and burnt to a coal. It is usual for this to happen to woollen stuffs, when in hot summers they are laid in a heap, in a room but little aired. In June, 1781, this happened at a woolcomber's in Germany, where a heap of wool-combings, piled up in a close warehouse seldom aired, took fire of itself. This wool burnt from within outwards, and became quite a coal; though neither fire nor light had been used at the packing. In like manner cloth-workers have certified, that after they have bought wool that was become wet, and packed it close in their warehouse, this wool has burnt of itself. The spontaneous accension of various matters from the vegetable kingdom, as wet hay, corn, and madder, and at times wet meal and malt, is well known. Hemp, flax, and hemp-oil, have also often given rise to dreadful conflagrations.

In the spring of 1780, a fire was discovered on board a frigate lying in the roads off Cronstadt, which endangered the whole fleet. After the severest scrutiny, no cause of the fire was to be found; and the matter remained without explanation, but with strong surmises of some wicked incendiary.--In August, 1780, a fire broke out at the hemp magazine at St. Petersburg, by which several hundred thousand poods (about 36lb. English) of hemp and flax were consumed. The walls of the magazine are of brick, the floors of stone, and the rafters and covering of iron; it stands alone on an island in the Neva, on which, as well as on board the ships lying in the Neva, no fire is permitted.--In St. Petersburg, in the same year, a fire was discovered in the vaulted shop of a furrier. In these shops, which are all vaults, neither fire nor candle is allowed, and the doors of them are all of iron. At length the probable cause was found to be, that the furrier, the evening before the fire, had got a roll of new cerecloth, and had left it in his vault, where it was found almost consumed.--In the night between the 20th and 21st of April, 1781, a fire was seen on board the frigate Maria, at anchor, with several other ships, in the roads off the island of Cronstadt; the fire was, however, soon extinguished, but, by the severest examination, nothing could be extorted concerning the manner in which it had arisen. The garrison was threatened with a scrutiny that should cost them dear; and while they were in this cruel suspense, the wisdom of the sovereign gave a turn to the affair, which quieted the minds of all, by pointing out the proper method to be pursued by the commissioners of inquiry, in the following order to Czernichef: "When we perceived, by the report you have delivered in of the examination into the accident that happened on board the frigate Maria, that, in the cabin where the fire broke out, there were found parcels of matting, tied together with packthread, in which the soot of burnt fir-wood had been mixed with oil, for the purpose of painting the ship's bottom, it came into our mind, that, for the fire which happened last year at the hemp-warehouses, the following cause was assigned; that the fire might have proceeded from the hemp being bound up in greasy mats, or even from such mats having lain near the hemp: therefore, neglect not to guide your farther inquiries by this remark."

As, upon juridical examination as well as private inquiry, it was found that, in the ship's cabin, where the smoke appeared, there lay a bundle of matting, containing Russian lamp-black, prepared from fir-soot moistened with hemp-oil varnish, which was perceived to have sparks of fire in it at the time of the extinction, the Russian admiralty gave orders to make various experiments, to see whether a mixture of hemp-oil varnish and the forementioned Russian black, folded up in a mat and bound together, would kindle of itself. They shook 40lb. of fir-wood soot into a tub, and poured about 35lb. of hemp-oil varnish upon it; this they let stand for an hour, after which they poured off the oil. The remaining mixture they now wrapped up in a mat, and the bundle was laid close to the cabin where the midshipmen had their birth. Two officers sealed both the mat and door with their own seals, and stationed a watch of four officers, to take notice of all that passed during the whole night; and as soon as any smoke should appear, immediately to give information to the commandant of the port. The experiment was made on the 26th of April, about eleven o'clock A. M. in presence of all the officers. Early on the 27th, about six o'clock A. M. a smoke appeared, of which the chief commandant was immediately informed: he came with speed, and, through a small hole in the door, saw the mat smoking. He dispatched a messenger to the members of the commission; but as the smoke became stronger, and fire began to appear, he found it necessary to break the seals and open the door. No sooner was the air thus admitted, than the mat began to burn with greater force, and presently it burst into a flame.

The Russian admiralty, being now fully convinced of the self-enkindling property of this composition, transmitted their experiment to the Imperial Academy of Sciences; who appointed Mr. Georgi, a very learned adjunct of the academy, to make farther experiments on the subject. Three pounds of Russian fir-black were slowly impregnated with 5lb. of hemp-oil varnish; and when the mixture had stood open five hours, it was bound up in linen. By this process it became clotted; but some of the black remained dry. When the bundle had lain sixteen hours in a chest, it was observed to emit a very nauseous, and rather putrid smell, not unlike that of boiling oil. Some parts of it became warm, and steamed much; eighteen hours after the mixture was wrapt up, one place became brown, emitted smoke, and directly afterwards glowing fire appeared. The same thing happened in a second or third place; though other places were scarcely warm. The fire crept slowly around, and gave a thick, grey, stinking smoke. Mr. Georgi took the bundle out of the chest, and laid it on a stone pavement; when, on being exposed to the free air, there arose a slow burning flame, a span high, with a strong body of smoke. Not long afterwards, there appeared, here and there, several chaps, or clefts, as from a little volcano, the vapour issuing from which burst into flames. On his breaking the lump, it burst into a very violent flame, full three feet high, which soon grew less, and then went out. The smoking and glowing fire lasted six hours; and the remainder continued to glow without for two hours longer. The grey earthy ashes, when cold, weighed five and a half ounces. Mr. Tooke concludes with a case of self-accension, noticed by Mr. Hagemann, an apothecary, at Bremen. He prepared a boiled oil of hyoscyamus, or henbane, in the usual way, with common oil. The humidity of the herb was nearly evaporated, when he was called away by other affairs, and was obliged to leave the oil on the fire. The evaporation of the humidity was hereby carried so far, that the herb could easily be rubbed to powder. The oil had lost its green colour, and had become brownish. In this state it was laid on the straining cloth, and placed in the garden, behind the house, in the open air. In half an hour, on coming again to this place, he perceived a strong smoke there, though he thought the oil must have long been cooled: on closer inspection, he found that the smoke did not proceed from the oil, but from the herb on the straining cloth; at the same time the smell betrayed a concealed fire. He stirred the herb about, and blew into it with a bellows, whereupon it broke out into a bright flame.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO PARTICULAR COUNTRIES.--The inhabitants of particular places are peculiarly subject to particular diseases, owing to their manner of living, or to the air and effluvia of the earth and waters. Hoffman has made some curious observations on diseases of this kind. He remarks, that swellings of the throat have always been common to the inhabitants of mountainous countries: and the old Roman authors say, 'Who wonders at a swelled throat in the Alps?' The people of Switzerland, Carinthia, Stiria, the Hartz forest, Transylvania, and the inhabitants of Cronstadt, he observes, are all subject to this disease. The French are peculiarly troubled with fevers, worms, hydroceles, and sarcoceles; and all these disorders seem to be owing originally to their eating very large quantities of chestnuts. The people of Britain are affected with hoarsenesses, catarrhs, coughs, dysenteries, consumptions, and the scurvy; the women with the fluor albus; and children with a disease scarcely known elsewhere, which we call the rickets.

In different parts of Italy, different diseases reign. At Naples, the venereal disease is more common than in any other part of the world. At Venice, people are peculiarly subject to the bleeding piles. At Rome, tertian agues and lethargic distempers are most common; in Tuscany, the epilepsy; and in Apulia, burning fevers, pleurisies, and that sort of madness which is attributed to the bite of the tarantula, and fancied to be cured by music. In Spain, apoplexies are common, as also melancholy, hypochondriacal complaints, and bleeding piles. The Dutch are peculiarly subject to the scurvy, and to the stone in the kidneys. The people of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Pomerania, and Livonia, are all terribly afflicted with the scurvy: and it is remarkable, that in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, fevers are very common; but in Iceland, Lapland, and Finland, there is scarcely ever such a disease met with. The Russians and Tartars are afflicted with ulcers, made by the cold, of the nature of what we call chilblains, but greatly worse; and in Poland and Lithuania, there reigns a peculiar disease, called the Plica Polonica, so terribly painful and offensive, that scarcely any thing can be thought worse. The people of Hungary are very subject to the gout and rheumatism: they are also more infested with lice and fleas than any other people in the world; and they have a peculiar disease which they call cremor. The Germans, in different parts of the empire, are subject to different reigning diseases. In Westphalia, they are peculiarly troubled with peripneumonies and the itch. In Silesia, Franconia, Austria, and other places thereabout, they are very liable to fevers of the burning kind, to bleedings at the nose, and other hæmorrhages; and to the gout, inflammations, and consumptions. In Misnia they have purple fevers; and the children are peculiarly infested with worms. In Greece, Macedonia, and Thrace, there are very few diseases; but what they have are principally burning fevers and phrenzies. Anciently, the most common diseases in Egypt were blindness, ulcers in the legs, consumptions, and the leprosy, called elephantiasis, which was peculiar to that country; as Pliny observes, Egypti peculiare hoc malum elephantiasis. At Constantinople the plague always rages; and in the West Indian islands, malignant fevers, and the most terrible colics. These diseases are called endemic. In general, it is observed, that the colder the country is, the fewer and the less violent are the diseases.

Schoeffer tells us, that the Laplanders know no such thing as the plague, or fevers of the burning kind; nor are they subject to half the distempers we are. They are robust and strong, and live to eighty, ninety, and many of them to more than one hundred years; and at this great age they are not feeble and decrepit, but a man of ninety is able to work or travel as well as a man of sixty with us. They are subject, however, to some diseases, more than other nations. They have often distempers of the eyes, owing to their living in smoke, or being blinded by snow. Pleurisies, inflammations of the lungs, and violent pains of the head, are also very frequently found among these hardy inhabitants of the north; and the small-pox rages with great violence. They have one general remedy against these and all other internal diseases; this is, the root of that sort of moss which they call jerth. They make a decoction of this root in the whey of rein-deer's milk, and drink very large doses of it warm, to keep up a breathing sweat; if they cannot get this, they use the stalks of angelica boiled in the same manner: but the keeping in a sweat, and drinking plentifully of diluting liquors, may go a great way in the cure. They cure pleurisies by this method in a very few days, and get so well through the small-pox with it, that very few die of the disease.

INJURIES FROM SWALLOWING THE STONES OF FRUITS.--The dangers arising from swallowing the stones of plums and other fruits are very great. The Philosophical Transactions give an account of a woman who suffered violent pains in her bowels for thirty years, the malady returning once in a month or less. At length, a strong purge being given her, the occasion of all these complaints was discovered to be a stone of an oval figure, of about ten drams in weight, and measuring five inches in circumference. This had caused all the violent fits of pain, which she had suffered for so many years; after this, she became perfectly well. The ball extracted looked like a stone, and felt very hard, but swam in water. On cutting it through with a knife, there was found in the centre, a plum-stone, round which several coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered.

Another instance is given in the same papers, of a man, who, dying of an incurable colic, which had tormented him many years, and baffled the effects of medicines, was opened after death; and in his bowels was found a ball similar to that above-mentioned, but somewhat larger, being six inches in circumference, and weighing an ounce and a half. In the centre of this, as of the other, there was found the stone of a common plum, and the coats were of the same nature with those of the former. These and similar instances mentioned in the same work, sufficiently shew the folly of that common opinion, that the stones of fruits are wholesome. Even cherry stones, swallowed in great quantities, have occasioned death.

EXTRAORDINARY SURGICAL OPERATION.--"The most surprising and honourable operation of surgery ever performed, was, without any contradiction, that executed by M. Richerand, by taking away a part of the ribs and of the pleura. The patient was himself a medical man, and not ignorant of the danger he ran in this operation being had recourse to; but he also knew that his disorder was otherwise incurable. He was attacked with a cancer on the internal surface of the ribs and of the pleura, which continually produced enormous fungosities, that had been in vain attempted to be repressed by the actual cautery. M. Richerand was obliged to lay the ribs bare, to saw away two, to detach them from the pleura, and to cut away all the cancerous part of that membrane.

"As soon as he had made the opening, the air rushing into the chest, occasioned the first day great suffering, and distressing shortness of breath; the surgeon could touch and see the heart through the pericardium, which was as transparent as glass, and could assure himself of the total insensibility of both. Much serous fluid flowed from the wound, as long as it remained open; but it filled up slowly by means of the adhesion of the lung with the pericardium, and the fleshy granulations that were formed in it. At length the patient got so well, that on the twenty-seventh day after the operation, he could not resist the desire of going to the Medicinal School, to see the fragments of the ribs that had been taken from him; and in three or four days afterwards he returned home, and went about his ordinary business. The success of M. Richerand is the more important, because it will authorize, in other cases, enterprises, which, according to received opinions, would appear impossible; and we shall be less afraid of penetrating into the interior of the chest. M. Richerand even hopes, that by opening the pericardium itself, and using proper injections, we may cure a disease that has hitherto always been fatal, the dropsy of that cavity."--Thomson's Annals.

EXTRAORDINARY CURES BY BURNING.--The following case is recorded in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, by M. Homberg. A woman, of about thirty-five, became subject to a headach, which at times was so violent, that it drove her out of her senses, making her sometimes stupid and foolish, at other times raving and furious. The seat of the pain was in the forehead, and over the eyes, which were inflamed, and looked exceedingly red and sparkling; and the most violent fits of it were attended with nausea and vomiting. In the time of the fits, she could take no food; but at all others she had a very good appetite. M. Homberg had in vain attempted her cure for three years, with all kinds of medicines: only opium succeeded; and that but little, all its effect being only to take off the pain for a few hours. The redness of her eyes was always the sign of an approaching fit. One night, feeling a fit coming on, she went to lie down upon the bed; but first walked up to the glass with the candle in her hand, to see how her eyes looked: in observing this, the candle set fire to her cap; and as she was alone, her head was terribly burnt before the fire could be extinguished. M. Homberg was sent for, and ordered bleeding and proper dressings: but the expected fit this night never came on; the pain of the burning wore off by degrees; and the patient found herself from that hour cured of the headach, which had never once returned in four years after; such being the time when the account was communicated.

Another case, not less remarkable, was communicated to M. Homberg by a physician at Bruges. A woman, who for several years had her legs and thighs swelled in an extraordinary manner, found some relief from rubbing them before the fire with brandy every morning and evening. One evening, the brandy she had rubbed herself with took fire, and slightly burnt her. She applied some brandy to her burn; and in the night all the water with which the afflicted parts were swelled, was entirely discharged, and the swelling did not again return.

ILLUMINATION BY ELECTRICITY.--Professor Meinecke, of Hallchas, in Gilbert's Annals, 1819, Number 5, proposed to illuminate halls, houses, and streets, by the electric spark; and expresses his strong persuasion that one day it will afford a more perfect and less expensive light than gas-illumination, and ultimately replace it. His plan is, to arrange, what are called, in electricity, luminous tubes, glasses, &c.; i. e. insulating substances, having a series of metallic spangles at small distances from each other, along the place to be illuminated; and then, by a machine, send a current of electricity through them: sometimes also partially exhausted glasses, as the luminous receiver, conductor, &c., are used. In this way Professor Meinecke obtained from a two-feet plate machine, a constant light in his apartment equal to that of the moon, and even surpassing it; and by enclosing his system of sparks in tubes filled with rarified hydrogen gas, in which gas it is assumed that the electric spark is more than doubled in brilliancy, he thinks it will be easy to enlarge the plan to any extent.

DIVISIBILITY OF MATTER.--We may be readily convinced of the infinite divisibility of bodies, by simply walking in a garden, and inhaling the sweet incense that rises from a thousand flowers. How inconceivably small must be the odoriferous particles of a carnation, which diffuse themselves through a whole garden, and every where strike our sense of smell! If this is not sufficient, let us consider some other objects of nature; as, for instance, one of those silk threads, the work of a poor worm. Suppose this thread is three hundred and sixty feet long, it will weigh but a single grain. Again, consider into how many perceptible parts a length of three hundred and sixty feet can be divided. A single inch may be divided into six hundred parts, each as thick as a hair, and consequently be perfectly visible. Hence a single grain of silk can be divided into at least two millions five hundred and ninety-two thousand parts, each of which may be seen without the help of a microscope. And as every one of these parts may be again divided into several more millions of parts, till the division is carried beyond the reach of thought, it is evident that this progression may be infinite. The last particles, which are no longer divisible by human industry, must still have extension, and be consequently susceptible of division, though we are no longer able to effect it. If we examine the animal kingdom, we shall discover still further proofs of the infinite divisibility of matter. Pepper has been put into a glass of water, and on looking through a microscope, a multitude of animalcules were seen in the water, a thousand million times less than a grain of sand! How inconceivably minute then must be the feet, muscles, vessels, nerves, and organs of sense, in these animals! And how small their eggs and their young ones, and the fluids which circulate in them! Here the imagination loses itself, our ideas become confused, and we are incapable of giving form to such very small particles. What still more claims our attention is, that the more we magnify, by means of glasses, the productions of nature, the more perfect and beautiful do they appear: whilst with works of art it is generally quite contrary; for when these are seen through a microscope, we find them rough, coarse, and imperfect, though executed by the most able artists, and with the utmost care. Thus the Almighty has impressed even upon the smallest atom the stamp of his infinity. The most subtile body is as a world, in which millions of parts unite and are arranged in the most perfect order.

CHAP. LXXXV.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.--(Continued.)

The Jew's Harp--Remarkable Aqueducts--Crichup Linn--Eddystone Rocks--Dismal Swamp--Curious Wine Cellar--Mint of Segovia--Remarkable Mills--Silk Mill at Derby--Portland Vase--Murdering Statue--A Curious Pulpit.

THE JEW'S HARP.--The Jew's trump, or Jew's harp, as it is often called, though now a boy's instrument, is of ancient origin, for Mr. Pennant informs us, (Tour to Scotland, p. 195,) that one made of gilt brass was found in Norway, deposited in an urn. There appears to be an allusion, in the name, to the inhabitants of Judea; and it is to be observed, that in Dodsley's old plays, vol. iv. p. 171, Quick calls the usurer, on account of his Jewish avarice, "a notable Jew's trump." In the plate, however, of Jewish musical instruments, in Calmet's Dictionary, nothing of this kind occurs; so that perhaps there is a corruption here of jeu-trompe, a plaything, or play-tromp, as it is now only used by boys for that purpose; or it may be a corruption of Jew's harp, from the circumstance of its being placed between the teeth when played.

REMARKABLE AQUEDUCTS.--Aqueducts are conveyances for carrying water from one place to another; made on uneven ground, to preserve the level. Aqueducts of every kind were long ago the wonders of Rome; the vast quantity of them which they had; the prodigious expense employed in conducting waters over arcades from one place to another, at the distance of thirty, forty, sixty, and even one hundred miles, which were either continued or supplied by other labours, as by cutting mountains and piercing rocks: all this may well surprise us, as nothing like it is undertaken in our times; we dare not purchase conveniency at so dear a rate. Appius Claudius, the censor, devised and constructed the first aqueduct. His example gave the public luxury a hint to cultivate these objects; and the force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted the course of rivers and floods to Rome. Agrippa, in that year when he was edile, put the last hand to the magnificence of these works.

The aqueduct of the Aqua Martia, had an arch of sixteen feet in diameter. The whole was composed of three different kinds of stone; one of them reddish, another brown, and a third of an earth colour. Above, there appeared two canals, of which the highest was fed by the new waters of the Tiverone, and the lower by what they called the Claudian river. The entire edifice is seventy Roman feet high. Near this aqueduct, we have, in Father Montfaucon, the plan of another, with three canals; the highest supplied by the Aqua Julia, that in the middle from Tepula, and the lowest from the Aqua Martia. The arch of the aqueduct of the Aqua Claudia is of hewn stone, very beautiful; that of the aqueduct of the Aqua Neronia is of bricks: they are each of them seventy-two Roman feet in height. The canal of the aqueduct which was called Aqua Appia, deserves to be mentioned for a singularity which is observed in it; for it is not, like the others, plain, nor gradual in its descent, but much narrower at the lower than the higher end. The consul Frontinus, who superintended the aqueducts under the emperor Nerva, mentions nine of them which had each 13,594 pipes of an inch in diameter. Vigerus observes, that, in the space of twenty-four hours, Rome received 500,000 hogsheads of water. Not to mention the aqueducts of Drusus and Rhiminius, that which gives the most striking idea of Roman magnificence, is the aqueduct of Metz, of which a great number of arcades still remain. These arcades crossed the Moselle, a river which is of vast breadth at that place. The copious sources of Gorze furnished water for the representation of a sea-fight. This water was collected in a reservoir; whence it was conducted by subterraneous canals formed of hewn-stone, and so spacious, that a man could walk erect in them: it traversed the Moselle upon its superb and lofty arcades, which may still be seen at the distance of two leagues from Metz; so nicely wrought, and so finely cemented, that except those parts in the middle which have been carried away by the ice, they have resisted, and will still resist, the severest shocks of the most violent seasons. From these arcades, other aqueducts conveyed the waters to the baths, and to the place where the naval engagement was exhibited.

If we may trust Colmenarus, the aqueduct of Segovia may be compared with the most admired labours of antiquity. There still remain one hundred and fifty-nine arcades, wholly consisting of stones enormously large, and joined without mortar. These arcades, with what remains of the edifice, are one hundred and two feet high; they are formed in two ranges, one above another. The aqueduct flows through the city, and runs beneath the greatest number of houses, which are at the lower end. After these enormous structures, we may be believed when we speak of the aqueduct which Louis XIV. caused to be built near Maintenon, for carrying water from the river Bucq to Versailles: it is perhaps the greatest aqueduct now in the world, being 7000 fathoms in length, above 2560 in height, and containing no fewer than two hundred and forty-two arcades.

CRICHUP LINN.--This is a very beautiful cascade, formed by the rivulet Crichup, in Berwickshire. It falls over a precipice about eighty-five or ninety feet high, and almost perpendicular. About a half a mile below this, descends a hill of red free-stone, forming a linn, or waterfall, peculiarly romantic. The linn from top to bottom is upwards of a hundred feet, and though twenty deep, it is yet so narrow at the top, that one might easily leap across it, were it not for the tremendous prospect below, and the noise of the water running its dark course, and by its deep murmuring, affrighting the imagination. "In the time of persecution, (says the Rev. Mr. Yorstoun,) the religious flying from their persecutors found an excellent hiding-place in Crichup Linn; and there is a seat, cut out by nature in the rock, which, having been the retreat of a shoemaker in those times, has ever since borne the name of the Sutor's Seat. Nothing can be more striking than the appearance of this linn from its bottom. The darkness of the place, upon which the sun never shines; the ragged rocks rising over one's head, and seeming to meet at the top, with here and there a blasted tree bursting from the crevices; the roaring of the water, together with some degree of danger to the spectator, while he surveys the striking objects--all naturally tend to work upon the imagination. Hence many fabulous stories which are told, were once believed concerning this curious linn."

EDDYSTONE ROCKS.--This is the name of some rocks in the English Channel, so called from the variety of contrary currents in their vicinity. They are situated nearly S. S. W. from the middle of Plymouth Sound, their distance from the port is about fourteen miles, and from Rame Head, the nearest point of land, twelve and a half. They are almost in the line which joins the Start and Lizard points; and as they lie nearly in the direction of vessels coasting up and down the channel, they were very dangerous, and ships were sometimes wrecked on them, before the lighthouse was established. They are so exposed to the swells of the ocean, from all the south and west points of the compass, that the heavy seas come uncontrolled, and break on them with the utmost fury. Sometimes after a storm, when the sea in general is, to all appearance, quite smooth, and its surface unruffled by the slightest breeze, the growing swell or under current, meeting the slope of the rocks, the sea beats dreadfully upon them, and even rises above the lighthouse in a magnificent manner, overtopping it, for the moment, as with a canopy of frothy wave. Notwithstanding this tremendous swell, Mr. Henry Winstanley, in 1696, undertook to build a lighthouse on the principal rock; and he completed it 1700. This ingenious mechanic was so confident of the stability of his structure, that he declared his wish to be in it during the most tremendous storm that could blow. Unfortunately he obtained his wish, for he perished in it, during the dreadful storm which destroyed it on the 27th of November, 1703. In 1709, another lighthouse was erected of wood on this rock, but on a different construction, by Mr. John Rudyard. It stood till 1755, when it was burnt. A third one, of stone, was begun by the late celebrated Mr. John Smeaton, on the 2d of April, 1757, and finished 24th of August, 1759; and has withstood the rage of all weathers ever since. The rock which slopes towards the south-west is cut into horizontal steps; into which are dove-tailed, and united by a strong cement, Portland stone, and granite: for Mr. Smeaton discovered, that it was impossible to make use of the former entirely, as there is a marine animal that can destroy it; and that he could not use the latter solely, as the labour of working it would have been too expensive. He therefore used the one for the internal, and the other for the external part of the structure. Upon the principle of a broad base and accumulation of matter, the whole, to the height of thirty-five feet from the foundation, is a solid mass of stones engrafted into each other, and united by every kind of additional strength. The lighthouse has four rooms, one over another, and at the top a gallery and lantern. The stone floors are flat above, but concave below, and are kept from pressing against the sides of the building by a chain let into the walls. The lighthouse is nearly eighty feet high, and withstands the most violent storms, without sustaining the smallest injury. It has now stood above sixty-three years, during which time it has been often assaulted by all the fury of the elements; and, in all probability, as Mr. Smeaton said, nothing but an earthquake can destroy it. The wooden part of it, however, was burnt in 1770, but renewed in 1774.

DISMAL SWAMP,--is a morass in North America, reaching from Albermarle Sound, in North Carolina, to the neighbourhood of Portsmouth, on the opposite side of the harbour to Norfolk. It is supposed to contain about two hundred and fifty square miles, or one hundred and fifty thousand acres.

Some of the interior parts of this vast swampy plain are seldom explored, being full of danger; yet several adventurous huntsmen sometimes pursue their game within its precincts, but they cannot advance far without great risk of forfeiting their lives to their temerity.

Mr. Janson, a late traveller, relates, that in one of these excursions he was often knee-deep, though, in other parts, the ground supported him firmly. In endeavouring to pass one of these fenny spots, he attempted to avail himself of a sort of bridge, formed of the body of a very large tree; when, to his surprise, he was suddenly immersed in dust up to his waist, the tree having become rotten, or probably eaten out by insects, though it retained its shape, and appearance of solidity. Wild beasts lurk in this impenetrable recess: cattle also stray there, and often become wild: hogs are turned into it by their owners, to fatten upon the acorns that fall from the oaks.

Lake Drummond is situated near the centre of the swamp, and is formed by the drainings of this immense bog. It is crowded with fish of various kinds, which, living unmolested, attain a prodigious size.

CURIOUS WINE CELLAR.--The monastery of Arcadi, in Candia, surpasses every other part of the island, though fertile in religious houses, both in the number of monks, and the endowment of the convents. It is supposed to be built on the spot where the ancient Arcadia once stood. The house itself contains nearly one hundred inhabitants, while about two hundred more are dispersed over the lands belonging to the monastery, and are employed in agriculture. The cellar is by far the finest part of the building. It contains two hundred casks of wine, of which the choicest is marked with the name of the superior, and no one may touch it without his permission. This cellar receives a solemn annual benediction immediately after the vintage. The prayer recited by the superior on this occasion, is printed in the Greek Spiritual; it is as follows:--"Lord God! who lovest mankind, look on this wine, and on those that shall drink it; bless those vessels as thou hast blessed the wells of Jacob, the fishpool of Siloa, and the beverage of thy holy apostles. Lord, who didst condescend to be present at the marriage of Cana, where thou didst manifest thy glory to thy disciples by changing water into wine, send thy holy Spirit on this wine, and bless it in thy name."

MINT OF SEGOVIA.--At the mint of Segovia, in Spain, there is an engine moved by water, but so artificially made, that one part of it distends an ingot of gold into the breadth and thickness requisite to make coin. "It delivereth the plate that it hath wrought unto another, that printeth the figure of the coin upon it; and from thence it is turned over to another, that cutteth it according to the print in due shape and weight. And lastly, the several pieces fall into a coffer in another room, where the officer, whose charge it is, finds treasure ready coined."

REMARKABLE MILLS.--At Dantzic, a city of Prussia, Mr. Morrison, an ingenious traveller of this nation, saw a mill, which, without help of hands, did saw boards, having an iron wheel, which did not only drive the saw, but also did hook in, and turn the boards unto the saw. Dr. John Dee mentions the like seen by him at Prague; but whether the mill moved by wind or water, is set down by neither of them.

SILK MILL AT DERBY.--This mill, situated on the river Derwent, was erected by Sir T. Loombe, who, at a vast expense and great hazard, brought the model from Italy. It is fixed in a large house, six stories high, and consists of 26,586 wheels, with 97,746 movements, all driven by one large water-wheel, fixed on the outside of the house! It goes round three times in one minute, and each time works 78,726 yards of silk thread, so that in twenty-four hours it works 318,496,320 yards of silk thread, under the management of only one regulator! It has been of such service to the silk trade, that Sir Thomas had the benefit of it during his life; but the parliament having allowed him £14,000, as a further reward for his services, he suffered a model of it to be taken. This model now lies in the Record-office at the Tower, for the benefit of the public, any person being allowed to inspect it, so that there are at present several mills of the kind erected in different parts of the kingdom.

PORTLAND VASE.--This is a celebrated funeral vase, which was long in the possession of the Baberini family; but which was some years since purchased for 1000 guineas by the duke of Portland, from whom it has derived its present name. Its height is about ten inches; and its diameter, where broadest, six. There are a variety of figures upon it, of most exquisite workmanship, in bas relief, in white opaque, raised on a ground of deep blue glass, which appears black, except when held against the light. It appears to have been the work of many years; and there are antiquarians who date its production several centuries before the Christian era, since, as has been said, sculpture was declining in excellence in the time of Alexander the Great. Respecting the purpose of this vase, and what the figures on it were meant to represent, there have been various conjectures. We shall, therefore, give a short account of the several figures, without noticing any of the theories or conjectures that have been made about them. In one compartment, three exquisite figures are placed on a ruined column, the capital of which is fallen, and lies at their feet among other disjointed stones: they sit under a tree, on loose piles of stone. The middle figure is a female in a reclining and dying attitude, with an inverted torch in her left hand, the elbow of which supports her as she sinks, while the right hand is raised, and thrown over her drooping head. The figure on her right hand is a man, and that on the left a woman, both supporting themselves on their arms, and apparently thinking intensely. Their backs are to the dying figure, and their faces are turned towards her, but without an attempt to assist her. On another compartment of the vase is a figure coming through a portal, and going down with great timidity into a darker region, where he is received by beautiful female, who stretches forth her hand to help him: between her knees is a large and playful serpent. She sits with her feet towards an aged figure, having one foot sunk into the earth, and the other raised on a column, with his chin resting on his hand. Above the female figure is a Cupid preceding the first figure, and beckoning him to advance. This first figure holds a cloak or garment, which he seems anxious to bring with him, but which adheres to the side of the portal through which he has passed. In this compartment there are two trees, one of which bends over the female figure, and the other over the aged one. On the bottom of the vase, there is another figure on a larger scale than the one we have already mentioned, but not so well finished nor so elevated. This figure points with its finger to its mouth. The dress appears to be curious and cumbersome, and above there is a foliage of a tree. On the head of the figure there is a Phrygian cap: it is not easy to say whether this figure be male or female. On the handles of the vase are represented two aged heads with the ears of a quadruped, and from the middle of the forehead rises a kind of tree without leaves: these figures are, in all probability, mere ornaments, and have no connection with the story represented on the vase.

MURDERING STATUE.--Kenith, king of Scotland, had slain Cruthlintus the son, and Malcolmus Duffus the king, and kinsman of Fenella: she, to be revenged of the murderer, caused a statue to be framed with admirable art. In one of the hands of it was an apple of gold set full of precious stones, which, whosoever touched, was immediately slain with many darts, which the statue threw or shot at him. Kenith, suspecting nothing, was invited to this place, and being slain in this manner, Fenella escaped over into Ireland.

A CURIOUS PULPIT.--The pulpit of the grand parochial church at Brussels, a curious production of Henry Verbruggen, of Antwerp, is placed in the middle of the nave. At the base are Adam and Eve, large as life, the expelling Angel and Death in the rear! Our first parents, though closely pursued, bear upon their shoulders the terrestrial globe, the cavity of which is filled by the preacher! From the globe rises a tree, whose top extends into a canopy sustaining an Angel, and Truth exhibited as a female genius. Above are the Virgin and the infant Jesus, crushing the serpent's head with a cross. The steps on either side appear as if cut from trunks of trees, and are accompanied by carvings of the ostrich, eagle, peacock, parrot, &c.

CHAP. LXXXVI.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.--(Continued.)

Extraordinary Echoes, and Whispering Places--Natural Productions resembling Artificial Compositions--Remarkable Lamps--Perpetual Fire--Magical Drum--An Extraordinary Cannon--Curious Account of Old Bread--Substitute for Spectacles--Winter Sleep of Animals and Plants.

EXTRAORDINARY ECHOES, AND WHISPERING PLACES.--These are places where a whisper, or other low sound, may be heard from one part to another, to a great distance. They depend on a principle, that the voice, &c. being applied to one end of an arch, easily passes by repeated reflections to the other.

Hence sound is conveyed from one side of a whispering gallery to the opposite one, without being perceived by those who stand in the middle. The form of a whispering-gallery is that of a segment of a sphere, or the like arched figure. All the contrivance in whispering-places is, that near the person who whispers there may be a smooth wall, arched either cylindrically or elliptically. A circular arch will do, but not so well.

The most considerable whispering-places in England are, the whispering-gallery in the dome of St. Paul's, London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard from side to side, and a very easy whisper be sent all round the dome. The famous whispering-place in Gloucester Cathedral, is no other than a gallery above the east end of the choir, leading from one side thereof to the other. It consists of five angles and six sides; the middlemost of which is a naked window, yet two whisperers hear each other at the distance of twenty-five yards.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1746, there is a letter inserted from Robert Southwell, Esq. in which he gives the following account of some extraordinary whispering-places and echoes.--"The best whispering-place in England," he observes, "I ever saw, was that at Gloucester: but in Italy, in the way to Naples, two days from Rome, I saw, in a inn, a room with a square vault, where a whisper could be easily heard at the opposite corner, but not at all in the side corner that was near to you.

"I saw another, in the way from Paris to Lyons, in the porch of a common inn, which had a round vault: but neither of these was comparable to that of Gloucester; only the difference between these last two was, that to the latter, by holding your mouth to the side of the wall, several could hear you on the other side; the voice being more diffused: but to the former, it being a square room, and you whispering in the corner, it was only audible in the opposite corner, and not to any distance from thence, as to distinction of words. And this property was common to each corner of the room.

"As to Echoes, there is one at Brussels that answers fifteen times: but when at Milan, I went two miles from thence to a nobleman's palace, to notice one still more extraordinary. The building is of some length in the front, and has two wings projecting forward; so that it wants only one side of an oblong figure. About one hundred paces before the house, there runs a small brook, and that very slowly; over which you pass from the house into the garden. We carried some pistols with us, and, firing one of them, I heard fifty-six reiterations of the noise. The first twenty were with some distinction; but then, as the noise seemed to fly away, and the answers were at a great distance, the repetition was so doubled, that you could hardly count them all, seeming as if the principal sound was saluted in its passage by reports on this and that side at the same time. Some of our company reckoned above sixty reiterations, when a louder pistol was discharged."

Some persons tell us, that the sound of one musical instrument in this place will seem like a great number of instruments playing together in concert. This echo is of the multiple or tautological kind, returning one sound several times successively, so as to make one clap of the hands seem like many,--one ha, like a laughter,--or one instrument like several of the same kind, imitating each other; and by placing certain echoing bodies in such a manner, that any note played should be returned in thirds, fifths, and eighths, a musical room may be so contrived, that not only one violin played therein shall seem many of the same sort and size, but even a concert of different instruments. Those echoes which return the voice but once are called single; whereof some are tonical, only repeating when modulated into some particular musical tone. Others, that repeat many syllables or words, are termed polysyllabical; of which kind is the fine echo in Woodstock Park, which Dr. Plott assures us will return seventeen syllables distinctly in the day-time, and in the night twenty. Barthius likewise, in his notes on Statius's Thebais, mentions an echo near Bingeni in Germany, which would repeat words seventeen times, as he himself had proved; and what is very strange in this echo, the person who speaks is scarcely heard at all, but the repetition most clearly, and always in surprising varieties, the echo seeming sometimes to approach nearer, and sometimes to retire to a greater distance. Vitruvius tells us, that in several parts of Greece and Italy there were brazen vessels artfully ranged under the seats of the theatres, to render the sound of the actors' voices more clear, and make a kind of echo; by which means, of the prodigious number of persons present, every one might hear with ease and pleasure.

KNOUT.--This is a punishment inflicted in Russia, with a kind of whip called knout, and made of a long strap of leather prepared for this purpose. With this whip the executioners dexterously carry a slip of skin from the neck to the bottom of the back, laid bare to the waist; and repeating their blows, in a little while rend away all the skin off the back in parallel strips. In the common knout, the criminal receives the lashes suspended on the back of one of the executioners; but in the great knout, which is generally used on the same occasions as racking on the wheel was in France, the criminal is raised into the air by means of a pulley fixed to the gallows, and a cord fastened to the two wrists, which are tied together; a piece of wood is placed between his two legs, which are also tied together; and another of a crucial form under his breast. Sometimes his hands are tied behind over his back, and when he is pulled up in this position, his shoulders are dislocated. The executioners can make this punishment more or less cruel; and it is said, they are so dexterous, that when a criminal is condemned to die, they can make him expire either by one or several lashes.

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS RESEMBLING ARTIFICIAL COMPOSITIONS.--Some stones are preserved by the curious, for representing distinctly figures traced by Nature alone, and without the aid of Art.

Pliny mentions an agate, in which appeared, formed by the hand of Nature, Apollo amidst the Nine Muses, holding a harp. Majolus assures us, that at Venice another is seen, in which is naturally formed the perfect figure of a man. At Pisa, in the church of St. John, there is a similar natural production, which represents an old hermit in a desert, seated by the side of a stream, and who holds in his hands a small bell, as St. Anthony is commonly painted. In the temple of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, there was formerly, on a white marble, the image of St. John the Baptist, covered with the skin of a camel, with this only imperfection, that nature had given but one leg.--At Ravenna, in the church of St. Vital, a Cordelier is seen on a dusky stone. In Italy, a marble was found, in which a crucifix was so elaborately finished, that there appeared the nails, the drops of blood, and the wounds, as perfectly as the most excellent painter could have performed.--At Sneilberg, in Germany, they found in a mine a certain rough metal, on which was seen the figure of a man, who carried a child on his back.--In Provence, was found, in a mine, a quantity of natural figures of birds, trees, rats, and serpents; and in some places of the western parts of Tartary, are seen on divers rocks, the figures of camels, horses, and sheep. Pancirollus, in his Lost Antiquities, attests, that in a church at Rome, a marble perfectly represented a priest celebrating mass, and raising the host. Paul III. conceiving that art had been used, scraped the marble to discover whether any painting had been employed; but nothing of the kind was discovered.

There is a species of the orchis found in the mountainous parts of Lincolnshire, Kent, &c. Nature has formed a bee, apparently feeding in the breast of the flower, with so much exactness, that it is impossible at a very small distance to distinguish the imposition. Hence the plant derives its name, and is called the Bee Flower. This is elegantly expressed by Langhorne, who thus notices its appearance:

See on that flow'ret's velvet breast, How close the busy vagrant lies! His thin-wrought plume, his downy breast, Th' ambrosial gold that swells his thighs.

Perhaps his fragrant load may bind His limbs; we'll set the captive free:-- I sought the living Bee to find, And found the picture of a Bee.

REMARKABLE LAMPS.--Cedrenus makes mention of a lamp, which, together with an image of Christ, was found at Edessa, in the reign of the Emperor Justinian. It was set over a certain gate there, and privily enclosed, as appeared by the date of it, soon after Christ was crucified: it was found burning, as it had done for five hundred years before, by the soldiers of Cosroes, king of Persia, by whom also the oil was taken out, and cast into the fire; which occasioned such a plague, as brought death upon almost all his forces.--At the demolition of our monasteries here in England, there was found, in the supposed monument of Constantius Chlorus, (father to the Great Constantine,) a lamp, which was thought to have continued burning there ever since his burial, which was about three hundred years after Christ. The ancient Romans used in that manner to preserve lights in their sepulchres a long time, by the oil of gold, resolved by art into a liquid substance.

PERPETUAL FIRE.--In the peninsula of Abeheron, in the province of Schirwan, formerly belonging to Persia, but now in Russia, there is found a perpetual, or as it is there called, an eternal fire. It rises, and has risen from time immemorial, from an irregular orifice in the earth, of about twelve feet in depth, with a constant flame. The flame rises to the height of six or eight feet, unattended with smoke, and it yields no smell. The aperture, which is about one hundred and twenty feet in width, consists of a mass of rock, ever retaining the same solidity and the same depth. The finest turf grows about the borders, and at the distance of two toises, are two springs of water. The neighbouring inhabitants have a sort of veneration for this fire, which they accompany with religious ceremonies.

MAGICAL DRUM.--This is an instrument of superstition, used in Lapland, which is thus described by Schoeffer, in his History of that country: It is made of beech, pine, or fir, split in the middle, and hollowed on the flat side where the drum is to be made. The hollow is of an oval figure, and is covered with a skin clean dressed, and painted with figures of various kinds, such as stars, suns and moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes, and rivers; and of later days, since the preaching of Christianity among them, the acts and sufferings of our Saviour and his apostles are often added among the rest. All these figures are separated by lines into three regions or clusters. There is, besides these parts of the drum, an index and a hammer. The index is a bundle of grass or iron rings, the largest of which has a hole in its middle, and the smaller ones are hung to it. The hammer, or drumstick, is made of the horn of a reindeer; and with this they beat the drum so as to make these rings move, they being laid on the top for that purpose. In the motion of these rings about the pictures figured on the drum, they fancy to themselves some prediction in regard to the things they inquire about. What they principally search into by this instrument, are three things: 1. What sacrifices will prove most acceptable to their gods: 2. What success they shall have in their occupations, as hunting, fishing, curing diseases, and the like: and 3. What is done in places remote from them. On these occasions they use several peculiar ceremonies, and place themselves in various odd postures as they beat the drum, which influences the rings to the one or the other side, and to come nearer to the one or the other set of figures. And when they have done this, they have a method of calculating a discovery, which they keep as a great secret, but which seems merely the business of the imagination in the diviner or magician.

AN EXTRAORDINARY CANNON.--At Kubberpore-na-Jeal, in India, there is a cannon two hundred and thirteen inches long, sixty-six inches round the muzzle, and eighteen inches round the calibre. It has five, and had originally six, equidistant rings, by which it was lifted up. This gun is called by the natives, Jaun Kushall, or the destroyer of life, and its casting and position are attributed to the doctas or divinities, though its almost obliterated Persian inscriptions declare its formation by human means. But what is most extraordinary about it is, that two peepul trees have grown both cannon and carriage into themselves. Fragments of the iron, a spring, one of the linches, and part of the wood-work, protrude from between the roots and bodies of these trees; but the trees alone entirely support the gun, one of the rings of which, and half of its whole length, are completely hidden between, and inside their bark and trunks. A more curious sight, or a cannon more firmly fixed, though by the mere gradual growth of two trees, cannot well be imagined. The Indians assert that it was only once fired, and then sent the ball twenty-four miles!--Asiatic Journal.

OLD BREAD.--Bartholinus assures us, that in Norway the inhabitants make bread which keeps thirty or forty years; and that they are there fonder of their old hard bread, than others are of new or soft; since the older it is, the more agreeable it grows. For their great feasts, particular care is taken to have the oldest bread; so that at the christening of a child, they have usually bread which had been baked perhaps at the christening of his grandfather! It is made by a mixture of barley and oatmeal, baked between two hollow stones.

The following is said to be A SUBSTITUTE FOR SPECTACLES.--A man, especially if accustomed to spend his time among books, would be much to be pitied, when his sight begins to fail, could he not in a great measure restore it by the aid of spectacles; but there are some men whose sight cannot be aided by the use either of convex or concave glasses. The following method, adopted by one of these to aid his sight, is certainly worthy of notice. When about sixty years of age, this man had almost entirely lost his sight, seeing nothing but a kind of thick mist, with little black specks which appeared to float in the air. He knew not any of his friends; he could not even distinguish a man from a woman; nor could he walk in the streets without being led. Glasses were of no use to him; the best print, seen through the bell spectacles, seemed to him like a daubed paper. Wearied with this melancholy state, he thought of the following expedient. He procured some spectacles with very large rings; and taking out the glasses, substituted in each circle a conic tube of black Spanish copper. Looking through the large end of the cone, he could read the smallest print placed at its other extremity. These tubes were of different lengths, and the openings at the end were also of different sizes; the smaller the aperture, the better could he distinguish the smallest letters; the larger the aperture, the more words or lines it commanded; and consequently, the less occasion was there for moving the head and the hand in reading. Sometimes he used one eye, sometimes the other, alternately relieving each; for the rays of the two eyes could not unite upon the same object when thus separated by two opaque tubes. The thinner these tubes, the less troublesome are they. They must be totally blackened within, so as to prevent all shining, and they should be made to lengthen or contract, and enlarge or reduce the aperture, at pleasure. When he placed convex glasses in these tubes, the letters indeed appeared larger, but not so clear and distinct as through the empty tube; he also found the tubes more convenient when not fixed in the spectacle rings; for when they hung loosely, they could be raised or lowered with the hand, and one or both might be used, as occasion required. It is almost needless to add, that the material of the tubes is of no importance, and that they may be made of iron or tin as well as of copper, provided the insides of them be sufficiently blackened.--See La Nouvell, Bigaruré for February, 1754, or Monthly Magazine for April, 1799.

WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.--The winter sleep is a very singular property of animals and plants; and, though it occurs daily before our eyes, we are not able to explain the phenomena with which it is attended. In cold countries, many animals, on the approach of winter, retire to their subterraneous abodes, in which they bury themselves under the snow, where they remain five or six months without nourishment or motion; nay, almost without circulation of their blood, which flows only sluggishly, and in the widest vessels. Their perspiration is almost imperceptible; but still they lose something by it, as they enter their winter quarters in very good condition, and are exceedingly thin when they return from them.

Some animals enjoy their winter sleep under the earth, and others are concealed beneath the snow; some for the same purpose creep into the holes of rocks, and others under stones, or the bark of trees.

Plants have their winter sleep also; for, during the period of winter, their sap flows towards the roots, and the circulation of it, which is very slow, takes place only in the widest vessels. Were the expansion of the sap in winter as considerable as in summer, it would burst all the vessels, on being frozen.

Some observers have endeavoured to prove that this singular circumstance is merely accidental, and, indeed, no difference is found in the internal organization of those animals which have winter sleep, and those which have not. It is very remarkable, that this property belongs in general to animals of prey. As these have far stronger powers of digestion, and stronger digestive juices, it would appear that abstinence from food for several months would to them be hardly possible.

The common bear, the bat, and the hedgehog, have winter sleep, but the white bear has not. As the latter is secured from the cold by his long hair, he finds nourishment in the dead whales and seals which are cast on shore by the waves.

The earthworms have winter sleep; but aquatic worms very seldom. Insects, as well as their larvæ, have winter sleep. Butterflies may be often seen fluttering about in the warm days of spring, after having spent the whole winter in that condition. Amphibious animals have winter sleep, those which live merely in the ocean excepted. Few birds, on the other hand, are exposed to this state. The greater part of these, on the approach of winter, retire to a milder climate, where they can find more abundant nourishment. In Iceland, the sheep have winter sleep. In that country they are suffered to range in perfect freedom. In the winter season, therefore, they may be found buried under the snow, where it would be impossible for them to remain, were they not in that condition.

CHAP. LXXXVII.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.--(Concluded.)

Lama--Nun--Mahometan Paradise--Opinions respecting Hell--London--Coins of the Kings of England--Singular Calculations respecting the National Debt--Moral and Physical Thermometer.--Conclusion.

LAMA.--This is the sovereign pontiff, or rather god, of the Asiatic Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barantola. The lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the country, but also by the kings of Tartary, who send him rich presents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him adoration, calling him lama congiu, i. e. "god, the everlasting father of heaven." He is never to be seen but in a secret place of his palace, amidst a great number of lamps, sitting crosslegged upon a cushion, and adorned all over with gold and precious stones; where at a distance they prostrate themselves before him, it not being lawful for any to kiss his feet. He is called the great lama, or lama of lamas; that is, "priest of priests." The orthodox opinion is, that when the grand lama seems to die either of old age or infirmity, his soul in fact only quits a crazy habitation to look for another younger or better; and it is discovered again in the body of some child, by certain tokens known only to the lamas, or priests, in which order he always appears. A particular account of the pompous ceremonies attending the inauguration of the infant lama in Thibet, is given in the first volume of the Asiatic Researches. The emperor of China appears, on such occasions, to act a very conspicuous part, in giving testimony of his respect and zeal for the great religious father of his faith.

The twenty-eighth day of the seventh moon, corresponding nearly (as their year commences with the vernal equinox) with the middle of October, is reckoned the most auspicious for the ceremony of inauguration. The procession, on these occasions, from Terpaling to the Teeshoo Loombo, is conducted with such slow and majestic solemnity, that though the distance is only twenty miles, it takes up three days. The crowd of spectators is immense. The three next days are spent in the inauguration, in delivering the presents sent by the emperor to the lama, and in the public festivals on the occasion; during which, all who are at the capital are entertained at the public expense, and alms are distributed liberally to the poor. Universal rejoicings prevail throughout Thibet; banners are unfurled on all their fortresses, the peasantry fill up the day with music and festivity, and the night is cheered by general illuminations. A long period is afterwards employed in making presents and public entertainments to the newly-inducted lama, who, at the time of his accession to the musnud, or pontificate of Teeshoo Loombo, is often not three years of age. The whole ceremony, from its commencement to its consummation, lasts forty days.

Some particulars respecting NUNS.--A nun is a woman dedicated to the severer duties of religion, secluded in a cloister from the world, and debarred by a vow from the converse of men. When a woman is to be made a nun, the habit, veil, and ring of the candidate, are carried to the altar; and she herself, accompanied by her nearest relations, is conducted to the bishop, who, after mass and an anthem (the subject of which is, "that she ought to have her lamp lighted, because the bridegroom is coming to meet her,") pronounces the benediction: then she rises up, and the bishop consecrates the new habit, sprinkling it with holy water. When the candidate has put on her religious habit, she presents herself before the bishop, and sings on her knees, Ancilla Christi sum, &c.; then she receives the veil, and afterwards the ring, by which she is married to Christ; and lastly, the crown of virginity. When she is crowned, an anathema is denounced against all who shall attempt to make her break her vows. In some few instances, perhaps, nunneries and monasteries may have been useful to morality and religion, as well as to literature, but, in the gross, they have been highly prejudicial; and however pious they may appear in theory, in fact they are unnatural and impious.

MAHOMETAN PARADISE.--The paradise of the Mahometans is said by them to be situated above the seven heavens, or in the seventh, and next under the throne of God; and, to express the amenity of the place, they tell us that the earth of it is of the finest wheat flour, or of the purest musk, or of saffron; and that its stones are pearls and jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched with gold and silver, and the trunks of all its trees of gold, amongst which the most remarkable is the tree luba, or tree of happiness. They pretend that this tree stands in the palace of Mahomet, though a branch of it will reach to the house of every true believer, loaded with pomegranates, grapes, dates, and other fruits, of surprising size, and delicious tastes, unknown to mortals.

If a man desires to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will immediately be presented to him; or if he chooses flesh, birds ready dressed will be set before him, and such as he may wish for. They add that this tree will supply the blessed, not only with fruit, but with silk garments also, and beasts to ride on, adorned with rich trappings, all which will burst forth from the fruit; and that the tree is so large, that a person mounted on the fleetest horse would not be able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in one hundred years. Plenty of water being one of the greatest additions to the pleasantness of any place, the Koran often speaks of the rivers of paradise as the principal ornament. Some of these rivers are said to flow with water, some with milk, some with wine, and others with honey: all of them have their sources in the root of this tree of happiness; and, as if these rivers were not sufficient, we are told that the garden of this paradise is also watered by a great number of lesser springs and fountains, whose pebbles are rubies and emeralds, their earth of camphor, their beds of musk, and their sides of saffron.

But all these glories will be eclipsed by the resplendent and exquisite beauty of the girls of paradise, the enjoyment of whose company will constitute the principal felicity of the faithful. These (they say) are not formed of clay, as mortal women, but of pure musk, and are, as their prophet often affirms in his Koran, free from all the natural defects and inconveniences incident to the sex. Being also of the strictest modesty, they keep themselves secluded from public view, in pavilions of hollow pearls, so large, that, as some traditions have it, one of them will be no less than sixteen, or, as others say, sixty miles long, and as many broad. With these the inhabitants of paradise may taste pleasures in their height; and for this purpose will be endowed with extraordinary abilities, and enjoy a perpetual youth.

OPINIONS RESPECTING HELL.--The hell of the ancient heathens was divided into two mansions: the one called Elysium, on the right hand, pleasant and delightful, appointed for the souls of good men; the other called Tartarus, on the left, a region of misery and torment, appointed for the wicked. The latter only was hell, in the present restrained sense of the word. The philosophers were of opinion, that the infernal regions were at an equal distance from all the parts of the earth; nevertheless, it was the opinion of some, that there were certain passages which led thither, as the river Lethe near the Syrtes, and the Acherusian cave in Epirus. At Hermione, it was thought, that there was a very short way to hell; for which reason the people of that country never put the fare into the mouths of the dead to pay their passage. The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth, and believed it to be situated under waters and mountains. According to them, there are three passages leading to it: the first is in the wilderness, and by that Korah, Dathan, and Abiram descended into hell; the second is in the sea, because Jonah, who was thrown into the sea, cried to God out of the belly of hell; the third is in Jerusalem, because it is said "the fire of the Lord is in Zion, and his furnace is in Jerusalem." They likewise acknowledged seven degrees of pain in hell, because they find this place called by seven different names in Scripture. In the Koran of Mahomet, it is said that hell has seven gates; the first for the Mussulmans, the second for the Christians, the third for the Jews, the fourth for the Sabeans, the fifth for the Magians, the sixth for the Pagans, and the seventh for hypocrites of all religions.

Among Christians, there are two controverted questions in regard to hell; the one concerning the locality, the other the duration of its torments:--The locality of hell, and the reality of its fire, began first to be controverted by Origen. That father, interpreting the scripture account metaphorically, makes hell to consist, not in external punishments, but in a consciousness or sense of guilt, and a remembrance of past pleasures. Among the moderns, Mr. Whiston advanced a new hypothesis. The comets, he thinks, are so many hells, appointed in their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the sun, there to be scorched by its violent heat, and then to return with them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to starve them in those cold and dismal regions. Another modern author, Mr. Swinden, supposes the sun to be the local hell. However difficult it may be to ascertain the local place of hell, we may rest assured God will find both place and means to punish the obstinately wicked.

LONDON.--This metropolis is unparalleled, in extent and opulence, in the whole habitable globe, except, perhaps, Pekin in China, Jeddo in Japan, and Houssa in Africa; which are all said to be larger.

It comprehends, besides London, Westminster, and Southwark, no less than forty-five villages, of considerable extent, independent of a vast accession of buildings upon the open fields in the vicinity. Its length is nearly eight miles, its breadth three, and its circumference twenty-six. It contains above 8000 streets, lanes, alleys, and courts, and more than 65 different squares. Its houses, warehouses, and other buildings, make 162,000, besides 246 churches and chapels, 207 meeting houses for dissenters, 43 chapels for foreigners, and 6 synagogues for the Jews, which in all make 504 places of public worship. The number of inhabitants, during the sitting of parliament, is estimated at 1,250,000. Among these are found about 50,000 common prostitutes, and no less than 60,000 thieves, coiners, and other bad persons of all descriptions. The annual depredations on the public, by this numerous body of pilferers, are estimated at the sum of £2,100,000 sterling. In this vast city, there are, moreover, upwards of 4000 seminaries for education, 8 institutions for promoting morality, 10 institutions for promoting the arts, 122 asylums for the indigent, 17 for the sick and lame, 13 dispensaries, 704 charitable institutions, 58 courts of justice, and 7040 professional men connected with the various departments of the law.--There are 13,500 vessels trading in the river Thames in the course of a year; and 40,000 waggons going and returning to the metropolis in the same period, including their repeated voyages and journeys.--The amount of exports and imports to and from the Thames is estimated at £66,811,932 sterling annually, and the property floating in this vast city every year, is £170,000,000. These circumstances may be sufficient to convince us of the amazing extent and importance of the capital of the British empire.

The numbers of bullocks, sheep, lambs, calves, hogs, and sucking pigs, purchased at the Smithfield markets, and annually consumed in the metropolis, are in the following proportion: bullocks 110,000; sheep and lambs 776,000; calves 210,000; hogs 210,000; sucking pigs 60,000. Markets for hay, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. The markets for the sale of provisions are numerous, and amply supplied with every sort, generally of the most excellent kind: the bread generally fine and sound. Besides animal food and bread, there are no less than 6,980,000 gallons of milk [and water] annually consumed here: of vegetables and fruit, there are 10,000 acres of ground near the metropolis, cultivated wholly for vegetables; and about 4000 acres of fruit. Of wheat, coals, ale, and porter, &c. the annual consumption is as follows: of wheat, 700,000 quarters; of coals 600,000 chaldrons; of ale and porter 1,113,500 barrels; of spirits and compounds 11,146,782 gallons; of wine 32,500 tons; of butter 16,600,000 pounds; and of cheese 21,100,000 pounds. Fish and poultry are sometimes excessively dear, and the quantities consumed are comparatively small.

COINS OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND.--The silver Penny, which was first circulated during the Heptarchy, continued to be the general coin after the kingdom had been united under one head, and extends, in a continued series, from Egbert almost to the present reign. The only kings wanting are Edmund Ironside, Richard I., and John. At first the penny weighed twenty-two and a half grains, but towards the close of the reign of Edward III. it fell to eighteen grains; in that of Edward IV. to twelve. In the time of Edward VI. it was reduced to eight grains; and in queen Elizabeth's reign to 7-23/31 grains, at which it still continues.

Halfpence and farthings were first struck in silver by Edward I. in 1280: the former continued to the time of the Commonwealth, but the latter ceased with Edward VI. The groat and half groat were introduced in the reign of Edward III., in 1354, and continue to this day, though not in common circulation.

Shillings were first coined by Henry VII. in 1503; at first they were called testoon, from the teste, tête, or head of the king, upon them; the name shilling being derived from the German schelling, under which name coins had been struck at Hamburgh in 1407. The crown was first coined in its present form by Henry VIII. The half-crown, six-pence, and three-pence, were coined by Edward VI. In 1558, queen Elizabeth coined three-halfpenny, and in 1561, three-farthing pieces; but they were discontinued in 1582. Gold was coined in England by Henry III. in 1257; the piece was called a gold penny, and was larger than the silver one, and the execution by no means bad for the time. The series of gold coinage, however, commences properly from Edward III. In 1344, this monarch first struck florins, in imitation of those in Italy; and it is remarkable, that though these coins, at the time they were first issued, bore only six shillings value, they were (even before the late increased value of gold) intrinsically worth nineteen shillings; so much has the value of gold increased since that time. The half and quarter florin were struck at the same time, but only the last has been found. The florin being found inconvenient, gave place to the noble, of six shillings and eight-pence value, and exactly half a mark. The latter had its name from being a limited sum in accounts; and was eight ounces in weight, two-thirds of the money pound. The noble had its name from the nobility of the metal; the gold of which it is coined being of the finest sort. Sometimes it was called rose-noble, from both sides being impaled in an undulating circle. It continued, with the half and quarter noble, to be the only gold coin till the angels of Edward IV. appeared in 1465. These had their name from the image of Michael and the Dragon which they bore. The angelites, of three shillings and four-pence value, were substituted in their place. In 1527, Henry VIII. added to the gold coins the crown and half-crown at their present value; the same year he gave sovereigns of twenty-two shillings, and six-pence, and ryals of eleven shillings and three-pence, angels at seven shillings and six-pence, and nobles at their old value of six shillings and eight-pence. In 1546 he caused sovereigns to be coined of the value of twenty shillings, and half sovereigns in proportion.

On the union of the two crowns, James gave the sovereign the name of unite; the value continuing twenty shillings, as before. He coined also rose ryals of thirty shillings, spur ryals of fifteen shillings, angels of ten shillings, and angelites of five shillings value. Under the Commonwealth, the sovereign received the name of the twenty shilling piece, and continued current till the coinage of guineas. These were so called, from their being coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, and were at first to pass but for twenty shillings, though by a universal but tacit consent, they always passed for twenty-one shillings. Half-guineas, double-guineas, and five guinea pieces, were also coined during the same reign; which still continue, though the two latter are not in common circulation. Quarter-guineas were coined by George I. and likewise by his late Majesty; but they were found so troublesome on account of their small size, that they were stopped at the Bank of England; and therefore are not to be met with in circulation at present. A few pieces of seven shillings value were likewise coined, and are known by the lion above the helmet; but none were issued. In 1668, the guinea rose to twenty-one shillings and sixpence, and continued to increase in value till 1696, when it was as high as thirty shillings; but after the recoinage in 1697 and 1698, it fell by degrees, and in 1717 was at its old standard of twenty-one shillings. During the reign of George III. vast numbers of seven shilling pieces were issued, which continued some years in general circulation. Sovereigns have also been coined since his present Majesty's accession, and they constitute at present the prevailing gold currency of the realm.

SINGULAR CALCULATION RESPECTING THE NATIONAL DEBT.--The national debt, funded and unfunded, on the 5th of January, 1811, was £811,898,811, which are equal to 773,236,267 guineas, which, at 5 dwts. 8 grains each guinea, weigh 6312 tons, 11 cwt. 3 qrs. 5 lbs. 1 oz. 6 drs. nearly, avoirdupois. Now supposing a waggon and five horses to extend in length twenty yards, and to carry two and a half tons of the said guineas, the number of teams necessary to carry the whole would extend in length twenty-eight miles twenty-three yards. To count the debt in shillings, at the rate of thirty shillings in a minute, for ten hours a day, and six days in a week, would take 2,469 years, 306 days, 17 hours, and 30 minutes, nearly. Its height in guineas, supposing twenty guineas in thickness to be an inch, would be 610 miles, 339 yards, 9 inches; and supposing each guinea an inch in diameter, they would extend in a right line, 12,203 miles, 150 yards, 7 inches. Moreover, the said guineas would cover, in space, 348 acres, 2 roods, 202 yards, nearly. And, lastly, in shillings, each being an inch in diameter, would cover 7319 acres, 1 rood, and 349 yards!

CONCLUSION.

Thus we have conducted our reader through some of the principal curiosities of Nature and Art, Science and Literature. We trust he has found both amusement and instruction. Our object has been, throughout the work, to assist the reader in looking through Nature up to Nature's God. All second causes derive their origin, permanency, and efficacy from Him alone.

Since, then, the LORD GOD is himself the source and perfection of all beauty and excellency, the author of our existence, and the bountiful giver of all good gifts; we undoubtedly ought to love him with our whole hearts, and to serve him with all our powers; we ought to reverence his majesty and authority, and endeavour above all things to obtain his favour; we ought to devote ourselves entirely to his service, and make all our actions tend to the advancement of his glory. And as his mercy and goodness are unbounded, so should be our gratitude and praise.

Jehovah reigns: let ev'ry nation hear, And at his footstool bow with holy fear; Let heav'n's high arches echo with his name. And the wide-peopled earth his praise proclaim; Then send it down to hell's deep gloom resounding, Thro' all her caves in dreadful murmurs sounding.

He rules with wide and absolute command O'er the broad ocean and the stedfast land: Jehovah reigns, unbounded and alone, And all creation hangs beneath his throne: He reigns alone; let no inferior nature Usurp or share the throne of the Creator.

He saw the struggling beams of infant light Shoot thro' the massy gloom of ancient night; His spirit hush'd the elemental strife, And brooded o'er the kindling seeds of life: Seasons and months began the long procession, And measur'd o'er the year in bright succession.

The joyful sun sprung up th' ethereal way, Strong as a giant, as a bridegroom gay; And the pale moon diffus'd her shadowy light, Superior o'er the dusky brow of night; Ten thousand glittering lamps the skies adorning, Num'rous as dew-drops from the womb of morning.

Earth's blooming face with rising flow'rs he dress'd, And spread a verdant mantle o'er her breast; Then from the hollow of his hand he pours The circling waters round her winding shores, The new-born world in their cool arms embracing, And with soft murmurs still her banks caressing.

At length she rose complete in finish'd pride, All fair and spotless like a virgin bride: Fresh with untarnish'd lustre as she stood, Her Maker bless'd his work, and call'd it good; The morning stars with joyful acclamation, Exulting sung, and hail'd the new creation.

Yet this fair world, the creature of a day, Tho' built by God's right hand, must pass away; And long oblivion creep o'er mortal things, The fate of empires, and the pride of kings: Eternal night shall veil their proudest story, And drop the curtain o'er all human glory.

The sun himself, with weary clouds opprest, Shall in his silent dark pavilion rest; His golden urn shall broke and useless lie, Amidst the common ruins of the sky! The stars rush headlong in the wild commotion, And bathe their glittering foreheads in the ocean.

But fix'd, O God! for ever stands thy throne, Jehovah reigns, a universe alone; Th' eternal fire that feeds each vital flame, Collected or diffus'd, is still the same. He dwells within his own unfathom'd essence, And fills all space with his unbounded presence.

But oh! our highest notes the theme debase, And silence is our least injurious praise: Cease, cease your songs, the daring flight control, Revere him in the stillness of the soul; With silent duty meekly bend before him, And deep within your inmost hearts--adore him. Mrs. Barbauld.

APPENDIX TO THE BOOK OF CURIOSITIES; CONTAINING CURIOUS EXPERIMENTS, AND AMUSING RECREATIONS, WHICH MAY BE PERFORMED WITH EASE, AND AT A SMALL EXPENSE.

A Person having an even Number of Counters in one Hand, and an odd Number in the other, to tell in which Hand each of them is.

Desire the person to multiply the number in his right hand by three, and the number in his left by two.

Bid him add the two products together, and tell you whether the sum be odd or even.

If it be even, the even number is in the right hand; but if it be odd, the even number is in the left hand.

EXAMPLE I.

No. in right hand. No. in left hand. 18 7 3 2 -- -- 54 54 14 14 -- 68 sum of the products.

EXAMPLE II.

No. in right hand. No. in left hand. 7 18 3 2 -- -- 21 36 36 21 -- 57 sum of the products.

A Person having fixed on a Number in his Mind, to tell him what Number it is.

Bid him quadruple the number thought on, or multiply it by 4; and having done this, desire him to add 6, 8, 10, or any even number you please, to the product; then let him take the half of this sum, and tell you how much it is; from which, if you take away half the number you desired him at first to add to it, there will remain the double of the number thought on.

EXAMPLE.

Suppose the number thought on is 5 The quadruple of it is 20 8 added to the product is 28 And the half of this sum 14 4 taken from this leaves 10.--

Therefore 5 was the number thought on.

Another Method of discovering a Number thought on.

After the person has fixed on a number, bid him double it, and add 4 to that sum; then let him multiply the whole by 5, and to that product add 12; desire him also to multiply this sum by 10, and after having deducted 302 from the product, to tell you the remainder, from which, if you cut off the last two figures, the number that remains will be the one thought on.

EXAMPLE.

Let the number thought on be 7 Then the double of this is 14 And 4 added to it makes 18 This multiplied by 5 is 90 And 12 added to it is 102 And this multiplied by 10 is 1020 From which deducting 302 There remains 718,--

which, by striking off the last two figures, gives 7,--the number thought on.

To tell the Number a Person has fixed upon, without asking him any Questions.

The person having chosen any number in his mind, from 1 to 15, bid him add one to it, and triple the amount. Then,

If it be an even number, let him take the half of it, and triple that half; but if it be an odd number, he must add 1 to it, and then halve it, and triple that half.

In like manner let him take the half of this number, if it be even, or the half of the next greater, if it be odd; and triple that half.

Again, bid him take the half of this last number, if even, or of the next greater, if odd; and the half of that half in the same way; and by observing at what steps he is obliged to add 1 in the halving, the following table will shew the number thought on:

1--0--0 -- 4-- 8 2--0--0 --13-- 5 3--0--0 -- 3--11 1--2--0 -- 2--10 1--3--0 -- 8-- 0 1--2--3 -- 6--14 2--3--0 -- 1-- 9 0--0--0 --15-- 7

Thus, if he be obliged to add 1 only at the first step, or halving, either 4 or 8 was the number thought on; if there were a necessity to add 1 both at the first and second steps, either 2 or 10 was the number thought on, &c.

And which of the two numbers is the true one may always be known from the last step of the operation; for if 1 must be added before the last half can be taken, the number is in the second column, or otherwise in the first, as will appear from the following examples:

Suppose the number chosen to be 9 To which, if we add 1 The sum is 10 Then the triple of that number is 30 1. The half of which is 15 The triple of 15 is 45 2. And the half of that is 23 The triple of 23 is 69 3. The half of that is 35 And the half of that is 18

From which it appears, that it was necessary to add 1 both at the second and third steps, or halvings; and therefore, by the table, the number thought on is either 1 or 9. And as the last number was obliged to be augmented by 1 before the half could be taken, it follows also, by the above rule, that the number must be in the second column; and consequently it is 9.

Again, suppose the number thought on to be 6 To which, if we add 1 The sum is 7 Then the triple of that number is 21 1. The half of which is 11 The triple of 11 is 33 2. And the half of that is 17 The triple of 17 is 51 3. The half of that is 26 And the half of that half is 13

From which it appears, that it was necessary to add 1 at all the steps, or halvings, 1, 2, 3, therefore, by the table, the number thought on is either 6 or 14.

And as the last number required no augmentation before its half could be taken, it follows also, by the above rule, that the number must be in the first column; and consequently it is 6.

A curious Recreation, usually called--The Blind Abbess and her Nuns.

A blind abbess visiting her nuns, who were twenty-four in number, and equally distributed in eight cells, built at the four corners of a square, and in the middle of each side, finds an equal number in every row, containing three cells. At a second visit, she finds the same number of persons in each row as before, though the company was increased by the accession of four men. And coming a third time, she still finds the same number of persons in each row, though the four men were then gone, and had each of them carried away a nun.

Fig. 1. +-----+ |3 3 3| |3 3| |3 3 3| +-----+

Fig. 2. +-----+ |2 5 2| |5 5| |2 5 2| +-----+

Fig. 3. +-----+ |4 1 4| |1 1| |4 1 4| +-----+

Let the nuns be first placed as in fig. 1, three in each cell; then when the four men have got into the cells, there must be a man placed in each corner, and two nuns removed thence to each of the middle cells, as in fig. 2, in which case there will evidently be still nine in each row; and when the four men are gone, with the four nuns with them, each corner cell must contain four nuns, and every other cell one, as in fig. 3; it being evident, that in this case also, there will still be nine in a row, as before.

Any Number being named, to add a Figure to it, which shall make it divisible by 9.

Add the figures together in your mind which compose the number named; and the figure which must be added to this sum, in order to make it divisible by 9, is the one required.

Suppose, for example, the number named was 8654; you find that the sum of its figures is 23; and that 4 being added to this sum will make it 27; which is a number exactly divisible by 9.

You therefore desire the person who named the number 8654, to add 4 to it; and the result, which is 8658, will be divisible by 9, as was required.

This recreation may be diversified, by your specifying, before the sum is named, the particular place where the figure shall be inserted, to make the number divisible by 9; for it is exactly the same thing, whether the figure be put at the end of the number, or between any two of its digits.

A Person having made choice of several Numbers, to tell him what Number will exactly divide the Sum of those which he has chosen.

Provide a small bag, divided into two parts; into one of which put several tickets, numbered 6, 9, 15, 36, 63, 120, 213, 309, or any others you please, that are divisible by 3, and in the other part put as many different tickets marked with the number 3 only.

Draw a handful of tickets from the first part, and, after shewing them to the company, put them into the bag again; and having opened it a second time, desire any one to take out as many tickets as he thinks proper.

When he has done this, open privately the other part of the bag, and tell him to take out of it one ticket only.

You may then pronounce, that this ticket shall contain the number by which the amount of the other numbers is divisible; for, as each of these numbers is some multiple of 3, their sum must evidently be divisible by that number.

This recreation may also be diversified, by marking the tickets in one part of the bag with any numbers which are divisible by 9, and those in the other part of the bag with the number 9 only; the properties of both 9 and 3 being the same; or if the numbers in one part of the bag be divisible by 9, the other part of the bag may contain tickets marked both with 9 and 3, as every number divisible by 9 is also divisible by 3.

To find the Difference between any two Numbers, the greater of which is unknown.

Take as many 9's as there are figures in the less number, and subtract the one from the other.

Let another person add that difference to the larger number; and then, if he take away the first figure of the amount, and add it to the remaining figures, the sum will be the difference of the two numbers, as was required.

Suppose, for example, that Matthew, who is 22 years of age, tells Henry, who is older, that he can discover the difference of their ages.

He privately deducts 22, his own age, from 99, and the difference, which is 77, he tells Henry to add to his age, and to take away the first figure from the amount.

Then if this figure, so taken away, be added to the remaining ones, the sum will be the difference of their ages; as, for instance:

The difference between Matthew's age and 99, is 77 To which Henry adding his age 35 ---- The sum will be 112 And 1, taken from 112, gives 12 Which being increased by 1 -- Gives the difference of the two ages 13 And, this added to Matthew's age 22 -- Gives the age of Henry, which is 35

A Person striking a Figure out of the Sum of two given Numbers, to tell him what that Figure was.

Such numbers must be offered as are divisible by 9; such, for instance, as 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 207, 216, 252, 261, 306, 315, 360, and 432.

Then let a person choose any two of these numbers, and after adding them together in his mind, strike out any one of the figures he pleases, from the sum.

After he has done this, desire him to tell you the sum of the remaining figures; and that number which you are obliged to add to this amount, in order to make it 9, or 18, is the one he struck out.

For example, suppose he chose the numbers 126 and 252, the sum of which is 378.

Then, if he strike out 7 from this amount, the remaining figures, 3 and 8, will make 11; to which 7 must be added to make 18.

If he strike out the 3, the sum of the remaining figures, 7 and 8, will be 15; to which 3 must be added, to make 18; and so in like manner, for the 8.

By knowing the last Figure of the Product of two Numbers, to tell the other Figures.

If the number 73 be multiplied by each of the numbers in the following arithmetical progression, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21. 24, 27, the products will terminate with the nine digits, in this order, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1; the numbers themselves being as follows, 219, 438, 657, 876, 1095, 1314, 1533, 1752, and 1971.

Let therefore a little bag be provided, consisting of two partitions, into one of which put several tickets, marked with the number 73; and into the other part, as many tickets numbered 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, and 27.

Then open that part of the bag which contains the number 73, and desire a person to take out one ticket only; after which, dexterously change the opening, and desire another person to take a ticket from the other part.

Let them now multiply their two numbers together, and tell you the last figure of the product, and you will readily determine, from the foregoing series, what the remaining figures must be.

Suppose, for example, the numbers taken out of the bag were 73, and 12; then, as the product of these two numbers, which is 876, has 6 for its last figure, you will readily know that it is the fourth in the series, and that the remaining figures are 87.

A curious Recreation with a Hundred Numbers, usually called the Magical Century.

If the number 11 be multiplied by any one of the nine digits, the two figures of the product will always be alike, as appears from the following example:--

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99

Now, if another person and yourself have fifty counters apiece, and agree never to stake more than ten at a time, you may tell him, that if he will permit you to stake first, you will always undertake to make the even century before him.

In order to this you must first stake one, and remembering the order of the above series, constantly add to what he stakes as many as will make one more than the numbers 11, 22, 33, &c. of which it is composed, till you come to 89; after which, the other party cannot possibly make the even century himself, or prevent you from making it.

If the person who is your opponent have no knowledge of numbers, you may stake any other number first, under 10, provided you afterwards take care to secure one of the last terms, 56, 67, 78, &c.: or you may even let him stake first, provided you take care afterwards to secure one of these numbers.

This recreation may be performed with other numbers; but, in order to succeed, you must divide the number to be attained, by a number which is an unit greater than what you can stake each time; and the remainder will then be the number you first stake. Suppose, for example, the number to be attained is 52, and that you are never to add more than six; then dividing 52 by 7, the remainder, which is 3, will be the number you must stake first; and whatever the other stakes, you must add as much to it as will make it equal to 7, the number by which you divided; and so on.

A Person in Company having privately put a Ring on one of his fingers, to Name the Person, the Hand, the Finger, and even the Joint on which it is placed.

Desire a third person to double the number of the order in which the wearer of the ring stands, and add 5 to that number, then multiply that sum by 5, and to the product add 10. Let him then add 1 to the last number, if the ring be on the right hand, and 2 if on the left, and multiply the whole by 10: to this product he must add the number of the finger, beginning with the thumb, and multiply the whole again by 10. Desire him then to add the number of the joint; and lastly, to increase the whole by 35.

This being done, he is to declare the amount of the whole, from which you are to subtract 3535; and the remainder will consist of four figures, the first of which will give the place in which the person stands, the second the hand, 1 denoting the right, and 2 the left hand, the third number the finger, and the fourth the joint.

EXAMPLE.

Suppose the person stands the second in order, and has put the ring on the second joint of the little finger of the left hand:

Double the order is 4 Add 5 -- 9 Multiply by 5 -- 45 Add 10 -- 55 Number for left hand 2 -- 57 Multiply by 10 ---- 570 Number of finger 5 ---- 575 Multiply by 10 ---- 5750 Number of joint 2 ---- 5752 Add 35 ---- 5787 Subtract 3535 ---- 2252

Hence it will appear that the first 2 denotes the second person in order, the second 2 the left hand, 5 the little finger, and 2 the second joint.

To make a Deaf Man hear the Sound of a Musical Instrument.

It must be a stringed instrument, with a neck of some length, as a lute, a guitar, or the like; and before you begin to play, you must by signs direct the deaf man to take hold with his teeth of the end of the neck of the instrument; for then, if one strikes the strings with the bow one after another, the sound will enter the deaf man's mouth, and be conveyed to the organ of hearing through a hole in the palate, and thus the deaf man will hear with a great deal of pleasure the sound of the instrument, as has been several times experienced; nay, those who are not deaf may make the experiment upon themselves, by stopping their ears so as not to hear the instrument, and then holding the end of the instrument in their teeth, while another touches the strings.

When two Vessels or Chests are like one another, and of equal Weight, being filled with different Metals, to distinguish the one from the other.

This is easily resolved, if we consider that two pieces of different metals, of equal weight in air, do not weigh equally in water, because that of the greatest specific gravity takes up a lesser space in water; it being a certain truth, that any metal weighs less in water than in air, by reason of the water, the room of which it fills; for example, if the water weighs a pound, the metal will weigh in that water a pound less than in the air: this gravitation diminishes more or less, according as the specific gravity of the metal is greater than that of the water.

We will suppose, then, two chests perfectly like one another, of equal weight in the air, one of which is full of gold, and the other of silver; we weigh them in water, and that which then weighs down the other must needs be the gold chest, the specific gravity of gold being greater than that of silver, which makes the gold lose less of its gravitation in water than silver. We know by experience, that gold loses in water about an eighteenth part only, whereas silver loses near a tenth part; so that if each of the two chests weighs in the air, for example, 180 pounds, the chest that is full of gold will lose in the water ten pounds of its weight; and the chest that is full of silver will lose eighteen: that is, the chest full of gold will weigh 170 pounds, and that of silver only 162.

Or, if you will, considering that gold is of a greater specific gravity than silver, the chest full of gold, though similar and of equal weight with the other, must needs contain a less bulk, and consequently it contains the gold.

To find the Burden of a Ship at Sea, or in a River.

It is a certain truth, that a ship will carry a weight equal to that of a quantity of water of the same bulk with itself; subtracting from it the weight of the iron about the ship, for the wood is of much the same weight with water; and so, if it were not for the iron, a ship might sail full of water.

The consequence of this is, that, however a ship be loaded, it will not totally sink, as long as the weight of its cargo is less than that of an equal bulk of water: now, to know this bulk or extent, you must measure the capacity or solidity of the ship, which we here suppose to be 1000 cubical feet, and multiply that by 73 pounds, the weight of a cubical foot of sea-water; then you have in the product 73,000 pounds for the weight of a bulk of water equal to that of the ship; so that in this example, we may call the burden of the ship 73,000 pounds, or 36-1/2 tons, reckoning a ton 2,000 pounds, that being the weight of a ton of sea-water; if the cargo of this ship exceeds 36-1/2 tons, she will sink; and if her loading is just 73,000 pounds, she will swim very deep in the water upon the very point of sinking; so that she cannot sail safe and easy, unless her loading be considerably short of 73,000 pounds weight; if the loading come near to 73,000 pounds, as being, for example, just 36 tons, she will swim at sea, but will sink when she comes into the mouth of a fresh water river; for this water being lighter than sea-water will be surmounted by the weight of the vessel, especially if that weight is greater than the weight of an equal bulk of the same water.

To Measure the Depth of the Sea.

Tie a great weight to a very long cord, or rope, and let it fall into the sea till you find it can descend no further, which will happen when the weight touches the bottom of the sea: if the quantity or bulk of water, the room of which is taken up by the weight, and the rope, weighs less than the weight and rope themselves; for if they weigh more, the weight would cease to descend, though it did not touch the bottom of the sea.

Thus one may be deceived in measuring the length of a rope let down into the water, in order to determine the depth of the sea; and therefore, to prevent mistakes, you had best tie to the end of the same rope another weight heavier than the former, and if this weight does not sink the rope deeper than the other did, you may rest assured that the length of the rope is the true depth of the sea; if it does sink the rope deeper, you must tie a third weight, yet heavier, and so on, till you find two weights of unequal gravitation, that run just the same length of the rope, upon which you may conclude, that the length of the wet rope is certainly the same with the depth of the sea.

Method of Melting Steel, and causing it to Liquefy.

Heat a piece of steel in the fire, almost to a state of fusion, then holding it with a pair of pincers or tongs, take in the other hand a stick of brimstone, and touch the piece of steel with it: immediately after the contact, you will see the steel melt and drop like a liquid.

How to dispose two little Figures, so that one shall light a Candle, and the other put it out.

Take two little figures of wood or clay, or any other materials you please, only taking care that there is a little hole at the mouth of each: put in the mouth of one a few grains of bruised gunpowder, and a little bit of phosphorus in the mouth of the other, taking care that these preparations are made beforehand.

Then take a lighted wax candle, and present it to the mouth of the figure with the gunpowder, which, taking fire, will put the candle out; then present your candle, having the snuff still hot, to the other figure; it will immediately light again by means of the phosphorus.

You may propose the same effects to be produced by two figures drawn on a wall with a pencil or coal, by applying with a little starch, or water, a few grains of bruised gunpowder to the mouth of one, and a bit of phosphorus to the mouth of the other.

The Camera Obscura, or Dark Chamber.

We shall here give a short description of this optical invention; for though it is very common, it is also very pleasing: but every one knows not how to construct it.

Make a circular hole in the shutter of a window, from whence there is a prospect of the fields, or any other object not too near: and in this hole place a convex glass, either double or single, whose focus is at the distance of five or six feet: the distance should not be less than three feet; if it be, the images will be too small, and there will not be sufficient room for the spectators to stand conveniently; on the other hand, the focus should never be more than fifteen or twenty feet, for then the images would be obscure, and the colouring faint; the best distance is from six to twelve feet:--take care that no light enters the room but by this glass: at a distance from it, equal to that of its focus, place a pasteboard, covered with the whitest paper; this paper should have a black border, to prevent any of the side rays from disturbing the picture; let it be two feet and a half long, and eighteen or twenty inches high; bend the length of it inwards to the form of part of a circle, whose diameter is equal to double the focal distance of the glass: then fix it on a frame of the same figure, and put it on a moveable foot, that it may be easily fixed at that exact distance from the glass where the objects paint themselves to the greatest perfection: when it is thus placed, all the objects that are in the front of the window will be painted on the paper in an inverted position; this inverted position of the images may be deemed an imperfection, but it is easily remedied; for if you stand above the board on which they are received, and look down on it, they will appear in their natural position; or if you stand before it, and, placing a common mirror against your breast in an oblique direction, look down in it, you will there see the images erect, and they will receive an additional lustre from the reflection of the glass: or place two lenses in a tube that draws out: or, lastly, if you place a large concave mirror at a proper distance before the picture, it will appear before the mirror in the air, and in an erect position, with the greatest regularity, and in the most natural colours.

If you place a moveable mirror without the window, by turning it more or less, you will have on the paper all the objects that are on each side of the window.

There is another method of making the dark chamber, which is by a scioptric ball, that is, a ball of wood, through which a hole is made, in which hole a lens is fixed; this ball is placed in a wooden frame, in which it turns freely round: the frame is fixed to the hole in the shutter, and the ball by turning about answers, in great part, the use of the mirror on the outside of the window: if the hole in the window be no bigger than a pea, the objects will be represented without any lens.

If instead of placing the mirror without the window, you place it in the room, and above the hole, (which must then be made near the top of the shutter,) you may receive the representation on a paper placed horizontally on a table; and draw at your leisure all the objects that are there painted.

Nothing can be more pleasing than this recreation, especially when the objects are strongly enlightened by the sun; and not only land prospects, but a sea-port, when the water is somewhat agitated, or at the setting of the sun, presents a very delightful appearance.

This representation affords the most perfect model for painters, as well for the tone of colours, as that gradation of shades occasioned by the interposition of the air, which has been so justly expressed by some modern painters.

It is necessary that the paper have a circular form, for otherwise, when the centre of it was in the focus of the glass, the two sides would be beyond it, and consequently the images would be confused: if the frame were contrived of a spherical figure, and the glass were in its centre, the representation would be still more accurate. If the object without be at the distance of twice the focal length of the glass, the image in the room will be of the same magnitude with the object.

The lights, shades, and colours in the camera obscura, appear not only just, but, by the images being reduced to a smaller compass, much stronger than in nature; add to this, that these pictures exceed all others, by representing the motion of the several objects: thus we see the animals walk, run, or fly, the clouds float in the air, the leaves quiver, the waves roll, &c. and all in strict conformity to the laws of nature. The best situation for a dark chamber is directly north, and the best time of the day is noon.

To shew the Spots in the Sun's Disk, by its image in the Camera Obscura.

Put the object-glass of a ten or twelve feet telescope into the scioptric ball, and turn it about till it be directly opposite the sun: when the sun is directly opposite the hole, the lens will itself be sufficient; or by means of the mirror on the outside of the window, as in the last recreation, in the focus of the lens, and you will see a clear bright image of the sun, of about an inch diameter, in which the spots on the sun's surface will be exactly described.

As this image is too bright to be seen with pleasure by the naked eye, you may view it through a lens, whose focus is six or eight inches diameter, which, at the same time that it prevents the light from being offensive, will, by magnifying both the image and the spots, make them appear to greater advantage.

To magnify small Objects by means of the Sun's Rays let into a dark Chamber.

Let the rays of light that pass through the lens in the shutter be thrown on a large concave mirror, properly fixed in a frame; then take a slip, or thin plate of glass, and sticking any small object on it, hold it in the incident rays, at a little more than the focal distance from the mirror, and you will see, on the opposite wall, amidst the reflected rays, the image of that object, very large, and extremely clear and bright. This experiment never fails to give the spectator the highest satisfaction.

To cut a Looking-glass, or piece of Crystal, let it be ever so thick, without the help of a Diamond, in the same shape as the Mark of the Drawing made on it with Ink.

This remarkable operation unites utility with amusement; for being in the country, or in a place where there is no glazier to be had, the following means will answer the purpose without their help.

Take a bit of walnut-tree, about the thickness of a candle, and cut one of its ends to a point; put that end in the fire, and let it burn till it is quite red: while the stick is burning, draw on the glass or crystal, with ink, the design or outline of the form in which you mean to cut it out: then take a file, or bit of glass, and scratch a little the place where you mean to begin your section; then take the wood red-hot from the fire, and lay the point of it about the twentieth part of an inch, or thickness of a guinea, from the marked place, taking care to blow always on that point, in order to keep it red; following the drawing traced on the glass, leaving, as before, about the twentieth part of an inch interval every time that you present your piece of wood, which you must take care to blow often.

After having followed exactly the outlines of your drawing, to separate the two pieces thus cut, you need only pull them up and down, and they will divide.

By the means of two plain Looking-glasses, to make a Face appear under different forms.

Having placed one of the two glasses horizontally, raise the other to about right angles over the first; and while the two glasses continue in this posture, if you come up to the perpendicular glass, you will set your face quite deformed and imperfect; for it will appear without forehead, eyes, nose, or ears, and nothing will be seen but a mouth and a chin boldly raised: do but incline the glass ever so little from the perpendicular, and your face will appear with all its parts, excepting the eyes and the forehead; stoop a little more, and you will see two noses and four eyes; and then a little further, and you will see three noses and six eyes;--continue to incline it still a little more, and you will see nothing but two noses, two mouths, and two chins; and then a little further again, and you will see one nose and one mouth; at last incline a little further, that is, till the angle of inclination comes to be 44 degrees, and your face will quite disappear.

If you incline the two glasses, the one towards the other, you will see your face perfect and entire; and by the different inclinations, you will see the representation of your face, upright and inverted, alternately.

To know which of two different Waters is the lightest, without any Scales.

Take a solid body, the specific gravity of which is less than that of water, deal, or fir-wood, for instance, and put it into each of the two waters, and rest assured that it will sink deeper in the lighter than in the heavier water; and so, by observing the difference of the sinking, you will know which is the lightest water, and consequently the wholesomest for drinking.

To know if a suspicious Piece of Money is good or bad.

If it be a piece of silver that is not very thick, as a crown, or half a crown, the goodness of which you want to try; take another piece of good silver, of equal balance with it, and tie both pieces with thread or horse hair to the scales of an exact balance, (to avoid the wetting of the scales themselves,) and dip the two pieces thus tied, in water; for then, if they are of equal goodness, that is, of equal purity, they will hang in equilibrio in the water as well as in the air: but if the piece in question is lighter in the water than the other, it is certainly false, that is, there is some other metal mixed with it, that has less specific gravity than silver, such as copper; if it is heavier than the other, it is likewise bad, as being mixed with a metal of greater specific gravity than silver, such as lead.

If the piece proposed is very thick, such as that crown of gold which Hiero, king of Syracuse, sent to Archimedes, to know if the goldsmith had put into it all the eighteen pounds of gold that he had given him for that end; take a piece of pure gold of equal weight with the crown proposed, viz. eighteen pounds; and without taking the trouble of weighing them in water, put them into a vessel full of water, one after another, and that which drives out most water, must necessarily be mixed with another metal of less specific gravity than gold, as taking up more space, though of equal weight.

To hold a Glass full of Water with the Mouth downwards, so that the Water shall not run out.

Take a glass full of water, cover it with a cup that is a little hollow, inverting the cup upon the glass; hold the cup firm in this position with one hand, and the glass with the other; then with a jerk turn the glass and the cup upside down, and so the cup will stand upright, and the glass will be inverted, resting its mouth upon the interior bottom of the cup: this done, you will find that part of the water contained in the glass will run out by the void space between the bottom of the cup, and the brim of the glass; and when that space is filled, so that the water in it reaches the brim of the glass, all passage being then denied to the air, so that it cannot enter the glass, nor succeed in the room of the water, the water remaining in the glass will not fall lower, but continue suspended in the glass.

If you would have a little more water descend into the cup, you must, with a pipe or otherwise, draw the water out of the cup, to give passage to the air in the glass; upon which, part of the water will fall into the glass till it has stopped up the passage of the air afresh, in which case no more will come down; or, without sucking out the water in the cup, you may incline the cup and glass so that the water in the cup shall quit one side of the brim of the glass, and so give passage to the air, which will then suffer the water in the glass to descend till the passage is stopped again.

This may likewise be resolved by covering the brim of the glass that is full of water, with a leaf of strong paper, and then turn the glass as above; and without holding your hand any longer upon the paper, you will find it as it were glued for some time to the brim of the glass, and during that time the water will be kept in the glass.

The Mysterious Watch.

Desire any person to lend you his watch, and ask if he thinks it will or will not go when it is laid on the table: if he says it will, place it over the end of a magnet, and it will presently stop; then mark with chalk, or a pencil, the precise point where you placed the watch, and, moving the position of the magnet, give the watch to another person, and desire him to make the experiment; in which he not succeeding, give it to a third person, at the same time replacing the magnet, and he will immediately perform the experiment.

To make a Glass of Water appear to boil and sparkle.

Take a glass nearly full of water, or other liquor, and setting one hand upon the foot of it to hold it fast, turn slightly one of the fingers of your other hand upon the brim or edge of the glass, (having before privately wet your finger,) and so passing softly on, with your finger pressing a little, then the glass will begin to make a noise, the parts of the glass will sensibly appear to tremble with notable rarefaction and condensation, the water will shake, seem to boil, cast itself out of the glass, and leap out by small drops, to the great astonishment of the observers, if they are ignorant of the cause, which is only the rarefaction of the parts of the glass, occasioned by the motion and pressure of the finger.

How to make a Cork fly out of a Bottle.

Put a little chalk or pounded marble into a phial, and pour on some water, with about a third part of sulphuric acid, and put in a cork: in a few seconds, the cork will be sent off with great violence.

To produce Gas Light, on a small Scale.

Take an ordinary tobacco pipe, and nearly fill the bowl with small coals, and stop the mouth of the bowl with any suitable luting, as pipe-clay, or the mixture of sand and common clay, or, as clay is apt to shrink, of sand and beer, and place the bowl in a fire between the bars of a grate, so that the pipe may stand nearly perpendicular. In a few minutes, if the luting be good, the gas will begin to escape from the stem of the pipe, when, if a piece of lighted paper or candle be applied, it will take fire and burn for several minutes with an intense light. When the light goes out, a residuum of useful products will be found in the bowl.

Thunder Powder.

Take separately, three parts of good dry saltpetre, two parts of dry salt of tartar, and pound them well together in a mortar; then add thereto one part, or rather more, of flour of brimstone, and take care to pound and mix the whole perfectly together: put this composition into a bottle with a glass stopper, for use.

Put about two drams of this mixture in an iron spoon, over a moderate fire, but not in the flame; in a short time it will melt, and go off with an explosion like thunder or a loaded cannon.

To tell, by the Dial of a Watch, at what hour any Person intends to rise.

Let the person set the hand of the dial to any hour he pleases, and tell you what hour that is, and to the number of that hour you add, in your mind, 12. After this, tell him to call the hour the index stands at that which he has fixed upon; and by reckoning backwards from this number to the former, it will bring him to the hour required.

EXAMPLE.

Suppose the hour at which he intends to rise be 8, and that he has placed the hand at 5.

Then, adding 12 to 5, you bid him call the hour at which the index stands, the number on which he thought; and by reckoning back from this number to 17, it will bring him to 8, the hour required.

The following Experiment shews the Power of Attraction.

If we take two pieces of lead, as two musket or pistol balls, and with a knife smooth two plane surfaces, and press them together, they will firmly adhere.

Two plates of metal made very smooth, when rubbed with oil and put together, will so firmly adhere, that it will require a great force to separate them.

If two pieces of wood, or of glass, be wetted with water, and placed together, the one may be lifted up by means of the other. Boys often have a piece of leather on the end of a string, which they wet and put on a stone, and thereby lift it up.

If we take a small tube of glass with a narrow bore, and put it in water, the fluid will rise higher within the tube than in the vessel. The narrower the tube is, the higher the water rises. This is called Capillary Attraction. If we put two pieces of glass together, and place the lower edge in water, it will rise between them, as it does in the capillary tubes. This experiment may be made more pleasing, by putting a shilling or a piece of paper between the two pieces of glass at one end. The water will then rise in a curve line, called an hyperbola, higher and higher as it recedes from the shilling or piece of paper, and the pieces of glass get nearer to each other.

Place a balance equally poised, so that one scale may be made to touch water in a vessel; considerable weight must be put in the other scale, to make it rise up. Put three or four bits of cork to float in a basin of water; they will gradually draw nearer to each other, and the more rapidly as the distance diminishes.

Experiments to shew the Power of Repulsion.

Dip a ball in oil and put it in water; a ditch will be formed all round it. Pour water on oiled paper, and it will run off.

Sprinkle water on a dusty floor, it rolls over it in globules. Sprinkle it upon a floor that has been swept, and this will not be the case, as it then comes in contact with the wood, and is diffused over it.

We may observe that rain water stands in globules on the leaves of cabbages. If we blow up soap-bubbles, and let them fall on the carpet, they will not for some time burst. Let them fall on the table, or any smooth surface, and they will burst instantly.

If we pour as much water into a cup as it will possibly hold, we shall see the water above the level of the sides, if the edge be dry, but otherwise we shall not.

Lay a very fine needle, or a piece of tinfoil, on the surface of water, and it will float, until it become wet, when it sinks.

Lay a piece of gold on mercury, and it will float on the surface; but if depressed below the surface, it will sink to the bottom, like the needle on water.

Experiments respecting the Centre of Gravity.

The centre of gravity is that part of a body, round which all its parts are so equally balanced, that, if it be supported, the whole body will be so too.

Take a book, and find, by trial, under what part the finger must be placed to keep the book from falling; that point is the centre of gravity.

Take a rod, or stick, and find that place about the middle of it, under which the finger being placed, it will be balanced; that is the centre of gravity. The moment the centre of gravity ceases to be supported, the whole body falls.

Move a piece of board to the edge of a table, and gradually farther and farther off it; the instant the centre of gravity gets beyond the edge of the table, the board falls.

Run the point of a knife much slanting into the same board, it may then be brought much farther over the edge of the table than it could before, as the knife, leaning the way of the table, brings the centre of gravity that way.

Take a bottle, with a cork in it; stick in the middle of the cork a needle, with the point, upwards; then take another cork, and with a knife make a slit in one of its ends, in which place a shilling so far as to make it fast; then take two forks, or penknives, and stick one on each side the cork, slanting a little downwards; then place the edge of the shilling on the point of the needle, and it will rest secure. It may be made to revolve, with great rapidity, on the point of the needle, without falling off.

The following Experiment shews the Power of Steam.

Put a little water in a bottle, and cork it securely, covering it with sealing wax; then put the bottle into a kettle of water, and let it boil a short time, and the steam will force out the cork.

Diminution of Heat by Evaporation.

Pour water on a piece of writing-paper, and hold it over a candle; it will boil without burning the paper.

Water may be boiled in an egg-shell on the fire.

Experiment to ascertain the Strength of Spirits of Wine.

It is a common practice for apothecaries, in order to ascertain if spirit of wine be sufficiently strong, to pour some into a cup upon some gunpowder, and then to set fire to it. If the spirit be sufficiently strong, after burning down to the gunpowder, it will make it go off; but if too much water has been poured in, that will not take place, as, after the spirit is consumed, there will still be water enough to keep the powder wet.

To ascertain the Strength of Brine.

To ascertain the strength of brine for salting meat, it is usual to put an egg in the boiling water, and gradually put in salt until the egg be made to swim.

The following Experiments shew the Pressure and Elasticity of Air.

Put an empty bottle with a cork in it near the fire; the cork will be driven out.

Get a vessel of hot water, and put a phial into it, with the mouth downwards; the expanded air will bubble out. Let the water cool, or pour cold water on the phial, of which the mouth has not been drawn above the surface of the water, and as the air is now cooled, and occupies less space, a considerable part of the bottle will be filled with water.

Boil a little water in a glass phial over a candle for a few minutes; then invert the mouth of the phial in water, and, as it cools, the air will contract, and water will be forced up the bottle, by the external air, to occupy the vacant space.

Lay a weighty book on a bladder, and blow into it with a pipe, and the book will be raised. Increase the weight on the bladder very much indeed, and you may still raise it as before.

A bladder filled with air may be compressed, and the moment the force is removed, it will recover its size. If thrown on the ground it will rise like a ball.

Take a cup, and burn a few pieces of paper in it, the heat will expand the air in it. Invert the cup now in a saucer of water, and, as the enclosed air cools, it will return to its former density, and leave a vacuum, and the pressure of the external air will force a great deal of water up into the cup. If this experiment be performed with a large drinking-glass, the water may be seen to rise in the glass.

The pressure of the air may be very sensibly felt, by putting the hole of a common bellows over the knee, and then attempting to raise the upper part of it.

Boil water in a glass phial over a candle for a few minutes, then suddenly removing it, tie a piece of wetted bladder over the mouth, making it fast with a string; the pressure of the air will stretch the bladder, if it do not burst it.

Get a glass vessel, as a common tumbler, if no better be at hand, and put a piece of wetted bladder over the mouth, pressing it down in the middle, and then tie it firm with a string; then lay hold of the bladder in the middle, and try to pull it straight, or level with the rest, and the pressure of the external air will not permit it.

Do exactly the same as before, except that the vessel must be nearly full of water. Turn the vessel upside-down, and the bladder will still continue as it was placed, the pressure of the air overcoming the weight of the water.

Though air be capable of compression, it makes a resistance, and that very considerable. The ball of an air-gun has been burst asunder by overcharging it. If bottles are filled too much, they may be burst in attempting to cork them, from the air between the cork and the liquor being too much condensed.

Put a common wine-glass, with the mouth downwards, into water; and to whatever depth it may be plunged, the air will not allow much water to rise into it, as may be seen by the inside of the glass not being wet. If a bit of cork float inside of the glass, it will point out to the eye still more clearly how high the water rises. This experiment, though so very simple will illustrate the nature of the diving-bell.

Experiments respecting Sound.

Hold a tumbler sideways, and sprinkle a little dust, or powder of any sort, on it; then strike the glass, and make it sound:--the dust keeps dancing about whilst the sound continues; stop the sound, and the dust is at rest.

The sound of a watch laid upon a long table, or upon a plank of wood, will be heard much farther than it otherwise would.

When a vessel on the fire begins to boil, let a communication be made between it and the ear, by means of the poker, and the sound is more distinctly heard.

Tie a string round the end of a poker, and then, winding one end of the string round the fore-finger of the one hand, and the other end of the string round the fore-finger of the other; put the fingers into the ears, and make the poker strike against a table, or any other object, and it will sound like the bell of a church.

Tie a string round the end of a poker, as before, and hold the string with your teeth; when the poker is made to strike against any object, as in the last experiment, the same kind of sound will be transmitted through the teeth.

Make a watch touch your teeth, and you will hear its beating more distinctly.

When a pitchfork is struck, in order to pitch a tune, its end is put on the table, and a greater sound is produced. If the pitchfork, after being struck, be held to the teeth, its sound is still more distinct.

Having shut up both ears with cotton very closely, put your fingers on the teeth of a person who speaks to you, and you will hear his voice.

Electrical Experiments.

If a piece of sealing-wax be rubbed briskly against the sleeve of your coat, or any other woollen substance, for some time, and then held within an inch or less of hair, feathers, bits of paper, or other light bodies; they will be attracted, that is, they will jump up, and adhere to the wax. If a tube of glass, or small phial, be rubbed in a similar manner, it will answer much better. The bottle thus rubbed becomes electric; and when the operation is performed in a dark room, small flashes of divergent flame, ramified somewhat like trees bare of leaves, will dart into the air, from many parts of the surface of the tube, to the distance of six or eight inches, attended with a crackling noise; and sometimes sparks will fly along the tube to the rubber at more than a foot distant.

Cut two bits of cork into the shape and size of a common pea. With a needle, draw a thread through each of the corks, so that they may be made to hang at the ends of the threads with a knot below them. Let the other ends of the threads be inserted in the notch of a small piece of wood, about a foot long, and an inch broad, and the thickness of a common match. Lay the piece of wood over two wine-glasses, a few inches asunder, so that the end of it, in which the threads are, may project over the edge of the glass nearest it, and the corks may be in contact one with another. Take another wine-glass, and, having rubbed it briskly with a piece of flannel, or upon the skirt or sleeve of a woollen coat, hold its mouth to within about an inch of the corks, and they will suddenly start asunder, and continue so for some time.

Lay a pocket-watch upon a table, and take a common tobacco-pipe, and place it on the face of the watch so that it may balance thereon; then, after rubbing a wine-glass, as described in the former experiment, bring it to within an inch of the smaller end of the tobacco-pipe, and by moving the glass gently round in an horizontal circular track, you will cause the pipe to turn round on the watch-glass, as the needle turns on its centre in a mariner's compass.

A curious Experiment made by Mr. Symmer, on the Electricity of Silk Stockings.

This gentleman having frequently observed, that on putting off his stockings in the evening, they made a crackling or snapping noise, and that in the dark they emitted sparks of fire, was induced to examine on what circumstances these electrical appearances depended. After a considerable number of observations, directed to this point, he found that it was the combination of white and black which produced the electricity, and that the appearances were the strongest when he wore a white and a black stocking upon the same leg. These, however, discovered no signs of electricity while they were upon the leg, though they were drawn backwards and forwards upon it several times; but the moment they were separated, they were both of them found to be highly electrified, the white positively, and the black negatively; and when they were held at a distance from each other, they appeared inflated to such a degree, that they exhibited the entire shape of the leg.

When two black or two white stockings were held together, they would repel one another to a considerable distance; and when a white and black stocking were presented to each other, they would be mutually attracted, and rush together with great violence, joining as close as if they had been so many folds of silk; and in this case their electricity did not seem to have been in the least impaired by the shock of meeting, for they would be again inflated, attract, repel, and rush together, as before.

When this experiment was performed with two black stockings in one hand, and two white ones in the other, it exhibited a still more curious spectacle. The repulsion of those of the same colour, and the attraction of those of different colours, threw them into an agitation, and made each of them catch at the opposite colour in a way that was very amusing.

What was also very remarkable in these experiments with a white and black stocking, was, the power of electrical cohesion which they exhibited; Mr. Symmer having found, that when they were electrified, and allowed to come together, they frequently stuck so close to each other, that it required a weight of sixteen or seventeen ounces to separate them, and this in a direction parallel to their surfaces.

When one of the stockings was turned inside-out, it required twenty ounces to separate them; and by having the black stockings new dyed, and the white ones washed, and whitened in the fumes of sulphur, and then putting them one within the other, it required three pounds three ounces to separate them.

Trying this experiment with stockings of a more substantial make, he found that, when the white stocking was put within the black one, so that its outside was contiguous to the inside of the other, they raised near nine pounds; and when the white stocking was turned inside-out, and put within the black one, so that their rough surfaces were contiguous, they raised fifteen pounds, which was ninety-two times the weight of the stockings. And, in all these cases, he found that pressing them together with his hands contributed much to strengthen the cohesion.

When the white and black stockings were in cohesion, and another pair, more highly electrified, were separated from each other, and presented to the former, their cohesion would be dissolved, and each stocking of the second pair would catch hold of, and carry away with it, that of its opposite co-lour; but if the degree of electricity of both pairs were equal, the cohesion of the former would be weakened, but not dissolved, and all the four would cohere together in one mass.

Mr. Symmer also observed, that white and black silk, when electrified, not only cohered with each other, but they would also adhere to bodies with broad, and even polished, surfaces, though those bodies were not electrified. This he discovered, by throwing accidentally a stocking out of his hand, which stuck to the paper-hangings of the room, and which, in another experiment of this kind, continued hanging there nearly an hour.

Having stuck up the black and white stockings in this manner, he came with another pair of stockings, highly electrified, and applying the white to the black, and the black to the white, he carried them off from the wall, each of them hanging to that which had been brought to it. The same experiment also held with the painted boards of the room, and likewise with the looking-glass, to the smooth surface of which, the white and black stockings appeared to adhere more tenaciously than to either of the former.

To suspend a Ring by a Thread that has been burnt.

The thread having been previously soaked in chamber lye, or common salt and water, tie it to a ring, not larger than wedding-ring. When you apply the flame of a candle to it, though the thread burn to ashes, it will yet sustain the ring.

Chemical Illuminations.

Put into a middling-sized bottle, with a short wide neck, three ounces of oil or spirit of vitriol, with twelve ounces of common water, and throw into it, at different times, an ounce or two of iron filings. A violent commotion will then take place, and white vapours will arise from the mixture. If a taper be held to the mouth of the bottle, these vapours will inflame, and produce a violent explosion; which may be repeated as long as the vapours continue.

To make the Appearance of a Flash of Lightning when any one enters a Room with a lighted Candle.

Dissolve camphor in spirit of wine, and deposit the vessel containing the solution in a very close room, where the spirit of wine must be made to evaporate by strong and speedy boiling. If any one then enters the room with a lighted candle, the air will inflame; but the combustion will be so sudden, and of so short duration, as to occasion no danger.

The Fiery Fountain.

If twenty grains of phosphorus, cut very small, and mixed with forty grains of powdered zinc, be put into four drachms of water, and two drachms of concentrated sulphuric acid be added thereto, bubbles of inflamed phosphuretted hydrogen gas will quickly cover the whole surface of the fluid in succession, forming a real fountain of fire.

A Lamp that will burn Twelve Months without replenishing.

Take a stick of phosphorus, and put it into a large dry phial, not corked, and it will afford a light sufficient to discern any object in a room, when held near it. The phial should be kept in a cool place, where there is no great current of air, and it will continue its luminous appearance for more than twelve months.

The Magic Oracle.

Get six blank cards, and write on them figures, or numbers, exactly according to the following patterns.

No. I

17 19 3 13 1 27 21 5 29 47 23 7 31 45 59 15 11 33 43 0 57 9 35 41 55 0 25 39 53 0 37 0 0 49 0 51

No. II.

14 18 3 15 2 35 22 6 34 47 19 10 31 46 59 23 11 30 43 0 58 7 27 42 55 0 26 39 54 0 38 0 0 50 0 51

No. III.

14 13 7 21 4 37 23 5 36 47 20 6 31 46 60 22 12 30 45 0 55 15 29 44 0 0 28 39 54 0 38 0 0 52 0 53

No. IV.

14 15 10 13 8 41 26 9 40 47 27 11 31 46 60 25 13 30 45 0 59 12 29 44 0 0 28 43 57 0 42 0 24 56 0 58

No. V.

22 24 17 26 16 49 23 18 48 55 25 20 31 54 60 27 21 30 53 0 5 19 29 52 58 0 28 51 57 0 50 0 0 0 0 56

No. VI.

38 40 34 39 32 49 41 35 48 55 43 37 47 54 60 42 33 46 53 0 59 36 45 52 0 0 44 51 57 0 50 0 0 56 0 58

You deliver the cards to a person, and desire him to think of any number from one to sixty; he is then to look at the cards, and say in which cards the number he thought of is to be found; and you immediately tell him the number thought of.

EXPLANATION.

This surprising and ingenious recreation is done by means of a key number. There is a key number in every card, viz. the last but one in the second row from the top. From this explanation the reader will perceive that the key numbers are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32. Now whatever number is fixed on, from 1 to 60, will be readily found by privately adding together the key numbers of the cards that contain the number thought on. For instance, suppose a person thinks of number 43; he looks at the cards, and gives you No. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, as cards which contain the number thought on: you expertly perceive that the key numbers are 1, 2, 8, 32; which numbers added together make 43, the number thought on. Suppose he thinks of No. 15, he gives you No. 1, 2, 3, 4: the key numbers are 1, 2, 4, 8; which added, make just 15; and so of all numbers from 1 to 60.

This recreation may be varied many ways; as, telling the age of a person, &c.; but this is left to the ingenious reader's taste and application.

Cheap and Easy Method of constructing a Voltaic Pile.

Mr. Mitchell, in his useful little work on natural philosophy, proposes the following cheap and easy method of constructing a Voltaic Pile. Zinc is one of the cheapest of metals, and may be easily melted, like lead. Let the student cast twenty or thirty pieces, of the size of a penny-piece, which may easily be done in moulds made in clay. Let him then get as many penny-pieces, and as many pieces of paper, or cloth cut in the same shape, and these he must dip in a solution of salt and water. In building the pile, let him place a piece of zinc, wet paper, (the superabundant water being squeezed out,) after which the copper; then zinc, paper, copper, &c. until the whole be finished. The sides of the pile may be supported with rods of glass, or varnished wood, fixed in the board on which it is built. The following experiment may then be performed:--

Having wetted both hands, touch the lower part of the pile with one hand, and the upper part with the other, constant, little shocks of electricity will be felt until one hand be removed. If the hand be brought back, a similar repetition of shocks will be felt. Put a basin of water near the pile, and put the left hand into it, holding a wire, one end of which touches the top of the battery or pile; then put the end of a silver spoon between the lip and the gum, and with the other end of the spoon touch the lower part of the pile; a strong shock is felt in the gum and in the hand. Take the left hand from the water, but still keep hold of the wire, and then perform the last experiment in the same manner, and a shock will be felt in the gum only. Hold a silver spoon in one hand, and touch with it the battery at the lower part, then touch the upper part with the tongue; the bitter taste will be extreme.

In performing the above experiments, if, instead of the two ends of the pile, the one end and the middle of it be touched, the sensations will not be nearly so strong. If the student be desirous of having still more sensible proofs of the effect of galvanism, let him hold a wire to the top of the battery, and let him place one end of a silver spoon to the lower part, and the other end within his mouth, so as to touch the gums; a severe set of shocks will be felt. In performing this experiment, move the spoon to the roof of the mouth, and a strong sensation will be felt. Let the end of the spoon be run up the nose so as to touch the cartilaginous bone; shocks like the stabs of a needle will be felt. Let the end of the spoon be put under the eye-brow, close to the ball of the eye; a sensation will be felt like the burning of red-hot iron, but which ceases the instant the spoon is removed.

Magnetical Experiments.

The magnetic attraction will not be destroyed by interposing obstacles between the magnet and the iron.

Lay a small needle on a piece of paper, and put a magnet under the paper; the needle may be moved backwards and forwards.

Lay the needle on a piece of glass, and put the magnet under the glass; it will still attract the needle. The same effects will take place if a board be interposed between the magnet and the iron. This property of the magnet has afforded the means of some very amusing deceptions.

A little figure of a man has been made to spell a person's name. The hand, in which was a piece of iron, rested on a board, under which a person, concealed from view, with a powerful magnet, contrived to carry it from letter to letter, until the word was made up.

The figure of a goose or swan, with a piece of iron concealed about the head, is set to float in water. A rod, with a concealed magnet at the end, is presented to the bird, and it swims after it. The effect is still more amusing, when some food is put on the end of the rod.

The figure of a fish is thrown into the water, with a small magnet concealed in its mouth. Of course, if a baited hook be suspended near it, the magnet and iron, by mutual attraction, will bring the fish to the bait.

Put a piece of iron in one scale of a balance, and an equal weight in the other scale; bring a magnet under the scale which contains the iron, and it will draw it down. Reverse this experiment, and put the magnet in the scale, and balance it; bring the iron under it, and it will draw down the magnet. Suspend a magnet by a string, and bring a piece of iron near it, and it will attract.

If a magnet suspended by one string, and a piece of iron suspended by another, be brought near one another, they will mutually attract each other, and be drawn to a point between.

Suspend a magnet nicely poised by a thread, and it will point north and south, the same end pointing invariably the same way.

Rub a fine needle with a magnet, and lay it gently on the surface of the water; it will point north and south. Rub various needles with the magnet, and run them through small pieces of cork, and put them to swim in water; they will all point north and south, and the same end will invariably point the same way. This mode of finding the north is sometimes of the utmost service at sea, when the compass is destroyed.

Opposite poles attract; poles of the same name repel. Take two magnets, or two needles rubbed with the magnet, and bring the north and south poles together, and they attract.

Bring the north poles near each other, and they repel. Bring the south poles near each other, and they repel. Rub a needle with a magnet, and run it through a piece of cork, and put it to float in water. Hold a north pole of a magnet near its north pole, and it will keep flying away to avoid it. It may be chased from side to side of a basin. On the other hand, an opposite pole will immediately attract.

Rub four or five needles, and you may lift them up as in a string, the north pole of one needle adhering to the south pole of another.

Put a magnet under a piece of glass, and sprinkle iron-filings on it; they will arrange themselves in a manner that will be very surprising. At each pole will be a vast abundance standing erect, and there will be fewer and fewer as they recede, until there are scarcely any in the middle. If the iron-filings are sprinkled on the magnet itself, they will arrange themselves in a manner very striking.

Lay a needle exactly between the north and south pole, it will move towards neither.

Artificial Coruscations.

There is a method of producing artificial coruscations, or sparkling fiery meteors, which will be visible not only in the dark but at noon-day, and that from two liquors actually cold. Fifteen grains of solid phosphorus are to be melted in about a drachm of water: when this is cold, pour upon it about two ounces of oil of vitriol; let these be shaken together, and they will at first heat, and afterwards they will throw up fiery balls in great numbers, which will adhere like so many stars to the sides of the glass, and continue burning for a considerable time; after this, if a small quantity of oil of turpentine is poured in, without shaking the phial, the mixture will of itself take fire, and burn very furiously. The vessel should be large, and open at the top. Artificial coruscations may also be produced by means of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following manner:--Take a glass body capable of holding three quarts; put into it three ounces of oil of vitriol and twelve ounces of water; then warming the mixture a little, throw in, at several times, two ounces or more of clean iron-filings; upon this, an ebullition and white vapours will arise; then present a lighted candle to the mouth of the vessel, and the vapour will take fire, and will afford a bright illumination, or flash like lightning. Applying the candle in this manner several times, the effect will always be the same; and sometimes the fire will fill the whole body of the glass, and even circulate to the bottom of the liquor; at others, it will only reach a little way down its neck. The great caution to be used in this experiment is, in making the vapour of a proper heat; for, if too cold, few vapours will arise; and, if made too hot, they will come too fast, and only take fire in the neck of the glass, without any remarkable coruscation.

To make an Egg enter a Phial without breaking.

Let the neck of a phial be ever so strait, an egg will go into it without breaking, if it be first steeped in very strong vinegar, for in process of time the vinegar does so soften it, that the shell will bend and extend lengthways without breaking: and when it is in, cold water thrown upon it will recover its primitive hardness, and, as Cardan says, its primitive figure.

Light produced by Friction, even under Water.

Rub two pieces of fine lump sugar together in the dark; the effect is produced, but in a much greater degree, by two pieces of silex, or quartz: but that which affords the strongest light of any thing, is a white quartz[25] from the Land's End, considerable quantities of which are brought to Bristol, and enter into the composition of china ware. By means of two pieces of such quartz, pretty forcibly rubbed together, you may distinguish the time of the night by a watch: but, what is more surprising, the same effect is produced equally strong by rubbing the pieces of quartz together under water.

Rosin Bubbles.

The following account of a simple and curious experiment is extracted from a letter written by Mr. Morey, of Oxford, New Hampshire, to Dr. Silliman, the editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts.

"If the end of a copper tube, or of a tobacco-pipe stem, be dipped in melted rosin, at a temperature a little above that of boiling water, taken out and held nearly in a vertical position, and blown through, bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes, from that of a hen's egg down to sizes which can hardly be discerned by the naked eye; and from their silvery lustre, and reflection of the different rays of light, they have a pleasing appearance. Some that have been formed these eight months, are as perfect as when first made. They generally assume the form of a string of beads, many of them perfectly regular, and connected by a very fine fibre; but the production is never twice alike. If expanded by hydrogen gas, they would probably occupy the upper part of the room.

"The formation of these bubbles is ascribed to a common cause, viz. the distention of a viscous fluid by one that is aëriform; and their permanency, to the sudden congelation of the rosin thus imprisoning the air by a thin film of solid matter, and preventing its escape."

A curious Hydraulic Experiment, called the Magical Bottle.

Take a small bottle, (see Plate) AB, Fig. 9, the neck of which must be very narrow, and provide a glass vessel, CD, the height of which exceeds that of the bottle about two inches; fill the bottle, by means of a small funnel, with red wine, and place it in the vessel CD, which is to be previously filled with water. Then, if the bottle be uncorked, the wine will presently come out of it, and rise in form of a small column, to the surface of the water; and at the same time the water entering the bottle, will supply the place of wine; for water being specifically heavier than wine, it will consequently subside to the lowest place, while the other naturally rises to the top.

A similar effect will be produced, if the bottle be filled with water, and the vessel with wine, for the bottle being placed in the vessel, in an inverted position, the water will descend to the bottom of the vessel, and the wine will rise in the bottle. The same effect may also be produced by any other liquors, the specific gravities of which are considerably different.

Another Hydraulic Experiment, called the Miraculous Vessel.

Take a tin vessel of about six inches in height, and three in diameter, having a mouth of only a quarter of an inch wide, and in the bottom of the vessel make a number of small holes, of a size sufficient to admit a common sewing needle.

Plunge the vessel into water, with its mouth open, and when it is full, cork it, and take it out again; then, as long as the vessel remains corked, no water will come out of it; but as soon as it is uncorked, the water will immediately issue from the small holes at the bottom. It must be observed, however, that if the holes at the bottom of the vessel be more than one-sixth of an inch in diameter, or if they be too numerous, the experiment will not succeed; for, in this case, the pressure of the air against the bottom of the vessel will not be sufficient to confine the water.

A curious Hydraulic Experiment, called Tantalus's Cup.

Take a glass, or any other vessel, (see Plate) ABCD, fig. 10. which has a small bent pipe, EFG, open at each end, running through the middle of it; then, if water or wine be poured into the glass, it will continue in it till the tube is full up to the bend F, which should be a little lower than the upper edge of the glass; but if, after this, you continue to pour more liquor into it, it will endeavour, as usual, to rise higher in the glass, but not finding room for a farther ascent in the tube, it will descend through the part EG, and run out at the end G, as long as you continue to put it in. To those who are unacquainted with the nature of the syphon, the effect may perhaps appear something more extraordinary, if the longest branch of the tube be concealed in the handle of the cup.

This is called the cup of Tantalus, from its resemblance to an experiment of the same kind, by placing an upright image in the cup, and disposing the syphon in such a manner, that, as soon as the water rises to the chin of the image, it will begin to run out through the longest leg, in the same manner as from the cup above-mentioned.

A curious Chemical Experiment, called the Tree of Diana.

Make an amalgam, without heat, of two drachms of leaf silver with one drachm of quicksilver. Dissolve this amalgam two ounces, or a sufficient quantity, of pure nitrous acid of a moderate strength: dilute the solution in about a pound and a half of distilled water, agitate the mixture, and preserve it for use in a glass bottle with a ground stopper. When you would make your tree, put into a phial the quantity of an ounce of the above preparation, and add to it about the size of a pea of amalgam of gold or silver, as soft as butter: the vessel must then be left at rest, and soon afterwards small filaments will appear to issue out of the ball of amalgam, which quickly increase, and shoot out branches in the form of shrubs.

A metallic arborisation, somewhat similar, may be produced in the following manner:--Dissolve a little sugar of lead in water, and fill a phial with the solution. Pass a wire through the cork, and affix to the upper part of the wire a small bit of silver, or zinc, in such a manner that it may be immersed in the solution not far from its surface. Set the phial in some place where it may remain undisturbed, and in about twenty-four hours you will perceive the lead beginning to shoot round the wire: this process will continue going on slowly, till you have a beautiful metallic tree. If you have a wide-mouthed phial, or glass jar, the experiment may be pleasingly diversified, by arranging the wire in various forms.

A remarkable Experiment, called Prince Rupert's Drops.

Take up a small quantity of the melted matter of glass with a tube, and let a drop of it fall into a vessel of water. This drop will have a small tail, which, being broken, the whole substance of the drop will burst, with great violence, into a fine powder, and give a little pain to the hand, but do no hurt to it.

It is a remarkable circumstance in this experiment, that the bulb, or body, will bear the stroke of a hammer, without breaking; but when the tail is broken, the above-mentioned effect is produced. If the drop be cooled in the air, the same effect will not take place; and if it be ground away on a stone, nothing extraordinary appears; but if it be put into the receiver of an air-pump, and then broken, the effect will be so violent as to produce light.

How to make Sympathetic Inks of various Kinds.

By sympathetic inks, are meant those kinds of liquors, with which if any characters be written, they will remain invisible, till some method is used to give them a colour.

The first class of these inks consists of such as become visible by passing another liquor over them, or by exposing them to the vapour of that liquor.

The second, of those which do not appear so long as they are kept close, but soon become visible on being exposed to the air.

The third, of such as become apparent by strewing or sifting some very fine powder over them.

The fourth, of those which do not become visible till they are exposed to the fire, or heated.

The fifth, like the fourth, of such as appear by heat, but disappear again when the paper becomes cold, or has had a sufficient time to imbibe the moisture of the air.

Sympathetic Inks of the First Class.--Put some litharge into strong distilled vinegar, and let it stand for twenty-four hours; then strain it off, and, after it is quite settled, put it into a bottle closely corked, and preserve it for use. Having done this, put into a pint bottle two ounces of quicklime, one ounce of orpiment in powder, and as much water as will rise two or three fingers' breadth above them; and when the solution is made, pour the liquid gently off, and let it stand in the sun for two or three days, observing to turn it five or six times each day.

When these liquors are ready for use, any letters written by the first, being exposed to the vapours of the second, will quickly become visible; and if you would have them disappear again, you must draw a sponge, or pencil, dipt in aqua-fortis, or spirit of nitre, over them: and if, after this, you would have them appear again, stay till the paper is quite dry, and then pass the vivifying liquor, made of the solution of orpiment, over them, as before.

Another Ink of this Class.--Dissolve bismuth in the nitrous acid, and any letters written with this ink will become quite black, by being exposed to the vapour of liver of sulphur, which is of so penetrating a nature, that it will act upon the ink through a quire of paper, or even the slight partition of a room.

A Sympathetic Gold Ink of the Second Class.--Put as much gold into a small quantity of aqua-regia as will dissolve it, and then dilute it with two or three times as much distilled water.

Also dissolve, in a separate vessel, fine pewter in aqua-regia; and when it is well saturated, add to it an equal quantity of distilled water.

Then, if any characters be written with the solution of gold, put them in the shade till they become quite dry, and they will not appear for the first seven or eight hours, but if you dip a pencil, or small fine sponge, in the solution of pewter, and draw it lightly over the invisible characters, they will presently appear of a purple colour.

The purple colour of these letters may be effaced again, by wetting them with aqua-regia, and may be produced a second time, by passing the solution of pewter over them as before.

A Sympathetic Ink of the Second Class.--Dissolve fine silver in aqua-fortis, and add some distilled water to the solution, in the same manner as in the gold ink; then, whatever is written with this ink, will remain invisible for three or four months, if it be kept close from the air; but if it be exposed to the sun, it will appear in about an hour, of a gray colour, like that of a slate.

Sympathetic Inks of the Third Class,--or such as become visible by having any fine powder strewed over them,--may be composed of the glutinous and colourless juice of any vegetable, the milk of animals, and several other substances.

Sympathetic Inks of the Fourth Class,--are made by diluting acid of vitriol with about three times its weight of common water, or as much as will prevent it from corroding the paper. The juice of lemons, or onions, will answer the same purpose; but either of them requires more heat than the first, and will not keep so long.

A Green Ink of the Fifth Class.--Take zaffre in powder, and let it remain dissolved in aqua-regia for twenty-four hours; after which pour the liquor off clear, and, adding to it as much common water, keep it in a bottle well corked. Then, if any characters be written with this ink, and exposed to the fire, or strong rays of the sun, they will appear of a lively green.

It is the peculiar property of this ink, that as soon as the paper becomes cold again, the letters will disappear; and this alternate appearance and disappearance may be repeated a great number of times, provided the heat be not too great.

Other Sympathetic Inks.

A Yellow Ink of this kind may be made, by steeping the flowers of marigolds seven or eight days in clear distilled vinegar, and then pressing them out, and keeping the liquor well corked in a bottle for use.

For a Red invisible Ink,--take the pure spirit of vitriol, or that of nitre, and add to it eight or ten times as much water, according as you would have it more or less red.

For a Green Ink of this sort,--dissolve salt of tartar, the clearest and driest you can procure, in a sufficient quantity of river water; and for a Violet sympathetic Ink, express the juice of lemons, and keep it in a bottle well corked.

Then, if any characters be written with one of these inks, they will appear in their proper colours, the paper having been dipped in the following liquor.

Take a sufficient quantity of the flowers of pansies, or common violets, and after adding some water to them, strain the liquor through a cloth, and keep it in a bottle for use.

A Sympathetic Ink which appears by being wetted with Water.

Mix alum with a sufficient quantity of lemon juice; then, if any letters or characters be written with this mixture, they will be invisible till they are wetted with water, which will make them appear of a grayish colour, and quite transparent.

Or, you may write with a strong solution of roch-alum only, and when the writing is dry, pour a small quantity of water over it, and it will appear of a white colour, like that of the paper before it was wetted.

Also all saline liquors, such as vitriolic, nitrous, and marine acids, diluted with water, the liquor of fixed vegetable alkalis, and even vinegar, will produce the same effect.

If a little aqua-fortis be mixed with the water, the writing will dry well, and not run out of its form when the paper is wetted.

A curious Recreation with Sympathetic Ink, called the Book of Fate.

Make a book, consisting of seventy or eighty leaves, and in the cover at the end of it, let there be a case which opens next to the back, that it may not be perceived. At the top of each right-hand page, write any question you please; and at the beginning of the book, let there be a table of those questions, with the number of the pages in which each is to be found. Then write with common ink on separate papers, each about half the size of the pages, the same questions that are in the book; and under each of them, write the answer with the ink made with the litharge of lead, or the solution of bismuth.

Soak a double paper in the vivifying ink, made of quicklime and orpiment, or the liver of sulphur; and just before you make the experiment, place it in the case that is in the cover of the book.

Having done this, deliver some of the papers on which the questions are written, to the company; and after they have chosen such as they wish to have answered, let them put them into those leaves where the same questions are contained; then shutting the book for a few minutes, the sulphureous spirit, with which the paper in the cover of the book is impregnated, will penetrate the leaves, and make the answer visible, which will be of a brown colour, and more or less deep, in proportion to the time the book has been closed.

A curious Recreation, called the Transcolorated Writing.

Write on a paper, with a violet-coloured liquor, as many letters or words as you please, and ask any person which he will choose to have the writing,--yellow, green, or red. When he has made his choice, have a sponge ready with three sides, which you can easily distinguish, and dip each of its sides in one of the three sympathetic inks; then draw the side of the sponge which corresponds to the colour the person has chosen, over the writing, once only, and it will directly change to the colour required.

An Experiment with Sympathetic Ink, called the Oracular Letters.

Write on several slips of paper different questions, and such as may be answered by the name of some person: for example, Who is the merriest man in company?--Answer, Mr. * * *. To whom will Miss * * * be married?--Answer, To Mr. * * *. These questions are to be written in the sympathetic ink of the fourth class, and exposed to the fire, and the answers written in the same ink, and left invisible. The papers are then to be folded in the form of letters, and in such a manner, that the part where the name is written shall be directly under the seal; in which case, the heat of the wax will make it visible. Then, if the letter be given to the person who requires the answer, he will find it plainly written.

An Experiment with Sympathetic Ink, called Winter changed to Spring.

Take a print which represents winter, and trace over the trees, plants, and ground, with the green sympathetic ink; observing to make some parts deeper than others, according to their distance. When those parts are dry, paint the other objects in their natural colours; then put the print into a glazed frame, and cover the back of it with a paper, pasted over its border only. When this print is exposed to the heat of a moderate fire, or to the warm rays of the sun, all the grass and foliage will turn to a pleasing green; and if a yellow tint be given to some parts of the print, before the sympathetic ink be drawn over it, the green will be of different shades, and the scene, that a minute before represented Winter, will now be changed into Spring. When this print is placed in the cold, Winter will appear again, and be again driven away by the warm rays of the sun; and this alternate change of seasons may be repeated as often as you please, provided the print be not made too hot.

A remarkable Experiment, called the Revivified Rose.

Take a rose that is quite faded, and throw in some common sulphur in a chafing-dish of hot coal. Hold the rose over the fumes, and it will become quite white; then dip it into a basin of water, and giving it to any one, tell him to put it into his box or drawer, and after locking it, to give you the key. About five or six hours afterwards, return him the key, and when he unlocks his drawer, instead of the white rose he put into it, he will find one perfectly red.

How to Write on Glass by means of the Rays of the Sun.

Dissolve chalk in aqua-fortis, to the consistence of milk, and add to it a strong solution of silver; keep this liquor in a glass decanter, well stopped, and cutting out from a paper the letters you wish to appear, paste it on the decanter, and place it in the sun, in such a manner, that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper, and fall on the surface of the liquor; then will that part of the glass through which the rays pass be turned black, while that under the paper will remain white; but particular care must be taken that the bottle be not moved during the time of the operation.

To produce different Colours, by pouring a colourless Liquor into a clean Glass.

Take a strong solution of quicksilver, made with spirit of nitre; dilute it with water, and pour it into a hot glass, rinsed in strong spirit of sea-salt, and it will instantly become coloured. Or, if a solution of silver, made with spirit of nitre, considerably diluted, be poured into a glass, prepared in the manner above-mentioned, it will produce the same effect. And if you pour hot water upon new-made crocus metallorum, and put it into a clean glass, rinsed with any acid, it will produce an orange colour.

To produce a Colour which appears and disappears by the Influence of the Air.

Put into a decanter some volatile spirit, in which you have dissolved copper filings, and you will have a fine blue tincture; and if the bottle be stopped, the colour will soon return again; and this experiment may be repeated a considerable number of times.

To turn a colourless Liquor Black, by adding a White Powder to it.

Put a hot weak pellucid infusion of galls into a glass, and throw into it a grain of the vitriol of iron, calcined to whiteness, and considerably heated; then, as it falls to the bottom, it will make a black cloud, which will uniformly diffuse itself through the transparent liquor, and gradually turn it black.

The same effect may also be produced by the addition of a little vitriol of iron calcined to a yellow colour, or by the colcothar of vitriol calcined to redness.

The black liquor, produced as above, may be rendered pellucid again, by pouring the liquor hot into a glass rinsed with the pure acid of vitriol. And to make this transparent liquor black again, pour to it as much hot oil of tartar per deliquium as will saturate the acid, which has attracted the metallic matter.

Freezing Mixture.

In the time of snow, a freezing mixture may easily be made, by mixing a little snow and common salt in a basin near the fire. If water in an iron cup or phial be put into this mixture, it will immediately be frozen; and if pounded ice and common salt be added, it will have a still more powerful effect.

Experiments with the Microscope.

They who possess this amusing instrument, may easily perform with it a variety of pleasing experiments; among others, the following:--Leave some vinegar exposed in a saucer, for a few days, to the open air; then place a drop of it, by means of a clean pen, or a camel's hair brush, on the transparent object-plate of the microscope; and if the object-plate be properly illuminated from below, you will observe in this drop of liquor animals resembling some small eels, which are in continual motion.

If you slightly bruise some pepper-corns, and infuse them in water for a few days, and then expose a drop of it to the microscope, a number of animals of a different kind will be visible. These are of an oblong shape, and, like the others, in continual motion, going backwards and forwards in all directions, turning aside when they meet each other, or when their passage is stopped by some obstacle.

In other infusions, as in that of new hay, differently shaped animalcules will be found. When the drop in which they swim, and which to them is like a pond, becomes diminished by evaporation, they gradually retire towards the middle, where they accumulate, and at length perish when entirely deprived of moisture. Previously to this, they appear in great distress, writhe their bodies, and endeavour to escape from that state of uneasiness which they evidently feel.

It the smallest quantity or drop of sulphuric acid be put into a drop of the infusion which swarms with these insects, they immediately throw themselves on their backs, and expire; sometimes losing their skin, which bursts, and suffers small particles of air to escape.

Those who wish to be furnished with microscopic eels, at all seasons, may have them in common paste, such as the bookbinders commonly use. It should neither be too stiff, nor too watery. Expose it to the air, and prevent its hardening or becoming mouldy on the surface, by beating it well together, when it has that tendency. After some days it will become sour; and then, if examined attentively by a microscope, multitudes of exceedingly small, long, and slender animalcules will be visible; these will grow larger, till they are of sufficient size to be seen by the naked eye. A drop or two of vinegar should now and then be poured on the paste; and sometimes, to prevent its being dry, a little vinegar and water. By this means microscopic eels may be had all the year. They must be applied to the microscope upon any flat surface, after having first put on it a very small drop of water for them to swim in. These are very entertaining objects when examined by any kind of microscope, but particularly the solar one, by which the motions of their intestines may very plainly be distinguished; and when the water is nearly dried away, and they are on the point of expiring, their mouths may be seen opening to a considerable width.

If some of the dust of the puff-ball be examined with the microscope, it appears to consist of perfectly round globules, of an orange colour, the diameter of which is only about the one-fiftieth part of the thickness of a hair, so that each of this grain is but the 1/125000th part of a globule, equal in diameter to the breadth of a hair.

The farina of flowers is found to be regularly or uniformly organized in each kind of plant. In the mallow, for example, each grain is an opaque ball, covered over with small points. The farina of the tulip, and of most of the liliaceous kind of flowers, bears a striking resemblance to the seeds of the cucumber: that of the poppy is like grains of barley.

There are certain plants, the leaves of which seem to be pierced with a multitude of small holes. Of this kind is the St. John's Wort. If a fragment of this be viewed with a good microscope, the supposed holes are found to be vesicles, contained in the thickness of the leaf, and covered with an exceedingly thin membrane; and these are thought to be the receptacles which contain the essential and aromatic oil peculiar to the plant. The view exhibited by those plants which have down, such as borage, nettles, &c. is exceedingly curious. When examined by a microscope, they appear to be covered with spikes. Those of borage are, for the most part, bent so as to form an elbow; and though really so close, they appear, by the microscope, to be at a considerable distance from each other. The entire appearance is very similar to that of the skin of a porcupine.

There are two kinds of sand, viz. the calcareous and the vitreous: the former, examined with a microscope, resembles large irregular fragments of rock; but the latter appears like so many rough diamonds. In some instances, the particles of sand seem to be highly polished and brilliant, like an assemblage of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds.

Charcoal is a fine object for the microscope: it is found to be full of pores, regularly arranged, and passing through its whole length.

Those who wish to observe the circulation of the blood, by means of the microscope, may readily obtain the desired satisfaction. An object employed chiefly for this purpose is the delicate transparent membrane which unites the toes of the frog; another object is the tail of the tadpole. If this membrane be extended, and fixed on a piece of glass illuminated below, the motion of the blood in the vessels will be distinctly visible; the appearance resembles a number of small islands, with a rapid current flowing between them.

Take a small tadpole, and, having wrapped its body in a piece of moist cloth, place its tail on the object-plate of the microscope, and enlighten it below, and you will see very distinctly the circulation of the blood; which in some of the vessels proceeds by a kind of undulation, and in others with a uniform motion. The former are thought to be the arteries in which the blood moves, in consequence of the alternate pulsation of the heart; the latter are said to be the veins. The circulation of the blood may be seen also in the legs and tails of shrimps. The transparent legs of small spiders, and those of bugs, will also afford the means of observing the circulation of the blood to very great advantage. The latter are said, by Mr. Baker, to exhibit an extraordinary vibration of the vessels, which he never saw any where else. Very small fish are good objects for this purpose; but the most curious of all spectacles of this kind, is that exhibited by the mosentery of a living frog, applied in particular to the solar microscope.

If you take off a small piece of the epidermis, or scarf skin, of the hand, by means of a sharp razor, and place it on the object-plate of the microscope, you will see it covered with a multitude of small scales, so exceedingly minute, that, according to Leuwenhoek, a grain of sand would cover two hundred of them. These scales are arranged like those on the back of fishes, like the tiles of a house, each in part covering the other. To ascertain the form of these little scales, scrape the skin with a penknife, and put this dust into a drop of water, and it will be seen that these scales, small as they are, have, in general, five planes, and that each consists of several strata. Underneath these scales are the pores of the epidermis, which, when the former are removed, may be distinctly seen, apparently like small holes, pierced with an exceedingly fine needle. In the length of an inch, twelve hundred have been counted, so that, in a surface equal to a square inch, there are fourteen thousand; and as there are one hundred and forty-four inches in a square foot, the number of pores in a square foot of surface would be more than two millions; and as the surface of the human body is reckoned at fourteen feet, the number of pores in its surface, through which there is a perpetual perspiration going on, must be more than twenty-eight millions.

The hairs of animals, seen through a microscope, appear to be organized bodies: they are composed of long, slender, hollow tubes; some seem to be composed of several small hairs, covered with a common bark; others are hollow throughout. The bristles of a cat's whisker, when cut transversely, exhibit the appearance of a medullary part, which occupies the middle, like the pith in the twig of the elder-tree. A human hair, cut in the same manner, shews a variety of vessels in very regular figures. Hair taken from the head, the eyebrows, the nostrils, the beard, the hand, &c. appear unlike, as well in the roots as in the hairs themselves, and vary as plants do of the same genus, but of different species. Those of the hedgehog contain a kind of real marrow, which is whitish, and formed of radii meeting in a centre. A split hair appears like a stick shivered with beating.

Nothing can be more curious than the appearance exhibited by mouldiness, when viewed through a microscope. If looked at by the naked eye, it seems nothing but an irregular tissue of filaments; but the magnifying-glass shews it to be a forest of small plants, which derive their nourishment from the moist substance which serves them as a base. The stems of these plants may be plainly distinguished, and sometimes their buds, some shut, and some open. They have much similarity to mushrooms, the tops of which, when they come to maturity, emit an exceedingly fine dust, which is their seed.

Upon examining the edge of a very keen razor with a microscope, it will appear as broad as the back of a thick knife, rough, uneven, full of notches and furrows. An exceedingly small needle resembles a rough iron bar. But the sting of a bee, seen through the same instrument, exhibits every where a polish exceedingly beautiful, without the least flaw, blemish, or inequality, and ends in a point too fine to be discerned.

A small piece of exceedingly fine lawn, appears, through a microscope, like a hurdle or lattice, and the threads themselves seem coarser than the yarn with which ropes are made for anchors. But a silkworm's web appears perfectly smooth and shining, and every where equal.

The smallest dot that can be made with a pen, appears, when viewed by the microscope, an irregular spot, rough, jagged, and uneven. But the little specks on the wings or bodies of insects, are found to be most accurately circular.

A microscope will prove the most boasted performances of art to be ill-shaped, rugged, and uneven. The finest miniature paintings appear before this instrument as mere daubings, plastered on with a trowel, entirely void of beauty, either in the drawing or the colouring. The most even and beautiful varnishes and polishings will be found to be mere roughness, full of gaps and flaws. Thus sink the works of art, before the microscopic eye. But the nearer we examine the works of God, even in the least of his productions, the more sensible shall we be of his wisdom and power. Apply the microscope to any, the most minute of his works, nothing is to be found but beauty and perfection. If we examine the numberless species of insects that swim, creep, or fly around us, what proportion, exactness, uniformity, and symmetry, shall we perceive in all their organs! what a profusion of colouring! azure, green, and vermilion, gold, silver, pearls, rubies, and diamonds; fringe and embroidery on their bodies, wings, heads, and every other part! how high the finishing, how inimitable the polish, we every where behold!

Their wings, all glorious to behold! Bedeck'd with azure, jet, and gold, Wide they display: the spangled dew Reflects their eyes and various hue. Gay.

The most perfect works of art betray a meanness, a poverty, an inability in the workman; but the works of nature plainly prove, that "the hand which formed them was divine."

Amusing Experiments with the Thermometer.

A thermometer is amusing in a room, to enable us to know with accuracy the real degree of heat, as our own feelings are so very deceptive. According to their state of health at the time, different persons will give a different judgment on the subject. After hot weather, a day which is not very cold, will yet feel so to us, and after cold weather we shall be ready to think a day warm, which is not so severe as the preceding. In winter, a thermometer in a sitting-room enables us to regulate its heat. Too great warmth produced by a fire is injurious to health, as it relaxes the strength, and consumes the pure oxygenous air, so necessary for respiration.

Experiments will shew how differently the feelings of different individuals may be affected by the same degree of heat.

Let one person go out into the cold air in winter for a few minutes, and let another sit by a warm fire; then introduce both into a room without a fire: the person from the cold will feel it warm, and the other will feel it cold.

A much more entertaining experiment will shew, that what will be cold to the one hand, will be warm to the other. Pour warm water into one basin, cold water into a second, and a mixture of hot and cold water into a third; then put the one hand into the cold water, and the other into the warm, for two minutes, and after that put both hands into the lukewarm water, and to the one hand it will feel cold, and to the other hot.

THE BAROMETER.

Rules for judging of and predicting the State of the Weather by the Barometer.

The rising of the mercury presages, in general, fair weather, and its falling, foul weather, as rain, snow, high winds, and storms.

When the surface of the mercury is convex, or stands higher in the middle than at the sides, it is a sign the mercury is then in a rising state; but if the surface be concave, or hollow in the middle, it is then sinking.

In very hot weather, the falling of the mercury indicates thunder.

In winter, the rising presages frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there will be a thaw. But in a continued frost, if the mercury rises, it will certainly snow.

When wet weather happens soon after the depression of the mercury, expect but little of it; on the contrary, expect but little fair weather, when it proves fair shortly after the mercury has risen.

In wet weather, when the mercury rises much and high, and so continues for two or three days before the bad weather is entirely over, then a continuance of fair weather may be expected.

In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and thus continues for two or three days before the rain comes, then a deal of wet may be expected, and probably high winds.

The unsettled motion of the mercury denotes unsettled weather.

The words engraved on the scale are not so much to be attended to, as the rising and falling of the mercury; for if it stands at much rain, and then rises to changeable, it denotes fair weather, though not to continue so long as if the mercury had risen higher.

If the mercury stands at fair, and falls to changeable, bad weather may be expected.

In winter, spring, and autumn, the sudden falling of the mercury, and that for a large space, denotes high winds and storms; but in summer it presages heavy showers, and often thunder. It always sinks very low for great winds, though not accompanied with rain; but it falls more for wind and rain together, than for either of them alone.

If, after rain, the wind change into any part of the north, with a clear and dry sky, and the mercury rise, it is a certain sign of fair weather.

After very great storms of wind, when the mercury has been low, it commonly rises again very fast.

In settled fair weather, except the mercury sink much, expect but little rain.

In a wet season, the smallest depression must be attended to; for when the air is much inclined to showers, a little sinking in the barometer denotes more rain. And in such a season, if it rise suddenly fast and high, fair weather cannot be expected to last more than a day or two.

The greatest heights of the mercury are found upon easterly and north-easterly winds; and it may often rain or snow, the wind being in these points, while the barometer is in a rising state, the effects of the wind counteracting its influence. But the mercury sinks for wind as well as rain in all other points of the compass.

New Method of Preserving Birds.--(From the Annual Register.)

When I receive a bird fresh taken, (says the author,) I open the venter, from the lower part of the breast-bone down to the anus, with a pair of scissars, and extract all the contents. This cavity I immediately fill up with the following mixture, and then bring the wound together by a suture, so as to prevent the stuffing from coming out. The gullet or passage I fill, from the beak down to where the stomach lies, with the mixture finer ground, which must be forced down a little at a time, by the help of a quill or wire: the head I open near the root of the tongue, with the scissars, and, after having turned out the brains, I fill the cavity with the same mixture.

The bird being thus filled, must now be hung up by the legs to dry for two days, to let the spice settle; after which it may be placed in a frame to dry, in the same attitude as we usually see it when alive. In this frame it must be held up by two threads, the one passing from the anus to the lower part of the back, and the other through the eyes: the ends of these threads are to brace the bird up to its proper attitude, fasten them to the side of the frame, and place it on a chip pill-box. It will now require no other support than a pin through each foot, fastened into the box: it must remain a month or two to dry. The eyes must be supplied by proportional glass beads, fixed in with strong gum-water.

The mixture is: common salt, one pound; alum, powdered, four ounces; ground pepper, two ounces; all blended together.

To take the Impression of the Wings of a Butterfly in all their Colours.

Kill it without spoiling; cut off the body close to the wings, which contrive to spread in a flying position; then take a piece of white paper, wash part of it with thick gum-water; when dry, lay it on a smooth board, with the wings on the gum-water; lay another paper over this, press both very hard, let them remain under pressure for an hour; afterwards take off the wings of the butterfly, and you will find a perfect impression of them, with all their various colours, remaining on the paper. Draw, between the wings of the impression, the body of the butterfly, and colour it after life.

To take the Impression of a Leaf of any Tree, Plant, or Shrub, with all its Veins.

Having put the intended leaf into a book for a few minutes, which will cause it to lie very flat, you must have a pair of balls, somewhat of the shape of those used by printers; have them covered with kid-skin, that being the best leather for the purpose. These balls may be made to any size. You must then procure some lamp-black, ground or mixed with drying oil, and having put a small quantity on one of the balls, spread it all over with the other till they are both black; then laying the leaf on one of them, place the other over it, and press both very hard together. When the leaf is sufficiently black, take it off the ball, and place it between a sheet of white paper. Press it gently with your hand, the heat and pressure of which will cause it to receive an accurate delineation of all its veins.

Instead of black, any other colour may be used. Verdigris makes a pleasant green; and by adding yellow ochre, or Prussian blue, you may approach the original tint of the leaf, and your impression will almost equal that of nature.

Curious Experiments respecting Colours.

The following curious and useful remarks on the different degrees of heat imbibed from the sun's rays, &c. by cloths of different colours, were extracted from "Experiments and Observations," by that famous American philosopher and politician, Dr. B. Franklin.

"First, let me mention an experiment you may easily make yourself. Walk but a quarter of an hour in your garden when the sun shines, with a part of your dress white, and a part black; then apply your hand to them alternately, and you will find a very great difference in their warmth. The black will be quite hot to the touch, the white still cool.

"Another. Try to fire paper with a burning-glass. If it be white, you will not easily burn it; but if you bring the focus to a black spot, or upon letters written or printed, the paper will immediately be on fire under the letters.

"Thus fullers and dyers find that black cloths, of equal thickness with white ones, and hung out equally wet, dry in the sun much sooner than the white, being more readily heated by the sun's rays. It is the same before a fire; the heat of which sooner penetrates black stockings than white ones, and is apt sooner to burn a man's shins. Also beer much sooner warms in a black mug set before the fire, than in a white one, or in a bright silver tankard.

"My experiment was this: I took a number of little square pieces of broad cloth from a tailor's pattern-card, of various colours. There were black, deep blue, lighter blue, green, purple, red, yellow, white, and other colours, or shades of colours. I laid them all out upon the snow in a bright sunshiny morning. In a few hours, (I cannot now be exact as to the time,) the black being warmed most by the sun, was sunk so low as to be below the stroke of the sun's rays; the dark blue almost as low, the lighter blue not quite so low as the dark, the other colours less as they were lighter; and the quite white remained on the surface of the snow, not having entered it at all.

"What signifies philosophy that does not apply to some use? May we not learn from hence, that black cloths are not so fit to wear in a hot sunny climate, or season, as white ones; because, in such clothes the body is more heated by the sun when we walk abroad, and are at the same time heated by the exercise, which double heat is apt to bring on putrid dangerous fevers?--that soldiers and seamen, who must march and labour in the sun, should, in the East or West Indies, have a uniform of white?--that summer hats for men or women, should be white, as repelling that heat which gives head-achs to many, and to some the fatal stroke that the French call the coup de soliel?--that the ladies' summer hats, however, should be lined with black, as not reverberating on their faces those rays which are reflected upwards from the earth or water?--that the putting a white cap of paper or linen, within the crown of a black hat, as some do, will not keep out the heat, though it would if placed without?--that fruit-walls being blackened, may receive so much heat from the sun in the day-time, as to continue warm, in some degree, through the night, and thereby preserve the fruit from frosts, or forward its growth?--with sundry other particulars, of less or greater importance, that will occur from time to time to attentive minds?"

Thirty Soldiers having deserted, so to place them in a Ring, that you may save any Fifteen you please, and it shall seem the Effect of Chance.

This recreation is usually proposed thus: Fifteen Christians and fifteen Turks being in a ship at sea, in a violent tempest, it was deemed necessary to throw half the number of persons overboard, in order to disburden the ship, and save the rest; to effect this, it was agreed to be done by lot, in such a manner, that the persons being placed in a ring, every ninth man should be cast into the sea, till one half of them were thrown overboard. Now, the pilot, being a Christian, was desirous of saving those of his own persuasion: how ought he therefore to dispose the crew, so that the lot might always fall upon the Turks?

This question may be resolved by placing the men according to the numbers annexed to the vowels in the words of the following verse:--

Po-pu-le-am Jir-gam Ma-ter Re-gi-na fe-re-bat. 4 5 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1

from which it appears, that you must place four of those you would save first; then five of those you would punish. After this, two of those to be saved, and one to be punished; and so on. When this is done, you must enter the ring, and beginning with the first of the four men you intend to save, count on to nine; and turn this man out to be punished; then count on, in like manner, to the next ninth man, and turn him out to be punished; and so on for the rest.

It is reported that Josephus, the author of the Jewish History, escaped the danger of death by means of this problem; for being governor of Joppa, at the time that it was taken by Vespasian, he was obliged to secrete himself with thirty or forty of his soldiers in a cave, where they made a firm resolution to perish by famine rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror; but being at length driven to great distress, they would have destroyed each other for sustenance, had not Josephus persuaded them to die by lot, which he so ordered, that all of them were killed except himself and another, whom he might easily destroy, or persuade to yield to the Romans.

Three Persons having each chosen, privately, one out of three Things,--to tell them which they have chosen.

Let the three things, for instance, be a ring, a guinea, and a shilling, and let them be known privately to yourself by the vowels a, e, i, of which the first, a, signifies one, the second, e, two, and the third, i, three.

Then take 24 counters, and give the first person 1, which signifies a, the second 2, which represents e, and the third 3, which stands for i; then, leaving the other counters upon the table, retire into another room, and bid him who has the ring take as many counters from the table as you gave him; he that has the guinea, twice as many, and he that has the shilling four times as many.

This being done, consider to whom you gave one counter, to whom two, and to whom three; and as there were only twenty-four counters at first, there must necessarily remain either 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, or 7, on the table, or otherwise they must have failed in observing the directions you gave them.

But if either of these numbers remain, as they ought, the question may be resolved by retaining in your memory the six following words:--

Salve certa anima semita vita quies. 1 2 3 5 6 7

As, for instance, suppose the number that remained was 5; then the word belonging to it is semita; and as the vowels in the first two syllables of this word are e and i, it shews, according to the former directions, that he to whom you gave two counters has the ring; he to whom you gave three counters, the gold; and the other person, of course, the silver, it being the second vowel which represents 2, and the third which represents 3.

How to part an Eight Gallon Bottle of Wine equally between two Persons, using only two other Bottles, one of Five Gallons, and the other of Three.

This question is usually proposed in the following manner: A certain person having an eight-gallon bottle filled with excellent wine, is desirous of making a present of half of it to one of his friends; but as he has nothing to measure it out with, but two other bottles, one of which contains five gallons, and the other three, it is required to find how this may be accomplished?

In order to answer the question, let the eight-gallon bottle be called A, the five-gallon bottle B, and the three-gallon bottle C; then, if the liquor be poured out of one bottle into another, according to the manner denoted in either of the two following examples, the proposed conditions will be answered.

8 5 3 8 5 3 A B C A B C 8 0 0 8 0 0 3 5 0 5 0 3 3 2 3 5 3 0 6 2 0 2 3 3 6 0 2 2 5 1 1 5 2 7 0 1 1 4 3 7 1 0 4 4 0 4 1 3

A Quantity of Eggs being broken, to find how many there were without remembering the Number.

An old woman, carrying eggs to market in a basket, met an unruly fellow, who broke them. Being taken before a magistrate, he was ordered to pay for them, provided the woman could tell how many she had; but she could only remember, that in counting them into the basket by twos, by threes, by fours, by fives, and by sixes, there always remained one; but in counting them in by sevens, there were none remaining. Now, in this case, how was the number to be ascertained?

This is the same thing as to find a number, which being divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, there shall remain 1, but being divided by 7, there shall remain nothing; and the least number, which will answer the conditions of the question, is found to be 301, which was therefore the number of eggs the old woman had in her basket.

To find the least Number of Weights, that will weigh, from One Pound to Forty.

This problem may be resolved by the means of the geometrical progression, 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, &c. the property of which is such, that the last sum is twice the number of all the rest, and one more; so that the number of pounds being forty, which is also the sum of 1, 3, 9, 27, these four weights will answer the purpose required. Suppose it was required, for example, to weigh eleven pounds by them: you must put into one scale the one-pound weight, and into the other the three and nine-pound weights, which, in this case, will weigh only eleven pounds, in consequence of the one-pound weight being in the other scale; and therefore, if you put any substance into the first scale, along with the one-pound weight, and it stands in equilibrio with the three and nine in the other scale, you may conclude it weighs eleven pounds.

In like manner, to find a fourteen-pound weight, put into one of the scales the one, three, and nine-pound weights, and into the other that of twenty-seven pounds, and it will evidently outweigh the other three by fourteen pounds; and so on for any other weight.

To break a Stick which rests upon two Wine Glasses, without injuring the Glasses.

Take a stick, (see Plate,) AB. fig. 1, of about the size of a common broomstick, and lay its two ends, AB, which ought to be pointed, upon the edges of two glasses placed upon two tables of equal height, so that it may rest lightly on the edge of each glass. Then take a kitchen poker, or a large stick, and give the other a smart blow, near the middle point c, and the stick AB will be broken, without in the least injuring the glasses: and even if the glasses be filled with wine, not a drop of it will be spilt, if the operation be properly performed. But on the contrary, if the stick were struck on the underside, so as to drive it up into the air, the glasses would be infallibly broken.

A Number of Metals being mixed together in one Mass, to find the Quantity of each of them.

Vitruvius, in his Architecture, reports, that Hiero, king of Sicily, having employed an artist to make a crown of pure gold, which was designed to be dedicated to the gods, suspected that the goldsmith had stolen part of the gold, and substituted silver in its place: being desirous of discovering the cheat, he proposed the question to Archimedes, desiring to know if he could, by his art, discover whether any other metal were mixed with the gold. This celebrated mathematician being soon afterwards bathing himself, observed, that as he entered the bath, the water ascended, and flowed out of it; and as he came out of it, the water descended in like manner: from which he inferred, that if a mass of pure gold, silver, or any other metal, were thrown into a vessel of water, the water would ascend in proportion to the bulk of the metal. Being intensely occupied with the invention, he leaped out of the bath, and ran naked through the streets, crying, "I have found it, I have found it!"

The way in which he applied this circumstance to the solution of the question proposed was this: he procured two masses, the one of pure gold, and the other of pure silver, each equal in weight to the crown, and consequently of unequal magnitudes; then immersing the three bodies separately in a vessel of water, and collecting the quantity of water expelled by each, he was presently enabled to detect the fraud, it being obvious, that if the crown expelled more water than the mass of gold, it must be mixed with silver or some baser metal. Suppose, for instance, in order to apply it to the question, that each of the three masses weighed eighteen pounds; and that the mass of gold displaced one pound of water, that of silver a pound and a half, and the crown one pound and a quarter only: then, since the mass of silver displaced half a pound of water more than the same weight of gold, and the crown a quarter of a pound more than the gold, it appears, from the rule of proportion, that half a pound is to eighteen pounds, as a quarter is to nine pounds; which was, therefore, the quantity of silver mixed in the crown.

Since the time of Archimedes, several other methods have been devised for solving this problem; but the most natural and easy is, that of weighing the crown both in air and water, and observing the difference.

To make a mutual Exchange of the Liquor in two Bottles, without using any other Vessel.

Take two bottles, which are as nearly equal as possible, both in neck and belly, and let one be filled with oil, and the other with water; then clap the one that is full of water dexterously upon the other, so that the two necks shall exactly fit each other; and as the water is heavier than the oil, it will naturally descend into the lower bottle, and make the oil ascend into its place. In order to invert the bottle of water without spilling the contents, place a bit of thin writing paper over the mouth of the bottle; and when you have placed the bottle in the proper position, draw out the paper quickly and steadily.

How to make a Peg that will exactly fit Three different Holes.

Let one of the holes be circular, the other square, and the third an oval; then it is evident, that any cylindrical body, of a proper size, may be made to pass through the first hole perpendicularly; and if its length be just equal to its diameter, it may be passed horizontally through the second, or square hole; also, if the breadth of the oval be made equal to the diameter of the base of the cylinder, and its longest diameter equal to the diagonal of it, the cylinder, being put in obliquely, will fill it as exactly as any of the former.

To place Three Sticks, or Tobacco Pipes, upon a Table, in such a manner that they may appear to be unsupported by any thing but themselves.

Take one of the sticks, or pipes, (see Plate,) AB, fig. 2, and place it in an oblique position, with one of its ends, B, resting on the table; then put one of the other sticks, as CD, across this in such a manner that one end of it, D, may be raised, and the other touch the table at C. Having done this, take the third stick E, and complete the triangle with it, making one of its ends E rest on the table, and running it under the second, CD, in such a manner that it may rest upon the first, AB; then will the three sticks, thus placed, mutually support each other; and even if a small weight be laid upon them, it will not make them fall, but strengthen, and keep them firmer in their position.

How to prevent a heavy Body from falling, by adding another heavier Body to it on that side towards which it inclines.

On the edge of a shelf, or table, or any other horizontal surface, lay a key, (see Plate,) CD, fig. 3, in such a manner, that, being left to itself, it would fall to the ground; then, in order to prevent this, take a crooked stick DFG, with a weight, H, at the end of it; and having inserted one end of the stick in the open part of the key, at D, let it be so placed, that the weight H may fall perpendicularly under the edge of the table, and the body by these means will be effectually prevented from falling.

The same thing may be done by hanging a weight at the end of a tobacco-pipe, a stick, or any other body; the best means of accomplishing which will be easily known by a few trials.

To make a false Balance, that shall appear perfectly just when empty, or when loaded with unequal Weights.

Take a balance, (see Plate,) DCE, fig. 4, the scales and arms of which are of such unequal weights and lengths, that the scale A may be in proportion to the scale B, as the length of the arm CE is to the length of the arm CD; then will the two scales be exactly in equilibrio about the point C; and the same will be the case, if the two arms CD, CE, are of equal length, but of unequal thickness, provided the thickness of CD is to that of CE, as the weight of the scale B is to that of A.

For example; suppose the arm CD is equal to three ounces, and the arm CE to two, and that the scale B weighs three ounces, and the scale A two; then the balance, in this case, will be exactly true when empty; and if a weight of two pounds be put into the scale A, and one of three pounds into B, they will still continue in equilibrio. But the fallacy in this, and all other cases of the same kind, may be easily detected, in shifting the weights from one scale to the other.

How to lift up a Bottle with a Straw, or any other slight Substance.

Take a straw, (see Plate,) AB, fig. 5, which is not broken or bruised, and bend one end of it into a sharp angle ABC; then if this end of the straw be put into the bottle, so that the bent part of it may rest against either of its sides, you may take the other end in your hand, and lift up the bottle by it without breaking the straw; and this will be the more easily done, according as the angular part of the straw approaches nearer to that which comes out of the bottle.

How to make a Cone, or Pyramid, move upon a Table without Springs, or any other artificial Means.

Take a cone, or pyramid, of paper, or any other light substance, and put a beetle, or some such small insect, privately under it; then, as the animal will naturally endeavour to free itself from its captivity, it will move the cone towards the edge of the table, and as soon as it comes there, will immediately return for fear of falling; and by moving backwards and forwards in this manner, will occasion much diversion to those who are ignorant of the cause.

To make a Pen, which holds One Hundred Sheep, hold double the Number, by only adding two Hurdles more.

In the first pen, or that which holds one hundred sheep, the hurdles must be so disposed, that there shall be only one at the top and bottom, and the rest in equal numbers on each side; then it is obvious, that if one hurdle more be placed at each end, the space enclosed must necessarily be double the former, and consequently will hold twice the number of sheep.

An ingenious Recreation, called the Two Communicative Busts.

Take two heads of plaster of Paris, and place them on pedestals on the opposite sides of a room. Then take a tin tube, of an inch in diameter, and let it pass from the ear of one head through the pedestal, and under the floor, to the mouth of the other, observing, that the end of the tube which is next the ear of one head, should be considerably larger than that which comes to the mouth of the other.

The whole being so disposed that there may be no suspicion of a communication, let any person speak with a low voice into the ear of one bust, and the sound will be distinctly heard by anyone who shall place his ear to the mouth of the other; and if there be two tubes, one going to the ear, and the other to the mouth of each head, two persons may converse together, by applying their mouth and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the busts, without being heard by any other persons in the room.

Another Recreation of the same kind, called the Oracular Head.

Place a bust on a pedestal in the corner of a room, and let there be two tubes, one of which goes from the mouth, and the other from the ear of the bust, through the pedestal and floor, to an under apartment.

Then if a person be placed in the under room, by applying his ear to one of the tubes as soon as a proper signal is given, he will hear any question that is asked, and can immediately return an answer; and if wires be contrived to go from the under jaw and eyes of the bust, they may be made to move at the same time, and by these means appear to deliver the answer.

It was by a contrivance of this kind, that Don Antonio de Moreno so much astonished the celebrated Knight of the Woeful Countenance, and his facetious squire Sancho Panza, by resolving certain doubts proposed by the former concerning his adventures in the cave of Montesinos, and the disenchantment of my lady Dulcinea.

How to make a Piece of Metal, or any other heavy Body, swim upon the Surface of Water, like a Cork.

The specific gravity of water is inferior to that of metals, and consequently water, absolutely speaking, cannot support a ball of iron or lead; but if this ball be flattened, and beat out to a very thin plate, it will, if put softly upon still water, be prevented from sinking, and will swim upon its surface like any light substance. In like manner, if a fine steel needle, which is perfectly dry, be placed gently upon some still water in a vessel, it will float upon the surface without sinking.

But if you would have a metallic body of large dimensions to swim upon water, you must reduce it into a thin concave plate, like a kettle; in which case, as the air it contains, together with the body itself, weighs less than the same bulk of water, it cannot possibly sink; as is evident from large copper boats, or pontoons, by which whole armies have frequently passed over rivers without danger.

If this concave metallic vessel be placed upon the water with its mouth downwards, it will swim as before, and the contained air will keep the bottom of it from being wet; for that the water will not rise into any hollow vessel which is immersed into it, may be made evident thus:--Take a glass tumbler, and plunge it into water with its mouth downwards, and you will find, when you take it out, that the inside of the vessel is perfectly dry, so that if a live coal were put there, it would not be extinguished.

A curious Experiment, to prove that Two and Two do not make Four.

Take a glass vessel with a long narrow neck, which, being filled with water, will hold exactly a quart; then put into this vessel a pint of water, and a pint of acid of vitriol, and you will presently perceive, that the mixture will not fill the vessel, as it did when a quart of water only was put into it. The acid of vitriol must be put in gradually, by little and little at a time, mixing each portion with the water before you add more, by shaking the bottle, and leaving its mouth open, otherwise the bottle will burst. The mixture in this case also possesses a considerable degree of heat, though the two ingredients of themselves are perfectly cold; and this phenomenon is not to be accounted for, by supposing that the acid of vitriol is received into the pores of the water, for then a small portion of it might be absorbed by the water, without augmenting its bulk, which is known not to be the case; but the very form of the bodies in this experiment is changed, there being, as Dr. Hooke, who first noticed the fact, observes, an actual penetration of dimensions. Chemistry also furnishes a number of other instances, which shew that two bodies, when mixed together, possess less space than when they are separate.

An ingenious Method of Secret Writing, by means of corresponding Spaces.

Take two pieces of pasteboard, or stiff paper, out of which cut a number of oblong figures, at different distances from each other, as in the following example. Keep one of these pieces for yourself, and give one to your correspondent; and when you are desirous of sending him any secret intelligence, lay the pasteboard upon a sheet of paper of the same size, and in the spaces which are cut out, write what you would have him only to understand, and fill up the intermediate parts of the paper with something which makes with these words a different sense. Then, when your correspondent receives this letter, by applying it to his pasteboard, he will be able to comprehend your meaning.

EXAMPLE.

+------------+ +-------+ | I shall be | much obliged to you, as reading | alone | +------------+ +-------+ +----+ engages my attention | at | present, if you will send me any +----+ +-------+ of the | eight | volumes of the Spectator; I hope you will +-------+ +------+ +---------+ excuse | this | freedom, but for a winter's | evening | I +------+ +---------+ +-------+ +------+ | don't | know a better entertainment. If I | fail | to return +-------+ +------+ +----------+ it soon, never trust me for the time | to come. | +----------+

A curious Experiment, which depends on an Optical Illusion.

On the bottom of the vessel, (see Plate,) AIBD, fig. 6, place three pieces of money, as a half-crown, a shilling, and a sixpence; the first at E, the second at F, and the third at G. Then let a person be placed with his eye at H, so that he can see no farther into the vessel than I; and tell him, that by pouring water into the vessel, you will make him see three different pieces of money, which he may observe are not poured in with the water.

For this purpose, desire him to keep himself steady in the same position, and, pouring the water in gently, that the pieces of money may not be moved out of their places, when it comes up to K, the piece G will become visible to him; when it comes up to L, he will see the two pieces G and F; and when it rises to M, all the three pieces will become visible: the cause of which is owing to the refraction of the rays of light, in their passage through the water; for while the vessel is empty, the ray HI will proceed in a straight line; but in proportion as it is filled with water, the ray will be bent into the several directions NG, OF, PE, and by these means the pieces are rendered visible.

A curious Experiment, of nearly the same kind as the last, called Optical Augmentation.

Take a large drinking-glass, of a conical figure, and having put a shilling into it, fill the glass about half full with water; then place a plate on the top of it, and turn it quickly over, so that the water may not get out. This being done, look through the glass, and you will now perceive a piece of money of the size of half-a-crown; and somewhat higher up, another piece of the size of a shilling. But if the glass be entirely filled with water, the large piece at the bottom only will be visible.

This phenomenon is occasioned by your seeing the piece through the conical surface of the water, at the side of the glass, and through the flat surface at the top of the water, at the same time; for the conical surface dilates the rays, and makes the piece appear larger, while the flat surface only refracts them, and occasions the piece to be seen higher up in the glass, but still of its natural size.

Another curious Experiment, called Optical Subtraction.

Against the wainscot of a room fix three small pieces of paper, as A, B, C, fig. 7, (see Plate,) about a foot and a half or two feet asunder, at the height of your eye; and placing yourself directly before them, about five times the distance from them that the papers are from each other, shut one of your eyes and look at them with the other, and you will then see only two of those papers, suppose A and B; but altering the position of your eye, you will now see the third, and one of the first, suppose A; and by altering its position a second time, you will see B and C, but in neither case all three of them together.

The cause of this phenomenon is, that one of the three pencils of rays, which come from these objects, falls on the optic nerve at D, whereas, to produce distinct vision, it is necessary that the rays of light fall on some part of the retina E, F, G, H.

From this experiment, the use of having two eyes may be easily perceived; for he that has only one can never see three objects placed in this position; or all the parts of one object, of the same extent, without altering the situation of his eye.

An Optical Experiment, shewing how to produce an Artificial Rainbow.

In any room which has a window facing the sun, suspend a glass globe, filled with water, by a string which runs over a pulley, so that the sun's rays may fall directly upon it; then drawing the globe gradually up, when it comes to the height of about forty degrees above the horizon, you will see, by placing yourself in a proper situation, the glass tinged with a purple colour; and by drawing it gradually higher up, the other prismatic colours, blue, green, yellow, and red, will successively appear; but after this they will all vanish, till the globe is raised to about fifty degrees, when they will again be seen, but in an inverted order, the red appearing first, and the blue, or violet, last; and when the globe comes up to little more than fifty-four degrees, they will entirely vanish.

These appearances serve to illustrate the phenomena of natural rainbows, of which there are generally two, the one being about eight degrees above the other, and the order of their colours inverted, as in this experiment; the red being the uppermost colour in the lower bow, and the violet in the other.

An artificial Rainbow may also be produced as follows.

Take some water in your mouth, and turn your back to the sun; then if it be blown forcibly out against some dark or shady place, you will see the drops formed by the beams of the sun into an apparent rainbow, which, however, soon vanishes.

A curious Optical Illusion, produced by means of a Concave Mirror.

Take a glass bottle, (see Plate,) ABC, fig. 8, and fill it with water to the point B; leave the upper part, BC, empty, and cork it in the common manner; place this bottle opposite a concave mirror, and beyond its focus, so that it may appear reversed; then if you place yourself still farther from the mirror, the bottle will appear to you in the situation a b c.

And in this apparent bottle it is remarkable, that the water, which, according to the laws of catoptrics, and all other experiments of this kind, should appear at a b, appears, on the contrary, at b c, the part a b seeming to be entirely empty.

And if the bottle be inverted, and placed before the mirror, as in the under part of the figure, its image will appear in its natural erect position, but the water, which is in reality at b c, will appear at a b.

And if, while the bottle is inverted, it be uncorked, and the water suffered to run gently out, it will appear, that while the part BC is emptying, the part a b in the image is filling; and if, when the bottle is partly empty, some drops of water fall from the bottom A, towards BC, it seems in the image as if there were formed at the bottom of the part a b bubbles of air arising from a to b, which is the part that seems full.

The circumstances most remarkable in this experiment, are, first, not only to see an object where it is not, but also where its image is not; and, secondly, that of two objects, which are really in the same place, as the surface of the bottle and the water it contains, the one should be seen at one place, and the other at another; and also that the bottle should be seen in the place of its image, and the water where neither it nor its images are.

It is, however, to be noted, that if any coloured liquor be put into the bottle instead of water, no such illusion will take place.

There is one phenomenon more of this kind, which ought not to be omitted; for though it be common enough, it is also extremely pleasing, and easy to be performed.

If you place yourself before a concave mirror, at a proper distance, your figure will appear inverted; and if you stretch out your hand towards the mirror, you will perceive another hand, which seems to meet and join it, though imperceptible to the touch.

And if, instead of your hand, you make use of a drawn sword, and present it in such a manner that its point may be directed towards the focus of the rays reflected by the mirror, another sword will appear, and seem to encounter that in your hand. But it is to be observed, that to make this experiment succeed well, you must have a mirror of at least a foot in diameter, that you may see yourself in part; and if you have a mirror large enough to see your whole person, the illusion will be still more striking.

How to make a violent Tempest, by means of artificial Rain and Hail.

Make a hollow cylinder of wood, very thin at the sides, about eight or ten inches long, and two or three feet in diameter. Divide its inside into five equal partitions, by means of boards of about six inches wide; and let there be a space between them and the wooden circle, of about one-sixth of an inch; observing, that the boards are to be placed obliquely to each other.

This being done, put into the cylinder four or five pounds of leaden shot, of a size that will easily pass through the opening left for this purpose; then turn the cylinder on its axis, and the sound of the machine, when in motion, will represent that of rain, which will increase with the velocity of the motion; and if a larger sort of shot be used, it will produce the sound of hail.

Magic Square.

This, in arithmetic, is a square figure made up of numbers in arithmetical proportion, so disposed in parallel and equal ranks, that the sums of each row, taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonally, are equal: thus--

Natural Square.

+-----------+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | |---|---|---| | 4 | 5 | 6 | |---|---|---| | 7 | 8 | 9 | +-----------+

Magic Square.

+-----------+ | 2 | 7 | 6 | |---|---|---| | 9 | 5 | 1 | |---|---|---| | 4 | 3 | 8 | +-----------+

Magic squares seem to have been so called, from their being used in the construction of talismans.

Take another instance:--

Natural Square.

+-------------------+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |---|---|---|---|---| | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |10 | |---|---|---|---|---| |11 |12 |13 |14 |15 | |---|---|---|---|---| |16 |17 |18 |19 |20 | |---|---|---|---|---| |21 |22 |23 |24 |25 | +-------------------+

Magic Square.

+-------------------+ |16 |14 | 8 | 2 |25 | |---|---|---|---|---| | 3 |22 |20 |11 | 9 | |---|---|---|---|---| |15 | 6 | 4 |23 |17 | |---|---|---|---|---| |24 |18 |12 |10 | 1 | |---|---|---|---|---| | 7 | 5 |21 |19 |13 | +-------------------+

where every row and diagonal in the magic square, makes just the sum 65, being the same as the two diagonals of the natural square.

It is probable that these magic squares were so called, both because of this property in them, viz. that the ranks in every direction make the same sum, which appeared extremely surprising, especially in the more ignorant ages, when mathematics passed for magic; and because also of the superstitious operations they were employed in, as, the construction of talismans, &c.; for, according to the childish philosophy of those days, which ascribed virtues to numbers, what might not be expected from numbers so seemingly wonderful? The magic square was held in great veneration among the Egyptians, and the Pythagoreans their disciples, who, to add more efficacy and virtue to this square, dedicated it to the then known seven planets, divers ways, and engraved it upon a plate of the metal that was esteemed in sympathy with the planet. The square, thus dedicated, was enclosed by a regular polygon, inscribed into a circle, which was divided into as many equal parts as there were units in the side of the square; with the names of the angels of the planet, and the signs of the zodiac written upon the void spaces between the polygon and the circumference of the circumscribed circle. Such a talisman, or metal, they vainly imagined would, upon occasion, befriend the person who carried it about him. To Saturn, they attributed the square of 9 places, or cells, the side being 3, and the sum of the number in every row 15: to Jupiter, the square of 16 places, the side being 4, and the amount of each row 34: to Mars, the square of 25 places, the side being 5, and the amount of each row 65: to the Sun, the square with 36 places, the side being 6, and the sum of each row 111: to Venus, the square of 49 places, the side being 7, and the amount of each row 175: to Mercury, the square with 64 places, the side being 8, and the sum of each row 260: and to the Moon, the square of 81 places, the side being 9, and the amount of each row 369. Finally, they attributed to imperfect matter, the square with 4 divisions, having 2 for its side: and to God, the square of only one cell, the side of which is also an unit, which, multiplied by itself, undergoes no change.

ADDENDA TO THE CURIOSITIES RESPECTING MAN.

It never was the intention of the compiler of this work to give an account of all the curious and remarkable persons that have figured on this mortal stage, but only such as have not been usually incorporated in works of this kind; it has been thought advisable, however, to make the following additions to this department, with which, it is hoped, the reader will be amused and instructed.

An account of THAT CELEBRATED EXTRAORDINARY GENIUS, JOHN HENDERSON, B. A.--Of this much celebrated young man, whose extraordinary acquirements attracted the notice, and even commanded the respect, of Dr. Johnson, several accounts have been published, and much eulogium has been pronounced. By many he has been supposed to emulate the variety and extent of knowledge possessed by the admirable Crichton; and, like that eccentric character, he has left little for posterity to form a judgment of the truth of those praises which have been bestowed upon him.

He was born at Bellegarance, near Limerick, in the kingdom of Ireland, on the 27th of March, 1757, of very pious and respectable parents. He received his education among the Methodists; and at eight years of age he understood Latin so well, as to be able to teach it at Kingswood school. At twelve, he taught the Greek language, in the school of Trevecka, in Wales, to men, several of whom were double his age. The governor of the college, at that time, was the Rev. Mr. Fletcher, late Vicar of Madeley, a clergyman highly distinguished for the fervour of his piety and the liveliness of his imagination. Some disagreement taking place with this gentleman and those who had the superintendence of the college, he was dismissed, together with young Henderson, who soon after, at the age of twenty-four years, went to Oxford, was entered of Pembroke college, and, in due time, took the degree of Bachelor of Arts. From the time of his entrance into the college, his life passed with little variety, and no adventure. His thirst after knowledge appears to have been unabated and unobtruded; he was admired, and generally respected; and he acquired habits, some of which brought him into the notice of the world, almost as much as his talents. Some of these traits of character having been depicted by one who appears to have known him well, we shall give nearly in the words of their author, who was also of Pembroke college, and thus describes Mr. Henderson's appearance when he was first introduced to him.

His clothes were made in a fashion peculiar to himself; he wore no stock nor neckcloth; his buckles were so small as not to exceed the dimensions of an ordinary knee-buckle, at a time when very large buckles were in vogue. Though he was then twenty-four years of age, he wore his hair like a schoolboy of six.

Mr. H.'s temper was mild, placable, and humane. He professed that he was ready to serve any individual as far as lay in his power. His benevolence knew no bounds; and his liberality was so diffusive, that it submitted with difficulty to the circumscription of a narrow income. He was fond of society, and well qualified to shine in it. He was frank, open, and communicative, averse to suspicion, and untinctured with pride and moroseness. His mode of life was singular. He generally retired to rest about daybreak, and rose in the afternoon; a practice, however, that was frequently interrupted by the occasional attendance he was obliged to give to the morning service of the college chapel. He spent a great part of the day in smoking; and, except when in company, he usually read while he smoked.

With regard to his moral and religious character, he was a pattern highly worthy of imitation. He shewed a constant regard to the obligations of honour and justice; and commended, both by precept and example, an attention to moral rectitude in all its ramifications. He had the courage to reprove vice and immorality wherever they appeared; and though he was sometimes treated on these occasions with contumely and insult, he bore with a moderation truly christian, so ill a return for his well-meant endeavours. He was perfectly acquainted with the religious dogmas of every different sect, and could readily detect the respective fallacies of each.

His abilities and understanding were eminently conspicuous. His penetration was so great, as to have the appearance of intuition. So retentive was his memory, that he remembered whatever he heard; and this faculty of recollection, combined with a pregnancy of imagination and solidity of judgment, enabled him to acquire an amazing fund of erudition and argument, a fund ready at every call, and adequate to every emergency.

His learning was deep and multifarious. He was admirably skilled in logic, ethics, metaphysics, and scholastical theology. He had studied the healing art with particular attention, and added to a sound theoretic knowledge of it, some degree of practice. His skill in this art he rendered subservient to his philanthropy; for he gratuitously attended the valetudinarian poor wherever he resided, and favoured them with medical advice, as well as pecuniary assistance. He had a competent knowledge of geometry, astronomy, and every branch of natural and experimental philosophy. He was well acquainted with the civil and canon laws, and the law of nature and nations. In classical learning and the belles lettres, he was by no means deficient. He was master of the Greek and Latin, as well as of several modern languages.

He spoke of physiognomy as a science with all the confidence of a Lavater. He pretended to a knowledge of the occult sciences of magic and astrology. Whether this was or was not a mere pretence, we leave to the judgment of the enlightened reader. Suffice it to remark, that his library was well stored with the magical and astrological books of the last century.

His talents of conversation were so attractive, so various and multiform, that he was a companion equally acceptable to the philosopher and the man of the world, to the grave and the gay, the learned and the illiterate, the young and the old of both sexes.

Henderson, like many other great characters, had his little peculiarities. The following remarkable custom was frequently observed by him before he retired to repose:--He used to strip himself naked as low as the waist, and taking his station at a pump near his rooms, would completely sluice his head and the upper part of his body; after which he would pump over his shirt so as to make it perfectly wet, and putting it on in that condition, would immediately go to bed. This he jocularly termed "an excellent cold bath." The latter part of this ceremony, however, he did not practise with such frequency as the former.

There is great reason to think that he materially injured a good natural constitution by the capriciousness of his conduct, and particularly by the bold and strange experiments which he was accustomed to be always making upon himself. He used to swallow large quantities of noxious drugs, and quicksilver; and what seemed very rash, such doses of opium, like the famous Psalmanazar, as were apparently sufficient to send a dozen men to the grave.

His external appearance was as singular as his habits of life. He would never suffer his hair to be strewed with white dust, (to use his own expression,) daubed with pomatum, or distorted by the curling-irons of the friseur. Though under two-and-thirty years of age at his death, he walked, when he appeared in public, with as much apparent caution and solemnity as if he had been enfeebled by the co-operation of age and disease.

His learning was truly astonishing: scarcely a book, however obscure, could be mentioned, but he could give some account of it; nor any subject started, but he could engage in the discussion of it. He had a very deep and extensive knowledge of the learned languages; the Arabic and Persian were familiar to him. He delighted much in parodoxes, and his intimate acquaintance with the schoolmen brought him much into the habit of disputation. At one time he was profoundly plunged in the study of the writings of the illumined Jacob Behmen; and he then, and afterwards, warmly vindicated the system, if system it may be called, of that wonderful man.

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