The Book of Curiosities (part 4 of 6)

The Book of Curiosities (part 4 of 6)

The upper region, called the frigid zone, is marked out by a circle of snow and ice. The surface of this zone is for the most part flat and even, and the approach to it is indicated by the decline of vegetation, by uncovered rocks of lava and heaps of sand, by near views of an expanse of snow and ice, as well as of torrents of smoke issuing from the crater of the mountain, and by the difficulty and danger of advancing amidst streams of melted snow, sheets of ice, and gusts of chilling wind. The curious traveller, however, thinks himself amply recompensed, upon gaining the summit, for the peril which he has encountered. At night, the number of stars seem increased, and their light appears brighter than usual. The lustre of the milky-way is like a pure flame, that shoots across the heavens, and with the naked eye we may observe clusters of stars totally invisible in the lower regions.

Dr. Woodward mentions the existence of volcanoes as a special favour of Providence, and says, "There are scarcely any countries, that are much annoyed with earthquakes, that have not one of these fiery vents. And these are constantly all in flames whenever any earthquake happens, as they disgorge that fire, which, whilst underneath, was the cause of the disaster. Indeed, (saith he,) were it not for these diverticula, whereby it thus gains an exit, it would rage in the bowels of the earth much more furiously, and make greater havock than it now does. So that, though those countries where there are such volcanoes are usually more or less troubled with earthquakes; yet, were these volcanoes wanting, they would be much more annoyed with them than they now are, yea, in all probability, to that degree as to render the earth, for a vast space around them, perfectly uninhabitable. In one word, so beneficial are these to the territories where they are, that there do not want instances of some which have been rescued from earthquakes by the breaking forth of a new volcano there; this continually discharging that matter, which being till then barricaded up and imprisoned in the bowels of the earth, was the occasion of very great and frequent calamities."

In every case, where we cannot discern the beneficent tendency of particular phenomena in the universe, we ought to attribute this to our limited capacities, and not arraign the almighty Sovereign. However dreadful and destructive subterraneous fires may appear; on proper reflection, it may be inferred that they are as necessary in promoting and sustaining the operations of this part of the universe, as the natural heat in men's bodies is to the preservation and support of their being.

CHAP. XLII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING GROTTOS, CAVES, &c.

Grotto in South Africa--Grotto del Cani--Grotto of Antiparos--Grotto of Guacharo--Snow Grotto--Cave of Fingal--Cave near Mexico--The Nitre Caves of Missouri--Okey Hole--Borrowdale--Needle's Eye.

----------------------------Sweet interchange Of hill and valley, rivers, woods, and plains, Now land, now sea, and shores with forests crown'd. Milton.

GROTTO IN SOUTH AFRICA. From Thom's account of his Journey to South Africa.--"In the country of Kango is the greatest natural curiosity of South Africa, a grotto of unknown extent. This I visited, and spent four or five hours in it. It was generally supposed that the end of it had been discovered, but we proved it to be still unknown; though, from the information I received, we proceeded into it further than any others, and our entrance into the third newly discovered chambers, or cave, was only prevented by a descent of fourteen feet. This great and astonishing work of God is divided into various apartments, from fourteen to seventy feet in length, and eight to one hundred in breadth. By measurement, I found that we had proceeded about nine hundred feet into the cavern of a mountain, of five hundred feet in perpendicular height; the grotto is about two hundred feet above the level of the river running by the hill.

"The stalactites, united or disunited, form a hundred figures, so that, without any effort of imagination, nature would seem here to have assumed the province of art: for her canopies, organs, pulpits, vast candles, immense pillars, heads even of men and animals, meet the astonished visitor on all sides; so that he supposes himself in a new part of the universe. Eye, thought, and feeling, are equally overpowered; and, to complete this remarkable assemblage, there are various baths, or cisterns of water, as clear as crystal, divided by partitions, as if a most ingenious sculptor had wrought for some weeks in this subterraneous place of nature. Ten young colonists, with two slave guides, and my servant, were with me. We had a flambeau and a number of large candles; but even these did not chase away the darkness which eclipsed the beauties of this great work of nature, which had been forming from age to age, and was first discovered in the year 1788. It is a remarkable circumstance, that no traveller appears to have visited it, or the various sub-districts which I have described above, since that time till we entered it."

THE GROTTO DEL CANI.--This is a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four leagues from Naples: the air contained in it is of a mephitical or noxious quality; it is in truth carbonic acid gas, whence also it is called Bocca Venenosa, the Poisonous Mouth. "Two miles from Naples, (says Dr. Mead,) just by the Lago de Agnano, is a celebrated mofeta, commonly called La Grotto del Cani, which is destructive of all animal life that comes within the reach of its vapours. It is a small grotto, about eight feet high, twelve long, and six broad; from the ground arises a thin, subtile, warm fume, visible enough to a discerning eye, which does not spring up in little parcels here and there, but in one continued stream, covering the whole surface of the bottom of the cave; having this remarkable difference from common vapours, that it does not, like smoke, disperse into the air, but quickly after its rise falls back again, and returns to the earth, or hovers to a certain height, above which it never rises. This fact is ascertained by the colour of the sides of the grotto, which, as high as the vapour ascends, is of a darkish green, but above this it has only the appearance of common earth. As I found no inconvenience from standing in it myself, so I believe no animal, if its head were kept above this mark, would be in the least injured. But when, as is often the case, a dog, or any other creature, is forcibly kept below it, or the animal is so small that it cannot hold its head above this noxious vapour, it presently loses all voluntary motion, falls down as dead, or in a swoon; the limbs at first become convulsed and trembling, till at last no more signs of life appear, than a very weak and almost insensible beating of the heart and arteries; which, if the animal is left a little longer, quickly ceases also, and then its fate is irrevocable; but if it be snatched out and laid in the air, it soon revives, and, if thrown into the adjacent lake, resuscitation is still more rapid."

We now proceed to the famous GROTTO OF ANTIPAROS.--This grotto takes its name from the small island in which it is situated. The following is Mr. Charles Saunders's account of his descent into this celebrated grotto.

"Its entrance lies in the side of a rock, and is a spacious arch, formed of rough crags, overhung with fantastic wreaths of climbing shrubs. Our party amounted to six, attended by the same number of guides, furnished with lighted torches. We presently lost every ray of daylight, but following our leaders, we entered into a low narrow passage, lined on all sides with stones, that, from the reflection of the torches, glittered like diamonds, and displayed the colours of the rainbow. At the end of this passage, our guides desired us to tie a rope about our waists, and then led us to the brink of a frightful precipice. The descent was steep, and the place dark and gloomy. The exchange of the lane of diamonds for this abyss of darkness was very unwelcome; but I had travelled far to gratify my curiosity, and I hazarded the event. The rope being held by the guides at top, I was first let down, and, after dangling a minute or two, reached the bottom with my feet.

"My friends, encouraged by my example, followed; and we pursued our way under a roof of ragged rocks for thirty yards, hoping every moment to see the opening of the expected grotto; but our guides plainly told us we had far to go, and much to encounter, before we should reach it, and those who wanted courage and perseverance had better return. None of us, however, would act so cowardly a part, though the sight of another precipice, much deeper and more formidable than the first, almost shook our resolution. By the light of the torches, we could perceive that we were to plunge into a place encumbered with vast pieces of rough rugged rocks, and that we should be forced sometimes to climb over, and sometimes to creep under them; while on the other side were numerous dark caverns, like so many wells, which if one's foot should slip, would swallow us up. Two of our guides went before us, and as we stood on the edge, we were terrified to see them go lower, till they appeared at a frightful depth beneath us. When they were at the bottom, they hallooed to us, and we very reluctantly followed. In the midst of the way, we came to a place where a rock that was perpendicular, and a vast cavern, on one side threatened us with destruction, whilst a wall of rugged rock seemed impassable on the other. Here again we hesitated whether to proceed or not: but the guides assured us they had often gone the same way with safety, we therefore took fresh resolution, and on we went to a corner, where was placed an old, slippery, rotten ladder, which we ventured to descend.

"At the bottom we perceived ourselves at the entrance of another passage, which was rather dismal, but not wholly without beauty. A wide gradual descent led us into a noble vault, with a bottom of fine, green, glossy marble, over which we were to slide on our seats; and it was with difficulty we could keep ourselves from going too fast, and tumbling over one another. The walls and arch of the roof is as smooth in most places as if chiselled by a skilful workman, and are formed of a glistering red and white granite, supported in several places with columns of a deep blood-coloured shining porphyry. Here, to our terror, we lost sight of the two guides that went before us, and at the end of the passage found ourselves at the brink of another precipice, the bottom of which we reached by the help of a ladder, not much better than the former.

"Had not the dread of falling taken up my attention, I should have admired many of the natural ornaments of this obscure cavity. The rock to which the ladder was fixed was one mass of red marble, covered with white branches of rock crystal, and might be compared, from the hue of the rock behind, to an immense sheet of amethysts. From the foot of this ladder, we were compelled to slide, face downwards, through another shallow vault of polished green and white marble, for about twenty feet; and we then rejoined our guides, who prudently gave us some refreshment, to enable us to face the dangers we had yet to encounter.

"We now advanced through a narrow slanting passage of rough coarse stone, so much resembling snakes curled round, that nothing was wanting but a hissing sound, to make us fancy that thousands of those noisome reptiles surrounded us. There was still another terrible precipice to pass; but as we heard that it was the last, we made no hesitation in descending the ladder. After this, we proceeded upon even ground for about forty yards, when we were again entreated by our guides to fasten the ropes about our waists; not for the purpose of suspending us over a height, but as a means of security against the lakes and deep waters that are numerous in this part of the cavern. At length we reached the last passage, the dismal gloom of which might furnish images for a poetical description of Tartarus. The sides and roof were formed of black stone, and the way was so rugged, that we were often obliged to slide upon our backs. The angles of the rocks cut our clothes, and bruised our flesh in a miserable manner.

"Though I believed myself so near the object of my curiosity, I wished sincerely that I had never been allured, by the accounts of travellers, to venture into such a horrible place, when suddenly we lost sight of four out of our six guides. The want of their torches increased the melancholy gloom; and the supposition that they had fallen into some of the black pools of water that abound here, added to the apprehension for our own safety, as well as concern for their fate. The two remaining guides assured us, that their companions were safe, and that we should soon be rewarded for all that we had suffered, if we would but advance. Our passage was now become very narrow, and we were obliged to crawl on all fours over rugged rocks, when, hearing a little hissing noise, in an instant we were left in utter darkness. To our inexpressible terror, the guides told us that they had accidentally dropped their torches into one of the pools; but that there was no danger in crawling forward, as we should soon overtake their fellows. I now gave myself up for lost, and expected that I must perish in this dreadful cavern. Whilst I thus yielded to despair, one of the guides came to me, blindfolded me with his hand, and dragged me a few paces forward. I imagined his design was to rob and murder me; however, in the midst of my panic, he lifted me over a huge stone, and set me on my feet, withdrawing his hand from my eyes at the same time.

"What words can express my transport and astonishment: instead of darkness and despair, all was splendour and magnificence. The six guides welcomed me into the Grotto of Antiparos. Those whom we had missed, only went before to prepare the grotto for our reception, which was illuminated with fifty torches, and produced an effect no words can describe. Imagine yourself in an arched cavern, 485 yards deep, 120 yards wide, 113 long, and, as near as we could measure by the eye, about 60 yards high, lined on every part with brilliant crystallized white marble, and well illuminated. The roof is a grand vaulted arch, hung all over with pendent icicles of shining white marble, some of them ten feet long, and covered with clusters of the same material, resembling festoons and garlands of flowers, glittering like precious stones. From the sides of the arch proceed fantastic forms of the same glittering spar, that fancy can easily shape into trees, entwined with flowers and climbing shrubs; and in some parts the congelations have taken the appearance of the meanders of a winding stream. The floor, though rough and uneven, is full of crystals of all colours.

"It is impossible to convey any adequate idea of the splendours of this natural temple, the ornaments of which are formed of the droppings of water, that, in great length of time, become congealed into a kind of brilliant spar.

"Having contemplated this charming spectacle with delight, and raised our aspiration to that Being, whose creative powers are displayed in the most obscure, as well as in the most visible part of his works, we returned, impressed with the conviction, that no good can be attained without difficulty and perseverance."

THE GROTTO OF GUACHARO.--The gulf of Cariacho is frequented by innumerable flocks of marine birds, of various kinds. "When the natives wish to catch any of these wild fowl, (says M. Lavayse,) they go into the water, having their heads covered each with a calabash, in which they make two holes for seeing through. They thus swim towards the birds, throwing a handful of maize on the water from time to time, which becomes scattered on the surface. The ducks and other birds approach to feed on the maize, and at that moment the swimmer seizes them by the feet, pulls them under water, and wrings their necks before they can make the least movement, or, by their noise, spread an alarm among the flock. The swimmer attaches those he has caught to his girdle, and he generally takes as many as are necessary for his family."

Amongst the natural curiosities of this neighbourhood, is a lake full of crocodiles, and various other reptiles, one of which, if we are to believe a common tradition of the people, resembles the winged dragon of the poets. In going from Carupano to Guiria, our author passed through the "smiling valley" of Rio Corbe, watered by numerous streams, and which he calls the Temple and Compagna of Venezuela. Speaking of the celebrated Grotto of Guacharo, in the mountains of Bergantin, M. Lavayse observes, "In every country the same causes have produced similar effects on the imagination of our species. The grotto of Guacharo is, in the opinion of the Indians, a place of trial and expiation: souls, when separated from their bodies, go to this cavern; those men who die without reproach do not remain in it, but immediately ascend, to reside with the great Manitou in the dwellings of the blessed; and such men as have committed but slight faults, of a venial nature, are kept there for a longer or shorter period, according to their crime; while those of the wicked are retained there eternally.

"Immediately after the death of their parents and friends, the Indians proceed to the entrance of this cavern, to listen to their groans. If they think they hear their voices, they also lament, and address a prayer to the Great Spirit, and another to the devil, Muboya; after which they drown their grief with intoxicating beverages: but, if they do not hear the voices of their friends, they express their joy by dances and festivals. In all this, there is but one circumstance that creates surprise; it is, that the Indian priests have not availed themselves of such credulity to augment their revenues. Many Indians, though otherwise converted to Christianity, have not ceased to believe, that to be in the cave of Guacharo is synonymous with dying.

"Thus, in the majestic forests of South America, as in the ancient civilization of Hindoostan; under the harsh climates of the north of Europe and Canada, as in the burning regions of Africa; in all parts, men of every colour are distinguished from other animals by this irresistible foreboding of a future life, in which an Omnipotent Being recompenses the good and punishes evil doers. Whatever may be the modifications, differences, or absurdities, with which imagination, ignorance, and greedy imposture, have enveloped this belief, it appears to be one of the strongest moral proofs of the identity of our species, and to be a natural consequence of reflection."--Sketches of South America.

We will now beg the attention of our readers, while we relate some particulars respecting THE SNOW GROTTO.--This is an excavation made by the waters on the side of Mount Etna, by making their way under the layers of lava, and carrying away the bed of pozzolano below them. It occurred to the proprietor, that this place was very suitable for a magazine of snow; for in Sicily, at Naples, and particularly at Malta, they are obliged, for want of ice, to make use of snow for cooling their wine, sherbet, and other liquors, and for making sweetmeats. This grotto was hired, or bought, by the knights of Malta, who having neither ice nor snow on the burning rock which they inhabit, have hired several caverns on Etna, into which, people whom they employ, collect and preserve quantities of snow, to be sent to Malta when needed. This grotto has therefore been repaired within, at the expense of the order; flights of steps are cut into it, as well as two openings from above, through which they throw in the snow, and by means of which the grotto is enlightened. Above the grotto they have also levelled a piece of ground of considerable extent: this they have inclosed with thick and lofty walls, so that when the winds, which at this elevation blow with great violence, carry the snow from the higher parts of the mountain, and deposit it in this inclosure, it is retained and amassed by the walls. The people then remove it into the grotto, through the two openings; and it is there laid up and preserved in such a manner as to resist the force of the summer heats, as the layers of lava, with which the grotto is arched above, prevent them from making any impression.

When the season for exporting the snow comes on, it is put into large bags, into which it is pressed as closely as possible; it is then carried by men out of the grotto, and laid upon mules, which convey it to the shore, where small vessels are waiting to carry it away. But before those lumps of snow are put into bags, they are wrapped in fresh leaves; so that while they are conveyed from the grotto to the shore, the leaves may prevent the rays of the sun from making any impression upon them.

The Sicilians carry on a considerable trade in snow, which affords employment to some thousands of men, horses, and mules. They have magazines of it on the summits of their loftiest mountains, from which they distribute it through all their cities, towns, and houses; for every person in the island makes use of the snow. They consider the practice of cooling their liquors as absolutely necessary for the preservation of health; and in a climate, the heat of which is constantly relaxing the fibres, cooling liquors, by communicating a proper tone to the fibres of the stomach, must greatly strengthen them for the performance of their functions. In this climate a scarcity of snow is no less dreaded than a scarcity of corn, wine, or oil. We are informed by a gentleman who was at Syracuse in 1777, when there was a scarcity of snow, that the people of the town learned that a small vessel laden with that article was passing the coast: without a moment's deliberation, they ran in a body to the shore, and demanded her cargo; which when the crew refused to deliver up, the Syracusans attacked and took, though with the loss of several men.

The next object that claims our regard is THE CAVE OF FINGAL, or AN-UA-VINE, IN THE ISLAND OF STAFFA. From Faujas St. Fond's Travels in England, Scotland, and the Hebrides.

"This superb and magnificent monument of a grand subterraneous combustion, the date of which has been lost in the lapse of ages, presents an appearance of order and regularity so wonderful, that it is difficult for the coldest observer, and a person the least sensible to the phenomena which relate to the convulsions of the globe, not to be singularly astonished by this prodigy, which may be considered as a kind of natural palace.

"To shelter myself from all critical observation on the emotions which I experienced while contemplating the most extraordinary of any cavern known, I shall borrow the expressions of him who first described it. Those who are acquainted with the character of this illustrious naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, will not be apt to accuse him of being liable to be hurried away by the force of a too ardent imagination; but the sensation which he felt at the view of this magnificent scene was such, that it was impossible to escape a degree of just enthusiasm.

"The impatience which every body felt to see the wonders we have heard so largely described, prevented our morning's rest; every one was up and in motion before the break of day, and with the first light arrived at the south-west part of the island, the seat of the most remarkable pillars. We were no sooner arrived at this place, than we were struck with a scene of magnificence which exceeded our expectation, though formed as we thought upon the most sanguine foundations. The whole of that end of the island is supported by ranges of natural pillars, mostly above fifty feet high, standing in natural colonnades, according as the bays or points of land formed themselves, upon a firm basis of solid shapeless masses of rock. In a short time we arrived at the mouth of the cave, the most magnificent, I suppose, that has ever been described by travellers.

"The mind can hardly form an idea of any thing more magnificent than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of columns, and roofed by the bottoms of those from which they have been broken, in order to form it, between the angles of which a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded; this serves to define the angles precisely, and at the same time vary the colour with a great deal of elegance, and, to render it still more agreeable, the whole is lighted from without; so that the farthest extremity is very plainly seen from the outside, and the air within, being agitated by the flux and reflux of the tides, is perfectly dry and wholesome, entirely free from the vapours with which natural caverns in general abound."

The following description of the same place by Mr. Troil, is also worthy of our notice:--

"How splendid (says this prelate) do the porticos of the ancients appear in our eyes, from the ostentatious magnificence of the descriptions we have received of them! and with what admiration are we seized, on seeing even the colonnades of our modern edifices! but when we behold the cave of Fingal, formed by nature in the isle of Staffa, it is no longer possible to make a comparison, and we are forced to acknowledge that this piece of architecture, executed by nature, far surpasses that of the Louvre, that of St. Peter at Rome, and even what remains of Palmira and Pestum, and all that the genius, the taste, and the luxury of the Greeks, were ever capable of inventing."--Letters on Iceland.

Such also was the impression made by the cave of Fingal, on Sir Joseph Banks, and on the Bishop of Linckoeping.--

"I have seen many ancient volcanoes, and have given descriptions of several superb basaltic causeways and delightful caverns in the midst of lavas; but I have never found any thing which comes near this, or can bear any comparison with it, either for the admirable regularity of the columns, the height of the arch, the situation, the forms, the elegance of this production of nature, or for its resemblance to the masterpieces of art, though this had no share in its construction. It is therefore not at all surprising that tradition should have made it the abode of a hero.

"This amazing monument of nature is thirty-five feet wide at the entrance, fifty-six feet high, and a hundred and forty feet long.

"The upright columns which compose the frontispiece, are of the most perfect regularity. Their height, to the beginning of the curvature, is forty-five feet.

"The arch is composed of two unequal segments of a circle, which form a sort of natural pediment.

"The mass which crowns, or rather which forms the roof, is twenty feet thick in the lowest part. It consists of small prisms, more or less regular, inclining in all directions, closely united and cemented underneath, and in the joints, with a yellowish white calcareous matter, and some zeolitic infiltrations, which give this fine ceiling the appearance of mozaic work.

"The sea reaches to the very extremity of the cave. It is fifteen feet deep at the mouth; and its waves, incessantly agitated, beat with great noise against the bottom and walls of the cavern, and every where break into foam. The light also penetrates through its whole length, diminishing gradually inwards, and exhibiting the most wonderful varieties of colour.

"The right side of the entrance presents, on its exterior part, a vast amphitheatre, formed of different ranges of large truncated prisms, the top of which may be easily walked on. Several of these prisms are jointed, that is, concave on the one side, and convex on the other; and some of them are divided by simple transverse intersections.

"These prisms, consisting of a very durable and pure black basaltes, are from one to three feet in diameter. Their forms are triangular, tetrapedral, pentagonal, and hexagonal; and some of them have seven or eight sides. I saw several large prisms, on the truncatures of which are distinctly traced the outlines of a number of smaller prisms; that is, these prisms are formed of a basaltes, which has a tendency to subdivide itself likewise into prisms. I had before observed the same phenomenon in the basaltic prisms of Vivarais.

"The cave can be entered only by proceeding along the platform on the right side, which I have mentioned above. But the way grows very narrow and difficult as it advances; for this sort of interior gallery, raised about fifteen feet above the level of the sea, is formed entirely of truncated perpendicular prisms of a greater or less height, between which considerable address is necessary to choose one's steps, the passages being so strait and so slippery, owing to the droppings from the roof, that I took the very prudent resolution, suggested by our two guides, to proceed barefooted, and take advantage of their assistance, especially in a particular place, where I had room only to plant one foot, whilst I clung with my right hand to a large prism to support myself, and held the hand of one of the guides by the other. This difficult operation took place at the darkest part of the cave; and one half of the body was at the time suspended over an abyss, where the sea dashed itself into a cloud of foam.

"I was desirous of penetrating to the farthest extremity, and I accomplished my purpose, though not without considerable difficulty and danger. I more than once found my attention distracted from the observations which I was happy to have an opportunity of making, to the thought of how I should get back again.

"As I drew near to the bottom of the cave, the bold balcony, on which I walked, expanded into a large sloping space, composed of thousands of broken vertical columns. The bottom was bounded by a compact range of pillars of an unequal height, and resembling the front of an organ."

It is worthy of remark, that at the time when Mr. Troil visited the cave, the sea, by one of those uncommon chances which do not happen once in ten years, was so calm, that it permitted him to enter with a boat.

"At the very bottom of the cave, (says he,) and a little above the surface of the water, there is a kind of small cave, which sends forth a very agreeable noise every time that the water rushes into it."--Letters on Iceland.

"As the sea was far from being completely still when I visited it, I heard a noise of a very different nature every time that the waves, in a rapid succession, broke against its bottom. This sound resembled that which is produced by striking a large hard body with great weight and force against another hard body in a subterraneous cavity. The shock was so violent, that it was heard at some distance, and the whole cavern seemed to shake with it. Being close to the place whence the sound issued, and where the water is not so deep, upon the retreat of the wave, I endeavoured to discover the cause of this terrible collision. I soon observed, that, a little below the basis which supported the organ-fronted colonnade, there was an aperture which formed the outlet of a hollow, or perhaps a small cave. It was impossible to penetrate into this cavity; but it may be presumed that the tremendous noise was occasioned by a broken rock, driven by the violent impetuosity of the surge against its sides. By the boiling motion of the water, however, in the same place, it is evident that there are several other small passages, through which it issues, after rushing into the principal aperture in a mass. It is therefore not impossible, when the sea is not sufficiently agitated to put the imprisoned rock in motion, that the air, strongly compressed by the weight of the water, which is in incessant fluctuation, should, on rushing out by the small lateral passages, produce a particularly strange sound. It might then be truly regarded as an organ created by the hand of nature; and this circumstance would fully explain why the ancient and real name of this cave, in the Erse language, is, The Melodious Cave."

Sir Joseph Banks, in the description which he has given us of the cave of Staffa, says, that "between the angles a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded, which seemed to define the angles precisely." That is true; but the learned naturalist has not told us the nature of this yellowish matter.

Mr. Troil mentions it also: he says, that the "colour of the columns is a dark gray, but that the joints are filled with a quartzose stalactites, which distinctly marks the separation of the columns, and which, by the variety of its tints, has the most agreeable effect on the eye. On breaking off several pieces of it, which it is not very easy to do, owing to the height of the vault, I found that it was nothing but a calcareous matter, coloured by the decomposition of the iron of the lava, and intermixed with a little argillaceous earth. This stalactites has also very little adhesion, and is, in general, of an earthy nature. In several of the prisms I found some globules of zeolites, but in very small quantity. I also broke off from between two prisms, which were so apart as to admit of introducing my hand, an incrustation in which the white and transparent zeolites was formed into very perfect small cubical crystals, several of which were coloured red by the ferruginous lime arising from the decomposition of the lava. But I must repeat, that zeolites is very rare in this cave, and having myself broken off all the specimens that I was able to see, I doubt whether those who may visit the place after me will find any quantity of it."

Dimensions of the Cave of Fingal.--Breadth of the entrance, taken at the mouth and at the level of the sea, thirty-five feet; height, from the level of the sea to the pitch of the arch, fifty-six feet; depth of the sea, opposite to the entrance, and twelve feet distant from it, at noon of the 27th of September, fifteen feet; thickness of the roof, measured from the pitch of the arch without to its highest part, twenty feet; interior length of the cave from the entrance to the extremity, one hundred and forty feet; height of the tallest columns on the right side of the entrance, forty-five feet; depth of the sea in the interior part of the cave, ten feet nine inches, in some places eight feet, and towards the bottom somewhat less.

CAVE NEAR MEXICO.--A traveller of credit gives us an account, in the Philosophical Transactions, of a remarkable cave, some leagues to the north-west of Mexico, gilded all over with a sort of leaf-gold, which had deluded many Spaniards by its promising colour, but they could never reduce it into a body, either by quicksilver or fusion. This traveller went thither one morning with an Indian for his guide, and found its situation was pretty high, and in a place very proper for the generation of metals.

As he entered into it, the light of the candle soon discovered on all sides, but especially over his head, a glittering canopy of these mineral leaves, at which he greedily snatching, there fell down a great lump of sand, that not only put out his candle, but almost blinded him, and calling aloud to his Indian, who stood at the entrance of the cave, as being afraid of spirits and hobgoblins, it occasioned such thundering and redoubled echoes, that the poor fellow, imagining he had been wrestling with some infernal ghosts, soon quitted his station, and thereby left a free passage for some rays of light to enter, and serve him for a better guide. The traveller's sight was somewhat affected by the corrosive acrimony of the mineral dust; but having relighted his candle, he proceeded in the cave, heaped together a quantity of the mineral mixed with sand, and scraped off from the surface of the earth some of the glittering leaves, none of which exceeded the breadth of a man's nail, but with the least touch were divided into many lesser spangles, and with a little rubbing they left his hand gilded all over.

We must not neglect to notice THE NITRE CAVES OF MISSOURI.--"On the banks of the Merrimack and the Gasconade are found numerous caves, which yield an earth impregnated largely with nitre, which is procured from it by lixiviation. On the head of Current's river are also found several caves from which nitre is procured, the principal of which is Ashley's cave, or Cave Creek, about eighty miles south-west of Potosi. This is one of those stupendous and extensive caverns, that cannot be viewed without exciting our wonder and astonishment, which is increased by beholding those complete works for the manufacture of nitre, situated in its interior.

"The native nitrate of potash is found in beautiful white crystals, investing the fissures of the limestone rock which forms the walls of this cave; and several of those in its vicinity exhibit the same phenomenon."--Schoolcroft, on the Lead Mines of Missouri.

OKEY HOLE.--This is a famous natural cavern of England, on the south side of Mendip hills. The entrance is in the fall of those hills, which is beset all about with rocks, and there is near it a precipitate descent of twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of which there continually issues from the rocks a considerable current of water. The naked rocks above the entrance are about thirty fathoms high, and the whole ascent of the hill above, which is very steep, is about a mile. The entrance into this vault is at first upon a level, but advancing farther, the way is rocky and uneven, sometimes ascending, and sometimes descending.

The roof of this cavern, in the highest part, is about eight fathoms from the ground, but in many places it is so low, that one must stoop to get along. The breadth is not less various than the height, for in some places it is five or six fathoms wide, and in others not more than one or two. It is in length about two hundred yards. At the farthest part of the cavern there is a stream of water, large enough to drive a mill, which passes all along one side of the cavern, and at length slides down about six or eight fathoms among the rocks, and, finding its way through the clefts, falls into the valley beneath. The river within the cavern is well stored with eels, and has some trouts. In dry summers, a great number of frogs are seen all along this cavern, even to the farthest part of it; and on the roof are vast numbers of bats.

From Okey Hole we proceed to BORROWDALE,--which is a most romantic valley among the Derwent-Water Fells, in the county of Cumberland. These fells or hills are some of the loftiest in England, and it is in one of them that the black lead, or wadd, is found, from which all parts of the world are supplied. The mines are opened once in seven years, and when a sufficient quantity of this valuable and singular mineral is taken out, they are carefully closed again. In travelling among these mountains, the idea that presents itself to the astonished spectator, is that of the earth having been agitated like the ocean in a storm; the hills appear like waves, one behind another, and were it not for the abrupt and sudden scarps, and the immense masses of rugged rocks, that give the idea of fixedness and stability, the fancy might be bewildered so far as to imagine they were in a state of undulation, and ready to mingle with each other.

Borrowdale is watered by the clearest brooks, which, precipitated from the hills, form many beautiful waterfalls, and then meet together in the dale in one large stream, and pass out of it under the name of Borrowdale Beck, when they spread out into an extensive lake, forming many beautiful islands; the lake is called Derwent-water, or Keswick Lake. Borrowdale is four miles from Keswick, in passing from which, the traveller has the lake on his left hand, and stupendous rocky precipices on the other; with huge stones, or rugged masses of rock, which have tumbled from above, perhaps rent from the mountain by the expansion of the water in its crevices or fissures, which, congealing into ice, occasions the scattered fragments that lie in his way. As he approaches the dale, he sees the shelves, or ledges of the rocks, covered with herbage, shrubs, and trees, and villages and farms rise in his view; the larger cattle are seen feeding in the lower grounds, and the sheep in very large flocks upon the mountains.

We shall close this division with an account of THE NEEDLE'S EYE.--This name is given to a subterraneous passage on the coast of Banffshire, one hundred and fifty yards long from sea to sea, but through which a man can with difficulty creep. At the north end of it is a cave, twenty feet high, thirty broad, and one hundred and fifty long, containing a space of ninety thousand cubic feet. The whole is supported by immense columns of rocks, is exceedingly grand, and has a surprisingly fine effect on the spectator, after creeping through the narrow passage.

CHAP. XLIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING MINES.

Diamond Mine in the Brazils--Mines of Peru--Volcanic Eruptions of Mud and Salt--Pitch Wells--Visit to a Coal-Pit.

Through dark retreats pursue the winding ore, Search Nature's depths, and view her boundless store; The secret cause in tuneful numbers sing, How metals first were fram'd, and whence they spring Whether the active sun, with chemic flames, Through porous earth transmits its genial beams; With heat impregnating the womb of night, The offspring shines with its paternal light: Or whether, urged by subterraneous flames, The earth ferments, and flows in liquid streams Purg'd from their dross, the nobler parts refine, Receive new forms, and with fresh beauties shine: Or whether by creation first they sprung, When yet unpois'd the world's great fabric hung: Metals the basis of the earth were made, The bars on which its fix'd foundations laid; All second causes they disdain to own, And from th' Almighty's fiat sprung alone. Yalden.

Description of a DIAMOND MINE on the river Tigitonhonha, in the Brazilian territory; by Mr. Mawe.

"I could not (says the writer) resist the favourable opportunity now offered me of gratifying the curiosity which had so long occupied my mind, by visiting the diamond mines, in company with the principal officer in the administration of them, who was therefore qualified to furnish me with the amplest information. A fine horse was waiting for me at the door, and I rode up to the house of the governor, who introduced me to his amiable lady, daughters, and family, with whom I had the honour to take breakfast. Several officers of the diamond establishment arrived on horseback to accompany us, their presence being required on this occasion.

"Having arrived at the place, I remained here five days, during which I was occupied in viewing and examining various parts of the works, of which I shall here attempt to give a general description.

"The river Tigitonhonha is formed by a number of streams, and is as wide as the Thames at Windsor, and in general from three to nine feet deep. The part now in working is a curve or elbow, from which the current is diverted into a canal cut across the tongue of land round which it winds, the river being stopped, just below the head of the canal, by an embankment formed of several thousand bags of sand. This is a work of considerable magnitude, and requires the co-operation of all the negroes to complete it; for the river being wide and not very shallow, and also occasionally subject to overflow, they have to make the embankment so strong as to resist the pressure of the water, admitting it to rise four or five feet.

"The deeper parts of the channel of the river are laid dry by means of large caissons or chain-pumps, worked by a water-wheel. The mud is then carried off, and the cascalhao is dug up, and removed to a convenient place for washing. This labour was, until lately, performed by the negroes, who carried the cascalhao in gamellas on their heads; but Mr. Camara has formed two inclined planes, about one hundred yards in length, along which carts are drawn by a large water-wheel, divided into two parts, the ladles or buckets of which are so constructed, that the rotary motion may be altered by changing the current of water from one side to the other; this wheel, by means of a rope made of untanned hides, works two carts, one of which descends empty on one inclined plane, while the other, loaded with cascalhao, is drawn to the top of the other, where it falls into a cradle, empties itself, and descends in its turn. At a work called Canjeca, formerly of great importance, about a mile up the river on the opposite side, there are three cylindrical engines for drawing the cascalhao, like those used in the mining country of Derbyshire, and also railways over some uneven ground. This was the first and only machinery of consequence, which I saw in the diamond district, and there appear many obstacles to the general introduction of it. Timber, when wanted of large size, has to be fetched a distance of one hundred miles, at a very heavy expense; there are few persons competent to the construction of machines, and the workmen dislike to make them, fearing that this is only part of a general plan for suspending manual labour.

"The stratum of cascalhao consists of the same materials with that in the gold district. On many parts, by the edge of the river, are large conglomerate masses of rounded pebbles cemented by oxide of iron, which sometimes envelop gold and diamonds. They calculate on getting as much cascalhao in the dry season, as will occupy all their hands during the months which are more subject to rain. When carried from the bed of the river whence it is dug, it is laid in heaps, containing apparently from five to fifteen tons each.

"Water is conveyed from a distance, and is distributed to the various parts of the works by means of aqueducts, constructed with great ingenuity and skill. The method of washing for diamonds at this place, is as follows:--A shed is erected in the form of a parallelogram, twenty-five or thirty yards long, and about fifteen wide, consisting of upright posts, which support a roof thatched with long grass. Down the middle of the area of this shed, a current of water is conveyed through a canal, covered with strong planks, on which the cascalhao is laid two or three feet thick. On the other side of the area is a flooring of planks, from four to five yards long, imbedded in clay, extending the whole length of the shed, and having a slope, from the canal, of three or four inches to a yard. This flooring is divided into about twenty compartments or troughs, each about three feet wide, by means of planks placed on their edge. The upper ends of all these troughs (here called canoes) communicate with the canal, and are so formed that water is admitted into them between two planks that are about an inch separate. Through this opening the current falls about six inches into the trough, and may be directed to any part of it, or stopped, at pleasure, by means of a small quantity of clay. For instance, sometimes water is required only from one corner of the aperture, then the remaining part is stopped; sometimes it is wanted from the centre, then the extremes are stopped; and sometimes only a gentle rill is wanted, then the clay is applied accordingly. Along the lower ends of the troughs a small channel is dug, to carry off the water. On the heap of cascalhao, at equal distances, are placed three high chairs, for the officers or overseers. After they are seated, the negroes enter the troughs, each provided with a rake of a peculiar form, and short handle, with which he rakes into the trough about fifty or eighty pounds weight of cascalhao. The water being then let in upon it, the cascalhao is spread abroad, and continually raked up to the head of the trough, so as to be kept in constant motion. This operation being performed for the space of a quarter of an hour, the water then begins to run clearer; having washed the earthy particles away, the gravel-like matter is raked up to the end of the trough; after the current flows away quite clear, the largest stones are thrown out, and afterwards those of inferior size, then the whole is examined with great care for diamonds. When a negro finds one, he immediately stands upright and claps his hands, then extends them, holding the gem between his fore finger and thumb; an overseer receives it from him, and deposits it in a gamella or bowl, suspended from the centre of the structure, half full of water. In this vessel all the diamonds found in the course of the day, are placed, and at the close of work are taken out, and delivered to the principal officer, who, after they have been weighed, registers the particulars in a book kept for that purpose. When a negro is so fortunate as to find a diamond of the weight of 17-1/2 carats, much ceremony immediately takes place; he is crowned with a wreath of flowers, and carried in procession to the administrator, who gives him his freedom, by paying his owner for it. He also receives a present of new clothes, and is permitted to work on his own account. When a stone of eight or ten carats is found, the negro receives two new shirts, a complete new suit, with a hat, and a handsome knife. For smaller stones of trivial amount, proportionate premiums are given. During my stay at Tejuco, a stone of 16-1/2 carats was found: it was pleasing to see the anxious desire manifested by the officers that it might prove heavy enough to entitle the poor negro to his freedom; and when, on being delivered and weighed, it proved only a carat short of the requisite weight, all seemed to sympathize in his disappointment.

"Many precautions are taken to prevent the negroes from embezzling diamonds. Although they work in a bent position, and consequently never know whether the overseers are watching them or not, yet it is easy for them to omit gathering any which they see, and to place them in a corner of the trough for the purpose of secreting them at leisure hours; to prevent which they are frequently changed while the operation is going on. A word of command being given by the overseers, they instantly move into each others' troughs, so that no opportunity of collusion can take place. If a negro be suspected of having swallowed a diamond, he is confined in a strong room until the fact can be ascertained. Formerly, the punishment inflicted upon a negro for smuggling diamonds, was confiscation of his person to the state: but it being thought too hard for the owner to suffer for the offence of his servant, the penalty has been commuted for personal imprisonment and chastisement. This is a much lighter punishment than that which their owners, or any white man, would suffer for a similar offence.

"There is no particular regulation respecting the dress of the negroes: they work in the clothes most suitable to the nature of their employment, generally in a waistcoat and a pair of drawers, and not naked, as some travellers have stated. Their hours of labour are from a little before sunrise until sunset, half an hour being allowed for breakfast, and two hours at noon. While washing, they change their posture as often as they please, which is very necessary, as the work requires them to place their feet on the edges of the trough, and to stoop considerably. This posture is particularly prejudicial to young growing negroes, as it renders them in-kneed. Four or five times during the day, they all rest, when snuff, of which they are very fond, is given to them.

"The negroes are formed into working parties, called troops, containing 200 each, under the direction of an administrator and inferior officers. Each troop has a clergyman and a surgeon to attend it. With respect to the subsistence of the negroes, although the present governor has in some degree improved it, by allowing a daily portion of fresh beef, which was not allowed by his predecessors, yet I am sorry to observe that it is still poor and scanty; and that in other respects they are more hardly dealt with than those of any other establishment which I visited: notwithstanding this, the owners are all anxious to get their negroes into the service, doubtless from sinister motives.

"The officers are liberally paid, and live in a style of considerable elegance, which a stranger would not be led to expect in so remote a place. Our tables were daily covered with a profusion of excellent viands, served up on fine Wedgewood ware, and the state of their household generally corresponded with this essential part of it. They were ever ready to assist me in my examination of the works, and freely gave me all the necessary information respecting them.

"Having detailed the process of washing for diamonds, I proceed to a general description of the situation in which they are found. The flat pieces of ground on each side the river are equally rich throughout their extent, and hence the officers are enabled to calculate the value of an unworked place, by comparison with the amount found on working with the part adjoining. These known places are left in reserve, and trial is made of more uncertain grounds. The following observation I often heard from the intendant: 'That piece of ground (speaking of an unworked flat by the side of the river) will yield me ten thousand carats of diamonds, whenever we shall be required to get them in the regular course of working, or when, on any particular occasion, an order from government arrives, demanding an extraordinary and immediate supply.'

"The substances accompanying diamonds, and considered good indications of them, are bright bean-like iron ore, a slaty flint-like substance, approaching Lydian stone, of fine texture, black oxide of iron in great quantities, rounded bits of blue quartz, yellow crystals, and other materials entirely different from anything known to be produced in the adjacent mountains. Diamonds are by no means peculiar to the beds of rivers or deep ravines; they have been found in cavities and watercourses on the summits of the most lofty mountains. I had some conversation with the officers, respecting the matrix of the diamond, not a vestige of which could I trace. They informed me, that they often found diamonds cemented in pudding-stone, accompanied with grains of gold, but that they always broke them out, as they could not enter them in the treasury, or weigh them with matter adhering to them. I obtained a mass of pudding-stone, apparently of very recent formation, cemented by ferruginous matter enveloping many grains of gold; and likewise a few pounds weight of the cascalhao in its unwashed state. This river, and other streams in its vicinity, have been in washing many years, and have produced great quantities of diamonds, which have ever been reputed of the finest quality. They vary in size: some are so small that four or five are required to weigh one grain, consequently sixteen or twenty to the carat: there are seldom found more than two or three stones of from seventeen to twenty carats in the course of a year, and not once in two years is there found throughout the whole washings a stone of thirty carats. During the five days I was here, they were not very successful; the whole quantity found amounted only to forty, the largest of which was only four carats, and of a light green colour.

"From the great quantity of debris, or worked cascalhao, in every part near the river, it is reasonable to calculate that the works have been in operation above forty years; of course there must arrive a period at which they will be exhausted, but there are grounds in the neighbourhood, particularly in the Cerro de St. Antonio, and in the country now inhabited by the Indians, which will probably afford these gems in equal abundance."

THE MINES OF PERU.--There are great numbers of very rich mines which the waters of the ocean have invaded. The disposition of the ground, which from the summit of the Cordilleras goes continually shelving to the South Sea, renders such events more common at Peru than in other places. This has been in some instances remedied. Joseph Salcedo, about 1660, discovered, near Puna, the mine of Laycacoto. It was so rich that they often cut the silver with a chisel. It was at last overflowed with water; but in 1740, Diego de Bacua associated with others to divert the springs. The labours which this difficult undertaking required, were not finished till 1754. The mine yields as much as it did at first. But mines still richer have been discovered; such as that of Potosi, which was found in the same country where the Incas worked that of Parco. An Indian, named Hualpa, in 1545, pursuing some deer, in order to climb certain steep rocks, had hold of a bush, the roots of which loosened from the earth, and brought to view an ingot of silver. The indian had recourse to it for his own use. The change in his fortunes was remarked by one of his countrymen, and he discovered to him the secret. The two friends could not keep their counsel and enjoy their good fortune. They quarrelled; on which the indiscreet confidant discovered the whole to his master Villaroel, a Spaniard. Upon this the mine was worked, and a great number of others were found in its vicinity, the principal of which are in the northern part of the mountain, and their direction is from north to south. The fame of Potosi soon spread abroad; and there was quickly built at the foot of the mountain a town, consisting of 60,000 Indians, and 10,000 Spaniards. The sterility of the soil did not prevent its being immediately peopled. Corn, fruit, flocks, American stuffs, and European luxuries, arrived from every quarter. In 1738 these mines produced annually near £978,000, without reckoning the silver which was not registered, and what had been carried off by fraud. From that time the produce has been so much diminished, that not above one-eighth part of the coin which was formerly struck, is now made. At all the mines of Peru, the Spaniards, in purifying their gold and silver, use mercury, with which they are supplied from Guanca Velica. The common opinion is, that this mine was discovered in 1564. The trade of mercury was then free; it became an exclusive trade in 1571. At this period all the mines of mercury were shut; and that of Guanca Velica alone was worked; the property of which the king reserved to himself. It is not found to diminish. The mine is dug in the very large mountain of Potosi, sixty leagues from Lima. In its profound abyss are seen streets, squares, and a chapel, where the mysteries of religion on all festivals are celebrated. Millions of flambeaus are continually kept to enlighten it. The mine of Guanca Velica generally affects those who work in it with convulsions; and the other mines, which are not less unhealthy, are all worked by the Peruvians. These unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice are crowded all together, and plunged naked into these abysses, the greatest part of which are deep, and all excessively cold. Tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impossible for any thing to escape its restless vigilance. If there are any wretches who long survive such barbarity, it is the use of cocoa that preserves them.

We shall incorporate in this chapter, the following interesting account of VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF MUD AND SALT, in the Island of Java; by T. S. Goad, Esq. of the Honourable Company's Bengal Civil Service.

"Having received (says the writer) an extraordinary account of a natural phenomenon in the plains of Grobogan, fifty pals (or miles) north-east of Solo, a party, of which I was one, set off from Solo on the eighth of September, 1815, to examine it.

"On approaching the village of Kuhoo, we saw, between two trees in a plain, an appearance like the surf breaking over rocks, with a strong spray falling to leeward. The spot was completely surrounded by huts, for the manufacture of salt, and at a distance looked like a large village. Alighting, we went to the Bludugs, as the Javanese call them. They are situated in the village of Kuhoo, and by Europeans are called by that name. We found them to be on an elevated plain of mud, about two miles in circumference, in the centre of which immense bodies of salt mud were thrown up, to the height of from ten to fifteen feet, in the form of large globes, which, bursting, emitted volumes of dense white smoke. These large globes or bubbles, of which there were two, continued throwing up, and bursting seven or eight times in a minute At times they throw up two or three tons of mud. We got to leeward of the smoke, and found it to smell like the washing of a gun-barrel.

"As the globes burst, they threw the mud out from the centre with a pretty loud noise, occasioned by the falling of the mud upon that which surrounded it, and of which the plain is composed. It was difficult and dangerous to approach the large globes or bubbles, as the ground was all a quagmire, except where the surface of the mud had become hardened by the sun; upon this we approached cautiously to within fifty yards of the largest bubble, or mud pudding, as it might very properly be called, for it was of the consistency of a custard-pudding, and of very considerable diameter: here and there, where the foot accidentally rested on a spot not sufficiently hardened, it sunk, to the no small distress of the walker.

"We also got close to a small globe or bubble, (the plain being full of them of different sizes,) and observed it closely for some time. It appeared to heave and swell, and when the internal air had raised it to some height, it burst, and fell down in concentric circles, in which shape it remained quiet until a sufficient quantity of air was again formed internally, to raise and burst another bubble. This continued at intervals from about one-half to two minutes. From various other parts of the quagmire round the large globes or bubbles, there were occasionally small quantities of mud shot up like rockets to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and accompanied by smoke. This was in parts where the mud was of too stiff a consistency to rise in globes or bubbles. The mud at all the places we came near was cold on the surface, but we were told it was warm beneath. The water which drains from the mud is collected by the Javanese, and by being exposed in the hollows of split bamboos to the rays of the sun, deposits crystals of salt. The salt thus made is reserved exclusively for the Emperor of Solo. In dry weather it yields thirty dudjins, of one hundred catties each, every month; but in wet or cloudy weather, less.

"In the afternoon we rode to a place in a forest, called Ramsam, to view a salt lake, a mud hillock, and various boiling, or rather bubbling, pools. The lake was about half a mile in circumference, of a dirty looking water, boiling up all over in gurgling bodies, but more particularly in the centre, which appeared like a strong spring; the water was quite cold, and tasted bitter, salt, and sour, and had an offensive smell. About thirty yards from the lake stood the mud hillock, which was about fifteen feet high from the level of the earth. The diameter of its base was about twenty-five yards, its top about eight feet, and in form an exact cone. The top is open, and the interior keeps constantly working, and heaving up mud in globular forms, like the Bludugs. The hillock is entirely formed of mud which has flowed out of the top; every rise of the mud was accompanied by a rumbling noise from the bottom of the hillock, which was distinctly heard for some seconds before the bubbles burst. The outside of the hillock was quite firm. We stood on the edge of the opening and sounded it, and found it to be eleven fathoms deep. The mud was more liquid than at the Bludugs, and no smoke was emitted from the lake, hillock, or pools.

"Close to the foot of the hillock was a small pool of the same water as the lake, which appeared exactly like a pot of water boiling violently; it was shallow, except in the centre, into which we thrust a stick twelve feet long, but found no bottom. The hole not being perpendicular, we could not sound it with a line.

"About 200 yards from the lake, were several large pools or springs, two of which were eight or ten feet in diameter. They were like the small pool, but boiled more violently, and smelt excessively. The ground around them was hot to the feet, and the air which issued from them quite hot, so that it was most probably inflammable; but we did not ascertain this. We heard the boiling at the distance of thirty yards from the pools, resembling in noise a waterfall. The pools did not overflow; of course the bubbling was occasioned by the rising of air alone. The water of one of the pools appeared to contain a mixture of earth and lime, and, from the taste, to be combined with alkali. The water of the Bludugs and the lake is used medicinally by the Javanese, and cattle drinking of the water are poisoned."

Now follows an account of PITCH-WELLS; from Dr. Holland's Travels in the Ionian Isles, &c.--"The pitch-wells of Zante are a natural phenomenon, which may be regarded as among the antiquities of the isle; since they were known and described as early as the time of Herodotus, and are mentioned since by Pausanias, Pliny, and other authors. They are situated about ten miles from the city, and near the shore of the bay, on the southern side of the island. We visited this spot, which is called Chieri, a day or two after our arrival in Zante. A small tract of marshy ground, stretching down to the sea, and surrounded on other sides by low eminences of limestone, or a bituminous shale, is the immediate situation of the springs; they are found in three or four different places of the morass, appearing as small pools, the sides and bottom of which are thickly lined with petroleum, in a viscid state, and, by agitation, easily raised in large flakes to the surface. The most remarkable of these pools is one of a circular form, about fifty feet in circumference, and a few feet in depth, in which the petroleum has accumulated to a considerable quantity. The water of the spring, which is doubtless the means of conveying the mineral upwards to the surface, forms a small stream from the pool, sensibly impregnated with bituminous matter, which it deposits in parts as it flows through the morass: the other pools are of similar character. The petroleum is collected generally once in the year; and the average quantity obtained from the springs is said to be about 100 barrels; it is chiefly used for the caulking of vessels, not being found to answer equally well for cordage."

We close this chapter with Mrs. Wakefield's account of her VISIT to a COAL-PIT.--"Near the town of Newcastle, in the county of Northumberland, are vast beds of coal, which lie far beneath the surface of the earth: they are often found at the depth of 100 feet. Our visit to one of them was rather a droll adventure. The first ceremony was, to put on a kind of frock that covered us all over, to prevent spoiling our clothes. We were then shewn a prodigious steam-engine at work, at the mouth of the pit, in order to drain off the water; and close to it, a ventilator for purifying the air in the pit. Our guides now seated us on a piece of board, slung in a rope like the seat of a swing, and hooked to an iron chain, which was let gently down the suffocating hole by the assistance of six horses. I must confess, I did not like this mode of travelling: my spirits were, however, rather cheered when I reached the solid bottom, and saw my friend at my side. He congratulated me on my safe arrival; and pointed to a huge fire, burning for the purpose of keeping the air in proper temperature. Gaining courage by a nearer examination, I walked about the chambers with as much ease as if they had been the apartments of a dwelling-house. The coal is hollowed out in spaces of four yards wide, between which are left pillars of coal to support the roof, ten yards broad, and twenty deep. After exploring a dozen or two of these little apartments, our curiosity was satisfied, as there was nothing more to be seen but a repetition of the same objects to a vast extent. A number of horses live here for years together, and seem to enjoy themselves very comfortably: they are employed to draw the coal from the subterraneous passages to the bottom of the opening of the pit. The machine which raises the coal to the surface of the earth, is worked by stout horses. The coal is brought in strong baskets, made of osier; they contain each 12 cwt. and while one ascends, the other descends. A man receives these baskets as they arrive at the top, and places them on a dray, having hooked an empty basket on, instead of the full one. Before he drives the dray to a shed at a little distance, where he empties his load, the dust passes through holes prepared to receive it; while the large coals roll down the declivity in heaps, where they are loaded in waggons, and carried to wharfs on the river side, to be put on board the vessels that wait to convey them to distant parts. The waggons, very heavily laden, run without horses to the water side, along a road ingeniously formed in a sloping direction, with grooves to fit the waggon wheels, and make them go more readily. The dust, which is too small for common fires, is put into a kiln well heated, and when it is burnt, the particles unite, and run into large cakes or masses: in that state it is called coke, and this substance is used in many manufactories, where a strong heat is required.

"There are also coal-mines in several other parts of England. Near Whitehaven, in the county of Cumberland, are some that extend half a mile under the sea. The collieries employ a great number of hardy sailors, who, in their frequent coasting-voyages, are accustomed to face all the dangers of a sea-life. In time of war they contribute to man our navy; and, from their courage and skill, form a very valuable part of the crews."

CHAP. XLIV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE SEA.

General Observations respecting the Sea, or Ocean--Particular Curiosities of the Sea--On the Saltness of the Sea--On the Tides--Waves stilled by Oil.

"------------------And thou, majestic main, A secret world of wonders in thyself! Sound His stupendous praise, whose greater voice Or bids you roar, or bids your roaring fall!"

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING THE SEA, OR OCEAN.

The sea, or ocean, is that vast tract of water which encompasses the whole earth. What proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the land, is not precisely known, though it is said to be somewhat more than two-thirds. As the waters of the earth must necessarily rise to the surface thereof, it being specifically lighter than the earth, it was necessary there should be large cavities therein, as receptacles to contain them, otherwise they would have overspread all the surface of the earth, and so have rendered it utterly uninhabitable for terrestrial animals: it is well known, that the centre of the earth is the common centre of gravity, and that the nature of fluids is such, that they equally yield to equal powers; hence it follows, that where the power of attraction is every where the same at equal distances from the centre, the superficial parts of the water will every where conform themselves to this attractive power, at an equidistant situation from the centre, and, it is evident, will form the surface of a sphere, so far as they extend. The reason then that the sea seems higher than the land, results from the fallacy of vision, whereby all objects, whether on the land or sea, appear higher as they become more distant: and the reason will be plain to those who are acquainted with optics; for it is well known, that the denser any medium is, through which we behold objects, the greater is the refraction, or the more their images appear above the horizontal level; while the greater the quantity of medium through which the rays pass, the more they will be bent from their first direction: on both these accounts, the appearances of things at a great distance, both on the land and the sea, will be somewhat above the horizon, and the more so as they are the more remote.

With regard to the depth or profundity of the sea, Varenius affirms, that it is in some places unfathomable, in other places very various, being from fifty yards to four and a half English miles, in some places deeper, and that the depth is much less in bays than in oceans. In general, the depths of the sea bear a great analogy to the height of mountains on the land, so far as discoveries have hitherto extended. It is a general rule among sailors, and is found to hold true in many instances, that the more the shores of any place are steep and high, forming perpendicular cliffs, the deeper the sea is below; and that, on the contrary, level shores denote shallow waters. Thus, the deepest part of the Mediterranean is generally allowed to be under the heights of Malta. And the observation of the strata of earth and other fossils, on and near the shores, may serve to form a good judgment as to the materials to be found in the bottom of the sea; for the veins of salt and bitumen doubtless run on in the same order as we see them on the shore. If we may reason from analogy, the strata of rocks, that serve as a foundation for hills and elevated places on shore, serve also, in the same continued chain, to support the immense quantity of water in the basin of the sea.

The coral fisheries have given occasion to observe, that there are many, and those very large caverns or hollows in the bottom of the sea, especially where it is rocky, and that the like caverns are sometimes found in the perpendicular rocks which form the steep sides of those fisheries. These caverns are often of great depth as well as extent, and have sometimes wide mouths, and sometimes only narrow entrances, into large and spacious hollows.

The bottom of the sea is covered with a variety of materials, such as could not be imagined by any but those who have examined into them, especially in deep water, where the surface only is disturbed by tides and storms; the lower part, and consequently its bed at the bottom, remaining, for ages perhaps, undisturbed. The soundings, when the plummet first touches the ground, on approaching the shores, give some idea of this. The bottom of the plummet is hollowed, and in that hollow there is placed a lump of tallow, which is the first part that touches the ground; and the soft nature of the fat receives into it some part of those substances which it meets with at the bottom: the substances thus brought up, are sometimes pure sand, sometimes a kind of sand made of the fragments of shells beaten to a sort of powder, sometimes they are composed of a like powder to the several sorts of corals, and sometimes they are composed of fragments of rocks; but besides these appearances, which are natural enough, and are what might well be expected, it brings up substances which are of the most beautiful colours.

Dr. Donati, in an Italian work, containing an essay on a natural history of the Adriatic Sea, has related many curious observations on this subject: having carefully examined the soil and productions of the various countries that surround the Adriatic Sea, and compared them with those which he took up from the bottom of the sea, he found that there was very little difference between the former and the latter. At the bottom of the water there are mountains, plains, valleys, and caverns, similar to those upon land. The soil consists of different strata, placed one upon another, and mostly parallel and correspondent to those of the rocks, islands, and neighbouring continents. They contain stones of different sorts, minerals, metals, various petrified bodies, pumice stones, and lavas formed by volcanoes. One of the objects which most excited his attention, was a crust, which he discovered under the water, composed of crustaceous and testaceous bodies, with beds of polypes of different kinds, confusedly blended with earth, sand, and gravel: the different marine bodies, which form this crust, are found at the depth of a foot or more, entirely petrified, and reduced into marble; these, he supposes, are the natural beds of the sea, and not made so by means of volcanoes and earthquakes, as some have conjectured. On this account, he imagines that the bottom of the sea is constantly rising higher and higher, with which other obvious causes of increase concur; and from this rising of the bottom of the sea, that of its level or surface naturally results; in proof of which, this writer recites a great number of facts.

M. Dassie has been at great pains to prove, that the sea has a general motion, independently of winds and tides, and that it is of more consequence in navigation than is generally supposed. He affirms, that this motion is from east to west; inclining towards the north, when the sun has passed the equinoctial northward, during the time he is passing through the northern signs; but the contrary way, after the sun has passed the said equinoctial southward: adding, that when this general motion is changed, the diurnal flux is changed also; whence it happens, that in several places the tides come in during one part of the year, and go out during the other, as on the coasts of Norway, in the Indies at Goa, Cochin-china, &c. where, while the sun is in the summer signs, the sea runs to the shore; and when in the winter signs, runs from it. On the most southern coasts of Tonquin and China, for the six summer months, the diurnal course runs from the north with the ocean; but the sun having repassed the line toward the south, the course declines also southward.

There are two principal reasons why the sea does not increase by means of rivers, &c. falling every where into it. The first is, because waters return from the sea by subterranean cavities and aqueducts, through various parts of the earth. Secondly, because the quantity of vapours raised from the sea, and falling on the land, only cause a circulation, but no increase of water. It has been found, by calculation, that in a summer's day there may be raised in vapours, from the Mediterranean Sea, 5,280,000,000 tons of water, and yet this sea receiveth not, from all its nine great rivers, above 1,827,000,000 tons per day, which is but a third part of what is exhausted in vapours.

The ascent of the sea for the formation of springs, by a subterranean circulation of its water to their sources, has been a great objection, with many, against the system which ascribes their origin to the ocean; but Dr. Plot has observed, that there are many ways by which the water may ascend above its own level: 1. By the means of subterranean heat. 2. By filtration. 3. By the unequal height of several seas. 4. By the distance of the centre of magnitude from the centre of gravity in the terraqueous globe; the superficies of the Pacific Sea being said to be further from the centre of gravity than the top of the highest hill on the adverse part of the globe. And, 5. By the help of storms. The sea water actually ascends above its own level, and finds its way into wells, whose bottoms lie higher than the surface of the sea at high-water mark.

We shall now enter more particularly on THE CURIOSITIES OF THE SEA.--For the following observations we are principally indebted to Sturm.

"Instead of regarding the sea as an object of terror, let us consider the wonders and the benefits which it presents to us. It must be granted that when the waves swell into mountains, and the tempest roars, its aspect is terrific; and we must be hardy indeed, not to consider it as a most formidable element in such times of awful visitation, when ships, breaking from their anchor, or driven from their course, rush before the winds that beat upon them with ungovernable fury, till, dismasted, and their rigging shivered in fragments, they sink, overwhelmed with a weight of waters, or strike some sand-bank, or shelving rock, and are at once dashed to pieces. Sometimes whirlpools, or vast masses of water with a violently circular motion, whirl the unfortunate vessel that fate urges into their vortex, with irresistible force, till the helpless victim sinks an easy prey to the tremendous gulf, and the cries of the unfortunate wretches are lost in the roar of the waves: these whirlpools are occasioned by rocks in the ocean, and the meeting of numerous currents and eddies. Not less dangerous are the waterspouts, that the wind raises from the sea to the clouds; they hover in the air high above the ocean, and the wind whirls them round with violence. They often burst with a great crash, and occasion much mischief; for if they fall upon a vessel, they destroy its rigging, and sometimes sink it to the bottom.

"But it would be highly unjust and ungrateful, only to consider the losses occasioned by the sea, without reflecting upon the magnificent and stupendous works of God, and that goodness which even visits the unfathomable depths of the ocean. The first thing that strikes us, upon the investigation of sea water, is its saltness; a pound of the water containing about two ounces of salt. Sea salt appears lighter than that we commonly use, and yet it is not attracted by the air, nor lessened by the continual influx of fresh water; the cause of this is unknown. If this peculiar quality arose from mountains of salt contained in the sea, it would be salter in some places than in others, of which we have no proof. But whatever is the occasion of this saline property of the sea, it is absolutely necessary to accomplish certain ends. It is that which preserves such a vast body of water from corruption, and renders it capable of supporting a greater weight. The colour of sea water is also deserving of attention: it is not every where alike, which perhaps arises in part from its reflecting the colour of the bottom and that of the sky. It often appears dark and black in deep abysses, white and foaming during a storm, silvery, and gilded with reflections of the most beautiful hue, when the last rays of the setting sun play upon the unruffled surface: the colour of the sea, in addition to these, varies, from numberless insects, marine plants, and the combination of the different substances which the rivers and torrents carry with them into the ocean. When it is calm, and not a breeze skims over its bosom, it sometimes glitters with the most brilliant stars; and the track of a ship cleaving the waves has often a luminous appearance, like a river of fire.

"The creatures which inhabit the sea excite our surprise and admiration; we there discover a new world, and the number of beings which compose it is prodigious. Aquatic animals are not so numerous in their species as the land animals; but they surpass them in size and duration. The elephant and ostrich yield in bulk to the whale, the largest fish of the ocean, its length being often from sixty to seventy feet; and no land animal can vie with it in longevity, for it lives as long as the oak. If we may rely upon certain accounts, there are creatures in the ocean, far exceeding the size of the whale; as the animal called kraken, said to exist in the northern seas, and whose circumference is half a German league. Who is able to number the different species of animals which people the seas? or who can determine their form, structure, size, and properties? How infinitely great is that God who has created the sea! will be the conclusion of all who investigate the subject, and it is not without the wisest reasons that the Creator has made the ocean and the seas to occupy two-thirds of the whole globe. The seas were designed not only to form great reservoirs of water, but by means of their evaporation to be the sources of rain, snow, and various meteors. What wisdom is displayed in the connection which the seas have with each other, and in their continual motion! And it is not less wonderful that the bottom of the ocean is of the same nature as the surface of the earth. There are found in the sea, rocks, caverns, plains, springs, plants, and animals; and the islands are only the summits of a long chain of mountains. When we consider that the seas form a part of the globe the least investigated, we are disposed to believe that they contain many more wonders, which neither the senses nor the understanding of man can penetrate, while all acknowledge the adorable wisdom and power of the Most High. To Him then, who has established the monuments of his grandeur and the sceptre of his glory in the ocean, as upon the earth, be ascribed all admiration and praise!"

The following opinions of a late celebrated philosopher and divine, ON THE SALTNESS OF THE SEA, may not be unacceptable to our readers:--"There are few questions, (observes Bishop Watson,) respecting the natural history of our globe, which have been discussed with more attention, or decided with less satisfaction, than that concerning the primary cause of the saltness of the sea. The solution of it had perplexed the philosophers before the time of Aristotle; it surpassed his own great genius; and those of his followers, who have attempted to support his arguments, have been betrayed into very ill-grounded conclusions concerning it. Father Kircher, after having consulted three and thirty authors upon the subject, could not help remarking, that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions of men concerning the origin of its saline impregnation. The question does not seem capable of admitting an illustration from experiment; at least no experiments have hitherto been made for that purpose, and therefore we may be the less surprised at its remaining nearly as problematical in the present age, as it has been in the preceding. Had there, indeed, been any observation made three or four centuries ago, ascertaining the saltness of the sea at any particular time and place; we might, by similar observations at the same place and the same season, have been able to know whether the saltness at that particular place was an increasing, decreasing, or an invariable quantity; and this kind and degree of knowledge would have served as a clue to direct us to a full investigation of this matter in general; but it is to be regretted, that no such observations have, till very lately, been made with any tolerable precision.--There are three principal opinions on this subject, which have been maintained by philosophers of modern date; some, observing that river water, almost in every part of the globe, is in a greater or less degree impregnated with sea salt, have thought that the sea has gradually acquired its present quality of salt from the long-continued influx of rivers."

Other philosophers, observing that large beds of fossil salt are not unfrequent in any quarter of the globe; and conceiving, with great probability, the bottom of the sea to be analogous in its formation to the surface of the earth, have undertaken to derive its saltness from the beds of rock salt, which they have supposed to be situated at its bottom; and they are further of opinion, that without such a permanent saline principle, the sea would long since have become insipid from the fresh water poured into it by an infinity of rivers. Strange! that what, according to the fore-mentioned hypothesis, was thought sufficient to account for the saltness of the sea, should in this be esteemed instrumental in annihilating the saltness already supposed to exist.

Boyle unites, as it were, and takes the two preceding hypotheses, and imagines the saltness of the sea to be supplied, not only from rocks and other masses of salt, which at the beginning were, and in some countries may yet be found, either at the bottom of the sea, or at the sides, where the water can reach them, but also from the salt which the rivers, rains, and other waters, dissolve in their passage through divers parts of the earth, and at length carry with them into the sea. Buffon, and the generality of philosophers, acquiesce in the opinion of Boyle.--"After all, (says he,) it may be observed, that we are inquiring into the cause of a phenomenon, which it may be said had no secondary cause at all. It is taken for granted, in this disquisition, that the water which covered the globe in its chaotic state, was not impregnated with salt as at present, but quite fresh: now this is an opinion concerning a matter of fact, which can never be proved either way; and surely we extend our speculations very far, when we attempt to explain a phenomenon, primeval to, or coeval with, the formation of the earth."

This sensible writer then states the different experiments which have been made to discover the saltness of the sea, round the shores of Britain; and proposes the following simple method of ascertaining it with tolerable certainty:--

"As it is not every person who can make himself expert in the use of common means of estimating the quantity of salt contained in sea water, I will mention a method of doing it, which is so easy and simple, that every common sailor may understand and practise it; and which, at the same time, from the trials I have made of it, seems to be as exact a method as any that has yet been thought of.--Take a clean towel, or any other piece of cloth; dry it well before the sun or before the fire, then weigh it accurately, and note down its weight; dip it in the sea water, and, when taken out, wring it a little till it will not drip when hung up to dry; weigh it in this wet state, then dry it in the sun or at the fire, and when it is perfectly dry, weigh it again: the excess of the weight of the wetted cloth above its original weight, is the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth; and the excess of the weight of the cloth after being dried, above its original weight, is the specific gravity of the salt retained by the cloth; and by comparing this weight with the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth, we obtain the proportion of salt contained in that species of sea water."

Whoever undertakes to ascertain the quantity of salt contained in sea water, either by this or any other method, would do well to observe the state of the weather preceding the time when the sea water is taken out of the sea; for the quantity of salt contained in the water near the surface, may be influenced, both by the antecedent moisture, and the antecedent heat of the atmosphere. And this leads to the consideration of a question proposed by Aristotle,--Why are the upper parts of the sea salter and warmer than the lower? Some philosophers, admitting the fact, have followed him in attempting to explain it; whilst others have thought themselves authorized by experiment to deny the truth of the position; and those, perhaps, will argue with the greatest justness, who shall affirm that it is neither generally to be admitted, nor generally to be rejected, but that the sea in some places, and under certain circumstances, is salter and warmer at the surface, than at any considerable depth beneath it, while in many others the reverse is true. The question consists of two parts, betwixt which, though there probably is a connection, yet it is not so necessary a one as to hinder us from considering each part by itself.

With regard to the use of this salt property of sea water, it is observed, that the saltness of the sea preserves its waters pure and sweet, which otherwise would corrupt, and emit a stench like a filthy lake, and consequently that none of the myriads of creatures which now live therein could exist. From thence also the sea water becomes much heavier, and therefore ships of greater size and burden are safely borne thereon. Salt water also does not freeze so soon as fresh water, hence the seas are more free for navigation.

We shall now make a few observations on THE TIDES:--

Say, why should the collected main Itself within itself contain? Why to its caverns should it sometimes cree And with delighted silence sleep On the lov'd bosom of its parent deep? Why should its num'rous waters stay In comely discipline and fair array, Till winds and tides exert their high commands? Then prompt and ready to obey, Why do the rising surges spread Their op'ning ranks o'er earth's submissive head, Marching through different paths to different lands? Prior.

The tides consist of two periodical motions of the waters of the sea, called the flux and reflux, or the flow and ebb. The cause of the tides is the attraction of the sun and moon, but chiefly of the latter; the waters of the immense ocean, forgetful, as it were, of their natural rest, move and roll in tides, obsequious to the strong attractive power of the moon, and weaker influence of the sun.

That the tides may have their full motion, the ocean in which they are produced ought to be extended from east to west 90°, or a quarter of a great circle of the earth, at least; because the places where the moon raises most, and most depresses the water, are at that distance from one another. Hence it appears, that it is only in the great oceans that such tides can be produced, and why, in the large Pacific ocean, they exceed those in the Atlantic. From this it is also obvious why the tides are not so great in the torrid zone, between Africa and America, where the ocean is narrower, as in the temperate zones on either side; and from this also, we may understand why the tides are so small in islands that are very far distant from the shore. It is manifest, that, in the Atlantic ocean, the water cannot rise on one shore, but by descending on the other; so that, on these shores, at an intermediate distance, it must continue at about a mean height between its elevation on the one, and descent on the other shore. As the tides pass over shoals, and run through streights into bays of the sea, their motion becomes more various, and their height depends on a great many circumstances. The tide that is produced in the western coast of Europe corresponds to the theory above described: thus, it is high water on the coast of Spain, Portugal, and the west of Ireland, about the third hour after the moon has passed the meridian; from thence it flows into the adjacent channels, as it finds the easiest passage. One current from it, for example, runs up by the south of England, and another comes in by the north of Scotland: they take a considerable time to move all this way, and it is high water sooner in the places to which they first come; and the tides even begin to fall at those places, while the two currents are yet going on to others that are further in their course. As they return, they are not able to raise a tide; because the water runs faster off than it returns, till by a new tide propagated from the ocean, the return of the current is stopped, and the water begins to rise again. The tide takes twelve hours to come from the ocean to London bridge, so that, when it is high water there, a new tide is already come to its height in the ocean, and, in some intermediate place, it must be low water at the same time.

In channels, therefore, and narrow seas, the progress of the tides may be, in some respects, compared to the motion of the waves of the sea. It may be observed, that when the tide runs over shoals, and flows upon flat shores, the water is raised to a greater height than in the open and deep oceans that have steep banks; because the force of its motion cannot be broken upon these level shores, till the water rises to a greater height. If a place communicates with two oceans, (or two different ways with the same ocean, one of which is a readier and easier passage than the other,) two tides may arrive at that place in different times, which, interfering with each other, may produce a greater variety of phenomena.

An extraordinary instance of this kind is mentioned at Bathsha, a port in the kingdom of Tonquin in the East Indies, of northern latitude 20° 50'. The day in which the moon passes the equator, the water stagnates there without any motion: as the moon removes from the equator, the water begins to rise and fall once a day; and it is high water at the setting of the moon, and low water at her rising. This daily tide increases for about seven or eight days, and then decreases for as many days by the same degrees, till this motion ceases when the moon has returned to the equator. When she has passed the equator, and declines towards the south pole, the water rises and falls again, as before; but it is high water now at the rising, and low water at the setting, of the moon.

We shall close this chapter with an account of the remarkable fact of WAVES STILLED BY OIL.--This wonderful property, though well known to the ancients, as appears from the writings of Pliny, was for many ages either quite unnoticed, or treated as fabulous by succeeding philosophers, till Dr. Franklin again attracted the attention of the learned to this subject; though it appears, from some anecdotes, that seafaring people have always been acquainted with it. Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, vol. iv. under the article Seal, takes notice, that when these animals are devouring a very oily fish, which they always do under water, the waves above are remarkably smooth; and by this the fishermen know where to find them. Sir Gilbert Lawson, who served long in the army at Gibraltar, assured Dr. Franklin, that the fishermen in that place are accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea, in order to still its motion, that they may be enabled to see the oysters lying at its bottom, which are there very large, and which they take up with a proper instrument. A similar practice is followed among fishermen in various other parts; and Dr. Franklin was informed by an old sea captain, that the fishermen of Lisbon, when about to return into the river, if they saw too great a surf upon the bar, would empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea, which would suppress the breakers, and allow them to pass freely. The Doctor having revolved in his mind all these pieces of information, became impatient to try the experiment himself. At last, having an opportunity of observing a large pond very rough with the wind, he dropped a small quantity of oil upon it. But having at first applied it on the lee side, the oil was driven back again upon the shore. He then went to the windward side, and poured on about a tea-spoonful of oil; this produced an instant calm over a space several yards square, which spread amazingly, and extended itself gradually till it came to the lee-side; making all that quarter of the pond, perhaps half an acre, as smooth as glass. This experiment was often repeated in different places, and was always attended with success.

CHAP. XLV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE SEA.--(Concluded.)

"--------------------Adoring, own The hand Almighty, who its channel'd bed Immeasurable sunk, and pour'd abroad, Fenc'd with eternal mounds, the fluid sphere; With every wind to waft large commerce on, Join pole to pole, consociate sever'd worlds, And link in bonds of intercourse and love Earth's universal family."

ON THE PERFECTION OF NAVIGATION.

The following account of the present wonderful perfection of navigation, is taken from a History of Voyages and Discoveries made in the North; translated from the German of John Reinhold Foster, LL.D.--

"Of all the arts and professions which have at any time attracted notice, none has ever appeared to be more astonishing and marvellous than that of navigation, in the state in which it is at present; an art which doubtless affords one of the most certain irrefragable proofs of the amazing powers of the human understanding. This cannot be made more evident, than when, taking a retrospective view of the tottering inartificial craft to which navigation owes its origin, we compare it to a noble and majestic edifice, containing 1000 men, together with their provisions, drink, furniture, wearing-apparel, and other necessaries, for many months, besides 100 pieces of heavy ordnance; and bearing all this vast apparatus safely, and as it were on the wings of the wind, across immense seas to the most distant shores. The following example may serve for the present to delineate at full length, as it were, the idea above alluded to. But first I must premise, that a huge unwieldy log of wood, with the greatest difficulty, and in the most uncouth manner, hollowed out in the inside, and somewhat pointed at both ends, and in this way set on a river for the purpose of transporting two or three persons belonging to one and the same family, across a piece of water a few feet deep, by the assistance of a pole pushed against the ground, cannot with any propriety be considered as the image of navigation in its first and earliest stage. For it seems evident to me, that people in the beginning only took three or four trunks of trees, and fastened them together, and then, by means of this kind of raft, got across such waters as were too deep for them to ford, and across which they could not well swim, with their children, and various kinds of goods which they might wish to preserve from being wet. The canoe, however, is a specimen of the art in a more advanced state, as this kind of craft is capable of having direction given to it, and even of so capital an improvement as that of having a sail added to it. For this reason I choose this vehicle for a standard, in preference to a mere raft, to which, imperfect as it is, it is so much superior.

"Let us, then, compare this with a large majestic floating edifice, the result of the ingenuity and labour of many hundreds of hands, and composed of a number of well-proportioned pieces, nicely fastened together by iron nails and bolts; and rendered so tight with tow and pitch, that no water can penetrate it. Now, in order to give motion and direction to this enormous machine, some astonishingly lofty pieces of timber have been fixed upright in it, and so many moveable cross pieces have been added to it, together with such a variety of pieces of strong linen cloth, for the purpose of catching the wind, and of receiving its impulse and propelling power, that the number of them amounts to upwards of thirty. For changing the direction of the yards and sails, according to particular circumstances, it has also been requisite to add a vast quantity of cordage and tackling; and nevertheless, even all this would not be sufficient for the perfect direction and government of the vessel, if there were not fastened to the hinder part of it, by means of hinges and hooks, a moveable piece of wood, very small indeed, in proportion to the whole machine, but the least inclination of which to either side is sufficient to give immediately a different direction to this enormously large mass, and that even in a storm, so that two men may direct and govern this swimming island with the same, or with greater ease, than a single man can do a boat. But if, besides, we consider, that, in a vessel like this, not a single piece is put in at random, but that every part of it has its determinate measure and proportion, and is fixed precisely in that place which is the most advantageous for it; that, throughout every part of it, there is distributed an astonishing quantity of blocks, stays, and pulleys, for the purpose of diminishing the friction, and of accelerating the motion of these parts; that even the bellying and vaulted part of the fabric, together with its sharp termination underneath, are proportioned according to the nicest calculations, and the most accurately determined rules; that the length and the thickness of the masts, the size of the booms and yards, the length, width, and strength of the sails and tackling, are all in due proportion to each other, according to certain rules founded upon the principles of motion: when we consider all this, I say, our admiration increases more and more at this great masterpiece of human power and understanding.

"Still, however, there are wanting a few traits to complete this description. A man in health consumes, in the space of twenty-four hours, about eight pounds of victuals and drink: consequently, 8000lb. of provisions are required daily in such a ship. Now, let us suppose a ship to be fitted out for three months only, and we shall find that she must be laden with 720,000lb. of provisions. A large forty-two pounder weighs about 6100lb. if made of brass, and about 5500lb. if iron; and generally there are twenty-eight or thirty of these on board a ship of 100 guns, the weight of which, exclusive of that of their carriages, amounts to 183,000lb.--on the second deck, thirty twenty-four pounders, each of which weighs about 5100lb. and therefore altogether 153,000lb.--the weight of the twenty-six or twenty-eight twelve-pounders on the lower deck, amounts to about 75,400lb.--that of the fourteen six-pounders on the upper deck, to about 26,600lb.--besides which, on the round tops, there are even three-pounders and swivels. Now, if to this we add, that the complete charge of a forty-two pounder weighs about 64lb. and that at least upwards of 100 charges are required for each gun, we shall find this to amount nearly to the same weight as the guns themselves. In addition to this, we must reflect, that every ship must have, by way of providing against exigencies, at least a second set of sails, cables, cordage, and tacklings, which altogether amount to a considerable weight. The stores, likewise, consisting of planks, pitch, and tow; the chests belonging to the officers and sailors; the surgeon's stores, and various other articles requisite on a long voyage; as also the small arms, bayonets, swords, and pistols, are no inconsiderable load; to which we must finally add the weight of the crew, which is not very trifling: so that one of these large ships carries at least 2162 tons burden, or 4,324,000lb. and at the same time is steered and governed with as much ease as the smallest boat. Now, the consideration of these circumstances alone, is sufficient to excite the most serious reflections in a contemplative mind; and yet, if such a ship sailed along the coast only, and never lost sight of the shore, as the navigators of old used to do, we might still be tempted to look upon navigation as an easy and trifling business. But the finding the straightest and shortest way over an ocean of more than sixty or eighty degrees in longitude, and thirty or forty in latitude; or across a track from 4000 to 6000 miles in extent, by day and by night, in fair weather or in foul; as well when the sky is overcast as when it is clear, and often with no other guide than the compass, and the being able to determine the true position of the ship at sea, by the height of the sun, though this latter be enveloped in clouds, or to direct its course by the moon and stars with such exactness and precision, as not to make a mistake of the value of half a degree, or thirty miles; this at least shews the progress and great perfection of an art practised by a class of people, of whose understanding many conceited and supercilious landsmen have but a mean opinion, and whose plain and simple manners they frequently take the liberty of turning into ridicule, forgetting how much they are indebted to their skill and prowess.

"A violent storm of wind will make us tremble with fear, even in a strong well-built house, and in the midst of a populous city; yet we have seldom or never either seen or experienced the vast power of the enraged waves, when beat about by the winds, and dashed against each other till they seem transformed into froth and vapour, and the whole surface of the ocean presents to the eye a confused scene of immense watery mountains and bottomless precipices; and yet on such a sea as this the true seaman, provided he has but a good ship, rides with calm and unshaken courage, and thinks himself as safe in the midst of the ocean as in the best fortified castle."

With gallant pomp and beauteous pride, The floating pile in harbour rode; Proud of her freight, the swelling tide Reluctant left the vessel's side, And rais'd it as it flow'd.

The waves, with eastern breezes curl'd, Had silver'd half the liquid plain; The anchors weigh'd, the sails unfurl'd, Serenely mov'd the wooden world, And stretch'd along the main.

CHAP. XLVI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING WATERFALLS, LAKES, GULFS, WHIRLPOOLS, &c.

The Falls of Niagara--Lake of Killarney--Lake Solfatara--Whirlpool near Suderoe--Maelstrom--Gulf Stream--New Island starting from the Sea.

Fountains and ponds he adds, and lakes immense, Descending streams the winding borders fence; This, deep-absorb'd, the darksome cavern laves, These to the ocean roll their azure waves; There, uncontroll'd, they meet the roaring tide, And dash, for verdant banks, the hoar cliff's side. Ovid.

NIAGARA is a river of the United States, which flows from Lake Erie, and runs by a north-west course into the south-west end of Lake Ontario, constituting part of the boundary between the United States and Canada. It is thirty-four miles long, including its meanders. About twenty miles below Lake Erie is the great cataract, called THE FALLS OF NIAGARA, which is justly reckoned one of the greatest natural curiosities in the world. These falls run from south-south-east to north-north-west; and the rock of the falls crosses them, not in a right line, but forms a kind of figure like a hollow semicircle, or horse-shoe. Above the falls, in the middle of the river, is an island called Grand Isle, about nine hundred or one thousand feet long, the lower end of which is just at the perpendicular edge of the fall. On both sides of this island runs all the water that comes from the lakes of Canada; viz. Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie. Before the water comes to this island, it runs but slowly, compared with its motion afterwards, when it grows the most rapid in the world, running with a surprising swiftness before it comes to the fall. It is perfectly white, and in many places is thrown high up into the air. At this island, the river divides into two channels: the perpendicular descent of the north-east channel, as measured by Dr. M'Causlin, is one hundred and sixty-three feet; that of the north-west, one hundred and forty-three; and the breadth of the cataract and island, above a mile.

The water that runs down on the west side is more rapid, flows in greater abundance, and is whiter, than that on the east side, and seems to outfly an arrow in swiftness. At the principal fall, on looking up the river, one may see that the water is every where exceedingly steep, almost like the side of a hill; but upon looking at the fall itself, it is impossible to express the amazement it occasions. The height of it, as measured by mathematical instruments, is exactly one hundred and thirty-seven feet; and when the water is come to the bottom, it rebounds back to a very great height in the air. The noise is heard at the distance of forty-five miles. At fort Niagara, when they hear the noise of the fall more loud than ordinary, they are sure that a north-east wind will follow; which is the most surprising, as the fort lies south-west from the fall. Sometimes the fall makes a much greater noise than at others, and this is held for an infallible sign of approaching rain or bad weather. From the place where the water falls, there arises a great quantity of vapour, like very thick smoke, insomuch, that when viewed at a distance, one would think that the Indians had set the forests on fire. These vapours rise high in the air when it is calm, but are dispersed by the wind when it blows hard. In September and October, such quantities of dead water-fowl are found every morning below the fall, on the shore, that the garrison of the fort live chiefly upon them. Besides the fowls, they find several sorts of dead fish, also deer, bears, and other animals, which have tried to cross the water above the fall: the larger animals are generally found broken to pieces. Just below, a little way from the great fall, the water is not rapid, but goes in circles, and whirls like a boiling pot; which however does not hinder the Indians going upon it in small canoes a fishing; but a little further, and lower, the other smaller falls begin.

There is an island in the middle of the river above the fall, where the Indians go often to kill deer, which have tried to cross the river, and are driven upon it by the stream. On the west side of this island are some small islands or rocks of no consequence. The east side of the river is almost perpendicular, the west side more sloping. In former times, a part of the rock, at the fall which is on the west side of the island, hung over in such a manner, that the water which fell perpendicularly from it, left a vacancy below, so that people could go under between the rock and the water; but the prominent part some years ago broke off, and fell down. The breadth of the great fall, as it runs in a semicircle, is reckoned to be about 300 feet. Below the fall, in the holes of the rocks, are great plenty of eels, which the Indians and French catch with their hands. Every day, when the sun shines, may be seen from ten A. M. till two P. M. below the fall, a glorious rainbow, and sometimes two, one within the other. The more vapours that float, the brighter and clearer is the rainbow. When the wind carries the vapours from that place, the rainbow is gone, but appears again as soon as new vapours arise. From the fall to the landing above it, where the canoes from the Lake Erie put ashore, (or from the fall to the upper end of the carrying place,) is half a mile. Lower than this, the canoes dare not venture. They have often found below the fall, fragments of human bodies, that have unhappily been precipitated over the fall. The French say, that they have often thrown great trees into the water above, to see them carried over this precipice with the vast body of water, which nothing can resist: these go down with surprising swiftness, but can never be seen afterwards; from whence has arisen the conjecture that there was a bottomless abyss just under the fall. But the most reasonable supposition is, that, by the powerful agency of the water, they were broken into such diminutive fragments, as to render it impossible that they should ever be recognized for the same. The rock of the fall is composed of a gray limestone.

We shall next take a view of some of the most remarkable lakes; and the first we would notice, is the LAKE OF KILLARNEY.--This is a beautiful lake of Ireland, in the county of Kerry, otherwise called LOUGH LEAN, from its being surrounded by high mountains. It is divided into three parts, called the Lower, Middle, and Upper Lake. The northern, or lower lake, is six miles in length, and from three to four in breadth. On the side of one of the mountains is O'Sullivan's Cascade, which falls into the lake with a roar that strikes the timid with awe. The view of this sheet of water is uncommonly fine; it appears as if it were descending from an arch of wood, which overhangs it above seventy feet in height. The promontory of Mucruss, which divides the upper from the lower lake, is quite enchanting; and a road is carried through the centre of its promontory, which unfolds all the interior beauties of the place. Among the distant mountains, Turk appears an object of magnificence; while Mangerton's more lofty, though less interesting summit, soars above the whole. The passage to the upper lake is round the extremity of Mucruss, which confines it on one side, and the approaching mountains on the other. Here is a celebrated rock, called the Eagle's Nest, which produces wonderful echoes; the report of a single cannon is answered by a succession of peals resembling the loudest thunder, and at length dies away among the distant mountains. The upper is four miles long, and from two to three broad. It is almost surrounded by mountains, from which descend a number of beautiful cascades. The islands in this lake are numerous, and afford an amazing variety of picturesque views. The centre lake, which communicates with the upper, is small in comparison with the other two, and cannot boast of equal variety; but the shores are, in many places, indented with beautiful bays, surrounded by dark groves of trees. The east boundary is formed by the base of Mangerton, down the steep side of which descends a cascade, visible for 150 yards. This fall of water is supplied by a circular lake, near the summit of the mountain, called the Devil's Punch Bowl; which, on account of its immense depth, and the continual overflow of water, is considered as one of the greatest curiosities in Killarney. One of the most delightful prospects which this universally admired lake affords, is from a rising ground near the ruined cathedral of Aghadoe.

LAKE SOLFATARA.--This lake is in the Compagna of Rome, near Tivoli, anciently called Albulus. It has what are called three floating islands, but they are only apparently so, being composed of bunches of sedges and bulrushes, glued together by the bitumen which swims on the lake, and the sulphur with which it is impregnated, and covered with sand and dust blown from the adjacent banks of the lake. These islands are from twelve to fifteen yards long, and the soil is strong enough to bear six persons, who, by a pole, may move to different parts of the lake. This lake has an outlet, whence its waters run, forming a whitish muddy stream, into the Teverone, the ancient Anio, emitting a vapour of a sulphureous smell as they flow. The ground near this rivulet, as well as on the banks of the lake, resounds with a hollow sound when a horse gallops over it. The water has also a petrifying quality, covering every substance that it passes over with a hard white stony substance. On throwing a bundle of sticks or shrubs into the lake, they will in a few days be covered with this stony crust; and this petrifying quality is even stronger in the rivulet that runs from it, than in the lake itself, and still increases till it falls into the Teverone. These small white incrustations that cover the pebbles in the bottom of the lake and rivulet, being somewhat like sugar-plums, are called Confections of Tivoli. Fish abound in the Teverone above and below Tivoli, till it receives the petrifying water; after which, during the remainder of its course to the Tiber, there are none.

Our next object of curiosity is a WHIRLPOOL near SUDEROE.--Suderoe is one of the Fero isles, situated to the north of Scotland. Near this place there is a remarkable whirlpool, occasioned by a crater sixty-one fathoms deep in the centre, and from fifty to fifty-five on the sides. The water forms four fierce circumgyrations. The point they begin at is on the side of a large bason, where commences a range of rocks, running spirally, and terminating at the verge of the crater. This range is extremely rugged, and covered with water, from the depth of twelve to eight fathoms only. It forms four equidistant wreaths, with a channel from thirty-five to twenty fathoms deep between each. On the outside, beyond that depth, the sea suddenly sinks to eighty and ninety. On the south border of the bason is a lofty rock, called Sumboe Munk, noted for the multitude of birds which frequent it. On one side the water is only three or four fathoms deep, on the other fifteen. The danger at most times, especially in storms, is very great. Ships are irresistibly drawn in; the rudder loses its power; and the waves beat as high as the masts; so that an escape is almost miraculous: yet at the reflux, in fine weather, the inhabitants venture for the sake of fishing.

Our next subject is the celebrated MAELSTROM.--This is a very dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Norway, in the province of Nordland, and district of Lofoden, near the island of Moskoe, whence it also has its name of Moskoe-strom. Of this amazing whirlpool, Jonas Ramus gives the following account:--"The mountain of Helseggen, in Lofoden, lies a league from the island of Ver, and betwixt these two runs that large and dreadful stream called Moskoe-strom, from the island of Moskoe, which is in the middle of it; together with several circumjacent isles, as Ambaaran, half a quarter of a league north, Iflesen, Hoeholm, Kiedholm, Suarven, and Buckholm. Moskoe lies about half a quarter of a mile south of the island of Ver, and betwixt them these small islands, Otterholm, Flimen, Sandfiesen, and Stockholm. Betwixt Lofoden and Moskoe, the depth of the water is between thirty-six and forty fathoms; but on the side towards Ver, the depth decreases so as not to afford a convenient passage for a vessel, without the risk of splitting on the rocks, which sometimes happens even in the calmest weather: when it is flood, the stream runs up the country between Lofoden and Moskoe with a boisterous rapidity; but the roar of its impetuous ebb to the sea is scarce equalled by the loudest and most dreadful cataracts, the noise being heard several leagues off; and the vortices, or pits, are of such an extent and depth, that if a ship comes within its attraction, it is inevitably absorbed and carried down to the bottom, and there beaten to pieces against the rocks; and when the water relaxes, the fragments thereof are thrown up again: but these intervals of tranquillity are only at the turn of the ebb and flood, in calm weather, and last but a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually returning. When the stream is most boisterous, and its fury heightened by a storm, it is dangerous to come within a Norway mile of it; boats, ships, and yachts, having been carried away, by not guarding against it before they were within its reach. It likewise happens frequently, that whales come too near the stream, and are overpowered by its violence; and then it is impossible to describe their howlings and bellowings, in their fruitless struggles to disengage themselves. A bear, once attempting to swim from Lofoden to Moskoe, with a design of preying upon the sheep at pasture in the island, afforded the like spectacle to the people; the stream caught him, and bore him down, whilst he roared terribly, so as to be heard on shore. Large stocks of fir and pine trees, after being absorbed by the current, rise again, broken and torn to such a degree as if bristles grew on them. This plainly shews the bottom to consist of craggy rocks, among which they are whirled to and fro. This stream is regulated by the flux and reflux of the sea, it being constantly high and low water every six hours. In 1645, early in the morning of Sexagesima Sunday, it raged with such noise and impetuosity, that on the island of Moskoe, the very stones of the houses fell to the ground. When this whirlpool is agitated by a storm, its vortex will reach vessels five or six miles distant."

GULF-STREAM.--This is a remarkable current in the ocean, which runs along the coast, at unequal distances, from Cape Florida to the Isle of Sables and the banks of Newfoundland, where it turns off and runs through the Western Islands, thence to the coast of Africa, and along that coast in a southern direction till it arrives at and supplies the place of those waters carried by the constant trade-winds from the coast of Africa towards the west; thus producing a constant circulating current. This stream is about seventy-five miles from the shores of the southern states, and the distance increases as you proceed northward. The breadth of it is about forty or fifty miles, widening towards the north. Its common rapidity is three miles an hour. A north-east wind narrows the stream, renders it more rapid, and drives it nearer the coast. North-west and west winds produce a contrary effect. The Gulf-stream is supposed to be occasioned by the trade-winds, that are constantly driving the water to the westward, which being compressed in the gulf of Mexico, finds a passage between Florida and the Bahama islands, and runs to the north-east along the American coast.

A chart of this Gulf-stream was published by Dr. Franklin, in 1768, principally from the information of Captain Folger. This was confirmed by the ingenious experiments of Dr. Blagden, published in 1781, who found that the water of the gulf-stream was from six to eleven degrees warmer than the water of the sea, through which it runs; which must have been occasioned by its being brought from a hotter climate.

We close the present chapter with an ACCOUNT OF A NEW ISLAND EMERGING FROM THE SEA.--The description is taken from the Edinburgh Review, No. 46, September, 1814.

In the neighbourhood of Oonalashca, which is situated about the centre of the Alentian chain, a new island, nearly twenty miles in circumference, has been formed within these twenty years. The following is the account of it, which M. Lisiansky collected from eye-witnesses at Cadinck:--

"In the evening, while I was alone, employed in writing the memorandums of my journal, a Russian introduced himself, who had resided on the island of Oonalashca, when a new island started up in its vicinity. I had heard of this phenomenon, and was therefore desirous to learn what he knew respecting it. He said, that about the middle of April, 1797, a small island was seen where none had been seen before: that the first intimation of its appearance had been brought by some Alentians to Captain's Harbour, who, returning from fishing, observed a great smoke issuing out of the sea: that this was the smoke of the volcano, which was then gradually rising above the surface of the sea, and which, in May, 1798, burst forth with a blaze, that was distinctly seen from a settlement called Macooshina, on the island of Oonalashca, at the distance of no less than forty miles to the north-west. This new island is tolerably high, and about twenty miles in circumference. It has been remarked, that it has not increased in size since the year 1799; and that no alteration has taken place in its appearance, except that some of the highest points have been thrown down by violent eruptions."

CHAP. XLVII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING BURNING SPRINGS.

Naphtha Springs--Burning Springs in Kentucky--Hot Springs of Iceland--Hot Springs of Ouachitta--Other Burning Springs.

"Adored Artificer! what skill divine, What wonders, in the wide creation shine!"

NAPHTHA SPRINGS.--Dr. James Mounsey, and Jonas Hanway, Esq., have given a particular account of these springs. Both gentlemen, by their travels, their residence in Muscovy, and their acquaintance with several people who have been upon the spot, have had great opportunities of becoming perfectly informed of every thing relating to the subject; and whose judgment and veracity may be depended on. Both their accounts agree, that on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, not far from the city of Baku, there is a large spot of ground, where, on taking off two or three inches of the surface of the earth, and then applying a live coal, and blowing, a flame immediately issues forth, without either burning the reed or paper, provided the edges be covered with clay. This method supplies the want of candle in their houses. Three or four of these will also boil water in a pot, and they dress their victuals in this way. The flame may be blown out like that of a lamp, but otherwise it continues burning; it smells somewhat sulphureous, or rather like naphtha, but very little offensive. The ground is dry and stony, and the more stony the ground, the stronger and clearer the flame. Near this place they dig out brimstone, and here are also the naphtha springs. But the chief place for naphtha is Swieten Island, a small tract of land on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, and uninhabited, except at such seasons as they fetch naphtha from thence, which the Persians load in their wretched embarkations, without barrels or any other vessels, so that sometimes you see the sea covered with it for leagues together. The springs boil up highest in thick and heavy weather, and the naphtha sometimes takes fire on the surface, and runs lighted or burning into the sea in great quantities, and to great distances. In clear weather, it does not bubble above two or three feet. People make cisterns near the springs, into which they convey what overflows by troughs, taking off the naphtha from the surface, under which there is a mixture of water, or some other heavier fluid. The greater part is of a dark gray colour, very unpleasant to the smell, but used in lamps by the poorer sort. There are also springs of black naphtha, which is thick, and in distillation grows not clear, but yellow; but the most valuable is the white naphtha, which is naturally clear and yellowish, and bears a great price. The Russians drink it as a cordial, but it does not intoxicate: it is used externally in paralytic disorders, and is carried into India as a great rarity, where they make with it the most beautiful and lasting Japan that has ever yet been known.

What the Indians call the Everlasting Fire, lies about ten English miles north-east-by-east from the city of Baku, on dry rocky ground. There are several ancient temples, built with stone, supposed to have been all dedicated to Fire: most of them are low arched vaults, from ten to fifteen feet high. Amongst the rest, there is a temple in which the Indians now worship; near the altar, about three feet high, there is a large hollow cave, from the end of which issues a flame, in colour and gentleness, not unlike a lamp that burns with spirits. The Indians affirm that this flame has continued burning some thousands of years, and believe it will last to the end of the world; and that if it was resisted or suppressed in this place, it would rise in some other. By the number of temples, it is probable there were formerly a great number of worshippers of fire, as well Indians as Persians: they are called Gouers. At present there are about twenty persons, who reside there constantly, and go almost naked. In summer it is very hot; and in winter they dwell within doors, and keep what fire they please, in the manner above described: they live upon roots and herbs for the most part, and are supposed to attend as mediators for the sins of many who are absent; and by their applications to this fire, in which the Deity is supposed to be present and visible, they atone for the sins of others. A little way from the temple just now mentioned, near Baku, is a low cliff of a rock, in which there is a horizontal gap, two feet from the ground, between five and six long, and about three feet broad, out of which issues a constant flame, much of the colour mentioned already, being a light blue. It rises sometimes eight feet high, but is lower in still weather. They do not perceive the rock waste in the least. This also the Indians worship, and say it cannot be put out. About twenty yards on the back of this cliff is a well, and a rock twelve or fourteen fathoms deep, with exceedingly good water.

We shall next introduce an account of a BURNING SPRING IN KENTUCKY.--This is a phenomenon which has for several years excited the attention of travellers, under the name of a burning spring: it exists in one of the principal forks of Licking river in Kentucky. It is situated about three-fourths of a mile from the banks of the river, and about eighty miles above its junction with Ohio, opposite Cincinnati. A spring here breaks out at the foot of a hill, forming a basin of water about six feet in diameter and two feet deep, at the bottom of which issues a stream of gas, which in volume and force is about equal to the blast forced from a common smith's bellows; but there is no cessation of its force, which is such as to create a violent ebullition in the water. Being heavier than common atmospheric air, the gas, on passing up through the water, constantly occupies the surface, which is still the lower part of an indenture in the earth at that place. On presenting a taper, this gas instantly takes fire, and burns with great brilliancy. There is no absorption of it by the water, which possesses the purity of common spring water, neither is any offensive odour thrown off. This spring has been known to dry up entirely in the summer, when the air rushes out with increased force, accompanied by a hissing noise. There is nothing like smoke emitted.--Schoolcroft, on the Lead Mines of Missouri, p. 216.

HOT SPRINGS OF ICELAND.--From Sir G. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland.

"The hot springs in the valley of Reikholt, or Reikiadal, though not the most magnificent, are not the least curious among the numerous phenomena of this sort that are found in Iceland. On entering the valley, we saw numerous columns of vapour ascending from different parts of it. The first springs we visited, issued from a number of apertures in a sort of platform of rock, covered by a thin coating of calcareous incrustations. From several of the apertures the water rose with great force, and was thrown two or three feet into the air. On plunging the thermometer into such of them as we could approach with safety, we found that it stood at 212°.

"A little further up the valley, there is a rock in the middle of the river, about ten feet high, twelve yards long, and six or eight feet in breadth: from the highest part of this rock a jet of boiling water proceeded with violence; dashing the water up to the height of several feet. Near the middle, and not more than two feet from the edge of the rock, there is a hole, about two feet in diameter, full of water boiling strongly. There is a third hole near the other end of the rock, in which water also boils briskly. At the time we saw these springs, there happened to be less water in the river than usual, and a bank of gravel was left dry a little higher up than the rock. From this bank a considerable quantity of boiling water issued.

"About a mile further down, at the foot of the valley, is the Tungahver, an assemblage of springs the most extraordinary, perhaps, in the whole world. A rock (waoke ?) rises from the bog, about twenty feet, and is about fifty yards in length, the breadth not being considerable. This seems formerly to have been a hillock, one side of which remains covered with grass, while the other has been worn away, or perhaps destroyed at the time when the hot water burst forth. Along the face of the rock are arranged no fewer than sixteen springs, all of them boiling furiously, and some of them throwing the water to a considerable height. One of them, however, deserves particular notice. On approaching this place, we observed a high jet of water near one extremity of the rock. Suddenly this jet disappeared, and another, thicker but not so high, rose within a very short distance of it. At first we supposed that a piece of the rock had given way, and that the water had at that moment found a more convenient passage. Having left our horses, we went directly to the place where this had apparently happened; but we had scarcely reached the spot, when this new jet disappeared, and the one we had seen before was renewed. We observed that there were two irregular holes in the rock, within a yard of each other; and while from one a jet proceeded to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, the other was full of boiling water. We had scarcely made this observation, when the first jet began to subside, and the water in the other hole to rise; and as soon as the first had entirely sunk down, the other attained its greatest height, which was about five feet. In this extraordinary manner, these two jets played alternately. The smallest and highest jet continued about four minutes and a half, and the other about three minutes. We remained admiring this very remarkable phenomenon for a considerable time, during which we saw many alternations of the jets, which happened regularly at the intervals already mentioned.

"I have taken the liberty to give a name to this spring, and to call it 'The Alternating Geyser.'

"These springs have been formerly observed, though the singularity of the alternations does not seem to have been attended to as any thing remarkable. Olafson and Paulson mention, that the jets appear and disappear successively, in the second, third, and fourth openings. We observed no cessations in any of the springs, except in the two under consideration.

"To form a theory of this regular alternation is no easy matter; and it seems to require a kind of mechanism very different from the simple apparatus usually employed by nature in ordinary intermittent or spouting springs. The prime mover in this case is evidently steam, an agent sufficiently powerful for the phenomena. The two orifices are manifestly connected; for, as the one jet sinks towards the surface, the other rises, and this in a regular and uniform manner. I observed once, that when one of the jets was sinking, and the other beginning to rise, the first rose again a little before it was quite sunk down, and then when this happened, the other ceased to make any efforts to rise, and returned to its former state, till the first again sunk, when the second rose and played as usual. This communication must be formed in such a manner, that it is never complete, but alternately interrupted, first on one side, and then on the other. To effect this without the intervention of valves, seems to be impossible; and yet it is difficult to conceive the natural formation of a set of permanent valves: so that this fountain becomes one of the greatest curiosities ever presented by nature, even though, in attempting to explain the appearances it exhibits, we take every advantage that machinery can give us. If it is occasioned by natural valves, these must be of very durable materials, in order to withstand the continual agitation and consequent attrition."

We next proceed to a description of the HOT SPRINGS OF OUACHITTA, (WASHITAW.)--These springs, which have been known for many years, are situated on a stream called Hot Spring Creek, which falls into the Washitaw River, eight miles below. They lie fifty miles south of the Arkansa River, in Clark county, territory of Arkansa, (lately Missouri,) and six miles west of the road from Cadron to Mount Prairie, on Red River.

The approach to the springs lies up the valley of the creek. On the right of the valley rises the hot mountain, with the springs issuing at its foot; on the left, the cold mountain, which is little more than a confused and mighty pile of stones. The hot mountain is about 300 feet high, rising quite steep, and presenting occasionally ledges of rocks; it terminates above in a confused mass of broken rocks. The steep and otherwise sterile sides are covered with a luxuriant growth of vines. The valley between this and the cold mountain is about fifty yards wide.

The springs issue at the foot of the hot mountain, at an elevation of about ten feet above the level of the creek; they are very numerous all along the hill-side, and the water, which runs in copious streams, is quite hot; it will scald the hand, and boil an egg hard in ten minutes. Its temperature is considered that of boiling water, but Dr. Andrews, of Red River, thinks it is not above 200° Fahr. There is a solitary spring, situated seventy feet higher than the others on the side of the mountain, but it is of an equal temperature, and differs in no respect from those below. A dense fog continually hangs over the springs and upon the side of the hill, which at a distance looks like a number of furnaces in blast. To this fog, condensed into water, is attributed the rank growth of the vines on the side of the mountain.

Very little is known of the chemical nature of the water; an analysis is said to have been made, which indicated a little carbonate of lime. An abundance of beautiful green moss grows at the edges of the springs, and the paths of their waters are marked by a brighter vegetation than occurs elsewhere. The substance of the rocks here, are, limestone, slate, and quartz.--Schoolcroft, Lead Mines of Missouri, p. 258.

We shall conclude this chapter with an account of VARIOUS OTHER BURNING SPRINGS.--There are many burning springs in different parts of the world, particularly one in France, in the department of Isere, near Grenoble; another near Hermanstadt, in Transylvania; a third at Chermay, a village near Switzerland; a fourth in the canton of Friburg; and a fifth not far from the city of Cracow, in Poland. There also is, or was, a famous spring of this kind at Wigan, in Lancashire, which, upon the approach of a lighted candle, would take fire and burn like spirit of wine for a whole day. But the most remarkable one in England, or at least that of which we have the minutest description, was discovered in 1711, at Brosely, in Shropshire. The following account of this remarkable spring was given by the Rev. Mr. Mason Woodwardin, Professor at Cambridge, dated Feb. 18th. 1746:--"The well, for four or five feet deep, is six or seven feet wide; within that, is another less hole of like depth, dug in the clay, in the bottom whereof is placed a cylindric earthen vessel, of about four or five inches diameter at the mouth, having the bottom taken off, and the sides well fixed in the clay, which is rammed close about it. Within the pot is a brown water, thick and puddly, continually forced up with a violent motion beyond that of boiling water, and a rumbling hollow noise, rising or falling by fits, five or six inches; but there was no appearance of any vapour rising, which perhaps might have been visible, had not the sun shone so bright. Upon putting a candle down at the end of a stick, at about a quarter of a yard distance, it took fire, darting and flashing after a very violent manner for about half a yard high, much in the manner of spirits in a lamp, but with great agitation. It was said, that a teakettle had been made to boil in nine minutes, and that it had been left burning for forty-eight hours without any sensible diminution. It was extinguished by putting a wet mop upon it; which must be kept there for a little time, otherwise it would not go out. Upon the removal of the mop, there arises a sulphureous smoke, lasting about a minute, and yet the water is very cold to the touch." In 1755, this well totally disappeared, by the sinking of a coal-pit in its neighbourhood. The cause of the inflammable property of such waters is with great probability supposed to be their mixture with petroleum, which is one of the most inflammable substances in nature, and has the property of burning on the surface of water.

CHAP. XLVIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING EARTHQUAKES.

Earthquakes, Nature's agonizing pangs, Oft shake the astonish'd isles; the Solfaterre Or sends forth thick, blue, suffocating steams, Or shoots to temporary flames. A din, Wild, thro' the mountain's quivering rocky caves, Like the dread crash of tumbling planets, roars. When tremble thus the pillars of the globe, Like the tall cocoa by the fierce north blown, Can the poor brittle tenements of man Withstand the dread convulsion? Their dear homes, Which shaking, tottering, crashing, bursting, fall, The boldest fly; and, on the open plain Appall'd in agony, the moment wait, When, with disrupture vast, the waving earth Shall whelm them in her sea-disgorging womb. Nor less affrighted are the bestial kind: The bold steed quivers in each panting vein, And staggers, bath'd in deluges of sweat: The lowing herds forsake their grassy food, And send forth frighted, woful, hollow sounds: The dog, thy trusty centinel of night, Deserts the post assign'd, and piteous howls. Wide ocean feels-------- The mountain waves, passing their custom'd bounds, Make direful loud incursions on the land, All overwhelming: sudden they retreat, With their whole troubled waters; but anon Sudden return, with louder, mightier force; The black rocks whiten, the vext shores resound; And yet, more rapid, distant they retire. Vast corruscations lighten all the sky With volum'd flames, while thunder's awful voice, From forth his shrine by night and horror girt, Astounds the guilty, and appals the good. Grainger.

EARTHQUAKES AND THEIR CAUSES.--From A. de Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Travels, translated by Helen Maria Williams.

"It is a very old and commonly received opinion at Cumana, Acapulca, and Lima, that a perceptible connection exists between earthquakes, and the state of the atmosphere that precedes these phenomena. On the coast of New Andalusia, the inhabitants are alarmed, when, in excessively hot weather, and after long droughts, the breeze suddenly ceases to blow, and the sky, clear and without clouds at the zenith, exhibits near the horizon, at six or eight degrees elevation, the appearance of a reddish vapour. These prognostics are however very uncertain; and when the whole of the meteorological variations, at the times when the globe has been the most agitated, are called to mind, it is found, that violent shocks take place equally in dry and in wet weather, when the coolest winds blow, or during a dead and suffocating calm. From the great number of earthquakes, which I have witnessed to the north and south of the equator; on the continent, and in the bason of the seas; on the coasts, and at 2500 toises height; it appears to me, that the oscillations are generally very independent of the previous state of the atmosphere. This opinion is embraced by a number of enlightened persons, who inhabit the Spanish colonies; and whose experience extends, if not over a greater space of the globe, at least to a greater number of years than mine. On the contrary, in parts of Europe where earthquakes are rare compared to America, natural philosophers are inclined to admit an intimate connection between the undulations of the ground, and certain meteors, which usually take place at the same epocha. In Italy, for instance, the sirocco and earthquakes are suspected to have some connection; and at London, the frequency of falling stars, and those southern lights which have since been often observed by Mr. Dalton, were considered as the forerunners of those shocks which were felt from 1748 to 1756.

"On the days when the earth is agitated by violent shocks, the regularity of the horary variations of the barometer is not disturbed under the tropics. I have verified this observation at Cumana, at Lima, and at Riobamba; and it is so much the more worthy of fixing the attention of natural philosophers, as in St. Domingo, at the town of Cape François, it is asserted that a water barometer was observed to sink two inches and a half immediately before the earthquake of 1770. It is also related, that at the time of the destruction of Oran, a druggist fled with his family, because, observing accidentally, a few minutes before the earthquake, the height of the mercury in his barometer, he perceived that the column sunk in an extraordinary manner. I know not whether we can give credit to this assertion: but as it is nearly impossible to examine the variations of the weight of the atmosphere during the shocks, we must be satisfied in observing the barometer before or after these phenomena have taken place. In the temperate zone, the aurora borealis does not always modify the variation of the needle, and the intensity of the magnetic forces: perhaps also earthquakes do not act constantly in the same manner on the air that surrounds us.

"We can scarcely doubt, that the earth, when opened and agitated by shocks, occasionally sends forth gaseous exhalations through the atmosphere, in places remote from the mouths of volcanoes not extinct. At Cumana, as we have already observed, flames and vapours, mixed with sulphureous acid, spring up from the most arid soil. In other parts of the same province, the earth ejects water and petroleum. At Riobamba, a muddy and inflammable mass, which is called moya, issues from crevices that close again, and accumulates into elevated hills. At seven leagues from Lisbon, near Colares, during the terrible earthquake of the 1st of November, 1755, flames, and a column of thick smoke, were seen to issue from the flanks of the rocks of Alvidras, and, according to some witnesses, from the bosom of the sea. This smoke lasted several days, and it was the more abundant in proportion as the subterraneous noise, which accompanied the shocks, was louder.

"Elastic fluids thrown into the atmosphere may act locally on the barometer, not by their mass, which is very small compared to the mass of the atmosphere; but because, at the moment of the great explosions, an ascending current is probably formed, which diminishes the pressure of the air. I am inclined to think, that in the greater number of earthquakes, nothing escapes from the agitated earth, and that, when gaseous exhalations and vapours take place, they oftener accompany or follow, than precede, the shocks. This last circumstance explains a fact, which seems indubitable; I mean that mysterious influence, in equinoctial America, of earthquakes accompanying a change of climate, and the order of the dry and rainy seasons. If the earth generally acts on the air only at the moment of the shocks, we can conceive why it is so rare that a sensible meteorological change becomes the presage of these great revolutions of nature.

"The hypothesis, according to which, in the earthquakes of Cumana, elastic fluids escape from the surface of the soil, seems confirmed by the observation of the dreadful noise which is heard during the shocks at the borders of the wells in the plain of Charas. Water and sand are sometimes thrown out twenty feet high. Similar phenomena have not escaped the observation of the ancient inhabitants of Greece and Asia Minor, abounding with caverns, crevices, and subterraneous rivers. Nature, in its uniform progress, every where suggests the same ideas of the causes of earthquakes, and the means by which man, forgetting the measure of his strength, pretends to diminish the effect of the subterraneous explosions. What a great Roman naturalist has said of the utility of wells and caverns, is repeated in the New World by the most ignorant Indians of Quito, when they shew travellers the guaicos, or crevices of Pichincha.

"The subterraneous noise, so frequent during earthquakes, is generally not in the ratio of the strength of the shocks. At Cumana it constantly precedes them; while at Quito, and lately at Caraccas, and in the West India Islands, a noise like the discharge of a battery was heard a long time after the shocks had ceased. A third kind of phenomenon, the most remarkable of the whole, is the rolling of those subterraneous thunders, which last several months, without being accompanied by the least oscillating motion of the ground.

"In every country subject to earthquakes, the point where (probably by a disposition of the stony strata) the effects are the most sensible, is considered as the cause and the focus of the shocks. Thus, at Cumana, the hill of the castle of St. Antonio, and particularly the eminence on which the convent of St. Francis is placed, are believed to contain an enormous quantity of sulphur, and other inflammable matter. We forget, that the rapidity with which the undulations are propagated to great distances, even across the basin of the ocean, proves that the centre of action is very remote from the surface of the globe. From this same cause, no doubt, earthquakes are not restrained to certain species of rocks, as some naturalists pretend, but all are fitted to propagate the movement. In order to keep within the limits of my own experience, I shall here cite the granites of Lima and Acapulco; the gneiss of Caraccas; the mica-slate of the peninsula of Araya; the primitive thonschiefer of Tepecuacuilco, in Mexico; the secondary limestones of the Apennines; Spain, and new Andalusia; and finally, the trappean porphyries of Quito and Popayan. In these different places the ground is frequently agitated by the most violent shocks; but sometimes, in the same rock, the superior strata form invincible obstacles to the propagation of the motion. Thus, in the mines of Saxony, we have seen workmen hasten up, affrighted by oscillations which were not felt at the surface of the ground.

"If, in regions the most remote from each other, primitive, secondary, and volcanic rock, share equally in the convulsive movements of the globe; we cannot but admire also, that in ground of little extent, certain classes of rocks oppose themselves to the propagation of the shocks. At Cumana, for instance, before the catastrophe of 1797, the earthquakes were felt only along the southern and calcareous coast of the gulf of Cariaco, as far as the town of this name; while in the peninsula of Araya, and at the village of Marinaquez, the ground did not partake of the same agitation. The inhabitants of this northern coast, which is composed of mica-slate, built their huts on a motionless earth; a gulf three or four thousand fathoms in breadth separated them from a plain covered with ruins, and overturned by earthquakes. This security, founded on the experience of several ages, has vanished; and since the fourteenth of December, 1797, new communications appear to have been opened in the interior of the globe. At present the peninsula of Araya is not merely subject to the agitation of the soil of Cumana; the promontory of mica-slate is become in its turn a particular centre of the movements. The earth is sometimes strongly shaken at the village of Marinaquez, when on the coast of Cumana the inhabitants enjoy the most perfect tranquillity. The gulf of Cariaco nevertheless is only sixty or eighty fathoms deep.

"It is thought, from observations made both on the continent and in the islands, that the western and southern coasts are most exposed to shocks. This observation is connected with the ideas which geologists have long formed of the position of the high chains of mountains, and the direction of their steepest declivities: the volcanic phenomena of the Cordilleras and Caraccas, and the frequency of the oscillations on the eastern and northern coast of Terra Firma, in the gulf of Paria, at Carupano, at Cariaco, and at Cumana, are proofs of the certainty of this opinion. In New Andalusia, as well as in Chili and Peru, the shocks follow the course of the shore, and extend but little inland. This circumstance, as we shall soon find, indicates an intimate connection between the causes that produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. If the earth was most agitated on the coasts, because they are the lowest part of the land, why should not the oscillations be equally strong and frequent on those vast savannas or meadows, which are scarcely eight or ten toises above the level of the ocean?

"The earthquakes of Cumana are connected with those of the West India Islands; and it has even been suspected, that they have some connection with the volcanic phenomena of the Cordilleras of the Andes. On the fourth of November, 1797, the soil of the province of Quito underwent such a destructive commotion, that, notwithstanding the extreme thinness of the population of that country, near forty thousand natives perished, buried under the ruins of their houses, swallowed up in the crevices, or drowned in lakes that were suddenly formed. At the same period, the inhabitants of the eastern Antilles were alarmed by shocks, which continued during eight months, when the volcano of Guadaloupe threw out pumice stones, ashes, and gusts of sulphureous vapours. This eruption of the twenty-seventh of September, during which very long-continued subterraneous noises were heard, was followed on the fourteenth of December by the great earthquake of Cumana. Another volcano of the West India Islands, that of St. Vincent's, has lately given a fresh instance of these extraordinary connections. This volcano had not emitted flames since 1718, when they burst forth anew, in 1812. The total ruin of the city of Caraccas preceded this explosion thirty-five days, and violent oscillations of the ground were felt, both in the islands, and on the coasts of Terra Firma.

"It has long been remarked, that the effects of great earthquakes extend much farther than the phenomena arising from burning volcanoes. In studying the physical revolutions of Italy, and carefully examining the series of the eruptions of Vesuvius and Etna, we can scarcely recognize, notwithstanding the proximity of these mountains, any traces of simultaneous action. It is, on the contrary, undeniable, that at the period of the last and preceding destruction of Lisbon, the sea was violently agitated even as far as the New World, for instance, at the island of Barbadoes, more than twelve hundred leagues distant from the coasts of Portugal.

"Several facts tend to prove, that the causes which produce earthquakes have a near connection with those that act in volcanic eruptions. We learnt at Pasto, that the column of black and thick smoke, which in 1797 issued for several months from the volcano near this shore, disappeared at the very hour when, sixty leagues to the south, the towns of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga, were overturned by an enormous shock. When, in the interior of a burning crater, we are seated near those hillocks formed by ejections of scoria and ashes, we feel the motion of the ground several seconds before each partial eruption takes place. We observed this phenomenon at Vesuvius in 1805, while the mountain threw out scoria; we were witnesses of it in 1812, on the brink of the immense crater of Pichincha, from which nevertheless at that time clouds of sulphureous acid vapours only issued.

"Every thing in earthquakes seems to indicate the action of elastic fluids seeking an outlet to spread themselves in the atmosphere. Often, on the coasts of the South Sea, the action is almost instantaneously communicated from Chili to the gulf of Guayaquil, a distance of six hundred leagues; and, what is very remarkable, the shocks appear to be so much the stronger, as the country is more distant from burning volcanoes. The granitic mountains of Calabria, covered with very recent breccia, the calcareous chain of the Apennines, the country of Pignerol, the coasts of Portugal and Greece, and those of Peru and Terra Firma, afford striking proofs of this assertion. The globe, it may be said, is agitated with greater force, in proportion as the surface has a smaller number of funnels communicating with the caverns of the interior. At Naples and Messina, at the foot of Cotopaxi and of Tunguragua, earthquakes are dreaded only when vapours and flames do not issue from the crater. In the kingdom of Quito, the great catastrophe of Riobamba, which we have before mentioned, has led several well-informed persons to think, that this unfortunate country would be less often desolate, if the subterraneous fire would break the porphyritic dome of Chimborazo; and this colossal mountain should become a burning volcano. At all times analogous facts have led to the same hypothesis. The Greeks, who, like ourselves, attributed the oscillations of the ground to the action of elastic fluids, cited, in favour of their opinion, the total cessation of the shocks at the island of Euboea, by the opening of a crevice in the Lelantine plain."

The following is an account of an Earthquake of Caraccas; by M. Palacio Faxar:--

"The ridge of mountains, which branches out from the Andes near the isthmus of Panama, and which, taking the direction of the eastern coast, crosses part of New Granada and Venezuela, seems to have been the seat of that earthquake, which, on the 26th March, 1812, destroyed many populous towns of the province of Caraccas. It is this branch of the Cordilleras, that forms the Sierra-nevada of Chita, that of Merida de Maracaybo, and the height called La Silla de Caracca; and it is between these three remarkable points that the gold mines of Pamplona, the mineral water of Merida de Maracaybo, and the copper mines of Aroa, are found. Between the picturesque Sierra-nevada of Merida de Maracaybo, and La Silla de Caracca, where spring is perpetual, the earthquake was most strongly felt.

"At the south-east of this ridge of mountains, there are plains of an immense extent, covered with different species of grasses, and watered by innumerable torrents, which falling from the mountains, and uniting in different bodies, majestically enter the Orinoco. These plains were likewise convulsed for above 120 leagues in Venezuela: the towns situate immediately at the foot of the Cordilliera, or in the valleys between them, suffered most severely: those seated in the plains did not suffer considerable injury, though violently shaken. For five months a continued drought had parched the earth, no rain having fallen, and in the preceding month of December, a slight shock of an earthquake had been felt at Caraccas. It was on the eve of the Crucifixion, when Catholics assembled together in their churches, to commemorate, with public prayers and processions, the sufferings and merits of their Redeemer, that this sad catastrophe had happened. The weather was fine, and the air serene, when between four and five P. M. a hollow sound like the roar of a cannon was heard, which was followed by a violent oscillatory motion from west to east, which lasted about seventeen seconds, and which stopped all the public clocks; the convulsion diminished for some moments, but was succeeded by a more violent shock than the first, for nearly twenty seconds, keeping the same direction; a calm followed, which lasted about fourteen seconds, after which, a most alarming trepidation of the earth took place for fifteen seconds: the total duration about one minute and fifteen seconds. The inhabitants of Caraccas, struck with terror, unitedly and loudly implored the protection of Heaven: some ran wildly through the streets; some remained immoveable with astonishment; while others, crowding into the churches, sought refuge at the foot of the altar. The crash of falling buildings, the clouds of dust which filled the air, and the anxious cries of mothers, who inquired in vain for their children lost in the tumult, increased the horrors of this sad day. To this scene of disorder succeeded the most horrible despair. Dead bodies, wounded persons crying for protection, presented themselves every where to those who had escaped from the catastrophe, and who could not turn their eyes from these objects of pity and horror, without meeting with heaps of ruin, which had buried hundreds of unfortunate persons, whose lamentations uselessly pierced their hearts, for it was impossible to give relief or assistance to all.

"It has been computed, that in this calamitous day, near 20,000 persons perished at Venezuela. A great part of the veteran troops were of this number; and all the arms destined for the defence of their country, were buried under the ruins of the barracks. The towns of Caraccas, Merida de Maracaybo, and Laguaira, were totally destroyed; those of Barquirineto, Sanfelipe, and others, suffered considerably. It is to be remarked, that Truxillo, which is situate between Merida de Maracaybo and Sanfelipe, experienced very little damage. At the last place, near the mines of Aroa, the first signal they had of the earthquake was an electric shock, which deprived many persons of their power of motion; and in Valencia, Caraccas, and the neighbouring country, the inhabitants were, for about twenty days after the earthquake, in an extraordinary state of irritability. Many persons, who suffered from intermittent fevers, recovered immediately, in consequence of the effect of the earthquake.

"At Vallecillo, near Valencia, a rivulet spouted out from a hill, which continued to flow for some hours after the earthquake, and which I visited a few days after. The river Guaire, which runs through the valley of Caraccas, was greatly swelled soon after the earthquake, and remained in that state for several days. The water of the bay of Maracaybo withdrew considerably, and it is said that the mountain Avila, which separates Caraccas from Laguaira, sunk several feet into the earth.

"The earthquakes continued for many days, we may say, without interruption: they diminished as it were by degrees, though the last were remarkably strong. So late as the month of October in the same year, there was a violent shock. The earthquake of the 26th March was felt at Santafé de Bogotá, and even at Carthagena, though it was very little felt at Cumana.

"In the following April, a volcano burst out in the island of St. Vincent. About the time of the eruption, a noise like that occasioned by the discharge of a cannon was heard at Caraccas and Laguaira, which caused a general alarm, the inhabitants of each place supposing that the neighbouring town was attacked by the enemy. This roaring noise was distinctly heard where the river Nula falls into the Apure, which is more than 100 leagues from Caraccas. In the same year, 1812, many strong shocks of an earthquake were felt at Samaica and Curaçoa.

"The earthquake of the 26th March alarmed so deeply the inhabitants of Venezuela, that they expected to see the earth open and swallow them at every convulsion; and as it happened on the anniversary of their political revolution, they supposed that event had incurred the displeasure of the Almighty. The clergy, who were enemies to the revolution, as their privileges had been diminished by the new constitution of Venezuela, availed themselves of the disposition of the people, and preached every where against the new republic. Such was the beginning of the civil war at Venezuela; a war, which has desolated those beautiful countries, and which has destroyed the tenth part of their population."

The celebrated poet Cowper, in the second book of his admirable poem, The Task, has given us a very accurate and sublime description of the effects of Earthquakes, from which the following is an extract:--

The rocks fall headlong, and the valleys rise, The rivers die into offensive pools, And, charg'd with putrid verdure, breathe a gross And mortal nuisance into all the air. What solid was, by transformation strange, Grows fluid; and the fixt and rooted earth, Tormented into billows, heaves and swells, Or with vortiginous and hideous whirl Sucks down its prey insatiable. Immense The tumult and the overthrow, the pangs And agonies of human and of brute Multitudes, fugitive on ev'ry side, And fugitive in vain. The sylvan scene Migrates uplifted; and, with all its soil, Alighting on far distant fields, finds out A new possessor, and survives the change. Ocean has caught the frenzy, and, upwrought To an enormous and o'erbearing height, Not by a mighty wind, but by that voice Which winds and waves obey, invades the shore Resistless. Never such a sudden flood, Upridg'd so high, and sent on such a charge, Possess'd an inland scene. Where now the throng That press'd the beach, and, hasty to depart, Look'd to the sea for safety? They are gone, Gone with the refluent wave into the deep-- A prince with half his people.

It is a consolation to every good man, to consider that the world is governed by a wise and good, as well as powerful BEING, who gives liberty to the powers of nature to range, or restrains them, as may best suit his divine purposes; which have always the ultimate good of the whole creation in view.

CHAP. XLIX.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING WINDS, HURRICANES, &c.

Remarkable Winds in Egypt--Whirlwinds of Egypt--Tornado--Harmattan-- Hurricane--Monsoons--Velocity of the Wind.

Bound as they are, and circumscrib'd in place, They rend the world, resistless where they pass, And mighty marks of mischief leave behind; Such is the rage of their tempestuous kind. First, Eurus, to the rising morn is sent, The regions of the balmy continent, And eastern realms, where early Persians run To greet the blest appearance of the sun. Westward the wanton Zephyr wings his flight, Pleas'd with the remnant of departing light; Fierce Boreas, with his offspring, issues forth T' invade the frozen waggon of the north; While frowning Auster seeks the southern sphere. Ovid.

REMARKABLE WINDS IN EGYPT.

Egypt is infested with the destructive blasts common to all warm countries which have deserts in their neighbourhood. These have been distinguished by various names, such as Poisonous winds, Hot winds of the desert, Samiel, the wind of Damascus, Camseen, and Simoom. In Egypt they are denominated "Winds of fifty days," because they most commonly prevail during the fifty days preceding and following the equinox, though, should they blow constantly during one half of that time, an universal destruction would be the consequence. Of these, travellers have given various descriptions. M. Volney says, that the violence of their heat may be compared to that of a large oven at the moment of drawing out the bread. They always blow from the south, and are undoubtedly owing to the motion of the atmosphere over such vast tracts of hot sand, which cannot be supplied with a sufficient quantity of moisture. When they begin to blow, the sky loses its usual serenity, and assumes a dark, heavy, and alarming aspect, the sun laying aside his usual splendour, and becoming of a violet colour. This terrific appearance seems not to be occasioned by any real haze or cloud in the atmosphere at that time, but solely by the vast quantity of fine sand carried along by those winds, and which is so excessively subtile that it penetrates every where. The motion of this wind is always rapid, but its heat is not intolerable till it has continued for some time. Its pernicious qualities are evidently occasioned by its excessive aridity; for it dries and shrivels up the skin, and, by affecting the lungs in a similar manner, soon produces suffocation and death. The danger is greatest to those of a plethoric habit, or who have been exhausted by fatigue; and putrefaction very soon takes place in the bodies of such as are destroyed by it. Its extreme dryness is such, that water sprinkled on the floor evaporates in a few minutes; all the plants are withered and stripped of their leaves, and a fever is instantly produced in the human species by the suppression of perspiration. It usually lasts three days, but is altogether insupportable if it continue beyond that time.

The danger is greatest when the wind blows in squalls, and to travellers who happen to be exposed to its fury without any shelter. The best method, in this case, is to stop the nose and mouth with a handkerchief: camels, by a natural instinct, bury their noses in the sand, and keep them there till the squall is over. The inhabitants, who have an opportunity of retiring to their houses, instantly shut themselves up in them, or go into pits made in the earth, till the destructive blast is over.

The description of a blast of this kind, which overtook Mr. Bruce, in the desert of Nubia, is still more terrible.--The sun was now obscured by them,[21] and the transmission of his rays gave them a dreadful appearance, resembling pillars of fire. This was pronounced by the guide to be a sign of the approaching simoom, or hot wind; and he directed, that when it came, the people should fall upon their faces, and keep their mouths on the sand, to avoid drawing in this pernicious blast with their breath. On his calling out that the simoon was coming, Mr. Bruce turned for a moment to the quarter from whence it came, which was the south-east. It appeared like a haze or fog of a purple colour, but less bright than the purple part of the rainbow; seemingly about twenty yards in breadth, and about twelve feet high from the ground. It moved with such rapidity, that before he could turn about and fall down, he felt the vehement heat of its current upon his face; and even after it passed over, which was very quickly, the air which followed was of such a heat as to threaten suffocation. Mr. Bruce had unfortunately inspired some part of the pernicious blast; by which means he almost entirely lost his voice, and became subject to an asthmatic complaint, from which he did not get free for two years.

The same phenomenon occurred twice over on their journey through this desert. The second time it came from the south a little to the east, but it seemed to have a shade of blue along with the purple, and its edges were less perfectly defined, resembling rather a thin smoke, and having about a yard in the middle tinged with blue and purple.

The third time, it was preceded by an appearance of sandy pillars, more magnificent than any they had yet observed; the sun shining through them in such a manner as to give those which were nearest a resemblance of being spangled with stars of gold. The simoom which followed had the same blue and purple appearance as before, and was followed by a most suffocating wind for two hours, which reduced our travellers to the lowest degree of weakness and despondency.

It was remarkable, that this wind always came from the south-east, while the sandy pillars, which prognosticated its approach, seemed to keep to the westward, and to occupy the vast circular space inclosed by the Nile to the west of their route, going round by Chaigie towards Dongola. The heaps of sand left by them when they fell, or raised by the whirlwinds which carried them up, were twelve or thirteen feet high, exactly conical, tapering to a fine point, and their bases well proportioned.

The following account of the WHIRLWINDS OF EGYPT, is from Belzoni's Narrative:--"A strong wind which arose this day leads me to mention some particulars of the phenomena that often happen in Egypt. The first I shall notice is the whirlwinds, which occur all the year round, but especially at the time of the camseen wind, which begins in April, and lasts fifty days. Hence the name of camseen, which in Arabic signifies fifty. It generally blows from the south-west, and lasts four, five, or six days without varying, so very strong that it raises the sands to a great height, forming a general cloud, so thick that it is impossible to keep the eyes open, if not under cover. It is troublesome, even to the Arabs; it forces the sand into the houses through every cranny, and fills every thing with it. The caravans cannot proceed in the deserts; the boats cannot continue their voyages; and travellers are obliged to eat sand, in spite of their teeth. The whole is like a chaos. Often a quantity of sand and small stones gradually ascends to a great height, and forms a column of sixty or seventy feet in diameter, and so thick, that were it steady on one spot, it would appear a solid mass. This not only revolves within its own circumference, but runs in a circular direction over a great space of ground, sometimes maintaining itself in motion for half an hour, and wherever it falls it accumulates a small hill of sand. God help the poor traveller who is caught under it!"

We shall now describe a TORNADO.--This is a sudden and vehement gust of wind from all points of the compass, and frequent on the coast of Guinea. A tornado seems to partake much of the nature of a whirlwind, or perhaps of a water-spout, but is more violent in its effects. It commences very suddenly: several clouds being previously drawn together, a spout of wind, proceeding from them, strikes the ground, in a round spot of a few rods or perches in diameter, and proceeds thus half a mile or a mile. The proneness of its descent makes it rebound from the earth, throwing such things as are moveable before it, sideways, or in a lateral direction from it. A vapour, mist, or rain, descends with it, by which the path of it is marked with wet.

The following is a description of one which happened a few years since at Leicester, about fifty miles from Boston, in New England: it happened in July, on a hot day, about four o'clock in the afternoon. A few clouds having gathered westward, and coming over-head, a sudden motion of their running together in a point, being observed, immediately a spout of wind struck the west end of a house, and instantly carried it away, with a negro man in it, who was afterwards found dead in its path. Two men and a woman, by the breach of the floor, fell into the cellar; and one man was driven forcibly up into the chimney corner. These were preserved, though much bruised; they were wet with a vapour or mist, as were the remains of the floor, and the whole path of the spout. This wind raised boards, timbers, &c. A joist was found on one end, driven nearly three feet into the ground. The spout probably took it in its elevated state, and drove it forcibly down. The tornado moved with the celerity of a moderate wind, and declined in strength till it entirely ceased.

HARMATTAN.--This is a name given to a singular wind, which blows periodically from the interior parts of Africa, towards the Atlantic ocean. It prevails in December, January, and February, and is generally accompanied by a fog or haze, that conceals the sun for whole days together. Extreme dryness is the characteristic of this wind: no dew falls during its continuance, which is sometimes for a fortnight or more. The whole vegetable creation is withered, and the grass becomes at once like hay. The natives take the opportunity which this wind gives them, of clearing the land, by setting fire to trees and plants in this their exhausted state. The dryness is so extreme, that household furniture is damaged, and the wainscot of the rooms flies to pieces. The human body is also affected by it, so as to cause the skin to peel off; but in other respects it is deemed salutary to the constitution, by stopping the progress of infection, and curing almost all cutaneous diseases.

We now proceed to some curious particulars, under the term HURRICANE.--This is indeed a general name for any violent storm of wind, but is peculiarly applied to those storms which happen in the warmer climates, and which greatly exceed the most violent ones known in this country. Dr. Mosely, in his Treatise on Tropical Diseases, observes, that the ruin and desolation accompanying a hurricane can scarcely be described. Like fire, its resistless force consumes every thing in its track, in the most terrible and rapid manner. It is generally preceded by an awful stillness of the elements, and a closeness and mistiness in the atmosphere, which makes the sun appear red, and the stars larger. But a dreadful reverse succeeds: the sky is suddenly overcast and wild; the sea rises at once from a profound calm into mountains; the wind rages and roars like the noise of cannon; the rain descends in a deluge; a dismal obscurity envelops the earth with darkness; and the superior regions appear rent with lightning and thunder. The earth on these occasions often does, and always seems to tremble; whilst terror and consternation distract all nature: birds are carried from the woods into the ocean; and those whose element is the sea, seek for refuge on land; the frightened animals in the field assemble together, and are almost suffocated by the impetuosity of the wind in searching for shelter, which, when found, is but the prelude to destruction. The roofs of houses are carried to vast distances from their walls, which are beat to the ground, burying their inhabitants under them. Large trees are torn up by the roots, and huge branches shivered off, and driven through the air in every direction with immense velocity. Every tree and shrub that withstands the shock is stripped of its boughs and foliage; plants and grass are laid flat on the earth; and luxuriant spring is changed in a moment to dreary winter. This direful tragedy ended, (when it happens in a town,) the devastation is surveyed with accumulated horror: the harbour is covered with wrecks of boats and vessels; and the shore has not a vestige of its former state remaining. Mounds of rubbish and rafters in one place; heaps of earth and trunks of trees in another; deep gullies from torrents of water; and the dead and dying bodies of men, women, and children, half buried, and scattered about, where streets stood but an hour before,--present the miserable survivors with the shocking conclusion of a spectacle, to be followed by famine, and, when accompanied by an earthquake, by mortal diseases.

Philosophers are now inclined to attribute these terrible phenomena to electricity, though the manner in which it acts in this case is by no means known. It seems probable, indeed, that not only hurricanes, but even the most gentle gales of wind, are produced by the action of the electric fluid.

In the next place we shall treat of MONSOONS, or TRADE-WINDS.

"Trade-winds, observing well their stated course, To human good employ their pow'rful force; The loaded ships across the ocean fann'd By steady gales, spread commerce through the land: These you observe--but have you no desire The hidden spring of such effects t'inquire? Or, when contending winds around you blow, Do you ne'er wish the cause of them to know?"

Monsoons are those winds which blow six months constantly the same way, and the contrary way the other six months.

Mr. Olinthus Gregory observes, that "though the winds in a temperate zone of the earth are very inconstant and changeable, yet this is not the case in every part of the terrestrial globe; for in the torrid zone, and some other parts, the winds are generally very uniform and constant in their direction, as will appear from the following facts relative thereto:--

"1. Over the Atlantic, and Pacific oceans, particularly between thirty degrees of north and thirty degrees of south latitude, the trade-winds, as they are called, blow uniformly from east to west, all the year round, with a small variation in the different seasons.

"2. When the sun is on the equator, the trade-winds, in sailing northward, veer more and more from the east towards the north; so that about their limit they become nearly north-east; and vice versa in sailing southward, they become at last nearly south-east. 3. When the sun is near the tropic of Cancer, the trade-winds north of the equator become more nearly east than at other times, and those south of the equator more nearly south; and vice versa, when the sun is near the tropic of Capricorn. 4. The trade-winds are not due east upon the equator, but about four degrees to the north of it.

"To account for these facts relative to the winds, is a most curious and important, though mysterious, inquiry; having employed the pens of several very eminent philosophers: but amongst all the explanations I have seen, there is none in my opinion more agreeable to nature than one given by Mr. John Dalton, of Manchester, in his "Meteorological Observations and Essays." The method of reasoning applied to the subject in that work, I shall here make use of.

"The inequality of heat in the different climates and places, and the earth's rotation on its axis, appears to be the principal causes of all winds, regular and irregular. It may be observed, that whenever the heat is greatest, there the air will ascend, and a supply of colder air will be received from the neighbouring parts: it will be willingly allowed, that the heat is at all times greatest in the torrid zone, and decreases gradually in proceeding northward or southward; also that the poles may at all times be considered as the centres of cold. Hence it reasonably follows, that abstracting from accidental circumstances, there will be a constant ascent of air over the torrid zone, which air will afterwards fall northward and southward, whilst the colder air below is determined by a continual impulse towards the equator.

"When the effects of the earth's rotation are taken into consideration, our reasoning must be as follows: the air over any part of the earth's surface, when apparently at rest, or calm, will have the same rotatory velocity as that part; but if a quantity of air in the northern hemisphere receive an impulse in the direction of the meridian, either northward or southward, its rotatory velocity will be greater in the former case, and less in the latter, than that of the air into which it moves; consequently, if it move northward, it will have a greater velocity eastward than the air, or surface of the earth over which it moves, and will therefore become a south-west wind, or a wind between the south and west; and, vice versa, if it move southward, it becomes a north-east wind. From similar considerations it will appear, that in the southern hemisphere the winds will be north-west and south-east respectively.

"The trade-winds may therefore be explained thus: The two general masses of air proceeding from both hemispheres towards the equator, as they advance are constantly deflected more and more towards the east, by reason of the earth's rotation; that from the southern hemisphere, originally a south wind, is made to veer more and more towards the east; in like manner, that from the northern hemisphere is made to change its directions from the north towards the east: these two masses meeting near the equator, their velocities south and north destroy each other, and they proceed afterwards with their common velocity from east to west round the torrid zone, excepting the irregularities produced by the continents. The equator is not in reality the place of concourse, but the northern parallel of four degrees; because the centre of heat is thereabouts, the sun being longer on the north side of the equator, than on the south side. Moreover, when the sun is near one of the tropics, the centre of heat upon the earth's surface is then nearer that tropic than usual, and therefore the winds about the tropic are more nearly east at that time, and those about the other tropic more nearly north and south.

"If all the terrestrial globe were covered with water, or if the variations of the earth's surface in heat were regular and constant, so that the heat was the same in every part of the same parallel of latitude, the winds would then be very nearly regular also: but this is not the case; for we find the irregularities of heat, arising from the interspersion of land and sea, are such, that though all the parts of the atmosphere in some measure conspire to produce regular winds about the torrid zone, yet very striking irregularities are often found to take place. A remarkable instance we have in monsoons, which are winds that in the Indian ocean, &c. blow for six months together one way, and the next six months the contrary way: these, with sea and land breezes, do not seem easily to be accounted for on any other principle than that of rarefaction.

"Perhaps some persons may be led to suppose, that the winds in the northern temperate zone should be between the north and east towards the poles, and between the south and west nearer the equator, almost as regular as the trade-winds: but when the change of seasons, the different capacities of land and water for heat, the interference and opposition of the two general currents, be considered, it might be concluded almost next to impossible that the winds in the temperate zone should exhibit any thing like regularity: however, notwithstanding this, observations sufficiently evince, that the winds therein are, for the most part, in the direction of one of the general currents; namely, somewhere between the south and west, or more commonly between the north and east; and that winds in other directions happen only as accidental varieties, chiefly in unsettled weather.

"We may have frequently taken notice, that several winds, particularly stormy ones, are attended with a cloudy sky; to this it may be added, that we have more winds than usually occur in rather less latitudes, where the atmosphere is generally more serene: these considered, make it exceedingly probable, that the aqueous vapours which are sustained by the air, from whence come clouds and rains, may be one great cause of irregular winds. It has been determined, from very accurate experiments, that one inch of water when evaporated will fill more than 2000 inches of space: hence it appears that the water which falls in drops of rain, &c. occupied more than 2000 times the space when it floated in the atmosphere in vapours; the condensation thereof must therefore occasion vacua of such a nature, as will cause winds of different kinds and degrees, according to the deficiency which is to be supplied.

"The economy of winds, an illustration of which has been here attempted, is admirably adapted to the various purposes of nature, and to the general intercourse of mankind:--if the earth had been fixed, and the sun had revolved about it, the air over the torrid zone, and particularly about the equator, would have been almost always stagnant; and in the other zones the winds would have had little variation either in direction or strength; in this case navigation would have been greatly impeded, and a communication between the two hemispheres by sea, rendered impracticable. On the present system of things, however, the irregularity of winds is of the happiest consequence, by being subservient to navigation: and a general circulation of air constantly takes place between the eastern and western hemispheres, as well as between the polar and equatorial regions; by reason of which, that diffusion and intermixture of the different aërial fluids, so necessary for the life, health, and prosperity of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, is accomplished:--such is the transcendent wisdom and providential care of the beneficent Father of all!"

The following interesting description of the SOUTH-WEST MONSOON IN INDIA, is taken from Elphinstone's Account of Cabul.--The most remarkable rainy season, is that called in India the South-west Monsoon. It extends from Africa to the Malay Peninsula, and deluges all the intermediate countries within certain lines of latitude, for four months in the year. In the south of India, this monsoon commences about the beginning of June, but it gets later as we advance towards the north. Its approach is announced by vast masses of clouds that rise from the Indian ocean, and advance towards the north-east, gathering and thickening as they approach the land. After some threatening days, the sky assumes a troubled appearance in the evenings, and the monsoon in general sets in during the night. It is attended with such a thunder-storm as can scarcely be imagined by those who have only seen that phenomenon in a temperate climate. It generally begins with violent blasts of wind, which are succeeded by floods of rain. For some hours, lightning is seen almost without intermission; sometimes it only illuminates the sky, and shews the clouds near the horizon; at others, it discovers the distant hills, and again leaves all in darkness; when in an instant it re-appears in vivid and successive flashes, and exhibits the nearest objects in all the brightness of day. During all this time the distant thunder never ceases to roll, and is only silenced by some nearer peal, which bursts on the ear with such a sudden and tremendous crash, as can scarcely fail to strike the most insensible heart with awe. At length the thunder ceases, and nothing is heard but the continued pouring of the rain, and the rushing of the rising streams. The next day presents a gloomy spectacle: the rain still descends in torrents, and scarcely allows a view of the blackened fields; the rivers are swollen and discoloured, and sweep down along with them the hedges, the huts, and the remains of the cultivation, which was carried on during the dry season, into their beds.

This lasts for some days, after which the sky clears, and discovers the face of nature, changed as if by enchantment. Before the storm, the fields were parched up, and, except in the beds of the rivers, scarce a blade of vegetation was to be seen; the clearness of the sky was not interrupted by a single cloud, but the atmosphere was loaded with dust, which was sufficient to render distant objects dim, as in a mist, and to make the sun appear dull and discoloured, till he attained a considerable elevation: a parching wind blew like a blast from a furnace, and heated wood, iron, and every other solid material, even in the shade; and immediately before the monsoon, this wind had been succeeded by still more sultry calms. But when the first violence of the storm is over, the whole earth is covered with a sudden but luxuriant verdure: the rivers are full and tranquil, the air is pure and delicious; and the sky is varied, and embellished with clouds. The effect of the change is visible on all the animal creation, and can only be imagined in Europe, by supposing the depth of a dreary winter to start at once into all the freshness and brilliancy of spring. From this time the rain falls at intervals for about a month, when it comes on again with great violence, and in July the rains are at their height; during the third month, they rather diminish, but are still heavy; and in September they gradually abate, and are often entirely suspended till near the end of the month, when they depart amidst thunders and tempests, as they came.

The following Table, which gives some particulars respecting the VELOCITY OF THE WIND, was calculated by Mr. John Smeaton, the celebrated engineer, and is founded on a correct series of practical observations:--

Miles Feet per hour. per second. 1 1.47 2 2.93 } Light airs. 3 4.40 } 4 5.87 } Breeze. 5 7.33 } 10 14.67 } Brisk gale. 15 22. } 20 29.34 } Fresh gale. 25 36.67 } 30 40.01 } Strong gale. 35 51.34 } 40 58.68 } Hard gale. 45 66.01 } 50 73.35 } Storm. 60 88.02 } 80 117.36 } Hurricane, tearing 100 146.70 } up trees, &c.

We conclude this chapter with a poetical enumeration of the benefits arising from the wind:--

"Of what important use to human kind, To what great ends subservient, is the wind! Where'er the aërial active vapour flies, It drives the clouds, and ventilates the skies; Sweeps from the earth infection's noxious train, And swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main. For should the sea unagitated stand, Death, with huge strides, would desolate the land; The scorching sun, with unpropitious beam, Would give to grief an everlasting theme; And baneful vapours, lurking in the veins, Would fiercely burn with unabating pains. Nor thus alone air purities the seas, O'er torrid climes it pours the healthful breeze: Climes where the sun direct flings scorching day, Feel cooling air his sultry rage allay; Unceasing goodness, with unceasing skill, Educing certain good from seeming ill. His guardian care extends o'er ev'ry shore, And blends his favours with what men deplore; The sable nations hence, and burning skies, See luscious fruits in varying beauty rise; Spontaneous Nature laugh at culture's toil, And rich luxuriance bless the grateful soil."

CHAP. L.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING SHOWERS, STORMS, &c.

Surprising Showers of Hail--Singular Effects of a Storm--The Mirage--Sand Floods--Showers of Gossamers--Winter in Russia.

Ye vapours, hail, and snow, Praise ye th' Almighty Lord, And stormy winds that blow To execute his word. Watts.

Then from aërial treasures downwards pours Sheets of unsully'd snow in lucid show'rs; Flake after flake, thro' air thick wav'ring flies 'Till one vast shining waste all nature lies. Then the proud hills a virgin whiteness shed, A dazzling brightness glitters from the mead; The hoary trees reflect a silver show, And groves beneath the lovely burden low. Broome.

SURPRISING SHOWERS OF HAIL.

Natural historians record various instances of surprising showers of hail, in which the hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude. Mezeray, speaking of the war of Lewis XII. in Italy, in 1510, relates, that there was for some time a horrible darkness, thicker than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell a shower of hailstones, or rather (as he calls them) pebble-stones, which destroyed all the fish, birds, and beasts, of the country. It was attended with a strong smell of sulphur; and the stones were of a bluish colour, some of them weighing 100lb.--Hist. de France, tom. ii. p. 339.

At Lisle, in Flanders, in 1686, hailstones fell of a very large size; some of which contained in the middle, a dark brown matter, which, thrown on the fire, gave a very great report.--Phil. Trans. No. 203.

Dr. Halley and others relate, that in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. April 29, 1697, a thick black cloud, coming from Carnarvonshire, disposed the vapours to congeal in such a manner, that for about the breadth of two miles, which was the limit of the cloud, in its progress for sixty miles it did inconceivable damage; not only killing all sorts of fowls and other small animals, but splitting trees, knocking down horses and men, and even ploughing up the earth, so that the hailstones buried themselves underground an inch or an inch and a half deep. The hailstones, many of which weighed five ounces, and some half a pound, being five or six inches in circumference, were of various figures; some round, others half round; some smooth, others embossed and crenated; the icy substance of them was very transparent and hard, but there was a snowy kernel in the centre.

In Hertfordshire, May 4, 1697, after a severe storm of thunder and lightning, a shower of hail succeeded, which far exceeded the former: some persons were killed by it, their bodies beat all black and blue; vast oaks were split, and fields of rye cut down as with a scythe. The stones measured from ten to fourteen inches round. Their figures were various, some oval, some flat, &c.--Phil. Trans. No. 229.

The following account of the SINGULAR EFFECTS OF A STORM, was communicated to the Dublin Philosophical Society, by the secretary:--

"Mrs. Close gave Mr. Molyneux the following account of the effects of thunder and lightning on her house at New Forge, in the county of Down, in Ireland, on August 9, 1707: She observed, that the whole day was close, hot, and sultry, with little or no wind stirring till towards the evening, when there was a small breeze, with some mizzling rain, which lasted about an hour; that as the air darkened after sunset, she saw several faint flashes of lightning, and heard some thunder-claps at a distance; that between ten and eleven o'clock, both were very violent and terrible, and so increased, and came on more frequently until a little before twelve o'clock; that one flash of lightning and clap of thunder came both at the same time, louder and more dreadful than the rest, which, as she thought, shook and inflamed the whole house; and being sensible at that instant of a violent strong sulphureous smell in her chamber, and feeling a thick gross dust falling on her hands and face as she lay in bed, she concluded that part of her house was thrown down by the thunder, or set on fire by the lightning; that, arising in this fright, she called up her family, and candles being lighted, she found her bedchamber, and the kitchen beneath it, full of smoke and dust, and the looking-glass in her chamber was broken.

"The next day she found, that part of the cornice of the chimney, which stood without the gabel-end of the house where her chamber was, had been struck off; that part of the coping of the splay of the gable-end itself was broken down, and twelve or sixteen of the shingles on the adjoining roof were raised or ruffled, but none shattered or carried away; that a part of the ceiling in her chamber beneath those shingles was forced down, and part of the plaster and pinning stones of the adjoining wall was also broken off and loosened, the whole breach being sixteen or twenty inches broad; that at this place there was left on the wall a smutted scar or trace, as if blacked by the smoke of a candle, which pointed downwards towards another place on the same wall, where a like breach was made, partly behind the place of the looking-glass; that the boards on the back of a large hair-trunk, full of linen, standing beneath the looking-glass, were forced in, and splintered as if by the blow of a smith's sledge; that two-thirds of the linen within this trunk were pierced or cut through, the cut appearing of a quadrangular figure, and between two or three inches over; that one end of the trunk was forced out, as the back was driven in; that at about two feet distance from the end of the trunk, where the floor and the side-wall of the house joined, there was a breach made in the plaster, where a small chink or crevice was to be seen between the sideboard of the floor and the wall, so wide that a man could thrust his lingers down; and that just beneath this, in the kitchen, the ceiling was forced down, and some of the plaster of the wall broken off; that exactly under this there stood a large tub or vessel of wood, inclosed with a crib of brick and lime, which was broken and splintered all to pieces, and most of the brick and lime work of it scattered about the kitchen.

"The looking-glass was broken with such violence, that there was not a piece of it to be found of the size of half-a-crown, and several pieces of it were sticking like hail-shot in the chamber door, which was of oak, and on the other side of the room; several of the edges and corners of some of the pieces of the broken glass were tinged of a light flame colour, as if heated in the fire; the curtains of the bed were cut in several places, supposed to be done by the pieces of the glass. Several pieces of muslin and wearing linen, left on the large hair-trunk, were thrown about the room, no way singed or scorched, and yet the hair on the back of the trunk, where the breach was made, was singed; the uppermost part of the linen within the trunk was not touched, and the lowermost parcel, consisting of more than 350 ply of linen, was pierced through, of which none was anywise smutted, except the uppermost ply of a tablecloth, that lay over all the rest; there was a yellow tinge or stain perceivable on some part of the damaged linen, and the whole smelt strongly of sulphur; the glass of two windows in the bed-chamber above, and two windows in the kitchen below, were so shattered, that there was scarcely one whole frame left, in many of them. The pewter, brass, and iron furniture in the kitchen, were thrown down, and scattered about; particularly, a large girdle, about twenty pounds weight, that hung upon an iron hook near the ceiling, was found lying on the floor. A cat was found dead next morning in the kitchen, with her legs extended in a moving posture, with no other sign of being hurt, than that the fur was singed a little about the rump.

"It was further remarkable, that the wall, both above and below a little window in the same gable-end, was so shattered, that the light could be seen through the crevices in the wall, and upon a large stone on the outside of the wall; beneath this window was a mark, as if made by the stroke of a smith's, sledge, and a splinter of the stone was broken off, of some pounds weight. I was further informed, that from the time of the great thunder-clap, both the thunder and lightning diminished gradually, so that in an hour's time all was still and quiet again."

We proceed to give an account of THE MIRAGE.--From Belzoni's Narrative.

"This phenomenon is often described by travellers, who assert having been deceived by it, as at a distance it appears to them like water. This is certainly the fact, and I must confess that I have been deceived myself, even after I was aware of it. The perfect resemblance to water, and the strong desire for this element, made me conclude, in spite of all my caution not to be deceived, that it was really water I saw. It generally appears like a still lake, so unmoved by the wind, that every thing above it is to be seen most distinctly reflected, which is the principal cause of the deception. If the wind agitate any of the plants that rise above the horizon of the mirage, the motion is seen perfectly at a great distance. If the traveller stands elevated much above the mirage, the water seems less united and less deep, for, as the eyes look down upon it, there is not thickness enough in the vapour of the surface of the ground to conceal the earth from the sight; but if the traveller be on a level with the horizon of the mirage, he cannot see through it, so that it appears to him clear water. By putting my head first to the ground, and then mounting a camel, the height of which from the ground might have been ten feet at the most, I found a great difference in the appearance of the mirage. On approaching it, it becomes thinner, and appears as if agitated by the wind, like a field of ripe corn. It gradually vanishes as the traveller approaches, and at last entirely disappears when he is on the spot."

We shall now introduce to the reader a curious account of SAND FLOODS; a name given to the flowing of sand so common in the deserts of Arabia. Mr. Bruce gives the following description of some that he saw in travelling through that long and dreary desert.--"At one o'clock (says he) we alighted among some acacia trees at Waadi el Halboub, having gone twenty-one miles. We were here at once surprised and terrified by a sight, surely one of the most magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert from west to north-west of us, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances, at times moving with great celerity, at others stalking on with a majestic slowness: at intervals we thought they were coming in a few minutes to overwhelm us; and small quantities of sand did actually more than once reach us. Again they would retreat so as to be almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds. Here the tops often separated from the bodies; and these, once disjoined, dispersed in the air, and did not appear more. Sometimes they were broken near the middle, as if struck with a large cannon-shot. About noon they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged alongside of us about the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest appeared to me, at that distance, as if it would measure ten feet. They retired from us with a wind at south-east, leaving an impression upon my mind to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was fear, with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment. It was in vain to think of flying; the swiftest horse, or fastest sailing ship, could not carry us out of this danger; and the full persuasion of this riveted me as if to the spot where I stood, and let the camels gain on me so much in my state of lameness, that it was with some difficulty I could overtake them. The same appearance of moving pillars of sand presented themselves to us this day, in form and disposition like those we had seen at Waadi el Halboub, only they seemed to be more in number and less in size. They came several times in a direction close upon us, that is, I believe, within less than two miles. They became, immediately after sun-rise, like a thick wood, and almost darkened the sun: his rays shining through them for near an hour, gave them an appearance of pillars of fire. Our people now became desperate: the Greek shrieked out, and said it was the day of judgment; Ismael pronounced it to be hell; and the Tucorories, that the world was on fire. I asked Idris if ever he had before seen such a sight? He said he had often seen them as terrible, though never worse; but what he feared most was that extreme redness in the air, which was a sure presage of the coming of the simoom."

The flowing of sand, though far from being so tremendous and hurtful as in Arabia, is of very bad consequences in Britain, as many valuable pieces of land have thus been entirely lost; of which we give the following instances from Mr. Pennant, together with a probable means of preventing them in future.--"I have more than once (says he) on the east coasts of Scotland, observed the calamitous state of several extensive tracts, formerly in a most flourishing condition, at present covered with sands, unstable as those of the deserts of Arabia. The parish of Fyrie, in the county of Aberdeen, is now reduced to two farms, and above five hundred pounds a year lost to the Errol family, as appears by the oath of the factor in 1600, made before the court of session, to ascertain the minister's salary: not a vestige is to be seen of any buildings, unless a fragment of the church. The estate of Coubin, near Forres, is another melancholy instance. This tract was once worth three hundred pounds a year, but at this time is overwhelmed with sand. This strange inundation was still in motion in 1769, chiefly when a strong wind prevailed. Its motion is so rapid, that I have been assured, that an apple-tree has been so covered with it one season, that only the very summit appeared. This distress was brought on about ninety years ago and was occasioned by the cutting down some trees, and pulling up the bent or star which grew on the sand-hills; which at last gave rise to the act of 15 George II. c. 33. to prohibit the destruction of this useful plant.

"I beg leave to suggest to the public a possible means of putting a stop to these destructive ravages. Providence has kindly formed this plant to grow only in pure sand. Mankind was left to make, in after times, an application of it suitable to their wants. The sand-hills on a portion of the Flintshire shores, in the parish of Llanasa, are covered with it naturally, and kept firm in their place. The Dutch perhaps owe the existence of part at least of their country, to the sowing of it on the mobile solum, their sand-banks. My humane and amiable friend, the late Benjamin Stillingfleet, Esq. recommended the sowing of this plant on the sandy wilds of Norfolk, that its matted roots might prevent the deluges of sand which that country experiences. It has been already remarked, that wheresoever this plant grows, the salutary effects are soon observed to follow. A single plant will fix the sand, and gather it into a hillock; these, by the increase of vegetation, are formed into larger, till by degrees a barrier is often made against the encroachments of the sea, and might often prove preventive of the calamity in question. I cannot, therefore, but recommend the trial to the inhabitants of many parts of North Britain: the plant grows in most places near the sea, and is known to the Highlanders by the name of murah, and to the English by that of bent-star."

The following is a singular but authentic account of the curious phenomenon of a SHOWER OF GOSSAMERS.--From White's Natural History of Selborne.

"On September 21, 1741, being intent on field diversions, I rose before daybreak: when I came into the inclosures, I found the stubbles and clover grounds matted all over with a thick coat of cobweb, in the meshes of which a copious and heavy dew hung so plentifully, that the whole face of the country seemed, as it were, covered with two or three setting nets, drawn one over another. When the dogs attempted to hunt, their eyes were so blinded and hoodwinked, that they could not proceed, but were obliged to lie down and scrape the incumbrances from their faces with their fore feet. As the morning advanced, the sun became bright and warm, and the day turned out one of those most lovely ones, which no season but the autumn produces; cloudless, calm, serene, and worthy the south of France itself. About nine, an appearance, very unusual, began to demand our attention; a shower of cobwebs falling from very elevated regions, and continuing without any interruption till the close of day. There webs were not single filmy threads, floating in the air in all directions, but perfect flakes or rags, some near an inch broad, and five or six long. On every side, as the observer turned his eyes, might he behold a continual succession of fresh flakes falling into his sight, and twinkling like stars as they turned their sides towards the sun. Neither before nor after, was any shower observed; but on this day the flakes hung on the trees and hedges so thick, that a diligent person might have gathered baskets full."

This chapter closes with a description of WINTER IN RUSSIA.--The winter, in the climate of Russia, approaches very suddenly. There is something very wonderful in the instantaneous change of weather about the time of winter. On one day the warmth shall be that of spring, while on the following day the winter shall break forth in all its horrors; snow and ice are spread in the course of a few hours, and the abruptness of this instant change affects even a Russian constitution. Nothing can defend the shivering inhabitant, but the artificial heat of his own house; where he seals himself up during the hibernal rigours, yet even there they reach him.

There is a pleasing description of these sudden winters in one of the letters of the poet Metastasio, while residing at Vienna. The passage is very interesting, and finely describes the instantaneous change which occurred.

"Within these few days the Teutonic winter has unexpectedly appeared, with all his magnificent train, and without the least precursor to announce his arrival. All is covered with snow. The rivers, as well as lakes, were instantly frozen in a most solid manner; and the cold blown from the seven neighbouring hills is so subtle and penetrating, that we cannot exclude it from our warmest apartment. But notwithstanding all this unforeseen and violent change of nature, I still find much amusement here, having been more formed for Arcadian tranquillity than the bustle and magnificence of courts. I am pleased with the silent concord of all existence; the roving about in search of well-known paths, fields, bushes, pastoral borders, and every known object, of which, though the fall of snow has changed the colouring, yet the design is still faithfully preserved. I reflect with sentiments of gratitude, that the friendly forest, which by its shade but lately defended me from the burning rays of the sun, now affords me materials for combating the extreme fury of the season. I laugh at winter with all its horrors, which I see without feeling, having it in our power to compose an artificial spring in our apartments at pleasure; but by an impulse of self-love, what pleases me more is, the finding out, that, compared with other seasons, winter has still its conveniences, beauties, and advantages."

CHAP. LI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING ICE.

On the Greenland, or Polar Ice--On the Tremendous Concussion of Fields of Ice--Icebergs--Magnitude of Icebergs--The Glaciers--Shower of Ice--Remarkable Frosts.

There winter, arm'd with terrors here unknown, Sits absolute on his unshaken throne; Piles up his stores amid the frozen waste, And bids the mountains he has built, stand fast; Beckons the legions of his storms away From happier scenes, to make this land a prey; Proclaims the soil a conquest he has won, And scorns to share it with the distant sun. Cowper.

Another poet thus describes the polar regions:--

Vast regions, dreary, bleak, and bare! There on an icy mountain's height, Seen only by the moon's pale light, Stern winter rears his giant form, His robe a mist, his voice a storm: His frown the shiv'ring nations fly, And, hid for half the year, in smoky caverns lie. Scott.

THE GREENLAND, OR POLAR ICE.

The following account of the Greenland, or Polar Ice, is abridged by the Editor of this work from a paper, by W. Scoresby, jun. M. W. S. published in The Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural-History Society:--

"Greenland is a country where every object is strikingly singular, or highly magnificent. The atmosphere, the land, and the ocean, each exhibit remarkable or sublime appearances.

"With regard to the atmosphere, several peculiarities may be noticed, viz. its darkness of colour, and density; its frequent production of crystallized snow in a wonderful perfection and variety of form and texture; and its astonishingly sudden changes from calm to storm, from fair weather to foul, and vice versâ.

"The land is of itself a sublime object; its stupendous mountains rising by steep acclivities from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height, terminating in rigid, conical, or pyramidical summits; its surface, contrasting its native protruding dark-coloured rocks, with its burden of purest snow;--the whole viewed, under the density of a gloomy sky, forms a picture impressive and grand.

"Of the inanimate productions of Greenland, none perhaps excites so much interest and astonishment in a stranger, as the ice, in its great abundance and variety. The stupendous masses known by the name of Ice Islands, Floating Mountains, or Icebergs, common to Davis' Straits, and sometimes met with here, from their height, various forms, and the depth of water in which they ground, are calculated to strike the beholder with wonder: yet the fields of ice, more peculiar to Greenland, are not less astonishing. Their deficiency in elevation is sufficiently compensated by their amazing extent of surface. Some of them have been observed near 100 miles in length, and more than half that breadth; each consisting of a single sheet of ice, having its surface raised in general four or six feet above the level of the water, and its base depressed to the depth of nearly twenty feet beneath."

The various kinds of Ice described.--"The ice in general is designated by a variety of appellations, distinguishing it according to the size or number of pieces, their form of aggregation, thickness, transparency, &c. I perhaps cannot better explain the terms in common acceptation amongst the whale-fishers, than by marking the disruption of a field. The thickest and strongest field cannot resist the power of a heavy swell; indeed, such are much less capable of bending without being dissevered, than the thinner ice, which is more pliable. When a field, by the set of the current, drives to the southward, and, being deserted by the loose ice, becomes exposed to the effects of a ground swell, it presently breaks into a great many pieces, few of which will exceed forty or fifty yards in diameter. Now, such a number of these pieces collected together in close contact, so that they cannot, from the top of the ship's mast, be seen over, are termed a pack.

"When the collection of pieces can be seen across, if it assume a circular or polygonal form, the name of patch is applied, and it is called a stream when its shape is more of an oblong, how narrow soever it may be, provided the continuity of the pieces is preserved.

"Pieces of very large dimensions, but smaller than fields, are denominated floes: thus, a field may be compared to a pack, and a floe to a patch, as far as regards their size and external form.

"Small pieces which break off, and are separated from the larger masses by the effect of attrition are called brash-ice, and may be collected into streams or patches.

"Ice is said to be loose or open, when the pieces are so far separated as to allow a ship to sail freely amongst them: this has likewise been called drift-ice.

"A hummock is a protuberance raised upon any plane of ice above the common level. It is frequently produced by pressure, where one piece is squeezed upon another, often set upon its edge, and in that position cemented by the frost. Hummocks are likewise formed by pieces of ice mutually crushing each other, the wreck being heaped upon one or both of them. To hummocks, the ice is indebted for its variety of fanciful shapes, and its picturesque appearance. They occur in great numbers in heavy packs, on the edges, and occasionally in the middle of, fields and floes. They often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards.

"A calf, is a portion of ice which has been depressed by the same means as a hummock is elevated. It is kept down by some larger mass, from beneath which it shews itself on one side. I have seen a calf so deep and broad, that the ship sailed over it without touching, when it might be observed on both sides of the vessel at the same time: this, however, is attended with considerable danger, and necessity alone warrants the experiment, as calves have not unfrequently (by a ship's touching them, or disturbing the sea near them) been called from their submarine situation to the surface, and with such an accelerated velocity, as to stave the planks and timbers of the ship, and in some instances to reduce the vessel to a wreck.

"Any part of the upper superficies of a piece of ice, which comes to be immersed beneath the surface of the water, obtains the name of a tongue.

"A bight signifies a bay or sinuosity, on the border of any large mass or body of ice. It is supposed to be called bight, from the low word bite, to take in, or entrap; because, in this situation, ships are sometimes so caught by a change of wind, that the ice cannot be cleared on either tack; and in some cases, a total loss has been the consequence."

ON THE TREMENDOUS CONCUSSIONS OF FIELDS OF ICE.--The occasional rapid motion of fields, with the strange effects produced on any opposing substance, exhibited by such immense bodies, is one of the most striking objects this country presents, and is certainly the most terrific. They not unfrequently acquire a rotary movement, whereby the circumference attains a velocity of several miles per hour. A field, thus in motion, coming in contact with another at rest, or, more especially, with a contrary direction of movement, produces a dreadful shock. The consequences of a body of more than ten thousand millions of tons in weight, meeting with resistance when in motion, may be better conceived than expressed! The weaker field is crushed with an awful noise; sometimes the destruction is mutual: pieces of huge dimensions and weight are not unfrequently piled upon the top, to the height of twenty or thirty feet, whilst doubtless a proportionate quantity is depressed beneath. The view of these stupendous effects, in safety, exhibits a picture sublimely grand; but where there is danger of being overwhelmed, terror and dismay must be the predominant feelings. The whale-fishers at all times require unremitting vigilance to secure their safety, but scarcely in any situation so much, as when navigating amidst those fields: in foggy weather, they are particularly dangerous, as their motions cannot then be distinctly observed. It may easily be imagined, that the strongest ship can no more withstand the shock of two fields, than a sheet of paper can stop a musket-ball. Numbers of vessels, since the establishment of the fishery, have been thus destroyed; some have been thrown upon the ice, some have had their hulls completely torn open, and others have been buried beneath the heaped fragments of the ice.

ICEBERGS.--"The term icebergs has commonly been applied to those immense bodies of ice situated on the land, 'filling the valleys between the high mountains,' and generally exhibiting a square perpendicular towards the sea. They recede backward inland to an extent never explored. Martin, Crantz, Phipps, and others, have described those wonders of nature, and all agree as to their manner of formation, in the congelation of the sleet and rains of summer, and of the accumulated snow, partly dissolved by the summer sun, which, on its decline, freezes to a transparent ice. They are as permanent as the rocks on which they rest: for although large portions may be frequently separated, yet the annual growth replaces the loss, and probably on the whole, produces a perpetual increase. I have seen those styled the Seven Icebergs, situated in the valleys of the north-west coast of Spitzbergen; their perpendicular front maybe about 300 feet in height, the green colour, and glistening surface of which, form a pleasing variety in prospect, with the magnificence of the encompassing snow-clad mountains, which, as they recede from the eye, seem to rise 'crag above crag,' in endless perspective.

"Large pieces may be separated from those icebergs in the summer season, when they are particularly fragile, by their ponderous overhanging masses overcoming the force of cohesion; or otherwise, by the powerful expansion of the water, filling any excavation or deep-seated cavity, when its dimensions are enlarged by freezing, thereby exerting a tremendous force, and bursting the whole asunder.

"Pieces thus or otherwise detached, are hurled into the sea with a dreadful crash: if they are received into deep water, they are liable to be drifted off the land, and, under the form of ice-islands, or ice-mountains, they likewise still retain their parent name of icebergs. I much question, however, if all the floating bergs seen in the seas west of Old Greenland, thus derive their origin, their number being so great, and their dimensions so vast."

MAGNITUDE OF ICEBERGS.--"If all the floating islands of ice thus proceed from disruptions of the icebergs generated on the land, how is it that so few are met with in Greenland, and those comparatively so diminutive, whilst Baffin's Bay affords them so plentifully, and of such amazing size? The largest I ever saw in Greenland, was about 1000 yards in circumference, nearly square, of a regular flat surface, twenty feet above the level of the sea; and as it was composed of the most dense kind of ice, it must have been 150 or 160 feet in thickness, and in weight about 2,000,000 of tons. But masses have been repeatedly seen in Davis' Straits, nearly two miles in length, and one-third as broad, whose rugged mountain summits were reared with various spires to the height of more than 100 feet, whilst their base must have reached to the depth of 150 yards beneath the surface of the sea. Others, again, have been observed, possessing an even surface of five or six square miles in area, elevated thirty yards above the sea, and fairly run aground in water of 90 or 100 fathoms in depth; the weight of which must have been upwards of two thousand millions of tons."

THE GLACIERS.--Those vast piles of eternal ice with which it has pleased the Author of nature to crown the immense chasms between the summits of the Alps, are objects more grand, sublime, and terrific, than any others of the phenomena of nature which remain stationary. These tremendous spires and towers, of uncertain and brittle fabric, seem to forbid the attempts of travellers to explore the depth between them, or even the rocks and rich valleys around them; but courage and perseverance have been attended with commensurate success, and we are enabled by their labours to learn previously concealed wonders, and to reason upon the causes which produced them.

Mr. Bourrit, precentor of the cathedral church at Geneva, mentions, in the relation of his journey to the glaciers of Savoy, the enterprise of Messrs. Windham and Pocock, in 1741, who, inspired by the artless relations of the peasants, descriptive of the sublimity of their country, when they descended with honey and crystals for sale, determined to visit those frightful regions of ice which had received the appellation of Les Montagnes Maudites; or the Accursed Mountains. The gentlemen alluded to took every precaution for securing their safety; but entertaining many well-grounded fears, naturally arising from a first attempt, they did not reach any considerable distance beyond the edge of the ice in the valley of Montanvert, yet their example operated so powerfully as to induce several others to imitate them, and proceed to the boundary whence they returned: at length M. de Saussure had the resolution and courage to penetrate across the ice to the very extremities of the valleys; Mr. Coxe followed soon after: and from their publications every possible information may be obtained, of which the nature of the subject will admit.

The most astonishing phenomenon attending the glaciers, is their near approach to the usual vegetation of summer; for what can be more wonderful than to view wheat ready for the sickle, parched brown by the rays of the sun, and separated only by the intervention of a few feet, from the chilling influence of an endless bed of ice, which seems impenetrable to its rays.

Many systems and theories have been ingeniously suggested, to ascertain the first cause of the glaciers, their maintenance, and whether they increase or diminish in extent; of which, Gruner's, improved and illustrated with actual observations by M. de Saussure, is the most rational and probable, and Mr. Coxe implicitly adopts it. Admitting that a person could be raised sufficiently above the summits of the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and Dauphiny, to comprehend the whole at one view, he would observe a vast chaos of mountains and valleys, with several parallel chains, the highest of which are situated in the centre, and the remainder gradually lessening as they retire from it. The central chain he would find to be surmounted by stupendous fragments of rock, towering in rude masses, which bear vast accumulations of snow and ice, where they are not decidedly perpendicular, or do not overhang their bases: on each side he would see the intervening chasms and gulfs, filled with ice, descending thence even into the verdant valleys, rich with foliage and cultivation. The inferior ranges of mountains, next the central, present the same appearance in a less degree; but in those more remote, the snow and ice are confined to the most elevated points; and others, still farther removed, are covered with grass and plants, which, in their turn, give place to such hills and valleys as are common in any part of the world.

Mr. Coxe divides the glaciers, in the above general survey, into two classes: the first occupy the deep valleys situated in the bosom of the Alps, and the second adhere to the sides and summits of the mountains. Those in the valleys are far more extensive than the upper glaciers; some are several leagues in length; and that of Des Bois is three miles broad and fifteen long: but they do not communicate with each other, and there are few parallel to the central chain; their upper extremities are connected with inaccessible precipices, and the lower proceed, as already mentioned, quite into the vales. The depth of these astonishing accumulations of frozen fluid vary from eighty to six hundred feet, and they generally rest on an inclined plane, where, urged forward by their own enormous weight, and but weakly supported by the pointed rocks inserted in their bases, they are universally intersected by yawning chasms, of dreadful aspect to the curious investigator, who beholds fanciful representations of walls, towers, and pyramids, on every side of him; but upon reaching those parts where the glacier rests upon an horizontal plane, his progress is seldom impeded by considerable fissures, and he walks in safety over a surface nearly uniform, and not so perfectly polished as that of ponds and rivers suddenly and violently frozen.

The absence of transparency, the various marks of air-bubbles, and the general roughness, so perfectly resemble the congelation of snow when half restored to fluidity, that M. de Saussure was immediately led to form the following probable theory of the formation of the glaciers. Snow is constantly accumulating in the recesses or depths of the mountains, during nine months of the year, by the usual fall of moisture, and the descent of vast masses, borne down by their weight, from the precipices and crags above. Part of this is necessarily reduced to water by slight thaws and casual rains, and, being frozen in this state, the glacier is composed of a porous opaque ice.

The upper glaciers Mr. Coxe subdivides into those which cover the summits, and those which extend along the sides of the Alps; the former originate from the snow frequently falling and congealing into a firm body, though not becoming actual ice, which the brilliancy of the projections has induced some philosophers to suppose it to be. M. de Saussure, having explored Mont Blanc, ascertained that the top was encrusted with ice, (which might be penetrated by a stick,) covering a mass of snow on the declivities, so chilled and dry as to be incapable of coherence.

The sides of the Alps support a congelation of half-dissolved snow, which is different from the pure snow of the summits, and the ice of the lower glaciers. Two causes operate to produce this effect; the first is the descent of water from the higher regions, where a dissolution of snow sometimes occurs; and the second arises from the more favourable situation of these parts for reflecting the rays of the sun, and the consequent melting of the snow. From hence downwards, the ice adhering to the cavities becomes gradually more solid by the freezing of the snow-water, then nearly divested of that air which in the less dissolved portions renders the ice, formed from it, porous, opaque, and full of bubbles.

An idea of the sublimity of the glaciers may be formed by reading the account of M. Bourrit, who appears to have viewed and described them with all that enthusiasm which such splendid objects must have inspired.--"To come at this collected mass of ice, (Des Bois,) we crossed the Arve, and travelling in a tolerable road, passed some villages or hamlets, whose inhabitants behaved with much politeness; they invited us to go in and rest ourselves, apologized for our reception, and offered us a taste of their honey. After amusing ourselves some time amongst them, we resumed our road, and entered a beautiful wood of lofty firs, inhabited by squirrels. The bottom is a fine sand, left there by the inundations of the Arveron; it is a very agreeable walk, and exhibits some extraordinary appearances. In proportion as we advanced into this wood, we observed the objects gradually to vanish from our sight; surprised at this circumstance, we were earnest to discover the cause, and our eyes sought in vain for satisfaction, till, having passed through it, the charm ceased. Judge of our astonishment, when we saw before us an enormous mass of ice, twenty times as large as the front of our cathedral of St. Peter, and so constructed, that we have only to change our situation to make it resemble whatever we please. It is a magnificent palace, cased over with the purest crystal; a majestic temple, ornamented with a portico; and columns of several shapes and colours; it has the appearance of a fortress, flanked with towers and bastions to the right and left; and at the bottom is a grotto, terminating in a dome of bold construction. This fairy dwelling, this enchanted residence, or cave of fancy, is the source of the Arveron, and of the gold which is found in the Arve. And if we add to all this rich variety, the ringing tinkling sound of water dropping from its sides, with the glittering refraction of the solar rays, whilst tints of the most lively green, blue, yellow, or violet, have the effect of different compartments in the several divisions of the grotto, the whole is so theatrically splendid, so completely picturesque, so great and beautiful beyond imagination, that I can hardly believe the art of man has ever yet produced, or ever will produce, a building so grand in its construction, or so varied in its ornaments. Desirous of surveying every side of this mass, we crossed the river about four hundred yards from its source, and, mounting upon the rocks and ice, approached the vault; but while we were attentively employed in viewing all its parts, astonished at the sportiveness of nature, we cast our eyes at one considerable member of the pile above us, which was most unaccountably supported, for it seemed to be held by almost nothing: our imprudence was too evident, and we hastened to retreat; yet scarcely had we stepped back thirty paces, before it broke off all at once with a prodigious noise, and tumbled, rolling to the very spot where we were standing just before."

SHOWER OF ICE.--A very uncommon kind of shower fell in the west of England, in December 1672, whereof we have various accounts in the Philos. Trans.--"This rain, as soon as it touched any thing above ground, as a bough or the like, immediately settled into ice; and, by multiplying and enlarging the icicles, broke every thing down by its weight. The rain that fell on the ground immediately became frozen, without sinking into the snow at all. It made an incredible destruction of trees, beyond any thing mentioned in history. Had it concluded with a gust of wind, (says a gentleman who was on the spot,) it might have been of terrible consequence. I weighed the sprig of an ash tree, of just three-quarters of a pound, the ice on which weighed sixteen pounds. Some were frightened with the noise in the air, till they discerned that it was the clatter of icy boughs, dashed against each other."

Dr. Beale remarks, that there was no considerable frost observed on the ground during the above: whence he concludes, that a frost may be very intense and dangerous on the tops of some hills and plains; while at other places it keeps at two, three, or four feet distance above the ground, rivers, lakes, &c. and may wander about very furiously in some places, and be mild in others not far off. The frost was followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardness of flowers and fruits.

We close this division with an account of REMARKABLE FROSTS.--In the year 220, a frost in Britain lasted five months.--In 250, The Thames was frozen nine weeks.--291, Most rivers in Britain frozen six weeks.--359. Severe frost in Scotland for fourteen weeks.--508, The rivers in Britain frozen for two months.--558, Danube quite frozen over.--695, Thames frozen six weeks, and booths built on it.--759, Frost from Oct. 1 till Feb. 26 following.--827, Frost in England for nine weeks.--859, Carriages used on the Adriatic.--908, Most rivers in England frozen two months.--923, The Thames frozen thirteen weeks.--987, Frost lasted 130 days; begun Dec. 22.--998, Thames frozen five weeks.--1035, Severe frost on June 24: the corn and fruits destroyed.--1063, The Thames frozen fourteen weeks.--1076, Frost in England from Nov. till April.--1114, Several wooden bridges carried away by ice.--1205, Frost from Jan. 15 till March 22.--1407, Frost that lasted fifteen weeks.--1434, From Nov. 24 till Feb. 10, Thames frozen down to Gravesend.--1683, Frost for thirteen weeks.--1708-9, An extraordinary frost throughout the most parts of Europe, though scarcely felt in Scotland or Ireland.--1715, Severe frost for many weeks.--1739, One for nine weeks; begun Dec. 14.--1742, Severe frost for many weeks.--1747, Severe frost in Russia.--1754, Severe one in England.--1760, The same in Germany.--1776, The same in England.--1788, The Thames frozen below London bridge; and booths erected on it.--1795, The Zuyder Zee frozen over, and the rivers of Holland passed by the French.

CHAP. LII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING RUINS.

Ruin at Siwa, in Egypt--Ruins of Palmyra--Ruins of Herculaneum, and Pompeii--Ancient Ruins of Balbec--Ruins of Agrigentum, in Sicily--Ancient Grandeur of Carthage.

The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve. Shakspeare.

RUIN AT SIWA, IN EGYPT.--A great curiosity about Siwa, is a ruin, of undoubted antiquity, which, according to Mr. Browne, resembles exactly those of Upper Egypt, and was erected and adorned by the same intelligent race of men. The figures of Isis and Anubis are conspicuous among the sculptures; and the proportions are those of the Egyptian temples, though in miniature. What remains of it, is a single apartment, built of massy stones, of the same kind as those of which the pyramids consist. The length is thirty-two feet, the height eighteen, the width fifteen. A gate at one end forms the principal entrance; and two doors open opposite to each other. The other end is quite ruinous. In the interior are three rows of emblematical figures, representing a procession; and the space between them is filled with hieroglyphic characters. It has been supposed, with some degree of probability, that Siwa is the Siropum of Pliny, and that this building was coeval with the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon, and a dependency on it.

RUINS OF PALMYRA.--These celebrated ruins consist of temples, palaces, and porticos, of Grecian architecture; and lie scattered over an extent of several miles. They were accidentally discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, above a century ago. The most remarkable of them is the temple of the sun, of which the ruins are spread over a square of 220 yards. It was encompassed with a stately wall, built of large square stones, and adorned with pilasters within and without, to the number of sixty-two on a side. Within the court are the remains of two rows of noble marble pillars, thirty-seven feet high, with their capitals, of most exquisite workmanship. Of these, only fifty-eight remain entire, but they appear to have gone round the whole court, and to have supported a double piazza. The walks opposite the castle appear to have been spacious. At each end of this line are two niches for statues, with their pedestals, borders, supporters, and canopies, carved with the utmost propriety and elegance. The space within this inclosure seems to have been an open court, in the middle of which stood the temple, encompassed with another row of pillars of a different order and much taller, being fifty feet high; but of these, sixteen only remain. The whole space contained within these pillars is fifty-nine yards in length, and near twenty-eight in breadth.

The temple is thirty-three yards long, and thirteen or fourteen broad. It points north and south; and exactly in the middle of the building on the west side, is a most magnificent entry, on the remains of which are some vines and clusters of grapes, carved in the most masterly imitation of nature that can be conceived. Just over the door are discerned a pair of wings, which extend its whole breadth; but the body, whether of an eagle or an angel, is destroyed. The north end of this temple is adorned with the most curious fret-work in bas-relief; and in the middle is a dome, or cupola, about ten feet diameter.

North of this place is an obelisk, consisting of seven large stones, besides its capital. It is about fifty feet high, and just above the pedestal is twelve feet in circumference. About a quarter of a mile from this pillar, to the east and west, are two others, besides the fragment of a third. About 100 paces from the middle obelisk, is a magnificent entry to a piazza, which is forty feet broad, and more than half a mile long, inclosed with two rows of marble pillars twenty-six feet high, and eight or nine in compass. Of these there still remain 129, but there must originally have been no less than 560. The upper end of the piazza was closed by a row of pillars.

To the left are the ruins of a stately banqueting-house, built of better marble, and finished with yet greater elegance, than the piazza. The pillars which supported it were of one entire stone. It measures twenty-two feet in length, and in compass eight feet nine inches.

In the west side of the piazza are several apertures for gates into the court of the palace. Each of these were adorned with four porphyry pillars, placed by couples in the front of the gate facing the palace, two on each side. Two of these only remain entire. They are thirty feet long, and nine in circumference. On the east side of the piazza stands a great number of marble pillars, some perfect, but the greater part mutilated.

At a little distance are the remains of a small temple, without a roof. Before the entry, which looks to the south, is a piazza supported by six pillars, two on each side of the door, and one at each end. The pedestals of those in front have been filled with inscriptions, both in the Greek and Palmyrene languages, which are become totally illegible.

Among these ruins are many sepulchres. They are all square towers, four or five stories high. There is a walk across the whole building; the space on each hand is subdivided into six partitions by thick walls. The space between the partitions is wide enough to receive the largest corpse; and in these niches there are six or seven piled one upon another. Many inscriptions have been found at Palmyra, which have occupied much of the attention of the learned.

RUINS OF HERCULANEUM AND POMPEII,--two ancient cities of Campania in Italy, which were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, in the first year of the emperor Titus, or the 79th of the Christian æra, and lately rendered famous on account of the curious monuments of antiquity discovered in their ruins; an account of which has been published by order of the king of Naples, in a work of six volumes folio. The epocha of the foundation of Herculaneum is unknown. Dionysius of Halicarnassus conjectures that it maybe referred to sixty years before the war of Troy, or about 1342 B. C.; and therefore that it lasted about 1400 years. The thickness of the heaps of lava, by which the city was overwhelmed, has been much increased by fiery streams vomited since that catastrophe, and now forms a mass twenty-four feet deep, of dark grey stone, which is easily broken in pieces. By its non-adhesion to foreign bodies, marbles and bronzes are preserved in it as in a case made to fit them, and exact moulds of the faces and limbs of statues are frequently found in this substance.

The precise situation of this subterraneous city was not known till 1713, when it was accidentally discovered by some labourers, who, in digging a well, struck upon a statue on the benches of the theatre. Many others were afterwards dug out, and sent to France by the prince of Elboeuf. But little progress was made in the excavations, till Charles, infant of Spain, ascended the Neapolitan throne, by whose unwearied efforts and liberality a very considerable part of Herculaneum has been explored, and such treasures of antiquity drawn out, as form the most curious museum in the world.

It being too arduous a task to attempt removing the covering, the king contented himself with cutting galleries to the principal buildings, and causing the extent of one or two of them to be cleared. Of these, the theatre is the most considerable. On a balustrade which divided the orchestra from the stage, was found a row of statues; and, on each side of the pulpitum, the equestrian figure of a person of the Nonian family. They are now placed under porticos of the palace; and from the great rarity of equestrian statues in marble, would be very valuable objects, were the workmanship even less excellent than it is: one of them in particular is a very fine piece of sculpture. The collection of curiosities brought out of Herculaneum and Pompeii, consist not only of statues, busts, altars, inscriptions, and other ornamental appendages of opulence and luxury; but also comprehend an entire assortment of the domestic, musical, and chirurgical instruments used by the ancients; tripods of elegant form and exquisite execution, lamps in endless variety, vases and basons of noble dimensions, chandeliers of the most beautiful shapes, pateras and other appurtenances of sacrifice; looking-glasses of polished metal; coloured glass, so hard, clear, and well stained, as to appear like emeralds, sapphires, and other precious stones; a kitchen completely fitted up with copper pans lined with silver, cisterns for heating water, and every utensil necessary for culinary purposes; specimens of various sorts of combustibles, retaining their form, though burnt to a cinder; corn, bread, fish, oil, wine, and flour; a lady's toilet, fully furnished with combs, thimbles, rings, paint, ear-rings, and other articles.

Among the statues, which are numerous, a Mercury and a sleeping fawn are most admired by connoisseurs. The busts fill several rooms; but very few of the originals whom they were meant to imitate are known. The floors are paved with ancient mosaic. Few rare medals have been found in these ruins: the most curious is a gold medallion of Augustus, struck in Sicily, in the fifteenth year of his reign. The fresco paintings, which, for the sake of preservation, have been torn off the walls, and framed and glazed, are to be seen in another part of the palace.

The streets of the city of Pompeii are said to be daily disencumbered. Mr. Williams, a late traveller, informs us, that he entered by the Appian Way through a narrow street of small tombs, beautifully executed, with the names of the deceased, plain and legible. At the gate was a sentry-box, in which the skeleton of a soldier was found, with a lamp in his hand. The streets are lined with public buildings, the painted decorations of which are fresh and entire. There were several tradesmen's shops also discovered--such as, a baker's, an oilman's, an ironmonger's, a wine shop, with money in the till, and a surgeon's house, with chirurgical instruments; also a great theatre, a temple of justice, an amphitheatre 220 feet long, various temples, a barrack for soldiers, (the columns of which are scribbled with their names and jests,) and stocks for prisoners, in one of which a skeleton was likewise discovered. The principal streets are about sixteen feet wide; the subordinate ones from six to ten feet.

THE ANCIENT RUINS OF BALBEC.--To give a just idea of these ruins, we must suppose ourselves descending from the interior of the town. After having crossed the rubbish and huts with which it is filled, we arrive at a vacant place, which appears to have been a square; there, in front, towards the west, we perceive a grand ruin, which consists of two pavilions ornamented with pilasters, joined at their bottom angle by a wall one hundred and sixty feet in length. This front commands the open country from a terrace, on the edge of which we distinguish with difficulty the bases of twelve columns, which formerly extended from one pavilion to the other, and formed a portico. The principal gate is obstructed by heaps of stones; but, that obstacle surmounted, we enter an empty space, which is an hexagonal court of one hundred and eighty feet in diameter. This court is strewed with broken columns, mutilated capitals, and the remains of pilasters, entablatures, and cornices; around it is a row of ruined edifices, which display all the ornaments of the richest architecture.

At the end of this court, opposite the west, is an outlet, which formerly was a gate, through which we perceive a still more extensive range of ruins, whose magnificence strongly excites curiosity. To have a full prospect of these, we must ascend a slope, up which were the steps to this gate; and we then arrive at the entrance of a square court, much more spacious than the former, being three hundred and fifty feet wide, and three hundred and thirty-six in length. The eye is first attracted by the end of this court, where six enormous and majestic columns render the scene astonishingly grand and picturesque. Another object, not less interesting, is a second range of columns to the left, which appear to have been part of the peristyle of a temple; but before we pass thither, we cannot refuse particular attention to the edifices which inclose this court on each side. They form a sort of gallery, which contains various chambers, seven of which may be reckoned in each of the principal wings, viz. two in a semicircle, and five in an oblong square. The bottom of these apartments still retains pediments of niches and tabernacles, the supporters of which are destroyed. On the side of the court they are open, and present only five or six columns totally destroyed. The beauty of the pilasters, and the richness of the frieze of the entablature, are admirable. The singular effect which results from the mixture of the garlands, the large foliage of the capitals, and the sculpture of wild plants with which they are every where ornamented, is peculiarly pleasing. In traversing the length of the court, we find in the middle a little square esplanade, where was a pavilion, of which nothing remains but the foundation. On arriving at the foot of the six columns, we perceive all the boldness of their elevation, and the richness of their workmanship. Their shafts are twenty-one feet eight inches in circumference, and fifty-eight high; so that the total height, including the entablature, is from seventy-one to seventy-two feet.

The sight of this superb ruin, thus solitary and unaccompanied, at first strikes us with astonishment; but, on a more attentive examination, we discover a series of foundations, which mark an oblong square of two hundred and sixty-eight feet in length, and one hundred and forty-six wide, and which, it seems probable, was the peristyle of a grand temple, the primary purpose of the whole structure. It presented to the great court, on the east, a front of ten columns, with nineteen on each side, which, with the other six, made in all fifty-four. The ground on which it stood is an oblong square, on a level with this court, but narrower, so that there was only a terrace of twenty-seven feet wide round the colonnade; the esplanade this produces fronts the open country towards the west, by a sloping wall of about thirty feet. This descent, near the city, becomes less steep, so that the foundation of the pavilion is level with the foot of the hill; whence it is evident that the whole ground of the courts has been artificially raised.

Such was the former state of this edifice; but the southern side of the grand temple was afterwards blocked up to build a smaller one, the peristyle and walls of which are still remaining. This temple, situated somewhat lower than the other, presents a side of thirteen columns by eight in front, (in all thirty-four,) which are likewise of the Corinthian order; their shafts are fifteen feet eight inches in circumference, and forty-four in height. The building they surround is an oblong square, the front of which, turned towards the east, is out of the line of the left wing of the great court. To reach it, we must cross trunks of columns, heaps of stone, and a ruinous wall, by which it is now hid. After surmounting these obstacles, we arrive at the gate, where we may survey the inclosure, which was once the habitation of a god; but instead of the solemn scene of a prostrate people, and sacrifices offered by a multitude of priests, the sky, which is open, from the falling in of the roof, only lets in light to shew a chaos of ruins covered with dust and weeds. The walls, formerly enriched with all the ornaments of the Corinthian order, now present nothing but pediments of niches and tabernacles, of which almost all the supporters are fallen to the ground. Between these niches is a range of fluted pilasters, whose capitals support a broken entablature; but what remains of it displays a rich frieze of foliage, resting on the heads of satyrs, horses, bulls, &c. Over this entablature was the ancient roof, which was fifty-seven feet wide, and one hundred and ten in length. The walls which supported it are thirty-one feet high, and without a window. It is impossible to form any idea of the ornaments of this roof, except from the fragments lying on the ground; but it could not have been richer than the gallery of the peristyle: the principal remaining parts contain tablets in the form of tables, on which are represented Jupiter seated on his eagle, Leda caressed by the swan, Diana with her bow and crescent, and several busts, which seem to be figures of emperors and empresses.

RUINS OF AGRIGENTUM, IN SICILY.--The present town, Girgenti, occupies the mountain on which the ancient citadel stood. At the north-east angle of the ancient limits, upon some foundations of large irregular stones, a church has been erected; a road appears hewn in the solid rock, for the convenience of votaries, who visited this temple in ancient days. It was then dedicated to Ceres and her daughter Proserpine, the peculiar patronesses of Sicily. Bishop Blaise has succeeded to their honours.

At the south-east corner, where the ground, rising gradually, ends in a bold eminence, which is crowned with majestic columns, are the ruins of a temple, said to have been consecrated to Juno. To the west of this, stands the building commonly called the Temple of Concord; the stone of which, and the other buildings, is the same as that of the neighbouring mountains and cliffs, a conglutination of sea-sand and shells, full of perforations,--of a hard and durable texture, and a deep reddish brown colour. This Doric temple has all its columns, entablature, pediments, and walls, entire; only part of the roof is wanting. It owes its preservation to the piety of some Christians, who have covered half the nave, and converted it into a church, consecrated under the invocation of St. Gregory, bishop of Girgenti.

In the same direction are rows of sepulchres cut in the rock. Some masses of it are hewn into the shape of coffins; others are drilled full of small square holes, employed in a different mode of interment, and serving as receptacles of urns. One ponderous piece of it lies in an extraordinary position; by the failure of its foundation, or the shock of an earthquake, it has been loosened from the general quarry, and rolled down the declivity, where it now remains supine, with the cavities turned upwards.

Only a single column marks the confused heap of moss-grown ruins belonging to the temple of Hercules. It stood on a projecting rock above a chasm in the ridge, which was cut through for a passage to the port.

In the same tract, over some hills, is situated the Tomb of Thero. It is surrounded by aged olive-trees, which cast a wild irregular shade over the ruin. The edifice inclines to the pyramidal shape, and consists at present of a triple plinth, and a base supporting a square pedestal: upon this plain solid foundation is raised a second order, having a window in each front, and at each angle two Ionic pilasters, crowned with an entablature of the Doric order. Its inside is divided into a vault, a ground room, and one in the Ionic story, communicating with each other by means of a small internal staircase.

In the plain are seen the fragments of the temple of Æsculapius: part of two columns and two pilasters, with an intermediate wall, support the end of a farm-house, and were probably the front of the cells.

Towards the west are the gigantic remains of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, minutely described by Diodorus Siculus. It may literally be said, that it has not one stone left upon another; and it is barely possible, with the help of much conjecture, to discover the traces of its plan and dimensions. Diodorus calls it the largest temple in the whole island; but adds, that the calamities of war caused the work to be abandoned before the roof could be put on; and that the Agrigentines were ever after reduced to such a state of poverty and dependence, that they never had it in their power to finish this superb monument of the taste and opulence of their ancestors. The length of this temple was 370 Greek feet, its breadth 60, and its height 220, exclusive of the foundation; the extent and solidity of its vaults and underworks, its spacious porticos and exquisite sculpture, were suited to the grandeur of the whole.

The next ruin belongs to the temple of Castor and Pollux: vegetation has covered the lower parts of the building, and only a few fragments of columns appear between the vines. This was the point of the hill where the wall stopped on the brink of a large fishpond, spoken of by Diodorus: it was cut in the solid rock thirty feet deep, and water was conveyed to it from the hills. In it was bred a great quantity of fish, for the use of public entertainments; swans, and various other kinds of wild fowl, swam along its surface, for the amusement of the citizens; and the great depth of water prevented an enemy from surprising the town on that side. It is now dry, and used as a garden.

On the opposite bank are two tapering columns without their capitals, placed in a tuft of carob trees. Monte Toro, where Hanna encamped with the Carthaginian army, before the Roman consuls drew him into an engagement that ruined his defensive plan, is a noble back-ground in this picturesque group of objects.

The whole space, comprehended within the walls of the ancient city, abounds with traces of antiquity, foundations, brick arches, and little channels for the conveyance of water; but in no part are there any ruins that can be presumed to have belonged to places of public entertainment. This is the more extraordinary, as the Agrigentines were fond of shows and dramatic performances; and the Romans never dwelt in any place long, without introducing their savage games.

We conclude this division of Curiosities by a description of the ANCIENT GRANDEUR OF CARTHAGE.--At the third Punic war, Carthage appears to have been one of the first cities in the world. It was no less than 360 stadia, or forty-five miles, in circumference, and was joined to the continent by an isthmus, twenty-three stadia, or three miles and a furlong, in breadth. On the west side projected a long tract of land, half a stadium broad; which shooting out into the sea, separated it from a lake, or morass, and was strongly fortified on all sides by rocks and a single wall. In the middle of the city stood the citadel of Byrsa, having on the top of it a temple sacred to Æsculapius, seated upon rocks, to which the ascent was by sixty steps. On the south side the city was surrounded by a triple wall, thirty cubits high; flanked all round by parapets and towers, at equal distances of 480 feet. Every tower had its foundation sunk thirty-two feet deep, and was four stories high, though the walls were but two: they were arched; and in the lower part, corresponding in depth with the foundations above-mentioned, were stalls, large enough to hold 300 elephants, with their fodder, &c. Over these were stalls and other conveniences for 4000 horses; and there was likewise room for lodging 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry, without incommoding the inhabitants. There were two harbours, which had one common entrance, seventy feet broad, and shut up with chains. The first was appropriated to the merchants, and included in it a vast number of places of refreshment, and all kinds of accommodations for seamen. The second, as well as the island of Cothon in the midst of it, was lined with large quays, in which were receptacles for sheltering 220 ships of war. Over these were magazines of all sorts of naval stores. The entrance into each of these receptacles was adorned with two marble pillars of the Ionic order, so that both the harbour and island represented on each side two magnificent galleries. Near this island was a temple of Apollo, in which was a statue of the god, of massy gold; and the inside of the temple was lined with plates of the same metal, weighing 1000 talents. The city was twenty-three miles in circumference, and contained 700,000 inhabitants.

"All that remains, (says Dr. Shaw,) of this once famous city, are,--the area of a spacious room upon one of the hills on which it stood, commanding the south-east shore, with several smaller ones at a little distance from it; the common sewers, which time has not in the least injured or impaired; and the cisterns, which have shared only in a small degree the general ruin of the city."

CHAP. LIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING ANCIENT BUILDINGS, TEMPLES, & OTHER MONUMENTS OF ANTIQUITY.

EGYPTIAN CURIOSITIES:--Pompey's Pillar--Buildings, and Library, of Alexandria--Temple of Tentyra--Palace of Memnon--Temple of Osiris.

If glorious structures and immortal deeds Enlarge the thought, and set our souls on fire; My tongue has been too cold in Egypt's praise, The queen of nations, and the boast of times, Mother of science, and the house of gods! Scarce can I open wide my labouring mind, To comprehend the vast idea, big With arts and arms, so boundless is its fame. Young.

PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT--From Cabillia's Researches, as recorded in Belzoni's Narrative.--

"The enterprise of Captain Cabillia was hazardous and bold, and nothing but an enthusiasm for discovery could induce a man to take such a step. The consul, with Mr. Briggs, Mr. Beechey, and myself, went to see the operations that were going on. Captain Cabillia's circumstances were much better than mine; but he had no superfluous wealth at command, to continue what he had begun, which required a supply beyond his means. Mr. Briggs was the first who generously offered to furnish money for this purpose; and, after a consultation with Mr. Salt, they agreed to support the work to any extent that might be required. This gentleman not only encouraged the undertaking at the pyramid, but has exerted his influence with Mohammed Ali, for the general advantage of the commerce of Europe.

"The enterprise of Captain Cabillia is worthy the attention of every one interested in antiquities, as he had solved a question by which the learned world has been puzzled for many centuries. The famous well, which has given rise to so much conjecture, turns out to be a communication with a lower passage, leading into an inferior chamber, discovered and opened by himself. He first descended the well to the depth of thirty-eight feet, where his progress was stopped by four large stones. Three of these being removed, there was space enough for a man to pass through; but the fourth he could not stir, though he had the help of Mr. Kabitsch, a young man in the employment of Mr. Baghos, who bore a share of the expense with the captain. Twenty-one feet below this place they found a grotto, seventeen feet long and four high; and seven feet below this, a platform, from which the well descended two hundred feet lower. The captain went down, and at the bottom found earth and sand; but from the hollow sound under his feet, he judged that the passage must communicate with some other apartment below. He then set some Arabs at work to remove the sand; but the heat was so great, and the candles so incapable of burning, for want of oxygen, that they were compelled to desist. The captain then turned his researches to another quarter, and began to enlarge the entrance into the first passage of the pyramid. For this operation he was well rewarded; for by it he found that the passage continued downward, and having employed several men, and taken out a great deal of earth and rubbish, at last, after a long and ardent toil, he came in contact with the bottom of the well, where he found the baskets and rope which had been left there. The same day that this occurred, was that on which we had agreed to visit the pyramids, and I had the pleasure to be an eye-witness of the arduous task of Captain Cabillia. Proceeding in his laborious researches, he found that the passage led into a chamber cut out of the rock, under the centre of the pyramid.

"Captain Cabillia made several researches round the pyramids also, but none exceeded his toil in uncovering the temple sphinx. He found a small temple between the two paws, and a large tablet of granite on its breast. The tablet is adorned with several figures and hieroglyphics, and two representations of sphinxes are sculptured on it. Before the entrance into the small temple was a lion, placed as if to guard the approach. Farther on from the front of the sphinx, is a staircase of thirty-two steps, at the bottom of which is an altar, with a Greek inscription, of the time of the Ptolemies. At each side of the altar was a sphinx of calcareous stone, much mutilated. From the base of the temple to the summit of the head, is sixty-five feet; the legs of the sphinx are fifty-seven feet long, from the breast to the extremity of the paws, which are eight feet high. Forty-five feet from the first altar, he found another, with an inscription, alluding to the emperor Septimus Severus; and near to the first step was a stone, with another Greek inscription, alluding to Antoninus.

"Notwithstanding his own occupation about the sphinx, Captain Cabillia employed other people to carry on researches. He opened some of the mausoleums which were choked up with sand, and found several small chambers, with hieroglyphics and figures, some of them pretty well executed, and in good preservation. In one of the pits he found some mummies, in their linen envelopes, and various fragments of Egyptian antiquity. He also opened some of the smaller pyramids, and from the suggestion of Mr. Briggs to follow a certain direction, he succeeded in finding the entrance into one of them; but it appears, that it was so decayed in the interior, he could advance only a few feet. No doubt this led into some chamber or apartment, containing perhaps a sarcophagus, &c."

Belzoni's own Researches.--M. Belzoni determined on penetrating one of the famous pyramids, and, after an immense labour, succeeded in discovering the entrance, and reached a portcullis; but here a large block of stone stared him in the face, and appeared to say, Ne plus ultra. He persevered until the stone was removed and the passage opened, which is only four feet high, and three feet six inches wide. After thirty days' exertion, he reached the central chamber, where he found a sarcophagus. This chamber is forty-six feet three inches long, sixteen feet three inches wide, and twenty-three feet six inches high. It is cut out of the solid rock, from the floor to the roof, which is composed of large blocks of calcareous stone, meeting in the centre, and forming a roof of the same slope as the pyramid itself. The sarcophagus is eight feet long, three feet six inches wide, and two feet three inches deep in the inside. It is surrounded by large blocks of granite, apparently to prevent its removal, which could not be effected without great labour. The lid had been broken at the side, so that the sarcophagus was quite open. It is of the finest granite; but, like the other, in the first pyramid, there is not one hieroglyphic on it.

On the wall, at the west end of the chamber, was an inscription in Arabic, which has been thus translated by Mr. Salame:--

"The master Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, has opened them; and the master Ottoman attended this (opening;) and the King Alij Mohammed at first (from the beginning) to the closing up."

M. Belzoni refutes the general assertion, that the pyramids were built of stone brought from the east side of the Nile; since stones of immense size have been cut from the very rocks around the pyramids, and there is yet stone enough to build many others if required. He is of opinion, that the pyramids were erected before writing in hieroglyphics was invented, and that they were erected as sepulchres. By the measurement which he took of the second pyramid, he found it to be as follows:--

Feet. The base 684 Apotome, or central line down the front, from the top to the base 568 Perpendicular 456 Coating, from the top to the place where it ends 140

POMPEY'S PILLAR AT ALEXANDRIA; with an account of a surprising Exploit of some British Sailors.

The Pillar.--This pillar is situated a quarter of a league from the southern gate. It is composed of red granite. The capital is Corinthian, with palm leaves, and not indented. It is nine feet high. The shaft and upper member of the base are of one piece of ninety feet long, and nine in diameter. The base is a square of about fifteen feet on each side. This block of marble, sixty feet in circumference, rests on two layers of stone, bound together with lead; which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them, to search for an imaginary treasure. The whole column is one hundred and fourteen feet high. It is perfectly well polished, and only a little shivered on the eastern side. Nothing can equal the majesty of this monument: seen from a distance, it overtops the town, and serves as a signal for vessels; approaching it nearer, it produces an astonishment mixed with awe. One can never be tired with admiring the beauty of the capital, the length of the shaft, and the extraordinary simplicity of the pedestal. This last has been somewhat damaged by the instruments of travellers, who are curious to possess a relic of this antiquity. Learned men and travellers have made many fruitless attempts to discover, in honour of what prince it was erected. The best informed have concluded that it could not be in honour of Pompey, since neither Strabo nor Diodorus Siculus has spoken of it. The Arabian Abulfeda, in his description of Egypt, calls it the Pillar of Severus. And history informs us, that this emperor 'visited the city of Alexandria;' that he granted a senate to its inhabitants, who, until that time, under the subjection of a Roman magistrate, had lived without any national council, as under the reign of the Ptolemies, when the will of the prince was their only law; and that he did not terminate his benefactions here, but changed several laws in their favour. This column, therefore, Mr. Savoy concludes to have been erected by the inhabitants as a mark of their gratitude to Severus; and in a Greek inscription, now half defaced, but visible on the west side when the sun shines upon it, and which probably was legible in the time of Abulfeda, he supposes the name of Severus to have been preserved. He further observes, that this was not the only monument erected to him by the gratitude of the Alexandrians, for there is still seen, in the ruins of Antinöe, built by Adrian, a magnificent pillar, the inscription of which is still remaining, dedicated to Alexander Severus.

The exploit of some British Seamen.--One of the volutes of the column was prematurely brought down some years ago, by a prank of some English captains; which is thus related by Mr. Irwin. These jolly sons of Neptune had been pushing about the can on board one of the ships in the harbour, until a strange freak entered into one of their brains. The eccentricity of the thought occasioned it immediately to be adopted: and its apparent impossibility was but a spur for the putting it into execution. The boat was ordered; and with proper implements for the attempt, these enterprising heroes pushed ashore, to drink a bowl of punch on the top of Pompey's pillar! At the spot they arrived, and many contrivances were proposed to accomplish the desired point. But their labour was vain; and they began to despair of success, when the genius who struck out the frolic, happily suggested the means of performing it.

A man was dispatched to the city for a paper kite; and the inhabitants, by this time apprised of what was going forward, flocked in crowds to be witnesses of the address and boldness of the English. The governor of Alexandria was told that these seamen were about to pull down Pompey's pillar. But whether he gave them credit for their respect to the Roman warrior, or to the Turkish government, he left them to themselves; and politely answered, that the English were too great patriots to injure the remains of Pompey. He knew little, however, of the disposition of the people who were engaged in this undertaking. Had the Turkish empire risen in opposition, it would not at that moment have deterred them. The kite was brought, and flown directly over the pillar; so that when it fell on the other side, the string lodged upon the capital. The chief obstacle was now overcome. A two-inch rope was tied to one end of the string, and drawn over the pillar by the end to which the kite was affixed. By this rope, one of the seamen ascended to the top; and in less than an hour, a kind of shroud was constructed, by which the whole company went up, and drank their punch, amidst the shouts of the astonished multitude.

To the eye below, the capital of the pillar does not appear capable of holding more than one man upon it; but our seamen found it could contain no less than eight persons very conveniently. It is astonishing that no accident befel these madcaps, in a situation so elevated, that it would have turned a landman giddy in his sober senses. The only detriment which the pillar received, was the loss of the volute before-mentioned, which came down with a thundering sound, and was carried to England by one of the captains, as a present to a lady who had commissioned him to procure her a piece of it. The discovery which they made amply compensated for this mischief; as without their evidence, the world would not have known at this hour, that there was originally a statue on this pillar, one foot and ancle of which are still remaining. The statue must have been of a gigantic size, to have appeared of a man's proportion at so great a height. There are circumstances in this story which might give it an air of fiction, were it not proved beyond all doubt. Besides the testimonies of many eye-witnesses, the adventurers themselves have left a token of the fact, by the initials of their names, which are very legibly painted in black just beneath the capital.

BUILDINGS, AND LIBRARY, OF ALEXANDRIA.--The architect employed by Alexander, in this undertaking, was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had acquired so much reputation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The city was first rendered populous by Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander's captains, who, after the death of the Macedonian monarch, being appointed governor of Egypt, soon assumed the title of king, and took up his residence at Alexandria, about three hundred and four years before Christ. In the thirtieth year of his reign he made his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, partner with him in the empire; and by this prince the city of Alexandria was much embellished. In the first year of his reign, the famous watch-tower of Pharos was finished. It had been begun several years before by Ptolemy Soter; and, when finished, was looked upon as one of the wonders of the world.

The same year, the island of Pharos itself, originally seven furlongs distant from the continent, was joined to it by a causeway. This was the work of Dexiphanes, who completed it at the same time that his son put the last hand to the tower. The tower was a large square structure of white marble, on the top of which, fires were kept constantly burning for the direction of sailors. The building cost 800 talents; which, if Attic, amounted to £165,000; if Alexandrian, to twice that sum. The architect employed in this famous structure, fell upon the following contrivance to usurp the whole glory to himself. Being ordered to engrave upon it the following inscription, "King Ptolemy, to the Gods the Saviours, for the Benefit of Sailors;" instead of the king's name, he substituted his own, and then filling up the marble with mortar, wrote upon it the above-mentioned inscription. In process of time, the mortar being worn off, the following inscription appeared: "Sostratus the Cnidian, the son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the Saviours, for the Benefit of Sailors."

This year, also, was remarkable for bringing the image of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It was set up in one of the suburbs of the city called Rhacotis, where a temple was afterwards erected to his honour, suitable to the greatness of that stately metropolis, and called, from the god worshipped there, Serapium. This structure, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, surpassed in beauty the magnificence of all others in the world, except the capitol at Rome.

Within the verge of this temple was the famous Alexandrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use of an academy he instituted in this city; and, from continual additions by his successors, became at last the finest library in the world, containing no fewer than seven hundred thousand volumes. One method adopted in collecting books for this library, was, to seize all those which were brought into Egypt by the Greeks, or other foreigners. The books were transcribed in the museum by persons appointed for that purpose; the copies were then delivered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed from the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and Æschylus, returned them only the copies, which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible, presenting the Athenians at the same time with 13 talents (upwards of £3000 sterling) for the exchange. As the museum was at first in that quarter of the city called Bruchion, near the royal palace, the library was placed there likewise; but when it came to contain four hundred thousand volumes, another library within the Serapium was erected, by way of supplement to it, and on that account called the Daughter of the former. In this second library, three hundred thousand volumes, in process of time, were deposited; and both libraries together contained the seven hundred thousand volumes already mentioned. In the war carried on by Julius Cæsar against the inhabitants of this city, the library in the Bruchion, with the four hundred thousand volumes it contained, was reduced to ashes. The library in the Serapium, however, still remained; and here Cleopatra deposited two hundred thousand volumes of the Permagean library, with which Marc Antony presented her. These, and others added from time to time, rendered the new library at Alexandria more numerous and considerable than the former; and though it was often plundered during the revolutions and troubles of the Roman Empire, yet it was again and again repaired, and filled with the same number of books.

TEMPLE OF TENTYRA, IN EGYPT.--From Belzoni's Narrative.

"Little could be seen of the temple, till we came near to it, as it is surrounded by high mounds of rubbish of the old Tentyra. On our arriving before it, I was for some time at a loss to know where I should begin my examination; the numerous objects before me, all equally attractive, leaving me for a while in a state of suspense and astonishment. The enormous masses of stone employed in the edifice, are so well disposed, that the eye discovers the most just proportion every where. The majestic appearance of its construction, the variety of its ornaments, and, above all, the singularity of its preservation, had such an effect on me, that I seated myself on the ground, and, for a considerable time, was lost in admiration. It is the first Egyptian temple the traveller sees on ascending the Nile, and it is certainly the most magnificent. It has an advantage over most others, from the good state of preservation it is in; and I should have no scruple in saying, that it is of a much later date than any other. The superiority of the workmanship gives us sufficient reason to believe it to be of the time of the first Ptolemy; and it is not improbable, that he who laid the foundation of the Alexandrian library, instituted the philosophical society of the museum, and studied to render himself beloved by his people, might erect such an edifice, to convince the Egyptians of his superiority of mind over the ancient kings of Egypt, even in religious devotion.

"This is the cabinet of the Egyptian arts, the product of study for many centuries, and it was here that Denon thought himself in the sanctuary of the arts and sciences. The front is adorned with a beautiful cornice, and a frieze covered with figures and hieroglyphics, over the centre of which the winged globe is predominant, and the two sides are embellished with compartments of sacrifices and offerings. The columns that form the portico are twenty-four in number, divided into four rows, including those in the front. On entering the gate, the scene changes, and requires more minute observation. The quadrangular form of the capitals first strikes the eye. At each side of the square there is a colossal head of the goddess Isis, with cow's ears. There is not one of these heads but is much mutilated, particularly those on the columns in the front of the temple, facing the outside: but, notwithstanding this disadvantage, and the flatness of their form, there is a simplicity in their countenance that approaches to a smile. The shafts of the columns are covered with hieroglyphics and figures, which are in basso relievo, as are all the figures in the front and lateral walls. The front of the door-way, which is in a straight line with the entrance, and the sanctuary, is richly adorned with figures of smaller size than the rest of the portico. The ceiling contains the zodiac, inclosed by two long female figures, which extend from one side to the other of it. The walls are divided into several square compartments, each containing figures representing deities, and priests in the act of offering or immolating victims. On all the walls, columns, ceiling, or architraves, there is nowhere a space of two feet that is not covered with some figures of human beings, animals, plants, emblems of agriculture, or of religious ceremony. Wherever the eyes turn, wherever the attention is fixed, every thing inspires respect and veneration, heightened by the solitary situation of this temple, which adds to the attraction of these splendid recesses. The inner apartments are much the same as the portico, all covered with figures in basso relievo.

"On the top of the temple the Arabs had built a village; I suppose, to be the more elevated, and exposed to the air: but it is all in ruins, as no one now lives there. From the top I descended into some apartments on the east side of the temple; there I saw the famous zodiac on the ceiling. The circular form of this zodiac led me to suppose, in some measure, that this temple was built at a later period than the rest, as nothing like it is seen any where else. In the front of the edifice there is a propylæon, not inferior to the works in the temple, and, though partly fallen, it still shews its ancient grandeur. On the left, going from the portico, there is a small temple, surrounded by columns. In the inside is a figure of Isis sitting with Orus in her lap; and other female figures, each with a child in her arms, are observable. The capitals of the columns are adorned with the figures of Typhon. The gallery, or portico, that surrounds the temple, is filled up with rubbish, to a great height, and walls of unburnt bricks have been raised from one column to another.

"Farther on, in a right line with the propylæon, are the remains of an hypæthral temple, which form a square of twelve columns, connected with each other by a wall, except at the door-way, which fronts the propylæon. The eastern wall of the great temple is richly adorned with figures in intaglio relevato; they are perfectly finished; the female figures are about four feet high, disposed in different compartments.

"Behind the temple is a small Egyptian building, quite detached from the large edifice; and, from its construction, I would venture to say, that it was the habitation of the priests. At some distance from the great temple are the foundations of another, not so large as the first. The propylæon is still standing, in good preservation."

Two objects of great curiosity are, THE PALACE OF MEMNON, AND THE TEMPLE OF OSIRIS, AT ABIDOS.--Abidos, an inland town of Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diospolis Parva, towards Cyrene, is famous for the Palace of Memnon, and the Temple of Osiris, and inhabited by a colony of Milesians. It was the only one in the country into which the singers and dancers were forbid to enter. This city, reduced to a village under the empire of Augustus, now presents to our view only an heap of ruins, without inhabitants; but to the west of these ruins is still found the celebrated Tomb of Ismandes. The entrance is under a portico sixty feet high, and supported by two rows of massy columns. The immoveable solidity of the edifice, the huge masses which compose it, the hieroglyphics it is loaded with, stamp it as a work of the ancient Egyptians.

Beyond it, is a temple three hundred feet long, and one hundred and fifty-five wide. Upon entering the monument, we meet with an immense hall, the roof of which is supported by twenty-eight columns, sixty feet high, and nineteen in circumference at the base. They are twelve feet distant from each other. The enormous stones that form the ceiling, perfectly joined and incrusted as it were one into the other, offer to the eye nothing but one solid platform of marble, one hundred and twenty-six feet long, and twenty-six wide. The walls are covered with hieroglyphics. Here are seen a multitude of animals, birds, and human figures with pointed caps on their heads, and a piece of stuff hanging down behind, dressed in loose robes, that come down only to the waist. The sculpture, however, is clumsy; and the forms of the body, with the attitudes and proportions of the members, are ill observed. Amongst these we may distinguish some women suckling their children, and men presenting offerings to them. Here also we meet with the divinities of India.

Monsieur Chevalier, formerly governor of Chandernagore, who resided twenty years in that country, carefully visited this monument on his return from Bengal. He remarked here the gods Juggernaut, Gonez, and Vechnon, or Wistnou, such as they are represented in the temples of Indostan.

A great gate opens at the bottom of the first hall, which leads to an apartment, forty-six feet long by twenty-two wide. Six square pillars support the roof of it, and at the angles are the doors of four other chambers, but so choked up with rubbish that they cannot now be entered. The last hall, sixty-four feet long by twenty-four wide, has stairs which form a descent into the subterraneous apartments of this grand edifice.

The Arabs, in searching after treasure, have piled up heaps of earth and rubbish. In the part we are able to penetrate, sculpture and hieroglyphics are discoverable, as in the upper story. The natives say that they correspond exactly with those above ground, and that the columns are as deep in the earth, as they are lofty above ground. It would be dangerous to go far into those vaults; for the air of them is so loaded with a mephitic vapour, that a candle can scarcely be kept burning in them.

Six lions' heads, placed on the two sides of the temple, serve as spouts to carry off the water. One mounts to the top by a staircase of a very singular structure. It is built with stones incrusted in the wall, and projecting six feet out; so that, being supported only at one end, they appear to be suspended in the air. The walls, the roof, and the columns of this edifice, have suffered nothing from the injuries of time; and did not the hieroglyphics, by being corroded in some places, mark its antiquity, it would appear to have been newly built. The solidity is such, that unless people make a point of destroying it, the building must last a great number of ages. Except the colossal figures, whose heads serve as an ornament to the capitals of the columns, and which are sculptured in relievo, the rest of the hieroglyphics which cover the inside are carved in stone.

To the left of this great building we meet with another much smaller, at the bottom of which is a sort of altar. This was probably the sanctuary of the temple of Osiris.

CHAP. LIV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING BUILDINGS, ETC.--(Continued.)

Temple of Diana at Ephesus--Laocoon--Babylon--Alhambra.

TEMPLE OF DIANA, AT EPHESUS.--The chief ornament of Ephesus was the temple of Diana, built at the common charge of all the states in Asia, and, for its structure, size, and furniture, accounted among the wonders of the world. This great edifice was situated at the foot of a mountain, and at the head of a marsh; which place they chose, if we believe Pliny, as the least subject to earthquakes. This site doubled the charges; for they were obliged to be at a vast expense in making drains to convey the water that came down the hill into the morass and the Cayster. Philo Byzantius tells us, that in this work they used such a quantity of stone, as almost exhausted all the quarries in the country; and these drains, or vaults, are what the present inhabitants take for a labyrinth. To secure the foundations of the conduits or sewers, which were to bear a building of such prodigious weight, they laid beds of charcoal, says Pliny, well rammed, and upon them others of wood: Pliny says, four hundred years were spent in building this wonderful temple, by all Asia: others say, only two hundred and twenty. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length, and two hundred in breadth, supported by one hundred and twenty-seven marble pillars, seventy feet high, of which twenty-seven were most curiously carved, and the rest polished. These pillars were the works of so many kings, and the bas-reliefs of one were done by Scopas, the most famous sculptor of antiquity; the altar was almost wholly the work of Praxiteles. Cheiromocrates, who built the city of Alexandria, and offered to form Mount Athos into a statue of Alexandria, was the architect employed on this occasion.

The temple enjoyed the privilege of an asylum, which at first extended to a furlong, was afterwards enlarged by Mithridates to a bow-shot, and doubled by Marc Antony, so that it took in part of the city: but Tiberius, to put a stop to the many abuses and disorders that attended privileges of this kind, revoked them all, and declared that no man, guilty of any wicked or dishonest action, should escape justice, though he fled to the altar itself.

The priests who officiated in this temple were held in great esteem, and entrusted with the care of sacred virgins, or priestesses, but not till they were made eunuchs. They were called Estiatores and Essenæ, had a particular diet, and were not allowed to go into any private house. They were maintained out of the profits accruing from the lake Selinusius, and another that fell into it; which must have been very considerable, since they erected a golden statue to one Artemidorus, who being sent to Rome, recovered them, after they had been seized by the farmers of the public revenues.

All the Ionians resorted yearly to Ephesus, with their wives and children, where they solemnized the festival of Diana with great pomp and magnificence, making on that occasion rich offerings to the goddess, and valuable presents to her priests.

The Asiarchæ, mentioned by St. Luke, (Acts xix. 31,) were, according to Beza, priests who regulated the public sports annually performed at Ephesus, in honour of Diana; and were maintained with the collections during the sports, for all Asia flocked to see them.

The great Diana of the Ephesians, as she was styled by her blind adorers, was, according to Pliny, a small statue of ebony, made by one Canitia, though believed by the superstitious to have been sent down from heaven by Jupiter. This statue was first placed in a niche, which, as we are told, the Amazons caused to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such was the first rise of the veneration that was paid to Diana in this place. In process of time the veneration for the goddess daily increasing among the inhabitants of Asia, a most stately and magnificent temple was built near the place where the elm stood, and the statue of the goddess placed in it. This was the first temple and was not quite so sumptuous as the second, though reckoned, as well as it, one of the wonders of the world.

The second temple of the great Diana, was remaining in the times of Pliny and Strabo; and is supposed to have been destroyed in the reign of Constantine, pursuant to the edict of that emperor, commanding all the temples of the heathens to be demolished:--the former was burnt the same day that Alexander was born, by one Erostratus, who owned on the rack, that the only thing which had prompted him to destroy so excellent a work, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages. Whereupon the common council of Asia made a degree, forbidding any one to name him; but this prohibition served only to make his name the more memorable, such a remarkable extravagance, or rather madness, being taken notice of by all the historians who have written of those times. Alexander offered to rebuild the temple at his own expense, provided the Ephesians would agree to put his name on the front; but they received his offer in such a manner as prevented the resentment of that vain prince, telling him, "it was not fit that one god should build a temple to another." The pillars, and other materials, that had been saved out of the flames, were sold, with the jewels of the Ephesian women, who on that occasion willingly parted with them; and the sum thus raised served for the carrying on of the work till other contributions came in, which, in a short time, amounted to an immense treasure. This is the temple which Strabo, Pliny, and other Roman writers, speak of. It stood between the city and the port, and was built, or rather finished, as Livy tells us, in the reign of king Servius. Of this wonderful structure there is nothing at present remaining but some ruins, and a few broken pillars, forty feet long, and seven in diameter.

Another curious monument of antiquity, which demands the reader's attention, is, LAOCOON.--This is a celebrated monument of Greek sculpture, exhibited in marble, by Polydorus, Athenodorus, and Agesander, the three famous artists of Rhodes. This relic of antiquity was found at Rome, among the ruins of the palace of Titus, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, under the pontificate of Julius II. and since deposited in the Farnese palace. Laocoon is represented with his two sons, with two hideous serpents clinging round his body, gnawing it, and injecting their poison. Virgil has given us a beautiful description of the fact, Æn. lib. ii. 201-222.

This statue exhibits the most astonishing dignity and tranquillity of mind, in the midst of the most excruciating torments. Pliny says of it, that it is, opus omnibus picturæ et statuariæ artis præferendum.--Lib. xxxvi. c. 5. "The Laocoon (Dr. Giles observes) may be regarded as the triumph of Grecian sculpture; since bodily pain, the grossest and most ungovernable of all our passions, and that pain united with anguish and torture of mind, are yet expressed with such propriety and dignity, as afford lessons of fortitude superior to any taught in the schools of philosophy. The horrible shriek which Virgil's Laocoon emits, is a proper circumstance for poetry; but the expression of this shriek would have totally degraded the statue. It is softened, therefore, into a patient sigh, with eyes turned to heaven in search of relief. The intolerable agony of suffering nature is represented in the lower part, and particularly the extremity of the body; but the manly breast struggles against calamity. The contention is still more plainly perceived in his furrowed forehead; and his languishing paternal eye demands assistance, less for himself than for his miserable children, who look up to him for help."--Hist. of Greece, ii. 177.

The Laocoon was sent to Paris by Bonaparte, in 1797.

BABYLON.--The following account of this city, in its greatest splendour, is borrowed principally from Herodotus, who had been on the spot, and is the oldest author who has treated of the subject.

The city of Babylon was square, being a hundred and twenty furlongs, that is, fifteen miles, or five leagues, every way; and the whole circuit of it was four hundred and eighty furlongs, or twenty leagues. The walls were built with large bricks, cemented with bitumen, a thick glutinous fluid, which rises out of the earth in the neighbouring country, and which binds stronger than mortar, and becomes harder than brick itself. These walls were eighty-seven feet thick, and three hundred and fifty high. Those who mention them as only fifty cubits high, refer to their condition after Darius, son of Hystaspes, had commanded them to be reduced to that height, to punish a rebellion of the Babylonians.

The city was encompassed with a vast ditch, which was filled with water, and the sides of which were built up with brick-work. The earth which was dug out, was used in making bricks for the walls of the city; so that the depth and width of the ditch may be estimated by the extreme height and thickness of the walls. There were a hundred gates to the city, twenty-five on each of the four sides. These gates, with their posts, &c. were all of brass. Between every two gates were three towers, raised ten feet above the walls, where necessary; for the city being encompassed in several places with marshes, which defended the approach to it, those parts stood in no need of towers.

A street corresponded with each gate; so that there were fifty streets, which cut one another at right angles, and each of which was fifteen miles in length, and one hundred and fifty-one feet in width. Four other streets, which had houses on one side, and the ramparts on the other, encompassed the whole city, and were each of them two hundred feet wide. By the streets crossing each other, the whole city was divided into six hundred and seventy-six squares, each of which was four furlongs and a half on every side, and two miles and a quarter in circuit. The houses of these squares were three or four stories high, and their fronts were embellished; and the inner space was filled with courts and gardens.

The city was divided into two parts by the Euphrates, which ran from north to south. A bridge of admirable structure, about a furlong in length, and sixty feet in width, formed the communication across the river; and at the two extremities of this bridge were two palaces on the east, and the new palace on the west side of the river. The Temple of Belus, which stood near the old palace, occupied one entire square. The city was situated in a vast plain, the soil of which was extremely fat and fruitful.

To people this immense city, Nebuchadnezzar transplanted hither an infinite number of captives, from the many nations that he subdued. It would appear, however, that the whole of it was never inhabited.

The famous Hanging Gardens, which adorned the palace in Babylon, were ranked among the wonders of the world. They contained four hundred feet square, and were composed of several large terraces; and the platform of the highest terrace was equal in height to the walls of Babylon, that is, three hundred and fifty feet. The assent from terrace to terrace was by steps ten feet wide. The whole mass was supported by large vaults, built upon each other, and strengthened by a wall twenty-two feet thick. The tops of these arches were covered with stones, rushes and bitumen, and plates of lead, to prevent leakage. The depth of earth was so great, that in it the largest trees might take root. Here was every thing that could please the sight; as, large trees, flowers, plants, and shrubs. Upon the highest terrace was a reservoir, supplied with water from the river.

The predictions of the prophets against Babylon, gradually received their accomplishment. Berosus relates, that Cyrus, having taken this city, demolished its walls, lest the inhabitants should revolt. Darius, son of Hystaspes, destroyed the gates, &c. Alexander the Great intended to rebuild it, but was prevented by death from accomplishing his design. Seleucus Nicator built Seleucia on the Tigris, and this city insensibly deprived Babylon of its inhabitants. Strabo assures us, that under Augustus, Babylon was almost forsaken; and that it was no longer any thing more than a great desert. St. Jerome relates, on the testimony of a monk who dwelt at Jerusalem, that in his time, Babylon and its ancient precincts were converted into a great park, in which the kings of Persia were accustomed to hunt.

A German traveller, named Rauwolf, who in 1574 passed through the place where Babylon formerly stood, speaks of its ruins as follows: "The village of Elugo now stands where Babylon of Chaldea was formerly situated. The harbour is distant from it a quarter of a league, and people go on shore to proceed by land to the celebrated city of Bagdad, which is distant a journey of a day and a half eastward, on the Tigris. The soil is so dry and barren, that they cannot till it; and so naked, that I could scarcely believe, that this powerful city, once the most stately and renowned in all the world, and situated in the most fruitful country of Shinar, could ever have stood in this place. My doubts, however, on this point, were removed, by the situation, and by many antiquities of great beauty, which are still to be seen, and particularly by the old bridge over the Euphrates, of which some piles and arches of brick remain, so strong as to excite admiration. The whole front of the village of Elugo is the hill upon which the castle stood; and the ruins of its fortifications, though demolished and uninhabited, are still visible. Behind, and at a small distance beyond, was the tower of Babylon, which is still to be seen, and is half a league in diameter. It is, however, so ruinous, so low, and so full of venomous creatures, which lodge in holes made by them in the rubbish, that no one dares approach nearer to it than within half a league, except during two months in winter, when these animals never leave their holes. In particular, one sort, which the inhabitants of the country call eglo, possesses a very active poison, and is larger than our lizard."

We shall close this chapter with a full description of an ancient fortress called ALHAMBRA.

This place was the residence of the Moorish monarchs of Grenada. It derives its name from the red colour of the materials with which it was originally built, Alhambra signifying a red house. It appears to a traveller as huge a heap of ugly buildings as can well be seen, all huddled together, seemingly without the least intention of forming one habitation out of them. The walls are entirely unornamented, consisting chiefly of gravel and pebbles, daubed over with plaster in a very coarse manner: yet this was the palace of the Moorish kings of Grenada, and it is indisputably the most curious place that exists in Spain, perhaps in the world. In many countries may be seen excellent modern, as well as ancient architecture, both entire and in ruins; but nothing to be met with any where else, can convey an idea of this edifice, except the decorations of an opera, or the tales of the genii.

Passing round the corner of the emperor's palace, one is admitted at a plain unornamented door in a corner. "On my first visit, (says Mr. Swinburne, in his Travels in Spain,) I confess I was struck with amazement, as I stepped over the threshold, to find myself on a sudden transported into a species of fairy land. The first place you come to is the court called the Communa, or Delmesucar, that is, the common baths; an oblong square, with a deep bason of clear water in the middle; two flights of marble steps leading down to the bottom; on each side a parterre of flowers, and a row of orange trees. Round the court runs a peristyle paved with marble; the arches bear upon very slight pillars, in proportions and style different from all the regular orders of architecture. The ceilings and walls are incrusted with fretwork in stucco, so minute and intricate, that the most patient draughtsman would find it difficult to follow it, unless he made himself master of the general plan. This would facilitate the operation exceedingly; for all this work is frequently and regularly repeated at certain distances, and has been executed by means of square moulds applied successively, and the parts joined together with the utmost nicety. In every division are Arabic sentences of different lengths, most of them expressive of the following meanings; 'There is no conqueror but God;' or, 'Obedience and honour to our lord Abouabdoula.' The ceilings are gilt or painted, and time has caused no diminution in the freshness of their colours, though constantly exposed to the air. The lower part of the wall is mosaic, disposed in fantastic knots and festoons. The porches at the end are more like grotto-work than any thing else to which they can be compared. That on the right hand opens into an octagon vault, under the emperor's palace, and forms a perfect whispering gallery, meant to be a communication between the offices of both houses. Opposite to the door of the Communa through which you enter, is another leading into the Quarto de los leones, or apartment of the lions, which is an oblong court, one hundred feet in length, and fifty in breadth, environed with a colonnade, seven feet broad on the sides, and ten at the end. Two porticos or cabinets, about fifteen feet square, project into the court at the two extremities. The square is covered with coloured tiles; the colonnade, with white marble. The walls are covered, five feet up from the ground, with blue and yellow tiles, disposed chequerwise. Above and below is a border of small escutcheons, enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabic motto on a bend, signifying, "No conqueror but God." The columns that support the roof and gallery are of white marble, very slender, and fantastically adorned. They are nine feet high, including base and capital, and eight and a half inches diameter. They are very irregularly placed; sometimes singly, at others, in groups of three, but more frequently two together. The width of the horse-shoe arches above them, is four feet two inches for the large ones, and three for the smaller. The ceiling of the portico is finished in a much finer and more complicated manner than that of the Communa, and the stucco laid on the walls with inimitable delicacy; in the ceiling it is so artfully frosted and handled, as to exceed belief. The capitals are of various designs, though each design is repeated several times in the circumference of the court, but not the least attention has been paid to placing them regularly, or opposite to each other. Not the smallest representation of animal life can be discovered amidst the variety of foliages, grotesques, and strange ornaments. About each arch is a large square of arabesques, surrounded with a rim of characters, that are generally quotations from the Koran. Over the pillars is another square of delightful foliage work. Higher up is a wooden rim, or kind of cornice, as much enriched with carving as the stucco that covers the part underneath. Over this projects a roof of red tiles, the only thing that disfigures this beautiful square. This ugly covering is modern, put on by order of Mr. Wall, the late prime minister. In the centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions, muzzled, their fore parts smooth, their hind parts rough; which bear upon their backs an enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises. While the pipes were kept in good order, a great volume of water was thrown up, that, falling down into the basons, passed through the beasts, and issued out of their mouths into a large reservoir, where it communicated by channels with the jets d'eau in the apartments. This fountain is of white marble, embellished with many festoons and Arabic distichs, complimenting the monarch and his princess.

"Passing along the colonnade, and keeping on the south side, you come to a circular room, used by the men as a place for drinking coffee and forbets in. A fountain in the middle refreshed the apartment in summer. The form of this hall, the elegance of its cupola, the cheerful distribution of light from above, and the exquisite manner in which the stucco is designed, painted, and finished, exceed all powers of description. Every thing in it inspires the most pleasing voluptuous ideas; yet in this sweet retreat, they say, that Abouabdoula assembled the Abbencarrages, and caused their heads to be struck off into the fountain.

"Continuing your walk round, you are next brought to a couple of rooms at the head of the court, which are supposed to have been tribunals, or audience chambers.

"Opposite to the Sala de los Abbencarrages, is the entrance into the Torre de las dos Hermanas, or the tower of the Two Sisters; so named from two very beautiful pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement. This gate exceeds all the rest in profusion of ornaments, and in the beauty of prospect which it affords through a range of apartments, where a multitude of arches terminate in a large window open to the country. In a gleam of sunshine, the variety of tints and lights thrown upon this enfilade, are uncommonly rich. The first hall is the concert-room, where the women sat; the musicians played above in four balconies. In the middle is a jet d'eau. The marble pavement is equal to the finest existing, for the size of the flags and evenness of the colour. The two sisters are slabs, that measure fifteen feet by seven and a half, without flaw or stain. The walls, up to a certain height, are mosaic, and above are divided into very neat compartments of stucco, all of one design, which is also followed in many of the adjacent halls and galleries. The ceiling is a fretted cove. To preserve this vaulted roof, as well as some of the other principal cupolas, the outward walls of the towers are raised ten feet above the top of the dome, and support another roof over all, by which means no damage can ever be caused by wet weather, or excessive heat and cold.

"From this hall you pass round the little myrtle garden of Lindarax, into an additional building made to the east end by Charles V. The rooms are small and low. His favourite motto, 'Plus outrè,' appears on every beam. This leads to a tower, projecting from the line of the north wall, call El Tocador, or the dressing-room of the sultana. It is a small square cabinet, in the middle of an open gallery, from which it received light by a door and three windows. The view is charming. In one corner is a large marble flag, drilled full of holes, through which the smoke of perfumes ascended from furnaces below; and here, it is presumed, the Moorish queen was wont to sit, to fumigate and sweeten her person. The emperor caused this pretty room to be painted with representations of his wars, and a great variety of grotesques, which appear to be copies, or at least imitations, of those in the lobby of the Vatican.

"From hence you go through a long passage to the hall of ambassadors, which is magnificently decorated with innumerable varieties of mosaics, and the mottos of all the kings of Grenada. This long narrow antichamber opens into the Communa on the left hand, and on the right into the great audience hall in the tower of Comares; a noble apartment, thirty-six feet square, thirty-six high up to the cornice, and eighteen from thence to the centre of the cupola. The walls on three sides are fifteen feet thick, on the other nine; the lower range of windows thirteen feet high. The wall is inlaid with mosaic of many colours, disposed in intricate knots, stars, and other figures. In every part, various Arabic sentences are repeated.

"Having completed the tour of the upper apartments, which are upon a level with the offices of the new palace, you descend to the lower floor, which consisted of bedchambers and summer rooms: the back stairs and passages, that facilitated the intercourse between them, are without number. The most remarkable room below is the king's bedchamber, which communicated, by means of a gallery, with the upper story. The beds were placed in two alcoves, upon a raised pavement of blue and white tiles; but as it was repaired by Philip V. who passed some time here, it cannot be said how it may have been in former times. A fountain played in the middle, to refresh the apartment in hot weather.

"Behind the alcoves are small doors, that conduct you to the royal baths. These consist of one small closet, with marble cisterns for washing children, two rooms for grown-up persons, and vaults for boilers and furnaces, that supplied the baths with water, and the stoves with vapour. The troughs are formed of large slabs of white marble; the walls are ornamented with party-coloured earthenware, and light is admitted by holes in the ceiling. Hard by, is a whispering gallery, and a kind of gallery, said to have been made for the diversion of the women and children. One of the passages of communication is fenced off with a strong iron gate, and called the Prison of the Sultana; but it seems more probable that it was put up to prevent any body from climbing up into the women's quarter.

"Under the council-room is a long slip, called the King's Study: and adjoining to it are several vaults, said to be the place of burial of the royal family. In the year 1574, four sepulchres were opened, but, as they contained nothing but bones and ashes, were immediately closed again."

This description of the Alhambra, concludes by observing how admirably every thing was planned and calculated for rendering this palace the most voluptuous of all retirements: what plentiful supplies of water were brought to refresh it in the hot months of summer; what a free circulation of air was contrived, by the judicious disposition of doors and windows; what shady gardens of aromatic trees; what noble views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains! No wonder the Moors regretted Granada; no wonder they still offer up prayers to God every Friday, for the recovery of this city, which they esteem a terrestrial paradise.

CHAP. LV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING TEMPLES, ETC.--(Continued.)

Seraglio--Museum--Colossus--and Obelisk.

SERAGLIO.--This word is commonly used to express the house or palace of a prince. In this sense it is frequently used at Constantinople: the houses of foreign ambassadors are called seraglios. But it is commonly used, by way of eminence, for the palace of the grand seignior at Constantinople; where he keeps his court,--where his concubines are lodged--and where the youth are trained up for the chief posts of the empire. It is a triangle, about three Italian miles round, wholly within the city, at the end of the promontory Chrysoceras, now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings run back to the bottom of the hill, and thence are gardens that reach to the edge of the sea. It is inclosed with a very high and strong wall, upon which there are several watch-towers; and it has many gates, some of which open towards the sea-side, and the rest into the city: but the chief gate is one of the latter, which is constantly guarded by a company of capooches, or porters: and in the night it is well guarded towards the sea. The outward appearance is not elegant; the architecture being irregular, consisting of separate edifices in the form of pavilions and domes. The ladies of the seraglio are a collection of beautiful young women, chiefly sent as presents from the provinces and Greek islands, and most of them the children of Christian parents. The brave prince Heraclicus for some years abolished the infamous tribute of children of both sexes, which Georgia formerly paid every year to the Porte. The number of women in the Harem depends on the taste of the reigning sultan. Selim had two thousand, Achmet had but three hundred, and the late sultan had nearly one thousand six hundred. On their admission, they are committed to the care of the old ladies, taught sewing, embroidery, music, dancing, &c. and furnished with the richest clothes and ornaments. They all sleep in separate beds, and between every fifth there is a preceptress. Their chief governess is called Katon Kiaga, or governess of the noble young ladies. There is no servant, for they are obliged to wait on one another by rotation; the last that is entered serves her who preceded her, and herself.

These ladies are scarcely ever suffered to go abroad, except when the grand seignior removes from one place to another, when a troop of black eunuchs convey them to the boats, which are inclosed with lattices and linen curtains; and when they go by land they are put into close chariots, and signals are made at certain distances, to give notice that none approach the roads through which they march. The boats of the Harem, which carry the grand seignior's wives, are manned with twenty-four rowers, and have white covered tilts, shut alternately by Venetian blinds. Among the emperor's attendants are a number of mutes, who act and converse by signs with great quickness, and some dwarfs, who are exhibited for the sultan's amusement.

When he permits the women to walk in the gardens of the seraglio, all people are ordered to retire, and on every side is a guard of black eunuchs, with sabres in their hands, while others go their rounds to hinder any person from seeing them. If any one is found in the garden, even through ignorance or inadvertence, he is instantly killed, and his head brought to the feet of the grand seignior, who rewards the guard for their vigilance.

Sometimes the grand seignior passes into the gardens to amuse himself when the women are there, and it is then they make use of all their utmost efforts, by dancing, singing, seducing gestures, and amorous blandishments, to attract his affections. It is not permitted that the monarch should take a virgin to his bed, except during the solemn festivals, and on occasion of some extraordinary rejoicings, or the arrival of some good news. Upon such occasions, if the sultan chooses a new companion to his bed, he enters into the apartment of the women, who are ranged in files by the governesses, to whom he speaks, and intimates the person he likes best. As soon as the grand seignior has chosen the girl destined to be the partner of his bed, all the others follow her to the bath, washing and perfuming her, and dressing her superbly, and thus conduct her, with singing, dancing, and rejoicing, to the bedchamber of the grand seignior; and if by a certain time she becomes pregnant, and is delivered of a boy, she is called asaki-sultaness, that is to say, sultaness-mother. For the first son she has the honour to be crowned, and she has the liberty of forming her court: eunuchs are also assigned for her guard, and for her particular service. No other ladies, though delivered of boys, are either crowned or maintained with such costly distinction at the first; but they have their service apart, and handsome appointments. At the death of the sultan, the mothers of the male children are shut up in the old seraglio, whence they can never come out any more, unless any of their sons ascend the throne.

Baron de Tott informs us, that the female slave who becomes the mother of the sultan, and lives long enough to see her son mount the throne, is the only woman who at that period acquires the distinction of sultana-mother; she is till then in the interior of her prison with her son. The title bachl-kadun, or principal woman, is the first dignity of the grand seignior's Harem; and she has a larger allowance than those who have the title of second, third, and fourth woman, which are the four free women the Koran allows.

It must strike every reader, that the present happy condition of females in Christian countries is directly attributable to Christianity; and this stamps an inestimable value on the gospel. Females should consider it as the charter of their privileges. The Christian religion has, by its letter or spirit, exploded customs and practices which were the immediate causes of female degradation and wretchedness. It has made marriage pure and honourable, by prohibiting polygamy, and restricting within very narrow limits the dangerous liberty of divorce; two customs which violate the plain order and design of Providence in creation, which degrade woman to insignificance and slavery, and which brought on that dissoluteness and corruption of manners in most ancient and some modern nations.

MUSEUM,--is a collection of rare and interesting objects, selected from the whole circle of natural history and the arts, and deposited in apartments or buildings, either by the commendable generosity of rich individuals, general governments, or monarchs, for the inspection of the learned, and the great mass of the public.

The term, which means literally a study, or place of retirement, is said to have been given originally to that part of the royal palace at Alexandria, appropriated for the use of learned men, and the reception of the literary works then extant. According to ancient writers, they were formed into classes or colleges, each of which had a competent sum assigned for their support; and we are further informed, that the establishment was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who added a most extensive library.

It would answer little purpose to trace the history of Museums, as the earlier part of it is involved in obscurity; and as we approach our own times, they multiply beyond a possibility of noticing even the most important. Within our brief limits we shall, therefore, confine ourselves to those at the Vatican, Florence, Paris, Oxford, and London.

The Museum of the Vatican might originally have been said to occupy all the apartments of the palace, which are more numerous than in any other royal residence in the world: the pictures, the books, the manuscripts, statues, bas-reliefs, and every other description of the labours of ancient artists, were select, uncommon, and valuable in the extreme, particularly the Laocoon, already described, and said, by Pliny, to have been made from a single mass of marble; which circumstance has since caused a doubt whether that of the Vatican is really the original, as Michael Angelo discovered that it is composed of more than one piece. It was found, in 1506, near the baths of Titus, and, whether an original or a copy, has obtained and deserves every possible admiration.--This invaluable collection continued to increase for several centuries, and till nearly the present period.

The grand dukes of Tuscany were for a long series of years ardent admirers of the arts, ancient and modern, and regretted no expense in obtaining the most rare and beautiful objects which vast treasures were capable of procuring; consequently their Museum at Florence vied with that of Rome, and, in some instances, the value of particular articles exceeded any possibility of rivalship: we allude to the Venus de Medicis, of which Keysler speaks thus, in his excellent account of that part of the continent: "I shall conclude this short criticism on the celebrated Venus de Medicis, with the following observation, made by some able connoisseurs, namely, that if the different parts of this famous statue be examined separately, as the head, nose, &c. and compared with the like parts of others, it would not be impossible to find similar parts equal, if not superior, to those of the Venus de Medicis; but if the delicacy of the shape, the attitude, and symmetry of the whole, be considered as an assemblage of beauties, it cannot be paralleled in the whole world. This beautiful statue is placed between two others of the same goddess, both which would be admired by spectators in any other place; but here all their beauties are eclipsed by those of the Venus de Medicis, to which they can be considered only as foils to augment the lustre of that admired statue." Little is known in England of the present state of the Florentine Museum, but it is feared to be deplorable.

We shall now turn our attention to the Museé Central des Arts, formed in the Louvre at Paris, composed with the best collections on the continent, and consequently consisting of the finest specimens of human art.

The method adopted for arranging the paintings here assembled is judicious, as they are classed in nations, by which means the eye is conducted gradually to the acme of the art, in the works of the Italian masters.

The gallery of antiquities is directly below the gallery of pictures; and, to give some idea of the nature of the general contents, we shall mention the names of the several divisions, which are: La Salle de Saisons,--La Salle des Hommes illustres,--La Salle des Romains,--La Salle de Laocoon,--La Salle de l'Apollon,--and La Salle des Muses. The Laocoon, which we have noticed in our account of the Vatican, here received distinguished honours, within a space railed in; and the Apollo Belvidere is equally honoured, in giving name to one of the halls.

These exquisite works are described in a catalogue, which may be obtained in the gallery; and of the manner we shall venture to give a specimen, hoping that a similar method may be adopted, to explain the objects offered to view in our national repository. Under the head 'Pythian Apollo,' called the Apollo Belvidere, the author of the catalogue observes, "This statue, the most sublime of those preserved by time, was found, near the close of the fifteenth century, twelve leagues from Rome, at Cape d'Anzo, on the borders of the sea, in the ruins of ancient Antium, a city equally celebrated for its Temple of Fortune, and for its pleasant mansions, erected by successive emperors, which, emulous of each other, they decorated with the most rare and excellent works of art. Julius II. when a cardinal, obtained this statue, and placed it in the palace where he resided, near the church of the Holy Apostles. After his elevation to the pontificate, he had it removed to the Belvidere of the Vatican, where it remained three centuries an object of universal admiration. A hero, conducted by victory, drew it from the Vatican, and causing it to be conveyed to the banks of the Seine, has fixed it here for ever."

Another Museum established at Paris after the return of order, is that of the National Monuments. These were indiscriminately destroyed, or mutilated, during the first frantic emotions of the revolution; and this act contributed not a little to the general dislike it excited: at length the most enlightened part of the National Convention decreed imprisonment in chains to those who should thenceforward injure or destroy the marble and bronze records of their country. Le Noir, a man of taste and learning, seized this opportunity of rescuing the French nation from the reproach it had incurred by destroying what was honourable to themselves; and conceived that, though late, it might still be possible to collect whole monuments in some instances, and fragments in others, sufficient to interest foreigners in favour of his country, or at least to evince to them that a change in sentiment had taken place. Fortunately his plan received public encouragement, and he has, through the assistance of government, procured an astonishing number of specimens from all parts of the kingdom.

Mr. Pinkerton observes of this collection, "It will not escape the attention of the reader of taste, that the arrangement is confused, nay, often capricious, and is capable of great improvement." And Le Maitre says, upon the same subject, "After several hours employed in this second view, I continue of my former opinion, that the spot (formerly a convent) in which these monuments are collected, is infinitely too small; that the garden, meant to be the tranquil site of sepulchral honours, and the calm retreat of departed grandeur, is on so limited a scale, so surrounded with adjoining houses, and altogether so ill arranged, that instead of presenting the model of

"Those deep solitudes ... Where heav'nly pensive contemplation dwells, And ever musing melancholy reigns;"

it might easily be mistaken for the working yard of a statuary, or the pleasure ground of a tasteless citizen, decked out with Cupids, Mercuries, and Fawns." Both these authors, however, agree in praising the motives and perseverance of Le Noir.

Oxford has the honour of producing the first, and not the least important Museum in England; which was founded in 1679, and the building completed in 1683, at the expense of the university. The students, the public, and the professors, are indebted to Elias Ashmole, Esq. for an invaluable collection of interesting objects presented by him for their use, and immediately placed within it; since which period it has been called the Ashmolean Museum. The structure, in the Corinthian order of architecture, has a magnificent portal; and the variety and value of the articles contained in it, renders a visit to the apartments highly gratifying, particularly as they are increased from time to time, as often as rare objects can be procured.

The British Museum, in London, a repository under the immediate care of government, and itself governed by fifteen trustees, selected from the highest and most honourable offices of the state, promises to exceed every other national institution, which is not supported by the spoliation and plunder of others. However inferior it may appear to those splendid collections, which consist of the most exquisite productions of the chisel and the pencil ever accomplished by man, we have the consolation to reflect, that, had it been possible to procure them by purchase, the liberality of the British nation is such, that Italy and many other countries would have long since been drained; but as the case is, each inhabitant of England may exclaim, with his characteristic integrity, as he views the vast collection which he in common with all his countrymen possesses, "These are individually our own by fair purchase or gift!" Sir Robert Cotton may be said to have laid the foundation of the British Museum, by his presenting his excellent collection of manuscripts to the public; those, and the offer of Sir Hans Sloane's books, manuscripts, and curious articles in antiquity and natural history, for £20,000, suggested the propriety of accepting the latter, and providing a place for the reception of both: from this time government proceeded rapidly in forming the plan, and at length every interior regulation for officers, trustees, &c. being made, Montague House, situated in Russell-street, Bloomsbury, was purchased for £10,250, and fitted for the reception of the articles then possessed, and to be bought at the further expense of £14,484. 6s. 4d.: after which Lord Oxford's manuscripts were procured for £10,000, to which the King added others; and since the above period, vast numbers of interesting things have been placed there,--Sir William Hamilton's discoveries, a vast variety of valuable medals, fossils, minerals, manuscripts, and printed books, together with several Egyptian antiquities, and the late Mr. Townsley's marbles and bas-reliefs from Italy. The latter were given to the public under the express condition that a proper place should be built for their reception, which has been complied with, and they are now exhibited, with the rest of the Museum, to an admiring people.

Various alterations have taken place in the regulations adopted for the convenience of those who read at the Museum, and the visitors, since 1757, when it was first opened for inspection and study; and it is but justice to say, each was intended well, though till lately it was thought that too many impediments existed in the way of visiting that which was solely intended for the use of the community: at present, however, no such complaint can be made with truth, as any decently dressed persons, presenting themselves at certain hours, are admitted free of every kind of expense. Admission even to the reading room, is attended with no other difficulty than necessarily follows the ascertaining whether the applicant is deserving of the indulgence, or likely to injure the interests of the institution; when there, every facility is afforded him by commodious tables, with pens and ink for writing, and a messenger in waiting to bring him any books he may think proper to select from the vast stores of literature submitted in this generous way to his use.

COLOSSUS,--is a statue of vast or gigantic size. The most eminent of this kind was the Colossus of Rhodes, a brazen statue of Apollo, one of the wonders of the world. It was the workmanship of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, who spent twelve years in making it; and was at length overthrown by an earthquake, B. C. 224, after having stood about sixty-six years. Its height was a hundred and five feet; there were few people who could encompass its thumb, which is said to have been a fathom in circumference, and its fingers were larger than most statues. It was hollow, and in its cavities were large stones, employed by the artificer to counterbalance its weight, and render it steady on its pedestal.

On occasion of the damage which the city of Rhodes sustained by the above-mentioned earthquake, the inhabitants sent ambassadors to all the princes and states of Greek origin, in order to solicit assistance for repairing it; and they obtained large sums, particularly from the kings of Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Pontus, and Bithynia, which amounted to a sum five times exceeding the damages which they had suffered. But instead of setting up the Colossus again, for which purpose the greatest part of it was given, they pretended that the oracle of Delphos had forbidden it, and converted the money to other uses. Accordingly, the Colossus lay neglected on the ground for the space of eight hundred and ninety-four years, at the expiration of which period, or about the year of our Lord 653 or 672, Moawyas, the sixth caliph, or emperor of the Saracens, made himself master of Rhodes, and afterwards sold the statue, reduced to fragments, to a Jewish merchant, who loaded nine hundred camels with the metal; so that, allowing eight hundred pounds weight for each load, the brass of the Colossus, after the diminution which it had sustained by rust, and probably by theft, amounted to seven hundred and twenty thousand pounds weight. The basis that supported it was of a triangular figure: its extremities were sustained by sixty pillars of marble. There was a winding staircase to go up to the top of it; where might be discovered Syria, and the ships that went to Egypt, in a great looking-glass that was hung about the neck of the statue.

This enormous statue was not the only one that attracted attention in the city of Rhodes. Pliny reckons one hundred other colossuses, not so large, which rose majestically in its different quarters.

OBELISK,--in architecture, is a truncated, quadrangular, and slender pyramid, raised for the purpose of ornament, and frequently charged either with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. Obelisks appear to be of very great antiquity, and to have been first raised to transmit to posterity precepts of philosophy, which were cut in hieroglyphical characters: afterwards they were used to immortalize the great actions of heroes, and the memory of persons beloved and venerated for having performed eminent services to their country.

The first obelisk mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan war, which was forty cubits high; Phuis, another king of Egypt, raised one of fifty-five cubits; and Ptolemy Philadelphus, another of eighty eight cubits, in memory of Arsinoë. Augustus erected one at Rome, in the Campus Martius, which served to mark the hours on an horizontal dial, drawn on the pavement. They were called by the Egyptian priests, the Fingers of the Sun, because they were made in Egypt to serve also as stiles or gnomons, to mark the hours on the ground. The Arabs still call them Pharaoh's Needles; whence the Italians call them Aguglia, and the French Aiguilles.

The famous obelisks called the Devil's Arrows, now reduced to three, the fourth having been taken down in the seventeenth century, stand about half a mile from the town of Boroughbridge, to the south-west, in three fields, separated by a lane, nearly two hundred feet asunder, on elevated ground, sloping every way. Mr. Drake urges many arguments for their Roman antiquity, and plainly proves them to be natural, and brought from Plumpton quarries, about five miles off; or from Tekly, sixteen miles off. The cross in the town, twelve feet high, is of the same kind of stone. The easternmost, or highest, is twenty-two feet and a half high, by four broad, and four and a half in girth; the second, twenty-one and a half by fifty-five and a quarter; the third, sixteen and a half by eighty-four. Stukeley's measures differ. The flutings are cut in the stone, but not through: the tallest stands alone, and leans to the south. Plot and Stukeley affirm them to be British monuments, originally hewn square. Dr. Gale supposed that they were Mercuries, which had lost their heads and inscriptions; but in a manuscript note in his Antoninus, he acknowledges that he was misinformed, and that there was no cavity to receive a bust.

On the north side of Penrith, in the church-yard, are two square obelisks, of a single stone each, eleven or twelve feet high, about twelve inches diameter, and twelve by eight at the sides; the highest about eighteen inches diameter, with something like a transverse piece to each, and mortised into a round base. They are fourteen feet asunder, and between them is a grave, which is inclosed between four semicircular stones, of the unequal lengths of five, six, four and a half, and two feet high, having on the outsides rude carving, and the tops notched. This is called the Giant's Grave, and ascribed to Sir Evan Cæsarius, who is said to have been as tall as one of the columns, and capable of stretching his arms from one to the other; to have destroyed robbers and wild boars in Englewood forest; and to have had an hermitage, called Sir Hugh's Parlour.

A little west of these is a stone called the Giant's Thumb, six feet high, fourteen inches at the base, contracted to ten, which is only a rude cross.

We shall conclude this chapter with a description of a REMARKABLE OBELISK, NEAR FORRES, IN SCOTLAND.

About a mile from Forres, on the left-hand side of the road, is a remarkable obelisk, said to be the most stately monument of the Gothic kind in Europe; and supposed to have been erected in memory of the treaty between Malcolm II. and Canute the Great, in 1008. It has been the subject of many able pens; and is thus described by Mr. Cordiner, in a letter to Mr. Pennant: "In the first division, underneath the Gothic ornaments, at the top are nine horses, with their riders, marching forth in order: in the next is a line of warriors on foot, brandishing their weapons, and appear to be shouting for the battle. The import of the attitudes in the third division is very dubious, their expression indefinite. The figures, which form a square in the middle of the column, are pretty complex, but distinct; four sergeants with their halberts, guarding a company, under which are placed several human heads, which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at the left of the division: one appears in the character of executioner, severing the head from another body; behind him are three trumpeters sounding their trumpets, and before him two pair of combatants fighting with sword and target. A troop of horse next appear, put to flight by infantry, whose first lines have bows and arrows, and the three following swords and targets. In the lowermost division now visible, the horses seem to be seized by the victorious party, their riders beheaded, and the head of their chief hung in chains, or placed in a frame; the others being thrown together beside the dead bodies, under an arched cover. The greatest part of the other side of the obelisk, occupied by a sumptuous cross, is covered over with a uniform figure, elaborately raised, and interwoven with great mathematical exactness. Under the cross are two august personages, with some attendants, much obliterated, but evidently in an attitude of reconciliation; and if the monument was erected in memory of the peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute, upon the final retreat of the Danes, these large figures may represent the reconciled monarchs. On the edge, below the fretwork, are some rows of figures joined hand in hand, which may also imply the new degree of confidence and security that took place after the feuds were composed, which are characterized on the front of the pillar. But to whatever particular transaction it may allude, it can hardly be imagined, that in so early an age of the arts in Scotland, as it must have been raised, so elaborate a performance would have been undertaken, but in consequence of an event of the most general importance; it is therefore surprising, that no more distinct tradition of it arrived at the æra when letters were known. The height of this monument, called King Sueno's Stone, above the ground, is twenty-three feet, besides twelve or fifteen feet under ground. Its breadth is three feet ten inches, by one foot three inches in thickness."

CHAP. LVI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING TEMPLES, ETC.--(Concluded.)

Inverlochy Castle--Magdalen's Hermitage--Curiosities of Friburg--Curiosities of Augsburg--Escurial--Florence Statues--Great Wall of China--Floating Gardens--Curiosity at Palermo.

INVERLOCHY CASTLE,--is an ancient castle near Fort William, in Inverness-shire. It is adorned with large towers, which, by the mode of building, seem to have been the work of the English, in the time of Edward I. who laid large fines on the Scotch Barons, for the purpose of erecting castles. The largest of these is called Cummin's Tower. "The castle, (says the Rev. Thomas Ross, in his Statistical Account of Kilmanivaig) has survived the burgh, and now stands alone in ancient magnificence, after having seen the river Lochy, that formerly filled its ditches, run in another course, and has outlived all history and tradition of its own builder and age. It is a quadrangular building, with round towers at the angles, measuring thirty yards every way within the walls. The towers and ramparts are solidly built of stone and lime, nine feet thick at the bottom, and eight feet above. The towers are not entire, nor are they all equally high. The western is the highest and largest, and does not seem to have been less than fifty feet when entire; the rampart between them, from twenty-five to thirty. Ten or twelve yards without the walls the ditch begins, which surrounded the castle, from thirty to forty feet broad. The whole building covers about one thousand six hundred yards; and within the outside of the ditch are seven thousand square yards, nearly an acre and a half English. The whole building would require from five hundred to six hundred men to defend it. From the name of the western tower, it is probable this castle was occupied by the Cummins in the time of Edward I. and previous to that period by the Thanes of Lochaber; among others by the noted Bancho, predecessor of the race of Stuart. There is a tradition that this castle was once a royal residence, and that the famous league betwixt Charles the Great of France, and Achaius king of Scots, had been signed there on the part of the Scotch monarch, A. D. 790."

MAGDALEN'S HERMITAGE.--This place is situated about a league from Friburg, in Switzerland, and is described by Mr. Blainville, and also by Mr. Addison. They both say it is situated among woods and rocks, in the prettiest solitude imaginable. The hermit, (they say,) who was then alive, had worked out of the rock a pretty chapel, with an altar, sacristy, and steeple; also five chambers, a parlour, refectory, kitchen, cellar, and other conveniences. The funnel of his chimney, which pierces from his kitchen to the top of the rock, slanting all the way, is ninety feet high, and cost him so much toil, that he was a whole year about it, and often despaired of finishing his design. All this must appear the more surprising, when we consider the dimensions of the different parts of this hermitage, the chapel being sixty-three feet in length, thirty-six in breadth, and twenty-two in height. The sacristy, or vestry, is twenty-two feet square, and the height of the steeple seventy feet. The chamber between the chapel and the refectory, is above forty feet long; the refectory itself is twenty-one long; and the cellar is twenty-five feet long, and ten feet deep. But the hall or parlour is particularly admired, being twenty-eight paces in length, twelve in breadth, and twenty feet in height, with four openings for windows, much higher and wider than those of our best houses. At one end of this hall was the hermit's cabinet, with a small collection of books and other curiosities. To add to the pleasantness and convenience of this habitation, he had cut the side of the rock into a flat, and having covered it with good mould, had formed a pretty garden, planted with divers sorts of fruit-trees, herbs, and flowers; and by following the veins of water that dropped from several parts of the rock, he had made himself two or three fountains, which supplied his table, and watered his little garden.

This hermit, whose name was Jean du Pre, began this laborious undertaking at the age of thirty, and said he was twenty-five years in completing it, having had no sort of assistance from any person whatsoever, except one servant. He intended to have carried on his work still farther, but was drowned in 1708, as he was crossing a neighbouring river in a boat, with some company that came to visit him on St. Anthony's day, the patron of his chapel. His place is supplied by a priest, who subsists by the generosity of strangers that come to see the hermitage, whom he generally entertains with bread and wine, and a nosegay.

CURIOSITIES OF FRIBURG.--Friburg is a large town of Switzerland, seated on the Sanen, in a most singular and picturesque situation. Mr. Cox, in his Travels in Switzerland, thus describes it: "It stands partly in a small plain, partly on bold acclivities on a ridge of rugged rocks, half encircled by the river Sanen, and is so entirely concealed by the circumjacent hills, that the traveller scarcely catches the smallest glimpse, until he bursts upon a view of the whole town from the overhanging eminence. The fortifications, which consist of high stone walls and towers, inclose a circumference of about four miles; within which space the eye comprehends a singular mixture of houses, rocks, thickets, and meadows, varying instantly from wild to agreeable, from the bustle of a town to the solitude of the deepest retirement. The Sanen winds in such a serpentine manner, as to form in its course, within the space of two miles, five obtuse angles, between which the intervening parts of the current are parallel to each other. On all sides the descent to the town is extremely steep; in one place the streets often pass over the roofs of the houses. Many of the edifices are raised in regular gradation, like the seats of an amphitheatre; and many overhang the edge of a precipice in such a manner, that, on looking down, a weak head would be apt to turn giddy. But the most extraordinary point of view is from the Pont-neuf. On the north-west a part of the town stands boldly on the sides and the piked back of an abrupt ridge; and from east to west, a semicircle of high perpendicular rocks is seen, whose base is washed and undermined by the winding Sanen, and whose tops and sides are thinly scattered with shrubs and underwood. On the highest points of the rocks, and on the very edge of the precipice, appears, half hanging in the air, the gate called Bourguillon: a stranger standing on the bridge would compare it to Laputa, or the Flying Island, in Gulliver's Travels; and would not conceive it to be accessible, but by means of a cord and pulleys. The houses, constructed with a gray sandstone, are neat and well built; and the public edifices, particularly the cathedral, are extremely elegant."

CURIOSITIES OF AUGSBURG.--In the square, near the town-house, is the Fountain of Augustus, which is a marble bason, surrounded with iron balustrades finely wrought: at the four corners are four brass statues as large as life, two of women, and two of men; in the middle of the bason is a pedestal, at the foot which are four sphinxes, squirting water; a little above these, are four infants holding four dolphins in their arms, which pour water out of their mouths; and over these are festoons and pine-apples of brass; upon the pedestal is the statue of Augustus, as large as life. The fountain most remarkable next to this, is that of Hercules, which is an hexagon bason with several brass figures, particularly Hercules engaging the hydra.--Another curiosity is the Secret Gate, which was contrived to let in persons safely in time of war: it has so many engines and divisions with gates and keys, and apartments for guards, at some distance from each other, where passengers are examined, that it is impossible for the town to be surprised this way; the gates are bolted and unbolted, opened and shut, by unseen operators, so that it looks like enchantment.--The Water Towers are also very curious, of which there are three, seated on a branch of the Lech, which runs through the city in such a torrent, as to drive many mills, which work a number of pumps, that raise the water in large leaden pipes to the top of the towers. One of these sends water to the public fountains; and the rest, to near one thousand houses in the city.

THE ESCURIAL,--is a royal residence of Spain, fifteen miles north-west of Madrid. It is the largest and most superb structure in the kingdom, and one of the finest in Europe. The word is Arabic, meaning "a place full of rocks." It is built in a dry barren spot, surrounded with rugged mountains, insomuch that every thing which grows there is owing to art. This place was chosen, it is said, for the sake of the stone wherewith the fabric is built, which is got from a mountain just by, and is very durable; and the design of erecting it was to commemorate a victory which Philip II. obtained over the French (by the assistance of the English forces) at St. Quintin, on St. Lawrence's day, in the year 1557.

The Spanish description of this structure forms a sizeable quarto volume. Its founder expended upon it six millions of ducats. The apartments are decorated with an astonishing variety of paintings, sculpture, tapestry, ornaments of gold and silver, marble, jasper, gems, and other curious stones, surpassing all imagination. This building, besides its palace, contains a church, large and richly ornamented; a mausoleum; cloisters; a convent; a college; and a library, containing about thirty thousand volumes; besides large apartments for all kinds of artists and mechanics, noble walks, with extensive parks and gardens, beautified with fountains and costly ornaments. The fathers that live in the convent are two hundred, and they have an annual revenue of £12,000.

It was begun by Philip in 1562, five years after the battle, and completed in twenty-two years. It consists of several courts and quadrangles, which all together are disposed in the shape of a gridiron, the instrument of the martyrdom of St. Lawrence; the apartment where the king resides, forming the handle. The building is a long square, of six hundred and forty by five hundred and eighty feet, and the height up to the roof is sixty feet all round, except on the garden side, where the ground is more taken away. At each angle is a square tower, two hundred feet high. The number of windows in the west front is exactly 200; in the east front, 366. The orders are Doric and Ionic. There are three doors in the principal front. Over the grand entrance are the arms of Spain, carved in stone; and a little higher, in a niche, a statue of St. Lawrence in a deacon's habit, with a gilt gridiron in his right hand, and a book in his left. Directly over the door is a basso-relievo of two enormous gridirons, in stone.

This vast structure, however, with its narrow high towers, small windows, and steep sloping roof, exhibits a very uncouth style of architecture; at the same time that the domes, and the immense extent of its fronts, render it a wonderfully grand object from every point of view.

The church is in the centre, is large, awful, and richly ornamented. The cupola is bold and light. The high altar is composed of rich marbles, agates, and jaspers of great rarity, the produce of this kingdom. Two magnificent catafalcos fill up the side arcades of this sanctuary: on one, the emperor Charles V. his wife, daughter, and two sisters, are represented in bronze, larger than life, kneeling; opposite are the effigies of Philip II. and of his three wives, of the same materials, and in the same devout attitude. Underneath, is the burial-place of the royal family, called the Pantheon: twenty-five steps lead down to this vault, over the door of which is a Latin inscription, denoting, that "this place, sacred to the remains of the Catholic kings, was intended by Charles the emperor, resolved upon by Philip II. begun by Philip III. and completed by Philip IV." The mausoleum is circular, thirty-six feet in diameter, and incrusted with fine marbles in an elegant taste. The bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of marble, in niches, one above the other. The plan of these sepulchres is grand, and executed with a princely magnificence; but, as a modern traveller observes, in a style rather too gay, too light, and too delicately fitted up, for the idea we are apt to form of a chapel destined for the reception of the dead. The collection of pictures dispersed about various parts of the church, sacristy, and convent, has been considered as equal, if not superior, to any gallery in Europe, except that of Dresden. Formed out of the spoils of Italy, and the wasted cabinet of that unfortunate monarch, Charles I. of England, it contains some of the most capital works of the greatest painters that have flourished since the revival of the art. In the sacristy is an altar called La Santa Forma: this is a kind of tabernacle of gems, marbles, woods, and other precious materials, inlaid in gilt bronze; in which, rather than in the excellence of the workmanship, or taste of the design, consists the merit of this rock of riches. Before it hangs a curtain, on which Coello has represented Charles II. and all his court, in procession, coming to place this Forma. This is esteemed one of the most curious collections of portraits in the world; for all the persons are drawn with the greatest strength of colour and truth of expression, and are said to be perfect resemblances, not only of the monarch and grandees, but even of the monks, servants, and guards. The statues, busts, and the medallions of the Escurial, are neither very numerous, nor remarkable for their excellence; but the library contains a most precious collection of manuscripts, many fine drawings, and other curiosities.

Notwithstanding the coldness of the exposure, the late king, for the sake of hunting, used to pass several months of the year at this palace.

FLORENCE STATUES.--In the Duke of Florence's garden at Pratoline, is the statue of Pan; sitting on a stool, with a wreathed pipe in his hand, and that of Syrinx, beckoning him to play on his pipe. Pan, putting away his stool, and standing up, plays on his pipe; this done, he looks on his mistress, as if he expected thanks from her, takes the stool again, and sits down with a sad countenance.--There is also the statue of a Laundress at her work, turning the clothes up and down with her hand and battledore, wherewith she beats them in the water.--There is the statue of Fame, loudly sounding her trumpet; an artificial toad creeping to and fro; a dragon bowing down his head to drink water, and then vomiting it up again; with divers other pieces of art, that administer wonder and light to the beholders.

THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.--The principal defence of the empire against a foreign enemy is the Great Wall, which separates China from Tartary, extending more than fifteen hundred miles in length, and of such thickness, that six horsemen may easily ride abreast upon it. It is flanked with towers, two bow-shots distant from one another: Walker says, there are forty-five thousand of these towers, (a number rather incredible,) and that the wall extends two thousand miles. It is said, that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire were employed in constructing this wall. The workmen were ordered, under pain of death, to place the materials so closely, that not the least entrance might be afforded for any instrument of iron; and thus the work was constructed with such solidity, that it is still almost entire, though two thousand years have elapsed since it was constructed.

This extraordinary work is carried, not only through the low lands and valleys, but over hills and mountains; the height of one of which was computed by F. Verbiest, at one thousand two hundred and thirty-six feet above the level of the spot where he stood. According to F. Martini, it begins at the gulf of Leatong, and reaches to the mountains near the city of Kin, on the Yellow River; between which places it meets with no interruption except to the north of the city of Suen, in Peche-li, where it is interrupted by a ridge of inaccessible mountains, to which it is closely united. It is likewise interrupted by the river Hoang-ho; but for others of an inferior size, arches have been constructed, through which the water passes freely. Mr. Bell informs us, that it is carried across rivers, and over the tops of the highest hills, without the least interruption, keeping nearly along that circular range of barren rocks which incloses the country; and, after running about one thousand two hundred miles, ends in impassable mountains and sandy deserts. The foundation consists of large blocks of stone laid in mortar; but all the rest is of brick. The whole is so strong and well-built, that it scarcely needs any repairs; and in the dry climate in which it stands, may remain in the same condition for many ages. When carried over steep rocks, where no horse can pass, it is about fifteen or twenty feet high; but when running through a valley, or crossing a river, it is about thirty feet high, with square towers and embrasures at equal distances. The top is flat, and paved with cut stone; and where it rises over a rock or eminence, there is an ascent made by an easy stone stair.

This wall (our author adds) was begun and completely finished in the short space of five years; and it is reported, that the labourers stood so close for many miles, that they could hand the materials from one to another. This seems the more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it is built must have prevented all use of carriages; and neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind of cement, are to be found among them.

FLOATING GARDENS.--Abbé Clavigero, in his History of Mexico, says, that when the Mexicans were brought under subjection to the Colhuan and Tapanecan nations, and confined to the miserable little islands on the Lake of Mexico, they had no land to cultivate, until necessity compelled them to form moveable fields and gardens, which floated on the waters of the lake. The method which they adopted to make these, and which they still practise, is extremely simple. They plat and twist together willows and roots of marsh plants, or other materials, which are light, but capable of supporting the earth firmly united. Upon this foundation they lay the light bushes which float on the lake; and over all, the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bottom. Their regular figure is quadrangular; their length and breadth various; but generally they are about eight perches long, and not more than three in breadth, and have less than a foot of elevation above the surface of the water. These were the first fields which the Mexicans had after the foundation of Mexico; there they first cultivated maize, pepper, and other plants. In time, as these fields became numerous from the industry of the people, they cultivated gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which they employed in the worship of their gods, and for the recreation of their nobles. At present they cultivate flowers, and every sort of garden herbs, upon them. Every day at sunrise, innumerable vessels loaded with various kinds of flowers and herbs, cultivated in those gardens, arrive by the canals, at the great market-place of that capital. All plants thrive in them surprisingly; the mud of the lake affords a very fertile soil, and requires no water from the clouds. In the large gardens there is commonly a little tree, and even a little hut, to shelter the cultivator, and defend him from rain or the sun. When the chinampa, or owner of a garden, wishes to change his situation, to remove from a disagreeable neighbour, or to come nearer to his own family, he gets into his little vessel, and by his own strength alone, if the garden is small, he tows it after him, and conducts it wherever he pleases. That part of the lake, where these floating gardens are, is a place of high recreation, where the senses receive all possible gratification.

We conclude this chapter with an account of A CURIOUS SIGHT AT PALERMO.

Among the remarkable objects in the vicinity of Palermo, pointed out to strangers, they fail not to particularize a convent of Capuchins, at a small distance from the town, the beautiful gardens of which serve as a public walk. You are shewn under the fabric a vault, divided into four great galleries, into which the light is admitted by windows cut out at the top of each extremity. In this vault are preserved, not in flesh, but in skin and bone, all the Capuchins who have died in the convent since its foundation, as well as the bodies of several persons from the city. There are here private tombs belonging to opulent families, who, even after death, disdain to be confounded with the vulgar part of mankind.

It is said, that in order to secure the preservation of the bodies, they are prepared by being gradually dried before a slow fire, so as to consume the flesh without greatly injuring the skin. When perfectly dry, they are invested with the Capuchin habit, and placed upright on tablets, disposed step above step along the sides of the vault; the head, the arms, and the feet, are naked. A preservation like this is horrid. The skin, discoloured, dry, and as if it had been tanned, nay, torn in some places, is glued close to the bone. It is easy to imagine, from the different grimaces of this numerous assemblage of fleshless figures, rendered still more frightful by a long beard on the chin, what a hideous spectacle this must exhibit; and whoever has seen a Capuchin alive, may form an idea of the singular effect produced by this repository of dead friars.

CHAP. LVII.

Curiosities respecting the Ark of Noah--The Galley of Hiero--and the Bridge of Xerxes.

THE ARK OF NOAH.--That such a wonderful structure as this once existed, admits not of any doubt in the Jewish, Christian, and Mahommedan world; yet its dimensions far exceed any vessel of modern date, even of the most extensive range, and appear to have been equally unrivalled in ancient times.

There are nevertheless various difficulties which have been proposed in regard to it, among those by whom its existence has been admitted. One question is, as to the time employed by Noah in building it. Interpreters generally believe, that he was an hundred and twenty years in forming this vast structure; but some allow only fifty-two years; some no more than seven or eight, and others still much less. The Mahommedans say, he had but two years allowed him for this work. Another question sometimes agitated is, what kind of wood is meant by gopher wood? Some think cedar, or box; others cypress, the pine, fir-tree, and the turpentine tree. Pelletier prefers the opinion of those who hold the ark to be made of cedar: the reasons he urges for this preference are, the incorruptibilty of that wood; the great plenty thereof in Asia; whence Herodotus and Theophrastus relate, that the kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets of it in lieu of deal: and the common tradition throughout the East imports, that the ark is preserved entire to this day on mount Ararat.

The dimensions of the ark, as delivered by Moses, are three hundred cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty in height; which, compared with the great number of things it was to contain, seem to many to have been too scanty. And hence an argument has been drawn against the authority of the relation. Celsus long ago laughed at it, calling it the "absurd ark." This difficulty is solved by Buteo and Kircher, who, supposing the common cubit of a foot and a half, prove, geometrically, that the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals supposed to be lodged therein. The capacity of the ark will be doubled, if we admit, with Cumberland, &c. that the Jewish cubit was twenty-one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight inches. Smellius computes the ark to have been above half an acre in area. Cuneus, and others, have also calculated the capacity of the ark. Dr. Arbuthnot computes it to have been eighty-one thousand and sixty-two tons. Father Lamy says, that it was an hundred and ten feet longer than the church of St. Mary at Paris, and sixty-four feet narrower; to which his English translator adds, that it must have been longer than St. Paul's church in London, from west to east, broader than that church is high in the inside, and about fifty-four feet in height of our measure.

The vast assemblage of things contained in the ark, besides eight persons of Noah's family, consisted of one pair of every species of unclean animals, with provisions for them all, during the whole year. The former appears, at first view, almost infinite, but if we come to a calculation, the number of species of animals will be found much smaller than is generally imagined; out of which, in this case, are to be excepted such animals as can live in the water; and Bishop Wilkins imagines, that only seventy-two of the quadruped kind needed a place in the ark.

It appears to have been divided into three stories; and it is agreed on, as most probable, that the lowest story was destined for the beasts, the middle for the food, and the upper for the birds, with Noah and his family; each story being subdivided into different apartments, stalls, &c. Though Josephus, Philo, and other commentators, add a kind of fourth story, under all the rest; being, as it were, the hold of the vessel, to contain the ballast, and receive the filth and ordure of so many animals.

Drexelius makes three hundred apartments; father Fournier, three hundred and three; the anonymous author of the Questions of Genesis, four hundred; Buteo, Temporarius, Arias Montanus, Wilkins, Lamy, and others, suppose as many partitions as there were different sorts of animals. Pelletier only makes seventy-two, viz. thirty-six for the birds, and as many for the beasts: his reason is, that if we suppose a greater number, as three hundred and thirty-three, or four hundred, each of the eight persons in the ark must have had thirty-seven, forty-one, or fifty stalls to attend and cleanse daily, which he thinks impossible. But there is not much in this: to diminish the number of stalls, without a diminution of the animals, is vain; it being, perhaps, more difficult to take care of three hundred animals in seventy-two stalls, than in three hundred.

Buteo computes, that all the animals contained in the ark, could not be equal to five hundred horses; he even reduces the whole to the dimensions of fifty-six pair of oxen. Father Lamy enlarges it to sixty-four pair, or an hundred and twenty-eight oxen; so that, supposing one ox equal to two horses, if the ark had room for two hundred and fifty-six horses, there must have been room for all the animals. And the same author demonstrates, that one floor of it would suffice for five hundred horses, allowing nine square feet to a horse.

Of the food contained in the second story, it is observed by Beauteo, from Columella, that thirty or forty pounds of hay ordinarily suffices an ox for a day; and that a solid cubit of hay, as usually pressed down in our hay-ricks, weighs about forty pounds; so that a square cubit of hay is more than enough per day for an ox. Now it appears, that the second story contained one hundred and fifty thousand square cubits; which, divided between two hundred and six oxen, will afford to each, more hay by two-thirds than he can eat in a year.

Bishop Wilkins computes all the carnivorous animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their bodies, and their food, to twenty-seven wolves; and all the rest to two hundred and eighty beeves. For the former he allows the sustenance of eighteen hundred and twenty-five sheep; and for the latter, one hundred and nine thousand five hundred cubits of hay: all which will be easily contained in the two first stories, and much room to spare. As to the third story, nobody doubts of its being sufficient for the fowls, with Noah, his sons, and daughters.

Upon the whole, the learned Bishop remarks, that of the two, it appears much more difficult to assign a sufficient number and bulk of necessary things to answer the capacity of the ark, than to find room enough for the several species of animals already known to have been there. This he attributes to the imperfection of our lists of animals, especially those of the unknown parts of the earth; adding, that the most expert mathematician, at this day, could not assign the proportions of a vessel better accommodated to the purpose, than is here done; and hence finally concludes, that "the capacity of the ark, which has been made an objection against scripture, ought to be esteemed a confirmation of its divine authority: since, in those ruder ages, men, being less versed in arts and philosophy, were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now; so that, had it been of human invention, it would have been contrived according to those wild apprehensions which arise from a confused and general view of things; as much too big, as it has been represented too little."

THE GALLEY OF HIERO.--It is to Hiero that Syracuse was indebted for those amazing machines of war, which the Syracusans made use of when besieged by the Romans. The public buildings, such as palaces, temples, arsenals, &c. which were erected in Syracuse, by his order, and under the direction of Archimedes, were the greatest ornaments of that stately metropolis. He caused also an infinite number of ships to be built, for the exportation of corn, in which the whole riches of the island consisted. We are told of a galley built by his order, which was looked upon as one of the wonders of that age. Archimedes, who was overseer of the work, spent a whole year in finishing it, Hiero daily animating the workmen with his presence. This ship had twenty benches of oars, three spacious apartments, and all the conveniences of a large palace. The floors of the middle apartment were all inlaid, and represented in various colours the stories of Homer's Iliad. The ceilings, windows, and all other parts, were finished with wonderful art, and embellished with all kinds of ornaments. In the uppermost apartment there was a spacious gymnasium, or place of exercise, and walks, with gardens, and plants of all kinds, disposed in wonderful order. Pipes, some of hardened clay, and others of lead, conveyed water all round to refresh them. But the finest of the apartments was that of Venus: the floors were inlaid with agates, and other precious stones; the inside was lined with cypress-wood; and the windows were adorned with ivory, paintings, and small statues. In this apartment there was a library, a bath with three great coppers, and a bathing vessel made of one single stone, of various colours, containing two hundred and fifty quarts. It was supplied with water from a great reservoir at the head of the ship, which held a hundred thousand quarts. The vessel was adorned on all sides with fine paintings, and had eight towers of equal dimensions, two at the head, two at the stern, and four in the middle. Round these towers were parapets, from whence stones might be discharged against the enemy's vessels when they approached. Each tower was constantly guarded by four young men completely armed, and two archers. To the side of the vessel was fastened an engine, made by Archimedes, which threw a stone of three hundred pounds weight, and an arrow eighteen feet in length, the distance of a stadium, or a hundred and twenty-five feet. Though the hold of this vessel was exceedingly deep, a single man could soon clear it of water, with a machine invented for that purpose by Archimedes.

The story of this magnificent vessel was celebrated in poetic numbers by an Athenian poet, for which he was rewarded by Hiero, who understood the value of verse, with a thousand medimni, that is, six thousand bushels of wheat, which he caused to be carried to the Pyræus, or port of Athens. Hiero afterwards made a present of this great vessel to Ptolemy, (probably Philadephus,) king of Egypt, and sent it to Alexandria. As there was at that time a great famine in Egypt, good king Hiero sent along with it several other ships of less burden, with three hundred thousand quarters of corn, ten thousand great earthen jars of salt fish, twenty thousand quintals of salt meat, and an immense quantity of other provisions.

XERXES' BRIDGE OF BOATS OVER THE HELLESPONT.--Xerxes, having resolved to attack Greece, that he might omit nothing which could contribute to the success of his undertaking, entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians, who were, at that time, the most powerful people of the west; whereby it was agreed, that, while the Persians invaded Greece, the Carthaginians should fall upon the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, that thereby they might be diverted from helping each other. The Carthaginians appointed Hamilcar their general, who not only raised what forces he could in Africa, but with the money sent him by Xerxes, hired a great many mercenaries in Spain, Gaul, and Italy; so that his army consisted of three hundred thousand men, besides a proportionable number of ships for transporting his forces, and the necessary provisions. Thus Xerxes, agreeable to the prophecy of Daniel, having, by his strength through his riches, stirred up all the nations of the then known world, against the realm of Greece, that is, all the west under the command of Hamilcar, and all the east under his own banners, set out from Susa, to enter upon this war, in the fifth year of his reign, after having spent three years in making vast preparations throughout all the provinces of his wide-spreading empire. From Susa he marched to Sardis, which was the place appointed for the general rendezvous of all his land forces, while his navy advanced along the coasts of Asia Minor, towards the Hellespont.

Two things Xerxes commanded to be done before he came to the sea-side; one of which was, that a passage should be cut through Mount Athos. This mountain reaches a great way into the sea, in the form of a peninsula, and is joined to the land by an isthmus twelve furlongs over. The sea in this place is very tempestuous, and the Persian fleet had formerly suffered shipwreck in doubling this promontory. To prevent the like disaster, Xerxes caused this passage to be cut through the mountain, broad enough to let two galleys, with three banks of oars each, pass in front. By this means, he severed from the continent the cities of Dion, Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thysus, and Cleone. It is said, however, that Xerxes undertook this enterprise only out of ostentation, and to perpetuate the memory of his name, since he might, with far less trouble, have caused his fleet to be conveyed over the isthmus, as was the practice in those days.

He likewise commanded a bridge of boats to be laid over the Hellespont, for the passing of his forces from Asia into Europe. The sea which separates Sestos and Abydos, where the bridge was built, is seven furlongs over. The work was carried on with great expedition by the Phoenicians and Egyptians, who had no sooner finished it, but a violent storm arising, broke it in pieces, and dispersed or dashed against the shore the vessels of which it was composed: which when Xerxes heard, he fell into such a violent transport of anger, that he commanded three hundred stripes to be inflicted on the sea, and a pair of fetters to be thrown into it; enjoining those who were trusted with the execution of his orders, to pronounce these words:--"Thou salt and bitter element, thy master has condemned thee to this punishment, for offending him without cause; and is resolved to pass over thee, in spite of thy billows, and insolent resistance." The extravagant folly and madness of this prince did not stop here, for, to crown the whole, he commanded the heads of those who had the direction of the work to be struck off.

In their room he appointed more experienced architects to build two other bridges, one for the army, the other for the beasts of burden, and the baggage. When the whole work was completed, and the vessels which formed the bridges secure against the violence of the winds, and the current of the water, Xerxes departed from Sardis, where the army had wintered, and directed his march to Abydos. When he arrived at that city, he desired to see all his forces together; and, to that end, ascending a stately edifice of white stone, which the Abydenians had built, on purpose to receive him in a manner suitable to his greatness, he had a free prospect to the coast, seeing at one view both his fleet and land forces. The sea was covered with his ships, and the large plains of Abydos with his troops, quite down to the shore. While he was surveying the vast extent of his power, and deeming himself the most happy of mortals, his joy was suddenly turned into grief; he burst into a flood of tears: which Artabanus perceiving, asked him what had made him, in a few moments, pass from an excess of joy to so great a grief. The king replied, that, considering the shortness of human life, he could not restrain his tears; for, of all these numbers of men, not one, said he, will be alive a hundred years hence. Artabanus, who neglected no opportunity of instilling into the young prince's mind sentiments of kindness towards his people, finding him touched with a sense of tenderness and humanity, endeavoured to make him sensible of the obligation that is incumbent upon princes, to alleviate the sorrows, and sweeten the bitterness, which the lives of their subjects are liable to, since it is not in their power to prolong them. In the same conversation, Xerxes asked his uncle, whether, if he had not seen the vision which made him change his mind, he would still persist in the same opinion, and dissuade him from making war upon Greece. Artabanus sincerely owned, that he still had his fears, and was very uneasy concerning two things, the sea and the land; the sea, because there were no ports capable of receiving and sheltering such a fleet, if a storm should arise; and the land, because no country could maintain so numerous an army. The king was very sensible of the strength of his reasoning; but as it was now too late to go back, he made answer, that, in great enterprises, men ought not to enter into so nice a discussion of all the inconveniences that may attend them: that bold and daring undertakings, though subject to many evils and dangers, are preferable to inaction, however safe: that great successes are not otherwise to be obtained than by venturing boldly; and that, if his predecessors had observed such scrupulous and timorous rules of politics, the Persian empire would never have attained to so high a degree of glory and grandeur.

All things being now in readiness, and a day appointed for the passing over of the army, as soon as the first rays of the sun began to appear, all sorts of perfumes were burnt upon the bridge, and the way strewed with myrtle. At the same time, Xerxes, pouring a libation into the sea out of a golden cup, and addressing the sun, implored the assistance of that deity, begging that he might meet with no impediment so great, as to hinder him from carrying his conquering arms to the utmost limits of Europe. This done, he threw the cup into the Hellespont, with a golden bowl, and a Persian cimeter; and the foot and horse began to pass over that bridge which was next to the Euxine, while the carriages and beasts of burden passed over the other, which was placed nearer the Ægean sea. The bridges were boarded, and covered over with earth, having rails on each side, that the horses and cattle might not be frightened at the sight of the sea. The army spent seven days and nights in passing over, though they marched day and night, without intermission, and were, by frequent blows, obliged to quicken their pace. At the same time, the fleet made to the coasts of Europe. After the whole army was passed, Xerxes advanced with his land forces, through the Thracian Chersonessus to Doricus, a city at the mouth of the river Hebrus, in Thrace: but the fleet steered a quite different course, standing to the westward for the promontory of Sarpedon, where they were commanded to attend farther orders. Xerxes, having encamped in the large plains of Doriscus, and judging them convenient for reviewing and numbering his troops, dispatched orders to his admirals to bring the fleet to the adjacent shore, that he might take an account both of his sea and land forces. His land army, upon the muster, was found to consist of one million seven hundred thousand foot, and fourscore thousand horse; which, together with twenty thousand men that conducted the camels, and took care of the baggage, amounted to one million eight hundred thousand men. His fleet consisted of twelve hundred and seven large ships, and three thousand galleys and transports: on board of all these vessels, there were found to be five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten men. So that the whole number of sea and land forces, which Xerxes led out of Asia to invade Greece, amounted to two millions three hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten men.

We are told, that, on his passing the Hellespont, to enter Europe, an inhabitant of that country cried out: "O Jupiter, why art thou come to destroy Greece, in the shape of a Persian, and under the name of Xerxes, with all mankind following thee; whereas thy own power is sufficient to do this, without their assistance?" After he had entered Europe, the nations on this side the Hellespont that submitted to him, added to his land forces three hundred thousand more, and two hundred and twenty ships to his fleet, on board of which were twenty-four thousand men. So that the whole number of his forces, when he arrived at Thermopylæ, was two millions six hundred and forty-one thousand six hundred and ten men, without including servants, eunuchs, women, sutlers, and other people of that sort, who were computed to equal the number of the forces: so that the whole multitude of persons that followed Xerxes in this expedition, amounted to five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty. Among these millions of men, there was not one that could vie with Xerxes, either in comeliness or stature, or that seemed more worthy of that great empire. But this is a poor recommendation, when unaccompanied with other qualifications of more sterling worth. Accordingly, Justin, after he has mentioned the number of his troops, emphatically concludes, "but this vast body wanted a head." Besides the subordinate generals of each nation, who commanded the troops of their respective countries, the whole army was under the command of six Persian generals: viz. Mardonius, the son of Gobryus: Triatatæchmes, the son of Artabanus; Smerdones, the son of Otanes (the two latter were cousins to Xerxes;) Masistus, the son of Darius by Atossa; Gerges, the son of Ariazus; and Megabyzus, the son of the celebrated Zopyrus. The ten thousand Persians, who were called the Immortal Band, obeyed no other commander but Hydarnes. The fleet was commanded by four Persian admirals: and likewise the cavalry had their particular generals and commanders.

CHAP. LVIII.

BASALTIC AND ROCKY CURIOSITIES.

Giant's Causeway--Stonehenge.

GIANT'S CAUSEWAY, IN IRELAND.--The following account is taken from notes of a mineralogical excursion to the Giant's Causeway, by the Rev. Dr. Grierson, as published in the Annals of Philosophy.

"I left (says the Doctor) Colerain on the morning of Sept. 17, in company with a gentleman of that place, whose obligingness, intelligence, hospitality, and kindness, afforded me a most agreeable specimen of the Irish character, and proceeded to Giant's Causeway. The day was charming; and it is not easy for me to express the gratification I felt, as we made our way through a fine and gently varied district, at the idea of having it in my power soon to contemplate in favourable circumstances one of the most stupendous and interesting natural phenomena, that are any where to be seen. From Coleraine to the Causeway is eight miles in a northerly direction, and I could observe no rock on our way, but the trap formation. On crossing the river Bush, at the village called Bushmills, the country begins gradually to rise, and we descry, about two miles before us, a ridge of considerable height, seeming to terminate quite abruptly on the other side. What we perceive is the land side of the precipice of the Giant's Causeway. It seems to have been a hill of basalt, with nearly perpendicular columnar concretions, cut in two, as it were, by a vertical section, and the half of the hill next the sea carried away. On getting in front of this precipice, which you do by a pass on the west side of it, a most stupendous scene presents itself. The precipice, extending for a mile or two along the shore, is in many places quite perpendicular, and often three hundred and fifty and four hundred feet high, consisting of pure columnar basalt, some of the columns fifty feet in perpendicular height, straight and smooth, as if polished with a chisel. In other parts the columns are smaller, inclined, or bent; and a less length of them strikes the eye. From the bottom of this precipice issues, with a gentle slope of about one foot in thirty towards the sea, an immense and surprising pavement, as it were, consisting of the upper ends of the fragments of vertical columns of basalt, that have been left when the seaward half of the basaltic hill was carried off. The ends of these columns are in general fifteen or twenty inches in diameter, some of them of three sides, some four, five, six, seven, eight, or even nine. Five or six sides seem to prevail most. From the bottom of the precipice to the sea at low water, along this pavement or causeway, which, from the artificial appearance it puts on, has doubtless, in a rude age, given name to the place, is a length of seven hundred and thirty feet. It has been observed to proceed into the ocean as far as can be traced by the eye in a calm and clear day. To any person who has seen both this place and Staffa, the idea naturally enough suggests itself, that they are parts of the same once continuous immense bed of columnar basalt.

"There are properly three pavements proceeding into the sea, distinguished by the names of the Great Causeway, the Middle Causeway, and the West Causeway. These are three large gently sloping ridges of the ends of basaltic columns, with depressions between them, covered with large blocks or masses, that seem to have been from time to time detached, and rolled from the precipice. I had no opportunity of perceiving with what rocks the basalt of the Giant's Causeway is connected. I am told conchoidal white lime-stone meets it on both the east and west sides. There is in one place, near the east side of the Great Causeway, a green-stone vein, eight or ten feet wide, intersecting the basalt from north-west to south-east.

"There was now pointed out to us by the guides a very rare and curious phenomenon, and which is particularly interesting, as it has been thought, by those who hold the igneous origin of basalt, to be a confirmation of their doctrine. Nearly opposite to the West Causeway, and within about eighty feet of the top of the cliff, is found to exist a quantity of slags and ashes, unquestionably the production of fire. On ascending to this spot, which can be easily done, I found the slags and ashes deposited in a sort of bed about four feet thick, and running horizontally along the face of the basaltic precipice twenty or thirty feet. The ashes are in general observed to lie undermost, and the slags above them. They are covered with a considerable quantity of earth and stones, which all consist of basalt, are of a large size, some of them three or four feet or more in diameter, and the ashes likewise rest on the same sort of materials. What struck me here was, that these ashes and slags are entirely unconnected with any rock or formation which seems to be in situ, or in its original position. They are therefore, in my opinion, distinctly artificial, and nothing more than the remains of some large and powerful fire, which had been kept burning for a long while on the top of this precipice, used either as a signal, or for some other purpose which we cannot now ascertain; and that, owing to the part of the cliff on which the ashes were lying having given way and tumbled down, they have been thus buried beneath the ruins, and there remain.

"A considerable way from the repository of the ashes and slags, and to the east of the Great Causeway, is another curious appearance. Here, in the pure basalt, seventy or eighty feet from the top of the cliff, is a horizontal bed of wood coal, eight feet thick. The coal to all appearance rests immediately on the basalt below, and the ends of perpendicular basaltic columns are seen distinctly to rest on it above. The basalt is not in the least changed by the contact of the coal, nor the coal by that of the basalt. The coal is very beautiful and distinct, and in one place is seen a coalified tree, (if I may use the word,) ten or twelve inches in diameter, running directly in below the basalt.

"Within sight of this spot, and about three hundred yards to the east of it, are the beautifully conspicuous basaltic pillars, forty-five feet long, and vertical, with the longest ones in the middle, and others gradually shortening towards each side, like the columns of an organ. From this appearance they have received the appropriate name of The Organ.

"At the bottom of this cliff, by examining and breaking the loose columnar pieces of the rock that have fallen down, we found many fine specimens of calcedony, zeolite, and semi-opal. These occur in cavities in the basalt. Sometimes the cavity is not completely filled with the calcedony or opal; and when that is the case, the empty space is observed to be always the upper part of the cavity, while the rock is in situ. Moreover, the surface of the calcedony or opal, next to the empty space, is always found to be flat and horizontal, which would shew that the substance must have been filtered into its situation in a fluid state, and afterwards consolidated."

STONEHENGE,--a celebrated monument of antiquity, stands in the middle of a flat area, near the summit of a hill six miles from Salisbury. It is inclosed by a circular double bank and ditch near thirty feet broad, after crossing which, we ascend thirty yards before we reach the work. The whole fabric consisted of two circles and two ovals. The outer circle is about one hundred and eight feet diameter, consisting, when entire, of sixty stones, thirty uprights, and thirty imposts, of which remain only twenty-four uprights, seventeen standing, and seven down, three and a half feet asunder; and eight imposts. Eleven uprights have their five imposts on them by the grand entrance. These stones are from thirteen to twenty feet high. The lesser circle is somewhat more than eight feet from the inside of the outer one, and consisted of forty lesser stones (the highest six feet,) of which only nineteen remain, and only eleven standing: the walk between these two circles is three hundred feet in circumference. The adytum, or cell, is an oval formed of ten stones, (from sixteen to twenty-two feet high,) in pairs, with imposts, which Dr. Stukeley calls trilithons, and above thirty feet high, rising in height as they go round, and each pair separate, and not connected as the outer pair; the highest eight feet. Within these are nineteen smaller single stones, of which only six are standing. Three of the five trilithons at the west end fell flat westward, levelling also in their descent, a stone of the second circle that stood in the line of their precipitation, on the 3d of January, 1797. At the upper end of the adytum is the altar, a large slab of blue coarse marble, twenty inches thick, sixteen feet long, and four broad; pressed down by the weight of the vast stones that have fallen upon it. The whole number of stones, uprights and altar, is exactly one hundred and forty. The stones are far from being artificial, but were most probably brought from those called the Grey Weathers, on Marlborough Downs, fifteen or sixteen miles off; and if tried with a tool, they appear of the same hardness, grain, and colour, generally reddish. The heads of oxen, deer, and other beasts, have been found on digging in and about Stonehenge; and human bones in the circumjacent barrows. There are three entrances from the plain to this structure, the most considerable of which is from the north-east, and at each of them were raised, on the outside of the trench, two huge stones, with two smaller within, parallel to them.

It has long been a dispute among the learned, by what nation, and for what purpose, these enormous stones were collected and arranged. The first account of this structure we meet with, is in Geoffrey of Monmouth, who, in the reign of King Stephen, wrote the History of the Britons, in Latin. He tells us, that it was erected by the counsel of Merlin, the British enchanter, at the command of Aurelius Ambrosius, the British king, in memory of four hundred and sixty Britons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon. The next account is that of Polydore Virgil, who says that the Britons erected this as a sepulchral monument of Boadicea, the famous British queen. Inigo Jones is of opinion, that it was a Roman temple, from a stone sixteen feet long, and four broad, placed in an exact position to the east, altar-fashion. Mr. Charlton attributed it to the Danes, who where two years masters of Wiltshire: a tin tablet, on which were some unknown characters, supposed to be Runic, was dug up near it, in the reign of Henry VIII. but is lost.

Its common name, Stonehenge, is Saxon, and signifies a Stone Gallows, to which these stones, having transverse imposts, bear some resemblance. It is also called, in Welsh, Choir Gawr, or the Giant's Dance. Mr. Grose thinks that Dr. Stukeley has completely proved this structure to have been a British temple, in which the Druids officiated. He supposes it to have been the metropolitan temple of Great Britain, and translates the words choir gawr, the great choir, or temple. Mr. Bryant is of opinion, that it was erected by a colony of Cuthites, probably before the time of the Druids; because it was usual with them to place one vast stone upon another, for a religious memorial; and these they often placed so equally, that a breath of wind would sometimes make them vibrate. Of such stones, one remains in the pile of Stonehenge. The ancients distinguished stones erected with a religious view, by the name of Amber; by which was signified any thing solar and divine. The Grecians called them petræ ambrosiæ. Stonehenge, according to Mr. Bryant, is composed of these amber stones: hence the next town is denominated Ambresbury; not from a Roman Ambrosius, but from the ambrosia petræ, in whose vicinity it stood. Some of these were Rocking Stones; and there was a wonderful monument of this sort near Penzance, in Cornwall, which still retains the name of Main-amber, or the Sacred Stones. Such a one is mentioned by Apollonius Rhodius, supposed to have been raised in the time of the Argonauts, in the island of Tenos, as the monument of the two-winged sons of Boreas, slain by Hercules; and there are others in China, and other countries.

CHAP. LIX.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE VARIOUS CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.

Curious Demonstrations of Friendship--Singularities of different Nations in Eating--Female Beauty and Ornaments--Various Modes of Salutation--Maiden--Lady of the Lamb--Curious Custom respecting Catching a Hare--Extraordinary Ancient Custom.

----------------------------Customs, Though they be never so ridiculous, Nay, let e'm be unmanly, yet are follow'd. Shakspeare.

CURIOUS DEMONSTRATIONS OF FRIENDSHIP.--The demonstrations of friendship in a rude state have a savage and gross character, which it is not a little curious to observe. The Tartars pull a man by the ear to press him to drink, and they continue tormenting him till he opens his mouth; and when they have accomplished their object, they clap their hands and dance before him.

No customs seem more ridiculous, than those practised by a Kamtschadale, when he wishes to make another his friend. He first invites him to his hut to eat. If the invitation is accepted, the host and his guest strip themselves in a cabin, which is heated to an uncommon degree. While the guest devours the food with which they serve him, the other continually stirs the fire. The stranger must bear the excess of the heat, as well as of the repast. He discharges the food from his stomach ten times before he will yield; but at length, obliged to acknowledge himself overcome, he begins to compound matters. He purchases a moment's respite by a present of clothes or dogs; for his host threatens to heat the cabin, and to oblige him to eat till he dies. The stranger has the right of retaliation allowed to him: he treats the other in the same manner, and exacts the same presents. Should his host not accept the invitation of his guest, whom he has so handsomely regaled, he would come and inhabit his cabin, till he had obtained from him the presents he had in so singular a manner given to him.

For this extravagant custom a curious reason has been alleged. It is meant to put the person to a trial, where friendship is sought. The Kamtschadale, who is at the expense of the fires and the repast, is desirous to know if the stranger has the strength to support pain with him, and if he is generous enough to share with him some part of his property. While the guest is employed on his meal, he continues heating the cabin to an insupportable degree, and, as a last proof of the stranger's constancy and attachment, he exacts more clothes and more dogs. The host passes through the same ceremonies in the cabin of the stranger; and he shews in his turn, with what degree of fortitude he can defend his friend.--It is thus the most singular customs would appear simple, if it were possible for the philosopher to contemplate them on the spot.

As a distinguishing mark of esteem, two friendly Negroes of Ardra drink out of one cup at the same time. The king of Loango eats in one house, and drinks in another. A Kamtschadale kneels before his guest; he cuts an enormous slice from a sea-calf; he crams it entire into the mouth of his friend, furiously crying out, Tana! (There!) and cutting away what hangs about his lips, snatches and swallows it with avidity.

SINGULARITIES OF DIFFERENT NATIONS IN EATING.--The Maldivian islanders eat alone. They retire into the most hidden parts of their houses; when they draw down the cloths that serve as blinds to their windows, that they may eat unobserved. This custom probably arises from the savage, in the early periods of society, concealing himself to eat, from a fear that another with as sharp an appetite, but possessing more bodily strength than himself, should come and ravish his meal from him. The powerful ideas of witchcraft, too, are widely spread among barbarians; and they are not a little fearful that some incantation may be made use of while devouring their victuals.

In noticing the solitary meal of the Maldivian islander, another reason may be alleged for this misanthropical repast. They never will eat with any one who is inferior to them in birth, in riches, or in dignity; and as it is a difficult matter to settle this equality, they are condemned to lead this unsociable life.

On the contrary, the islanders of the Philippines are remarkably sociable. Whenever one of them finds himself without a companion to partake of his meal, he runs till he meets with one; and we are assured, that, however keen his appetite may be, he ventures not to satisfy it without a guest.

The tables of the rich Chinese shine with a beautiful varnish, and are covered with silk carpets very elegantly worked. They do not make use of plates, or knives and forks: every guest has two little ivory or ebony sticks, which he handles very adroitly.

The Otaheiteans, who are lovers of society, and very gentle in their manners, feed separately from each other. At the hour of repast, the members of each family divide; two brothers, two sisters, and even husband and wife, father and mother, have each their respective basket.

They place themselves at the distance of two or three yards from each other; they turn their backs to their companions, and take their meal in profound silence.

Various are the opinions and customs of mankind with respect to FEMALE BEAUTY AND ORNAMENTS,--as will be perceived from the following prejudices of different nations.

The ladies in Japan gild their teeth; and those of the Indies paint them red. The blackest teeth are esteemed the most beautiful in Guzerat, and in some parts of America. In Greenland the women colour their faces with blue and yellow; and a Muscovite lady would consider her beauty incomplete, unless she were plastered over with paint, however prodigal nature may have been in her gifts. The Chinese must have their feet as diminutive as those of the she-goats, and to render them thus, their youth is passed in tortures. In ancient Persia, an aquiline nose was often thought worthy of the crown; and if there was any competition between two princes, the people generally went by this criterion of majesty. In some countries, the mothers break the noses of their children; and others press the head between two boards, that it may become square. The modern Persians have a strong aversion to red hair: the Turks, on the contrary, are warm admirers of it. The Indian beauty is thickly smeared with bear's fat; while the female Hottentot regrets not the absence of silks and wreaths of flowers, if she can but receive from the hand of her lover the warm entrails and reeking tripe of animals he has just slaughtered, that she may deck herself with these enviable ornaments.

In China, small eyes are liked; and the girls are continually plucking their eyebrows, that they may be small and long. The Turkish women dip a gold brush in the tincture of a black drug, which they pass over their eyebrows. This is too visible by day, but it looks shining by night. They also tinge their nails with a rose colour.

An ornament for the nose appears to us perfectly unnecessary. The Peruvians, however, think otherwise; and they hang on it a weighty ring, the thickness of which is regulated by the rank of their husbands. The custom of boring the nose, as our ladies do their ears, is very common in several nations. Through the perforation are hung various materials; such as green crystal, gold, stones, a single and sometimes a great number of gold rings, which become at times rather troublesome to them.

The female head-dress is carried in some countries to singular extravagance. The Chinese fair carries on her head the figure of a certain bird. This bird is composed of copper or of gold, according to the quality of the person: the wings spread out, fall over the front of the head-dress, and conceal the temples; the tail, long and open, forms a beautiful tuft of feathers; the beak covers the top of the nose; the neck is fastened to the body of the artificial animal by a spring, that it may the more freely play, and tremble at the slightest motion.

The extravagance of the Myantses is far more ridiculous than the above. They carry on their heads a slight board, rather longer than the foot, and about six inches broad: with this they cover their hair, and seal it with wax. They cannot lie down, nor lean, without keeping the neck very straight; and the country being very woody, it is not uncommon to find them with their head-dress entangled in the trees. Whenever they comb their hair, they pass an hour by the fire in melting the wax; but this combing is only performed once or twice a year.

To this curious account, extracted from Duhalde, we must join that of the inhabitants of the land of Natal. They wear caps or bonnets, from six to ten inches high, composed of the fat of oxen. They then gradually anoint the head with a purer grease, which mixing with the hair, fastens these bonnets for their lives.

The reader will be amused with the following account of THE VARIOUS MODES OF SALUTATION.--When men, says the compiler of L'Esprit des Usages et des Coutumes, salute each other in an amicable manner, it signifies little whether they move a particular part of the body, or practise a particular ceremony. In these actions there must exist different customs. Every nation imagines it employs the most reasonable ones. This infinite number of ceremonies may be reduced to two kinds; to reverences or salutations, and to the touch of some part of the human body. Modes of salutation have very different characters, and it is not uninteresting to examine their shades. Many display a refinement of delicacy; while others are remarkable for their simplicity, or sensibility.

The islanders near the Philippines take the hand or foot of him they salute, and with it they gently rub their face. The Laplanders apply their nose strongly against that of the persons they salute. Dampier says, that at New Guinea they are satisfied in placing on their heads the leaves of trees, which have ever passed for symbols of friendship and peace. Other salutations are very incommodious: it requires great practice to enable a man to be polite in an island in the straits of the Sound. Houtman tells us, "they raised his left foot, which they passed gently over the right leg, and thence over his face." The inhabitants of the Philippines bend their bodies very low, in placing their hands on their cheeks, and raising at the same time one foot in the air, with their knee bent. An Ethiopian takes the robe of another, and ties it about his own waist, so that he leaves his friend half naked. This custom of undressing takes other forms: sometimes men place themselves naked before the person whom they salute, to show their humility, and that they are unworthy of a covering in his presence. This was practised before Sir Joseph Banks, when he received the visit of two Otaheitan ladies. Their innocent simplicity did not appear immodest in the eyes of the virtuoso. Sometimes they only undress partially. The Japanese only take off a slipper; the people of Arracan their sandals in the street, and their stockings in the house. The grandees of Spain claim the right of appearing covered before the king, to shew that they are not so much subjected to him as the rest of the nation.

Snelgrave gives an odd representation of the embassy which the king of Dahomy sent to him. The ceremonies of salutations consisted in the most ridiculous contortions. When two negro monarchs visit, they salute by snapping three times the middle finger. Barbarous nations frequently imprint on their salutations their character. When the inhabitants of Carmena (says Athenæus) would shew a peculiar mark of esteem, they breathed a vein, and presented for the beverage of their friend the blood as it issued. The Franks tore hair from their head, and presented it to the person whom they saluted. The slave cut his hair, and offered it to his master. The Chinese are singularly affected in their personal civilities: they even calculate the number of their reverences. The men move their hands in an affectionate manner, while they are joined together on their breast, and bow their head a little. If two persons meet after a long separation, they both fall on their knees and bend their faces to the earth, and this they repeat two or three times. They substitute artificial ceremonies for natural actions. Their expressions mean as little as their ceremonies. If a Chinese is asked how he finds himself in health? He answers, "Very well, thanks to your abundant felicity." If they would tell a man that he looks well, they say, "Prosperity is painted on your face;" or, "Your air announces your happiness." All these and many other answers are prescribed by the Chinese academy of compliments. There are determined the number of bows, the expressions to be employed, the genuflections, and the inclinations to be made to the right or left hand, the salutations of the master before the chair, where the stranger is to be seated, for he salutes it most profoundly, and wipes the dust away with the skirts of his robe. The lower class of people are equally nice in these punctilios; and ambassadors pass forty days in practising them before they can appear at court. A tribunal of ceremonies has been erected, and every day very odd decrees are issued, to which the Chinese most religiously submit. The marks of honour are frequently arbitrary: to be seated, with us, is a mark of repose and familiarity; to stand up, that of respect. There are countries, however, in which princes will only be addressed by persons who are seated, and it is considered as a favour to be permitted to stand in their presence. This custom prevails in despotic countries: a despot cannot suffer, without disgust, the elevated figure of his subjects; he is pleased to bend their bodies with their genius; his presence must lay those who behold him prostrate on the earth; he desires no eagerness, no attention; he would only inspire terror.

We shall next give an account of THE MAIDEN.--This term is applied to an ancient English custom, or, more properly, to an instrument for beheading criminals; of the use and form of which Mr. Pennant gives the following account: "It seems to have been confined to the limits of the forest of Hardwick, or the eighteen towns and hamlets within its precincts. The time when this custom took place is unknown; whether Earl Warren, lord of this forest, might have established it among the sanguinary laws then in use against the invaders of the hunting rights, or whether it might not take place after the woollen manufactures at Halifax began to gain strength, is uncertain. The last is very probable, for the wild country around the town was inhabited by a lawless set, whose depredations on the cloth-tenters might soon stifle the efforts of infant industry. For the protection of trade, and for the greater terror of offenders by speedy execution, this custom seems to be established, so as at last to receive the force of law, which was 'That if a felon be taken within the liberty of the forest of Hardwick, with goods stolen out, or within the said precincts, either handhaband, backberand, or confessioned, to the value of thirteen-pence-halfpenny, he shall, after three market days, or meeting days, within the town of Halifax, next after such his apprehension, and being condemned, be taken to the gibbet, and there have his head cut from his body.' The offender had always a fair trial; for as soon as he was taken, he was brought to the lord's bailiff, at Halifax: he was then exposed to the three markets, (which here were held thrice in a week,) placed in the stocks, with the goods stolen on his back, or, if the theft was of the cattle kind, they were placed by him; and this was done both to strike terror into others, and to produce new informations against him.

"The bailiff then summoned four freeholders of each town within the forest, to form a jury. The felon and prosecutors were brought face to face; and the goods, the cow, or horse, or whatsoever was stolen, produced. If he was found guilty, he was remanded to prison, had a week's time allowed for preparation, and then was conveyed to this spot, where his head was struck off with this machine. I should have premised, that if the criminal, either on apprehension, or in the way of execution, should escape out of the limits of the forest, (part being close to the town,) the bailiff had no further power over him; but if he should be caught within the precincts at any time after, he was immediately executed on his former sentence.

"This privilege was very freely used during the reign of Elizabeth; the records before that time are lost. Twenty-five suffered in her reign, and at least twelve from 1623 to 1650; after which, I believe, the privilege was no more exerted.

"This machine of death is now destroyed; but I saw one of the same kind in a room under the parliament-house at Edinburgh, where it was introduced by the regent Morton, who took a model of it as he passed through Halifax, and at length suffered by it himself. It is in form of a painter's easel, and about ten feet high: at four feet from the bottom is a cross bar, on which the felon lays his head, which is kept down by another placed above. In the inner edges of the frames are grooves; in these is placed a sharp axe, with a vast weight of lead, supported at the very summit with a peg: to that peg is fastened a cord, which the executioner cutting, the axe falls, and does the affair effectually, without suffering the unhappy criminal to undergo a repetition of strokes, as has been the case in the common method. I must add, that if the sufferer is condemned for stealing a horse or a cow, the string is tied to the beast, which, on being whipped, pulls out the peg, and becomes the executioner." This apparatus is now in possession of the Scottish Antiquarian Society.

LADY OF THE LAMB.--At Kidlington, in Oxfordshire, there is a custom, that on the next Monday after Whitsun-week, there is a fat live lamb provided, and the maids of the town, having their thumbs tied behind them, run after it; and she that with her mouth takes and holds the lamb, is declared Lady of the Lamb,--which being dressed by the butcher, with the skin hanging on, is carried on a long pole before the lady and her companions to the green, attended with music, and a morisco-dance of men, and another of women, where the rest of the day is spent in dancing, mirth, and merry glee. The next day the lamb is part baked, boiled, and roasted, for the lady's feast; where she sits majestically, at the upper end of the table, and her companions with her, with music and other attendants, which ends the ceremony.

The following is a CURIOUS CUSTOM RESPECTING CATCHING A HARE.--They have an ancient custom at Coleshill, in the county of Warwick, that if the young men of the town can catch a hare, and bring it to the parson of the parish, before ten of the clock on Easter Monday, the parson is bound to give them a calf's head, and an hundred of eggs for their breakfast, and a groat in money.

This chapter concludes with an account of an EXTRAORDINARY ANCIENT CUSTOM.--A court, called Lawless Court, is held annually on Kingshill, at Rochford, in Essex, on Wednesday morning next after Michaelmas-day, at cock-crowing, at which court the whole of the business is transacted in a whisper; no candle is allowed in the court, nor any pen and ink, but the proceedings are written with a piece of charcoal; and he that holds suit and service there, and does not appear, forfeits double the amount of his rent to the lord of the manor This court is mentioned by Camden, who says, "the servile attendance was imposed on the tenants for conspiring at the like unseasonable time to raise a commotion." It belongs to the honour of Raleigh, and is called Lawless, because held at an unlawful hour, or, quia dicta sine lege.

CHAP. LX.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.--(Continued.)

Marriage Ceremonies of different Nations--Marriage Custom of the Japanese--Bacon Flitch Custom at Dunmow, Essex--On the Origin of Rings in general--Matrimonial Ring--Extraordinary Marriage Custom--Hand-Fasting.

Tho' fools spurn Hymen's gentle pow'rs, They who improve his golden hours, By sweet experience know, That marriage, rightly understood, Gives to the tender and the good A paradise below. Cotton.

MARRIAGE CEREMONIES OF DIFFERENT NATIONS.--Marriage ceremonies vary in different countries, and at different times. Where the practice is to purchase a wife, whether among savages, or among luxurious people in hot climates, payment of the price completes this marriage, without any other ceremony. Other ceremonies, however, are sometimes practised. In old Rome, the bride was attended to the bridegroom's house, with a female slave carrying a distaff and a spindle, importing that she ought to spin for the family. Among the savages of Canada, and of neighbouring countries, a strap, a kettle, and a faggot, are put in the bride's cabin, as symbols of her duty, viz. to carry burdens, to dress victuals, and to provide wood. On the other hand, the bride, in token of her slavery, takes her axe, cuts wood, bundles it up, and lays it before the door of the bridegroom's hut. All the salutation she receives is, "It is time to go to rest." The inhabitants of Sierra Leone, on the coast of Africa, have in all their towns a boarding-school, where young ladies are educated for a year, under the care of a venerable old gentleman. When their education is completed, they are carried in their best attire to a public assembly; which may be termed a matrimonial market, because there young men convene to make a choice. Those who fit themselves to their fancy pay the dowry; and, over and above, reward the old superintendant for his extraordinary care in educating the bride. In the island of Java, the bride, in token of subjection, washes the bridegroom's feet; and this is a capital ceremony. In Russia, the bride presents to the bridegroom a bundle of rods, to be used against her when she deserves to be chastised; and at the same time she pulls off his boots. Very different were the manners of Peru before the Spanish conquest. The bridegroom carried shoes to the bride, and put them on with his own hands; but there, purchasing wives is unknown. Marriage ceremonies in Lapland are directed by the same principle. It is the custom there, for a man to make presents to his children of rein-deer; and young women who have a large stock of these animals, have lovers in plenty. A young man looks for such a wife at a fair, or at a meeting for paying taxes. Being solicitous, in particular, to have an eloquent pleader, he carries to the house of the young woman some of his relations. They are all admitted except the lover, who must wait till he be called in. After drinking some spirits, brought with them for the purpose, the spokesman addresses the father in humble terms, bowing the knee, as if he were introduced to a prince. He styles him the worshipful father, the high and mighty father, the best and most illustrious father, &c.

The marriage ceremonies among the Hottentots are of a singular nature. After all matters are adjusted among the old people, the young couple are shut up by themselves; and pass the night in struggling for superiority, which proves a very serious work, where the bride is reluctant. If she persevere to the last without yielding, the young man is discarded; but, if he prevail, which commonly happens, the marriage is completed by another ceremony, no less singular. The men and women squat on the ground in different circles, the bridegroom in the centre of one, and the bride in the centre of another, where ceremonies of a most indelicate nature take place. The ceremonies among the present Greeks are no less remarkable. Among other particulars, the bridegroom and bride walk three rounds; during which they are kicked and cuffed heartily. Tournefort adds, that he only and his companions forbore to join in the ceremony; which was ascribed to their rusticity, and ignorance of polite manners. Marriage ceremonies among the Kamtschadales are extremely whimsical. A young man, after making his proposals, enters into the presence of his intended father-in-law. If he prove agreeable, he is admitted to the trial of the touch. The young woman is swaddled up in leathern thongs, and in that condition is put under the guard of some old women. Watching every opportunity of a slack guard, he endeavours to uncase her, in order to touch what is always the most concealed. The bride must resist, in appearance at least; and therefore cries out for her guards, who fall with fury on the bridegroom, tear his hair, scratch his face, and act in violent opposition. The attempts of the lover sometimes prove unsuccessful for months; but the moment the touch is achieved, the bride testifies her satisfaction, by pronouncing the word Ni, Ni, with a soft and loving voice. The next night they associate together without any opposition.

One marriage ceremony among the island negroes is singular. As soon as preliminaries are adjusted, the bridegroom, with a number of his companions, set out at night, and surround the house of the bride, as if intending to carry her off by force. She and her female attendants, pretending to make all possible resistance, cry aloud for help, but no person appears. This resembles strongly a marriage ceremony that is, or was, customary in Wales. On the morning of the wedding-day, the bridegroom, accompanied with his friends on horseback, demands the bride. Her friends, who are likewise on horseback, give a positive refusal; upon which a mock scuffle ensues. The bride, mounted behind her nearest kinsman, is carried off, and is pursued by the bridegroom and his friends, with loud shouts. It is not uncommon on such an occasion to see two or three hundred sturdy Cambro-Britons riding at full speed, crossing and jostling, to the no small amusement of the spectators. When they have fatigued themselves and their horses, the bridegroom is suffered to overtake his bride. He leads her away in triumph, and the scene is concluded with feasting and festivity. The same marriage ceremony was usual in Muscovy, Lithuania, and Livonia, as reported by Olaus Magnus.

MARRIAGE CUSTOM OF THE JAPANESE.--A very singular custom at the marriages of the Japanese, is, that the teeth of the bride are made black by some corrosive liquid. The teeth remain black ever after, and serve to shew that a woman is married, or a widow. Another circumstance is, at the birth of every child, to plant a tree in a garden or court-yard, which attains its full growth in as many years as a man requires to be mature for the duties of marriage. When he marries, the tree is cut down, and the wood is made into chests and boxes, to contain the clothes and other things which are made for the new-married couple.

The Japanese may marry as often as they please: marriages with sisters are prohibited, but they can marry any other relative.

BACON FLITCH CUSTOM AT DUNMOW, ESSEX.--Many persons who are so often jocular about a certain "Flitch of Bacon," with those who are supposed to be in a much happier state than themselves, are not always familiar with the origin of this institution, and with the whimsical rhyming oath to be taken with the flitch. Old Fuller has preserved it, in his very scarce work of the Worthies; and it will probably amuse those who have more wit than reading on this occasion.

The celebrated flitch of bacon of Dunmow, in Essex, which can only be claimed, without perjury, by a select few in the married state, was a jocular institution by the monks of a monastery, in the priory of Dunmow, in Essex. Fuller observes, that these mortified men would be mirthful at times, as hereby may appear.--

"Any person from any part of England, coming hither, and humbly kneeling on two stones at the church door (which are yet to be seen,) before the priory or convent, might demand a gammon or flitch of bacon, upon the solemn taking of the prescribed oath."

The following is a copy of the register of the form and ceremony observed on a claim made more than a century ago, to this flitch of bacon, by William Parsley, of Much-Easton, and Jane, his wife.

Dunmow, Nuper.--"At a court baron of the Priorat' right worshipful Sir Thomas May, knight, there holden upon Friday the seventh of June, in the thirteenth year of the reign of our sovereign Lord William III. by the grace of God, &c. and in the year of our Lord, 1701, before Thomas Wheeler, gent steward of the said manor. It is thus enrolled:--

{"ELIZABETH BEAUMONT, spinster,} {HENRIETTA BEAUMONT, spinster, } Homage. {ANNABELLA BEAUMONT, spinster, } Jurat. {JANE BEAUMONT, spinster, } {MARY WHELER, spinster, }

"Be it remembered, that at this court, in full and open court, it is found, and presented by the homage aforesaid, that William Parsley, of Much-Easton, in the county of Essex, butcher, and Jane his wife, have been married for the space of three years the last past, and upward; and it is likewise found, presented, and adjudged, by the homage aforesaid, that the said William Parsley, and Jane his wife, by means of their quiet, peaceable, tender, and loving cohabitation, for the space of time aforesaid, (as appears by the said homage,) are fit and qualified persons to be admitted by the court to receive the ancient and accustomed oath, whereby to entitle themselves to have the bacon of Dunmow delivered unto them, according to the custom of the manor.

"Whereupon, at this court, in full and open court, came the said William Parsley, and Jane his wife, in their proper persons, and humbly prayed, they might be admitted to take the oath aforesaid; whereupon the said steward, with the jury, suitors, and other officers of the court, proceeded, with the usual solemnity, to the ancient and accustomed place for the administration of the oath and receiving the gammon aforesaid, (that is to say) the two great stones lying near the church door, within the said manor; where the said William Parsley, and Jane his wife, kneeling down on the said two stones, and the said steward did administer unto them the above-mentioned oath in these words, or to this effect following, viz.

You do swear by custom of confession. That you ne'er made nuptial transgression; Nor since you were married man and wife, By household brawls, or contentious strife, Or otherwise, in bed or at board, Offended each other in deed or in word; Or in a twelve months' time and a day, Repented not in thought any way; Or since the church clerk said Amen, Wish'd yourselves unmarried again; But continue true, and in desire As when you join'd hands in holy quire.

"And immediately thereupon, the said William Parsley, and Jane his wife, claiming the same gammon of bacon, the court pronounced the sentence for the same, in these words, or to the effect following:

Since to these conditions, without any fear, Of your own accord you do freely swear, A whole gammon of bacon you do receive, And bear it away with love and good leave, For this is the custom of Dunmow well known;-- Though the pleasure be ours, the bacon's your own.

"And accordingly a gammon of bacon was delivered unto the said William Parsley, and Jane his wife, with the usual solemnity.

"Examined per Thomas Wheeler, steward. The same day a gammon was delivered to Mr. Reynolds, steward to Sir Charles Barington, of Hatfield, Broad Oak."

THE ORIGIN OF RINGS IN GENERAL.--The origin of rings, their matter and uses, together with the supposed virtue of the precious stones set in them, afford a subject well deserving the notice of the curious. According to the accounts of the heathen mythology, Prometheus, who in the first times had discovered a great number of secrets, having been delivered from the chains by which he was fastened to Mount Caucasus for stealing fire from heaven; in memory or acknowledgment of the favour he received from Jupiter, made himself, of one of those chains, a ring, in whose collet he represented the figure of part of the rock where he had been detained, or rather, as Pliny says, set in it a bit of the same rock, and put it on his finger. This was the first ring, and the first stone. But we otherwise learn that the use of rings is very ancient, and that the Egyptians were the first inventors of them; which seems confirmed by the history of Joseph, who, as we read in Genesis, chap. xli. for having interpreted Pharaoh's dream, received not only his liberty, but was rewarded with this prince's ring, and the superintendency of Egypt. Josephus, in the third book of the Jewish Antiquities, says, the Israelites had the use of them after passing the Red Sea, because Moses, on his return from Mount Sinai, found that they had forged the golden calf from their wives' rings. The same Moses (which was upwards of four hundred years before the wars of Troy) permitted the priests to have established the use of gold rings, enriched with precious stones. The high-priest wore upon his ephod, which was a kind of camaieu, rings, that served him as clasps; a large emerald was set, and engraved with mysterious names. The ring he wore on his finger was of estimable value and celestial virtue. Had not Aaron, the high priest of the Hebrews, a ring on his finger, whereof the diamond, by its virtue, operated prodigious things? for it changed its vivid lustre into a dark colour, when the Hebrews were to be punished by death for their sins: when they were to fall by the sword, it appeared of a blood colour; if they were innocent, it sparkled as usual. It is observable, that the ancient Hebrews used rings in the time even of the war of Troy. Queen Jezebel, to destroy Nabath, as it is related in the first book of Kings, made use of the ring of Ahab, king of the Israelites, her husband, to seal the counterfeit letters that ordered the death of that unfortunate man. Did not Judah, as mentioned in the thirty-eighth chapter of Genesis, deceive his daughter-in-law Tamar, (who had disguised herself,) by giving her his ring and bracelets as a pledge of the faith he had promised her? Though Homer is silent in regard to rings both in his Iliad and Odyssey, they were, notwithstanding, used in the time of the Greeks and Trojans; and it is from them that several other nations received them. The Lacedemonians, as related by Alexander ab Alexandro, pursuant to the orders of their king Lycurgus, had only iron rings, despising those of gold; probably because their king was willing thereby to retrench luxury, and discourage the use of effeminate ornaments among his subjects, as inconsistent with the manly plainness of Spartan virtue.

The ring was reputed, by some nations, a symbol of liberality, esteem, and friendship, particularly among the Persians, none being permitted to wear any, except given to him from the king himself. This is what may also be remarked in the person of Apollonius Thyaneus, who, as a token of singular esteem and great liberality, received one from the great Jarchas, prince of the gymnosophists, who were the ancient priests of the Indies, and dwelt in forests, as our bards and Druids, where they applied themselves to the study of wisdom, and to the speculation of the heavens and stars. This philosopher, by the means of that ring, learned every day the greatest secrets in nature.

Though the ring found by Gyges, shepherd to the king of Lydia, has more of fable than truth in it, it will not, however, be amiss to relate what is said concerning Herodotus, Cælius after Plato, and Cicero, in the third book of his Offices. This Gyges, after a great flood, passed into a very deep cavity in the earth, where having found, in the belly of a brasen horse, with a large aperture in it, a human body of enormous size, he pulled from off one of the fingers, a ring of surprising virtue; for the stone on the collet rendered him who wore it invisible, when the collet was turned towards the palm of the hand; so that the party could see, without being seen, all manner of persons and things. Gyges, having made trial of its efficacy, bethought himself that it would be a means for ascending the throne of Lydia, and for gaining the queen by it. He succeeded in his designs, having killed Candaules, her husband. The dead body this ring belonged to was that of an ancient Brahmin, who in his time was chief of all. The rings of the ancients often served for seals. Alexander the Great, after the defeat and death of Darius, used his ring for sealing the letters he sent into Asia, and his own for those he sent to Europe. It was customary in Rome for the bridegroom to send the bride, before marriage, a ring of iron, without either stone or collet, to denote how lasting their union ought to be, and the frugality they were to observe together; but luxury herein soon gained ground, and there was a necessity of moderating it. Caius Marius did not wear one of gold till his third consulship: and Tiberius, as Suetonius says, made some regulation in the authority of wearing rings; for besides the liberty of birth, he required a considerable revenue, both on the father and grandfather's side.

In the preceding dissertation we have anticipated the MATRIMONIAL RING, therefore our further observations need be but few.

Swinburne says, the iron ring was adorned with an adamant; the metal hard and durable, signifying the duration and prosperity of the contract. "Howbeit," he says, "it skilleth not at this day what metal the ring be of. The form of it being found, and without end, doth import that their love should circulate and flow continually. The finger on which this ring is to be worn, is the fourth finger on the left hand, next unto the little finger, because there was supposed a vein of blood to pass from thence into the heart."

We shall conclude this chapter with an account of an ancient custom, called HAND-FASTING.

This custom formerly took place at an annual fair, in the parish of Eskdale-muir, in Dumfriesshire, thus described by the Rev. W. Brown, in his Statistical Account of that parish: "At that fair it was the custom for the unmarried persons of both sexes, to choose companions with whom they were to live till that time next year. If they were pleased with each other at that time, then they continued together for life; if not, they separated, and were free to make another choice, as at first. The fruit of their connection, if there were any, was always attached to the disaffected person. A priest, whom they named Book-i'-bosom, (because he carried in his bosom a Bible, or a register of the marriages,) came from time to time to confirm the marriages." Mr. Brown traces this custom from the Romans.--See Sir J. Sinclair's Statistical Account, vol. xii. p. 615.

CHAP. LXI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.--(Continued.)

Funeral Ceremonies of the Ancient Ethiopians--Funeral Ceremonies of the Chinese--Ancient Funeral Ceremonies of the Dajakkese--Ancient Modes of Mourning--Feasts among the Ancients of various Nations--Feast of Lanterns.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE ANCIENT ETHIOPIANS.--The Ethiopians had very particular ceremonies in their funerals. According to Ctesias, after having salted the bodies, they put them into a hollow statue of gold, which resembled the deceased, and are placed in a niche, on a pillar set up for that purpose. The remains of the richest Ethiopians were thus honoured: the bodies of those of the next class were contained in silver statues; the poor were enshrined in statues of earthenware. Herodotus informs us, that the nearest relations of the dead kept the body a year in their houses, and offered sacrifice and first-fruits during that time to their deceased friend; and at the end of the year, they fixed the corpse in a place set apart for the purpose near their town. The inhabitants of the country above Meroè had various methods of paying respect to their deceased friends. Some threw their bodies into the river, thinking that the most honourable sepulchre. Others kept them in their houses in niches, thinking that their children would be stimulated to virtuous deeds by the sight of their ancestors; and that grown people, by the same objects, would retain their parents in their memories. Others put their dead bodies into coffins of earthenware, and buried them near their temples. To swear with their hand laid upon a corpse, was their most sacred and inviolable oath.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES OR THE CHINESE.--The funeral ceremonies are considered by the Chinese as the most important of any. A few moments after a person has expired, he is dressed out in his richest attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity; after which he is placed in the coffin. The preparation of a coffin, in which his body may be inclosed after death, is one of the chief objects of attention to a Chinese during his life, and great expense is often thrown away upon it; insomuch that the poor will give all they are worth, and the rich expend one thousand crowns; nay, a son will sell himself for a slave, to purchase a coffin for his father. Sometimes the coffin, when purchased with all this labour and expense, will remain twenty years useless in the family; but it is considered as the most valuable piece of furniture in his possession. The manner of interment is as follows:--First, they sprinkle some lime in the bottom of the coffin; then they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it may remain steady. The body remains thus exposed seven days; but the time may be reduced to three, if any weighty reason makes it necessary; and, during this interval, all the relations and friends, who are purposely invited, come and pay their respects to the deceased, the nearest relations remaining in the house. The coffin is exposed in the hall of ceremony, which is then hung with white, but some pieces of black or violet-coloured silk are here and there interspersed, as well as some other ornaments of mourning. Before the coffin is placed a table, on which stands the image of the deceased, or a carved ornament inscribed with his name; and these are always accompanied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax candles. In the mean time, those who enter the hall salute the deceased, as if still in life. They prostrate themselves before the table, and knock their foreheads several times against the earth; after which they place on the table some perfumes and wax candles. Their salutations are returned by the eldest son, accompanied by his brothers. The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which hangs on one side of the coffin, creeping along the ground until they reach the spot where those stand whom they are going to salute; after which, they return without rising up. The women are also concealed behind the same curtain, from whence they every now and then send forth dismal cries.

The funeral procession at last commences. A troop of men march in a file, carrying different figures made of pasteboard, and representing slaves, lions, tigers, horses, &c. Others follow, marching in two files; some of whom carry standards, some flags, or censers filled with perfumes; while melancholy and plaintive airs are played by others, on musical instruments. These musicians immediately precede the coffin, which is covered with a canopy, in form of a dome, of violet-coloured silk: its four corners are ornamented with tufts of white silk, neatly embroidered, and covered at the top with net-work. The coffin is placed on the bottom of this machine, and is carried by sixty-four men. The eldest son, clothed in a frock of canvass, having his body bent, and leaning on a staff, follows near the coffin; and behind him his brothers and nephews, but none of them clothed in canvass. Then come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning, and followed by a great number of chairs, covered with white stuff, containing the wives and female slaves of the deceased. These make great show of sorrow, by doleful, yet methodical cries. When they arrive at the burying-place, the coffin is deposited in a tomb appropriated for it, not far from which there are tables arranged in different halls, on which the assistants are entertained with great splendour. The entertainment is sometimes followed by fresh marks of homage to the corpse; but these are often changed into thanks to the eldest son, who, however, answers only by signs. But if the deceased was a grandee of the empire, a certain number of his relations do not leave the tomb for a month or two; but reside in apartments provided for them, and every day renew their marks of grief, with the children of the deceased. The magnificence of these funeral ceremonies is proportioned to the wealth or dignity of the deceased. That of one of the brothers of the emperor, was attended by sixteen thousand people, each of whom had a particular office assigned him relating to the ceremony. Mourning continues in China for three years; during all which time they must abstain from flesh and wine, nor can they assist at any entertainment, or attend any public assembly. At first they are not even permitted to go abroad; and when they do so, they are carried in a chair, covered with a white cloth. Sometimes the filial piety of the Chinese is carried to such a length, that they preserve the bodies of their fathers in their houses for three or four years, and impose upon themselves a great number of other duties, using no other seat during the day, but a stool covered with a white serge, and no other bed but a plain mat made of reeds, which is placed near the coffin.

FUNERAL AND MARRIAGE CEREMONIES OF THE DAJAKKESE INHABITANTS OF BORNEO.--The corpse is placed in a coffin, and remains in the house till the son, the father, or the nearest of blood, can procure or purchase a slave, who is beheaded at the time that the corpse is burnt, in order that he may become the slave of the deceased in the next world. The ashes of the deceased are then placed in an earthen urn, on which various figures are exhibited; and the head of the slave is dried, and prepared in a peculiar manner with camphor and drugs, and deposited near it. It is said that this practice often induces them to purchase a slave guilty of some capital crime, at five-fold his value, in order that they may be able to put him to death on such occasions.

Marriage Ceremonies.--Nobody can be permitted to marry till he can present a human head of some other tribe to his proposed bride, in which case she is not permitted to refuse him. It is not, however, necessary that this should be obtained entirely by his own personal prowess. When a person is determined to go a head-hunting, as it is often a very dangerous service, he consults with his friends and acquaintances, who frequently accompany him, or send their slaves along with him. The head-hunter then proceeds with his party in the most cautious manner to the vicinity of the villages of another tribe, and lies in ambush till they surprise some heedless unsuspecting wretch, who is instantly decapitated. Sometimes, too, they surprise a solitary fisherman in a river, or on the shore, who undergoes the same fate. When the hunter returns, the whole village is filled with joy, and old and young, men and women, hurry out to meet him, and conduct him with the sound of brasen cymbals, dancing in long lines to the house of the female he admires, whose family likewise come out to greet him with dances, provide him a seat, and give him meat and drink. He still holds the bloody head in his hand, and puts part of the food into its mouth, after which, the females of the family receive the head from him, which they hang up to the ceiling over the door.

If a man's wife die, he is not permitted to make proposals of marriage to another, till he has provided another head of a different tribe, as if to revenge the death of his deceased wife. The heads procured in this manner, they preserve with great care, and sometimes consult in divination. The religious opinions connected with this practice, are by no means correctly understood. Some assert, that they believe that every person whom a man kills in this world, becomes his slave in the next. The Idaan, it is said, think that the entrance into paradise is over a long tree, which serves for a bridge, over which it is impossible to pass without the assistance of a slave slain in this world.

The practice of stealing heads causes frequent wars among the different tribes of the Idaan. Many persons never can obtain a head, in which case they are generally despised by the warriors and the women. To such a height is it carried, however, that a person who had obtained eleven heads, has been seen by Mr. Burn; and he pointed out his son, a young lad, who had procured three.

ANCIENT MODES OF MOURNING.--Amongst the ancient Jews, on the death of their relations or intimate friends, mourning was expressed by weeping, tearing their clothes, smiting their breasts, or lacerating them with their nails, pulling or cutting off their hair and beards, walking softly, i. e. barefoot, lying upon the ground, fasting, or eating upon the ground. They kept themselves close shut up in their houses, covered their faces, and abstained from all work, even reading the law, and saying their usual prayers. They neither dressed themselves, nor made their beds, nor cut their nails, nor went into the bath, nor saluted any body. The time of mourning was generally seven days, less or more, according to circumstances, but thirty days were thought sufficient upon the severest occasions. The different periods of the time of mourning required different degrees of grief, and different tokens of it.

The Greeks, on the death of their friends, shewed their sorrow by secluding themselves from all gaiety, entertainments, games, public solemnities, wine, and music. They sat in gloomy and solitary places, stripped themselves of all external ornaments, put on a coarse black stuff by way of mourning, tore their hair, shaved their heads, rolled themselves in the dust and mire, sprinkled ashes on their heads, smote their breasts with their palms, tore their faces, and frequently cried out with a lamentable voice and drawling tone. At the funerals of soldiers, their fellow soldiers, as a testimony of their affliction, held their shields, their spears, and the rest of their armour, inverted.

The tokens of private grief among the Romans, were the same as those among the Greeks. Black or dark brown were the colours of the mourning habits worn by the men; they were also common to the women. The mourning of the emperors at first was black. In the time of Augustus, the women wore white veils, and the rest of their dress was black. From the time of Domitian, they wore nothing but white habits, without any ornaments of gold, jewels, or pearls. The men let their hair and beards grow, and wore no wreaths of flowers on their heads, while the days of mourning continued. The longest time of mourning was ten months: this was Numa's establishment, and took in his whole year. For a widow to marry during this time, was infamous. Mourning was not used for children who died under three years of age. From this age to ten, they mourned as many months as the child was years old. A remarkable victory, or other happy event, occasioned the shortening of the time of mourning. The birth of a child, or the attainment of any remarkable honour in the family, certain feasts in honour of the gods, or the consecration of a temple, had the same effect. After the defeat at Cannæ, the commonwealth decreed that mourning should not be worn for more than thirty days, that the loss might be forgot as soon as possible. When public magistrates died, or persons of great note, also when any remarkable calamity happened, all public meetings were intermitted, the schools of exercise, baths, shops, temples, and all places of concourse, were shut up, and the whole city put on a face of sorrow; the senators laid aside the laticlave, and the consuls sat in a lower seat than ordinary. This was the custom of Athens also, and was observed upon the death of Socrates, when the fickle Athenians became sensible of the calamity their state had suffered in the loss of that great and virtuous man.

The modes of mourning differ in various countries, as well as the colours used for that end. In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourning is black; in China, it is white; in Turkey, blue or violet; in Egypt, yellow; in Ethiopia, brown. White obtained formerly in Castile, on the death of their princes. Herrera observes, that the last time it was used was in 1498, at the death of prince John. Each people assign their reasons for the particular colour of their mourning: white is supposed to denote purity; yellow, that death is the end of human hopes, in regard that leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade, become yellow; brown denotes the earth, whither the dead return; black, the privation of light; blue expresses the happiness which it is hoped the deceased does enjoy; and purple or violet, sorrow on the one side, and hope on the other, as being a mixture of black and blue.

FEASTS AMONG THE ANCIENTS OF VARIOUS NATIONS.--All nations, whether savage or civilized, have regarded the pleasures of the table as the occasion of the most agreeable society. This species of enjoyment (abstracted from its susceptibility of abuse) makes but one family of all that it brings together. It levels the distinctions introduced by policy or prejudice, and disposes men to regard one another as brethren. Here people feel the equality established by nature; here they forget the evils of life; extinguish their animosities, and drop their enmities. For this reason Aristotle considers as a breach of the social principle, that custom of the Egyptians of eating apart, and praises the convivial repasts established by Minos and Lycurgus.

We learn from Herodotus, that the ancients had neither cups nor bowls at their feasts, but that they drank out of little horns tipt with silver or gold. The Greeks and Romans kept a domestic, for the purpose of reading during their meals and feasts. Sometimes the chief of the family himself performed the office of reader; and history informs us, that the Emperor Severus often read while his family ate. The time of reading was generally at supper; and guests were invited to a reading as they are now-a-days to play at cards.

The Greeks, in their flourishing times, did not profane, (according to their own expression) the holiness of the table, but rather adorned it with ingenious and elegant conversation: they proposed moral topics, of which Plutarch has preserved a collection. Heroes rarely assembled convivially, without bringing affairs of consequence into discourse, or deliberating upon those that regarded either present events or future contingencies. The Scythians, while at meat, used to make the strings of their bows resound, lest their warlike virtues might be enfeebled or lost in the season of pleasure. People of rank among the Rhodians, by a fundamental law of the state, were obliged to dine daily with those who had the management of affairs, in order to deliberate with them concerning such things as were necessary or useful for the country; and on this account the principal ministers of the kingdom were obliged to keep open table for all who could be of use to the state. The Persians also generally deliberated on business at table, but never determined, or put their determinations in execution, except in the morning before eating.

Among the Romans, the place where they supped was generally the vestibule, that a more retired part of the house might not encourage licentiousness and disorder. There were several laws that restricted their meals to these vestibules. When luxury reigned in Rome, they had superb halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many, each of which bore the name of some deity; and this name was a mark which indicated to the servants the expense of the entertainment. The expense of a supper in Lucullus's hall of Apollo, amounted to fifty thousand drachmas. Singers, dancers, musicians, stage-players, jesters, and buffoons, were brought into these halls to amuse the guests.

Plutarch informs us, that Cæsar, after his triumphs, treated the Roman people at twenty-two thousand tables; and by calculation it would seem, that there were at these tables upwards of two hundred thousand persons. The hall in which Nero feasted, by the circular motion of its walls and ceiling, imitated the revolutions of the heavens, and represented the different seasons of the year, changing at every course, and showering down flowers and perfumes on the guests. The Romans did not, as we do, use but one table at their feasts; they had generally two: the first was for the service of animal food, which was afterwards removed, and another introduced with fruits; at this last they sung, and poured out their libations. The Greeks and eastern nations had the same custom, and even the Jews in their solemn feasts, and at sacrifices. The Romans, in the time of Nero, had tables made of citron-wood brought from Mauritania; they were varnished with purple and gold. Dion Cassius affirms, that Seneca had five hundred of these, which he made use of one after another; and Tertullian tells us, that Cicero had but one. The Romans chose the king of the feast by a throw of the dice. At the conclusion of the feast they drank out of a large cup, as often as there were letters in the names of their mistresses.

Feasting seems to have been the chief delight of the Britons, Germans, Gauls, and all the other Celtic nations; in which they indulged themselves to the utmost, as often as they had opportunity. "Among these nations (says M. Pellontier, in his Hist. Celt. lib. ii. c. 12. p. 463.) there is no public assembly, either for civil or religious purposes, duly held; no birth-day, marriage, or funeral, properly celebrated; no treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented,--without a great feast." When the Germans, says Tacitus, wanted to reconcile enemies, to make alliances, to name chiefs, or to treat of war and peace, it was during the repast that they took counsel; a time in which the mind is most open to the impressions of simple truths, or most easily animated to great attempts. These artless people, during the conviviality of the feast, spoke without disguise. Next day they weighed the counsels of the former evening: they deliberated at a time when they were not disposed to feign, and took their resolution when they were least liable to be deceived. It was by frequent entertainments of this kind, that the great men or chieftains gained the affections and rewarded the services of their followers; and those who made the greatest feasts were sure to be most popular, and to have the greatest retinue. These feasts, in which plenty was more regarded than elegance, lasted commonly several days, and the guests seldom retired until they had consumed all the provisions and exhausted all the liquors.

Athenæus describes an entertainment that was given by Arcamnes, a very wealthy prince of Gaul, which continued a whole year without interruption, and at which all the people of Gaul, and even all strangers who passed through that country, were made welcome. At these feasts they sometimes consulted about the most important affairs of state, and formed resolutions relating to peace and war; imagining that men spoke their real sentiments with the greatest freedom, and were apt to form the boldest designs, when their spirits were exhilarated with the pleasures of the table. The conversation at these entertainments very frequently turned on the great exploits, which the guests themselves, or their ancestors, had performed in war; which sometimes occasioned quarrels, and even bloodshed. It was at a feast that the two illustrious British princes, Carbar and Oscar, quarrelled about their own bravery and that of their ancestors, and fell by mutual wounds.--Ossian, vol. ii. p. 8, &c.

As to the drink used at those feasts, particularly in Britain, it seems probable, that before the introduction of agriculture into the island, mead, or honey diluted with water, was the only strong liquor known to its inhabitants, as it was to many other ancient nations in the same circumstances. This continued to be a favourite beverage among the ancient Britons and their posterity, long after they had become acquainted with other liquors, (See Mead.) After the introduction of agriculture, ale or beer became the most general drink of all the British nations who practised that art, as it had long been of all the Celtic people on the continent, (See Ale.) If the Phoenicians or Greeks imported any wine into Britain, it was only in very small quantities; that liquor being very little known in this island before it was conquered by the Romans. The drinking vessels of the Gauls, Britons, and other Celtic nations, were for the most part made of the horns of oxen and other animals; but those of the Caledonians consisted of large shells, which are still used by some of their posterity in the Highlands of Scotland.

The dishes in which the meat was served up were either of wood or earthenware, or a kind of baskets made of osiers. These last were most used by the Britons, as they very much excelled in the art of making them, both for their own use and for exportation. The guests sat in a circle upon the ground, with a little hay, grass, or the skin of some animal, under them. A low table or stool was set before each person, with the portion of meat allotted to him upon it. In this distribution, they never neglected to set the largest and best pieces before those who were most distinguished for their rank, their exploits, or their riches. Every guest took the meat set before him in his hands, and, tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it in the best manner he could. If any one found difficulty in separating any part of his meat with his hands and teeth, he made use of a large knife, that lay in a particular place for the benefit of the whole company. Servants, or young boys and girls, the children of the family, stood behind the guests, ready to help them to drink, or any thing they wanted.

As the ancient Britons greatly excelled, and very much delighted in, music, all their feasts were accompanied with the joys of song, and the music of harps. In the words of Ossian, (vol. ii. p. 9, &c.) "whenever the feast of shells is prepared, the songs of bards arise. The voice of sprightly mirth is heard. The trembling harps of joy are strung. They sing the battles of heroes, or the heaving breasts of love." Some of the poems of that illustrious British bard appear to have been composed in order to be sung by the hundred bards of Fingal, at the feasts of Selma, (see vol. i. p. 87, 209.) Many of the songs of the bards, which were sung and played at the feasts of the ancient Britons, were of a grave and solemn strain, celebrating the brave actions of the guests, or of the heroes of other times; but these were sometimes intermixed with sprightly and cheerful airs, to which the youth of both sexes danced. It has been observed by some authors, that no nation comes near the English in the magnificence of their feasts. Those made at our coronations, instalments, consecrations, &c. transcend the belief of foreigners; and yet it is doubted whether those now in use are comparable to the feasts of former ages.

William the Conqueror, after he was peaceably settled on the throne of England, sent agents into different countries, to collect the most admired and rare dishes for his table; by which means, says John of Salisbury, this island, which is naturally productive of plenty and variety of provisions, was overflowed with every thing that could inflame a luxurious appetite. The same writer tells us, that he was present at an entertainment which lasted from three P. M. to midnight, at which delicacies were served up, which had been brought from Constantinople, Babylon, Alexandria, Palestine, Tripoli, Syria, and Phoenicia. These delicacies were doubtless very expensive. Thomas Becket (says his historian Fitz-Stephen) gave £5, equivalent to £75 at present, for one dish of eels. The sumptuous entertainments which the kings of England gave to their nobles and prelates, at the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, in which they spent a great part of their revenues, contributed very much to diffuse a taste for profuse and expensive banqueting. It was natural for a proud and wealthy baron to imitate, in his own castle, the entertainments he had seen in the palace of his prince. Many of the clergy, too, both seculars and regulars, being very rich, kept excellent tables.

The monks of St. Swithin's, at Winchester, made a formal complaint to Henry II. against their abbot, for taking away three of the 13 dishes they used to have every day at dinner. The monks of Canterbury were still more luxurious: for they had at least 17 dishes every day, besides a dessert; and these dishes were dressed with spiceries and sauces, which excited the appetite as well as pleased the taste. Great men had some kinds of provisions at their tables, that are not now to be found in Britain.

When Henry II. entertained his own court, the great officers of his army, with all the kings and great men of Ireland, in Dublin, at the feast of Christmas, A. D. 1171, the Irish princes and chieftains were quite astonished at the profusion and variety of provisions which they beheld, and were with difficulty prevailed upon by Henry to eat the flesh of cranes, a kind of food to which they had not been accustomed. In the remaining monuments of this period, we meet with the names of several dishes, as dellegrout, maupigyrnum, karumpie, &c. the composition of which is now unknown.

The coronation feast of Edward III. cost £2835. 18s. 2d. equivalent to about £40,000 of our money. At the installation of Ralph, abbot of St. Augustine, Canterbury, A. D. 1309, 6000 guests were entertained with a dinner, consisting of 3000 dishes, which cost £287. 5s. equal in value to £4300 in our times. "It would require a long treatise (says Matthew Paris) to describe the astonishing splendour, magnificence, and festivity, with which the nuptials of Richard Earl of Cornwall, and Cincia daughter of Raymund Earl of Provence, were celebrated at London, A. D. 1243. To give the reader some idea of it, in a few words, above 30,000 dishes were served up at the marriage dinner."

The nuptials of Alexander III. of Scotland, and the princess Margaret of England, were solemnized at York, A. D. 1251, with still greater pomp and profusion. "If I attempted (says M. Paris) to display all the grandeur of this solemnity,--the numbers of the noble and illustrious guests,--the richness and variety of the dresses,--the sumptuousness of the feasts,--the multitudes of the minstrels, mimics, and others whose business it was to amuse and divert the company, those of my readers who were not present, would imagine that I was imposing upon their credulity. The following particular will enable them to form a judgment of the whole. The archbishop of York made the King of England a present of 60 fat oxen; which made only one article of provision for the marriage feast, and were all consumed at that entertainment. The marriage feast of Henry IV. and his queen, Jane of Navarre, consisted of six courses; three of flesh and fowl, and three of fish. All these courses were accompanied and adorned with suttleties, as they were called. These suttleties were figures in pastry, of men, women, beasts, birds, &c. placed on the table, to be admired, but not touched. Each figure had a label affixed to it, containing some wise or witty saying, suited to the occasion of the feast, which was the reason they were called suttleties."

The installation feast of George Neville, archbishop of York, and chancellor of England, exceeded all others in splendour and expense, and in the number and quality of the guests. The reader may form some idea of this enormous feast, from the following list of provisions prepared for it. In wheat, 300 quarters; in ale, 300 tuns; in wine, 100 tuns; in ypocrasse pipes, 1; in oxen, 104; in wild bulls, 6; in muttons, 1000; in veals, 304; in porks, 304; in swans, 400; in geese, 2000; in capons, 1000; in pigs, 2000; in plovers, 400; in quails, 1200; in fowls called rees, 2400; in peacocks, 104; in mallards and teals, 4000; in cranes, 204; in kids, 204; in chickens, 2000; in pigeons, 2000; in conies, 4000; in bitterns, 204; in heronshaws, 400; in pheasants, 200; in partridges, 500; in woodcocks, 400; in curlews, 100; in egritis, 1000; in stags, bucks, and roes, 500 and more; in pasties of venison, cold, 4000; in parted dishes of jellies, 1000; in plain dishes of jellies, 3000; in cold tarts, baked, 4000; in cold custards, baked, 3000; in hot pasties of venison, 1500; in hot custards, 2000; in pikes and breams, 308; in porpoises and seals, 12: spices, sugared delicates, and wafers, plenty. No turkeys are mentioned in this enormous bill of fare, because they were not then known in England. Cranes, heronshaws, porpoises, and seals, are seldom seen at modern entertainments. One of the most expensive singularities attending the royal feasts in those days, consisted in what they called Intermeats. These were representations of battles, sieges, &c. introduced between the courses, for the amusement of the guests. The French excelled in exhibitions of this kind. At a dinner given by Charles V. of France to the emperor Charles IV. A. D. 1378, the following intermeat was exhibited: a ship, with masts, sails, and rigging, was seen first; she had for colours the arms of the city of Jerusalem: Godfrey of Bouillon appeared upon deck, accompanied by several knights armed cap-a-pié: the ship advanced into the middle of the hall, without the machine which moved it being perceptible. Then the city of Jerusalem appeared, with all its towers lined with Saracens. The ship approached the city; the Christians landed, and began to assault, while the besieged made a good defence: several scaling-ladders were thrown down; but at length the city was taken. Intermeats at ordinary banquets consisted of certain delicate dishes, introduced between the courses, and designed rather for gratifying the taste, than for satisfying hunger. At those feasts, besides ale and cider, there were great quantities of wine of various kinds. Of these, a poet who wrote in the fourteenth century, gives an ample enumeration; wherein he mentions ypocrasse, malespine, algrade, garnade, and other kinds now hardly known. Some of these liquors, as ypocrasse, pyment, and claret, were compounded of wine, honey, and spices, of different kinds, and in different proportions.

The chapter concludes with the FEAST OF LANTERNS.--In China, this is a celebrated festival, held from the thirteenth to the sixteenth day of the first month; so called from the immense number of lanterns hung out of the houses and streets; which, it is said, is no less than two hundred millions. On this day are exposed lanterns of all prices, whereof some are said to cost two thousand crowns. Some of their grandees retrench somewhat every day out of the regular expenses of their table, dress, equipage, &c. to appear the more magnificent in their lanterns. They are adorned with gilding, sculpture, painting, japanning, &c. and their size is extravagant; some being from twenty-five to thirty feet diameter, representing halls and chambers. Two or three such machines together would make handsome houses; so that in China they are able to eat, lodge, receive visits, hold balls, and act plays, in a lantern. To illuminate them, they light up in them an incredible number of torches or lamps, which at a distance have a beautiful effect. In these they exhibit various kinds of shows, to divert the people. Besides these enormous lanterns, there is a multitude of smaller ones, each about four feet high, and one and a half broad.

CHAP. LXII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.--(Continued.)

Origin of the Sheriff's counting Hobnails--Origin of the Order of the Garter--Origin and History of the Claim and Allowance of the 'Benefit of Clergy' in Criminal Convictions--Curious Tenures--The Origin of May Poles and Garlands--Curious Custom at Oakham--Curious Practice in North Holland.

ORIGIN OF THE SHERIFF'S COUNTING HOBNAILS.--This is not an absurd custom of antiquity, such as nobody knows when it begun, or why it is continued; but it originated from the following circumstances:--

In former times, when money was very scarce, and when we had no larger coin than a penny, the reserved rents or grants of lands or tenements, especially small ones, were usually paid in something that had a reference to the nature of the thing granted, or the occupation of the grantee.

The two following extracts from records in the Exchequer, with the translation, will clear up the point.

"Walter de Brun Mareschallus, de Stranda, redit compotum de sex femis equorum, pro habenda quadam placea in Parochia St. Clementis, ad fabrica quam ibidem locandam."--Mag. Rot. 19. Henry III.

"Walter Mareschallus, ad Crucem Lapideam, redit sex ferra equorum cum clavibus, pro quadam fabrica quam de Rege tenet in capite ex opposito crucis lapidea."--Memor. 1. Edward I.

"Walter le Brun, Mareshall, or farrier, of the Strand, renders six horse-shoes, to have a certain place in the parish of St. Clement's, to build a forge there."--Great Rolls of the 19th Henry III.

"Walter Mareshall, or the farrier at the Stone Cross, renders six horse-shoes with their nails, for (or as a reserved rent) a certain forge, opposite to the stone cross, which he holds of the king in capite."--Memoranda Rolls in the Exchequer of the first year of King Edward the First.

The first of these points out the beginning, as well as the reason, of the payment of these horse-shoes and nails; for it was to have a piece of ground to build a forge on, therefore that must be the first payment. The nineteenth year of Henry the Third falls in with 1234, now five hundred and eighty-eight years ago. In process of time, this piece of ground, and buildings on it, came to the mayor and citizens of London; and they, by the sheriffs, have continued to render them into the Exchequer annually to this day.

The spot where the stone cross once stood had afterwards a Maypole erected on it, which many now living can well remember.

ORIGIN OF THE ORDER OF THE GARTER.--This is variously related by historians. The common and not improbable account is, that the Countess of Salisbury, happening at a ball to drop her garter, the King took it up, and presented it to her in these words, "Honi soit qui mal y pense;" i. e. Evil to him that evil thinks. This accident gave rise to the order and the motto; it being the spirit of the times to mix love and war together. In the original statutes, however, there is not the least hint of allusion to such a circumstance, farther than is conveyed in the motto.--Camden, Fern, &c. take the order to have been instituted on occasion of the victory obtained by Edward over the French, at the battle of Cressy. That prince, says some historians, ordered his garter to be displayed as a signal of battle; in commemoration whereof, he made a garter the principal ornament of the order erected in memory of this signal victory, and the symbol of this indissoluble union of the knights. And they account for the motto, that king Edward having laid claim to the kingdom of France, denounced shame and defiance upon him that should dare to think amiss of the just enterprise he had undertaken for recovering his lawful rights to that crown; and that the bravery of those knights whom he had elected into this order was such as would enable him to maintain the quarrel against those that thought ill of it. This interpretation, however, appears to be rather forced.--A still more ancient origin of this order is given in Rostel's Chronicle, lib. vi. quoted by Granger, in the Supplement to his Biographical History: viz. that it was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he caused twenty-six knights, who firmly stood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs; and that it was revived and perfected in the nineteenth year of Edward III.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE CLAIM AND ALLOWANCE OF THE 'BENEFIT OF CLERGY' IN CRIMINAL CONVICTIONS.

The following learned dissertation is extracted from 'Chitty's Practical Treatise on the Criminal Law.'

"By far the most important circumstance intervening between conviction and judgment, is the claim and allowance of the Benefit of Clergy, in those cases where it is by law to be granted. It is of course claimed immediately before judgment at the assizes. This is one of the most singular relics of old superstition, and certainly the most important. That, by a mere form, without the shadow of existing reason to support it, the severity of the common law should be tempered, may seem strange to those who have been accustomed to regard our criminal law as a regular fabric, not only attaining great practical benefit, but built upon solid and consistent principles. The Benefit of Clergy is, no doubt, of great practical advantage, compared to the dreadful list of offences which would otherwise be punished as capital; but it would be well worthy of an enlightened age to forsake such a subterfuge, and at once, without resorting to it, to apportion the degree of suffering to the atrocity and the danger of the crimes.

"The history of this singular mode of pardon, if so it can be termed, is both curious and instructive. In the early periods of European civilization, after the final destruction of the Roman empire, the church obtained an influence in the political affairs of nations, which threw a peculiar colouring over their original institutions. Monarchs who were desirous of atoning for atrocious offences, or of obtaining the sanction of heaven to their projects of ambition, were easily persuaded to confer immunities on the clergy, whom they regarded as the vicegerents of God. Presuming on these favours, that aspiring body soon began to claim as a right what had been originally conferred as a boon, and to found their demand to civil exemptions on a divine and indefeasible charter, derived from the text of scripture, "Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets no harm." It need exceed no surprise that they were anxious to take advantage of their dominion over the conscience, to exempt themselves from the usual consequences of crime. To the priests, impunity was a privilege of no inconsiderable value. And so successful was the pious zeal to shield those who were dedicated to religion from the consequences of any breach of temporal enactments, that in several countries they obtained complete exemption from all civil liabilities, and declared themselves responsible only to the pope and his ecclesiastical ministers. They erected themselves into an independent community, and even laid the temporal authorities under subjection. Nobles were intimidated into vast pecuniary benefactions, and princes trembled at the terrors of spiritual denunciation. In England, however, this authority was always comparatively feeble. The complete exemption of the clergy from secular punishments, though often claimed, was never universally admitted: for repeated objections were made to the demand of the bishop and ordinary to have the clerks remitted to them as soon as they were indicted. At length, however, it was finally settled in the reign of Henry VI. that the prisoner should first be arraigned and might then claim the Benefit of the Clergy as an excuse for pleading, or might demand it after conviction: and the latter of these courses has been almost invariably adopted, to allow the prisoner the chance of a verdict of acquittal.

"But if the privileges of the church were less dangerous in England than on the continent, they soon became more extensive. They not only embraced every order of clergymen, but were claimed for every subordinate officer of religious houses, with the numerous classes of their retainers. And so liberal was the application of these dangerous benefits, that, at length, every one who in those days of ignorance was able to read, though not even initiated in holy orders, began to demand them, such reading being deemed evidence of his clerical profession. The privileges of the clergy were recognized and confirmed by statute in the reign of Edward the Third. It was then enacted, that all manner of clerks, secular as well as religious, should enjoy the privileges of holy church for all treasons or felonies except those immediately affecting his majesty. To the advantage of this provision, all who could read were admitted. But as learning became more common, this extensive interpretation was found so injurious to the security of social life, that the legislature, notwithstanding the opposition of the church, were compelled to afford a partial remedy.

"In the reign of Henry the Seventh, a distinction was drawn between persons actually in holy orders, and those who, in other respects secular, were able to read; by which the latter were only allowed the benefit of their learning once, and, on receiving it, to be branded in the left thumb with a hot iron, in order to afford evidence against them on any future occasion. The church seems to have lost ground in the succeeding reign, probably in consequence of the separation of England from the sway of the Roman pontiff; for all persons, though actually in orders, were rendered liable to be branded, in the same way as the learned class of laymen. But, in the time of Edward the Sixth, the clergy were restored to all the rights of which they were deprived by his predecessor, except as to certain atrocious crimes, which it became necessary more uniformly to punish. At the same time, some of the more enormous evils attendant on this general impunity were done away. Murder, poisoning, burglary, highway-robbery, and sacrilege, were excepted from all that privilege which was confirmed as to inferior offences. But peers of the realm, for the first offence were to be discharged, in every case, except murder and poisoning, even though unable to read.

"But here we must pause, before we proceed to follow the gradual improvement of this privilege, to inquire what was originally done with an offender to whom it was allowed by those ecclesiastical authorities who claimed the right of judging him, and in what manner the power of the church in this respect was ultimately destroyed. It appears, that after a layman was burnt in the hand, a clerk discharged on reading, or a peer without either burning or penalty, he was delivered to the ordinary, to be dealt with according to the ecclesiastical canons. Upon this, the clerical authorities instituted a kind of purgation, the real object of which was to make him appear innocent, who had already been shewn to be guilty, and to restore him to all those capacities of which his conviction had deprived him. To effect this, the party himself was required to make oath of his innocence, though before he might have confessed himself guilty. Then twelve compurgators were called to testify their belief in the falsehood of the charges. Afterwards he brought forward witnesses completely to establish that innocence, of which he had induced so weighty a presumption. Finally, it was the office of the jury to acquit him; and they seldom failed in their duty. If, however, from any singular circumstance, they agreed in the justice of the conviction, the culprit was degraded, and compelled to do penance. As this seldom occurred, and the most daring perjuries were thus perpetually committed, the courts of common law were soon aroused to abridge the power of these clerical tribunals. They, therefore, sometimes delivered over the privileged of felony, when his guilt was very atrocious, without allowing him to make purgation; the effect of which proceedings was, his perpetual imprisonment, and incapacity to acquire personal or to enjoy real estate, unless released by his majesty's pardon. But the severity of this proceeding almost rendered it useless; and it became absolutely necessary for the legislature to interfere, in order to prevent the contemptible perjuries which this absurd ceremony produced under the sanction and pretence of religion. This desirable object was effected in the reign of Elizabeth; and the party, after being allowed his clergy, and burnt in the hand, was to be discharged without any interference of the church to annul his conviction.

"The clerical process being thus abolished, it was thought proper, at the same time, to empower the temporal judges to inflict a further punishment where they should regard it as proper. The eighteenth Elizabeth, c. vii. empowered them, therefore, to direct the convict to be imprisoned for a year or any shorter period. But the law on this subject was still in many respects imperfect. Females were still liable to the punishment of death, without any exemption, in all cases of simple felony; because, being never eligible to the clerical office, they were not included in any of the extensions of the Benefit of Clergy. No other proof need be adduced to shew the absurdity of the very foundations of the system. At length it was enacted that women convicted of simple larcenies under the value 10s. should be punished with burning in the hand and whipping, exposure in the stocks, or imprisonment for any period less than a year. And in the reign of William and Mary they were admitted to all the privileges of men, in clergiable felonies, on praying the benefit of the statute; though they can only once be allowed this means of escaping. In the same reign, the punishment of burning in the hand was changed for a more visible stigma on the cheek, but was soon afterwards brought back to the original practice.

"Hitherto all laymen except peers, who, on their conviction, were found unable to read, were liable to suffer death for every clergiable felony. But it was at length discovered, that ignorance, instead of an aggravation, was an excuse for guilt, and that the ability to read was no extenuation of crime; and, therefore, by fifth Ann, c. vi. the idle ceremony of reading was abolished, and all those who were before entitled to clergy on reading, were now to be admitted without any such form to its benefits. At the same time it was sensibly felt that the branding, which had dwindled into a mere form, and the year's imprisonment which the judges were empowered to inflict, were very inadequate punishments for many clergiable offences; and, therefore, the court were authorized to commit the offenders to the house of correction for any time not less than six months nor exceeding two years, and to double it in case of escaping.

"Further alterations have since been made in the penalties consequent upon clergy. The fourth Geo. I. c. xi. and sixth Geo. I. c. xxiii. provide, that the court, on the allowance of this benefit for any larceny whether grand or petty, or other felonious theft not excluded from the statutable indulgence, may, instead of judgment of burning in case of men, and whipping in that of females, direct the offender to be transported for seven years to America, which has been since altered to any part of his majesty's colonies. To return within the period, was, at the same time, made felony without Benefit of Clergy. And by several subsequent provisions, many wise alterations have been made respecting transportation, and the mode of treating offenders while under its sentence.

"At length the burning in the hand was entirely done away, and the judges were empowered to sentence the criminal, in its room, and in addition to the former penalties, to a pecuniary fine, or, except in the case of manslaughter, to private whipping, not more than thrice to be inflicted, in the presence of three witnesses. Provisions were at the same time made for the employment of this description of convicts in penitentiary houses, where a system of reformation might be adopted, and an experiment made how far punishment might become conducive to its noblest and most legitimate use--the reformation and benefit of the offender. But this regulation, though applauded by Blackstone and other humane writers, after having been continued by several subsequent acts, was recently suffered to expire. It appears from these several modern regulations, that, as observed by Mr. Justice Foster, we now consider Benefit of Clergy, or rather the benefit of the statutes, as a relaxation of the rigour of the law, a condescension to the infirmities of the human frame, exempting offending individuals in some cases from the punishment of death, and subjecting them to milder punishment; and therefore, in the case of clergiable felonies, we now profess to measure the degree of punishment by the real enormity of the offence, and not, as the ignorance and superstition of former times suggested, by a blind respect for sacred persons or sacred functions, nor by an absurd distinction between subject and subject, originally owing to impudent pretension on one hand, and to mere fanaticism on the other."

CURIOUS TENURES.--A farm at Broadhouse, in Langsett, in the parish of Peniston, and county of York, pays yearly to Godfrey Bosville, Esq. 'a snow-ball at Midsummer, and a red rose at Christmas.'

William de Albermarle holds the manor of Loston, 'by the service of finding, for our lord the king, two arrows, and one loaf of oat bread, when he should hunt in the forest of Eartmoor.'

Solomon Attefield held land at Repland and Atterton, in the county of Kent, upon condition 'that as often as our lord the king would cross the sea, the said Solomon and his heirs ought to go along with him, to hold his head on the sea, if it was needful.'

John Compes had the manor of Finchfield given him by Edward III. for the service of 'turning the spit at his coronation.'

Geoffrey Frumbrand held sixty acres of land in Wingfield, in the county of Suffolk, by the service of paying yearly to our lord the king two white doves. John de Roches holds the manor of Winterslew, in Wiltshire, by the service that when the king should abide at Clarendon, he should go into the butlery of the king's palace there, and draw, out of whatever vessel be chose, as much wine as should be needful for making a pitcher of claret, which he should make at the king's expense, and that he should serve the king with a cup, and should have the vessel whence he took the wine, with all the wine then in it, together with the cup whence the king should drink the claret.

The town of Yarmouth is, by charter, bound to send the sheriffs of Norwich a hundred herrings, which are to be baked in twenty-four pies or patties, and delivered to the lord of the manor of East Carlton, who is to convey them to the king.

At the coronation of James II. the lord of the manor of Heyden, in Essex, claimed to hold the basin and ewer to the king by virtue of one moiety, and the towel by virtue of the other moiety of the manor, whenever the king washed before dinner; but the claim was allowed only as to the towel.

The privileges of the great officers of the ancient British court, were particularly striking. Each was annually presented by the king and queen with a piece of linen and woollen cloth, besides some old clothes from the royal wardrobe. The king's riding-coat was three times a year given to the master of the mews; his caps, saddles, bits, and spurs, became the perquisite of the master of the horse; and the chamberlain appropriated to himself his old clothes and bed-quilts.

The third in rank, in the court of the Anglo-Saxon kings, was, the steward, who had a variety of perquisites, of which the following were the most remarkable:--'As much of every cask of plain ale, and as much of every cask of ale with spiceries, as he could reach with the second joint of the middle finger; and as much of every cask of mead, as he could reach with the first joint of the same finger.'

Our next article is on THE ORIGIN OF MAY POLES AND GARLANDS.--It was a custom among the ancient Britons, before they were converted to Christianity, to erect May-poles, adorned with flowers, in honour of the goddess Flora; and the dancing of milkmaids on the first of May before garlands, ornamented with flowers, is only a corruption of the ancient custom, in compliance with other rustic amusements.

The leisure days after seed-time had been chosen by our Saxon ancestors for folk-motes, or conventions of the people. It was not till after the Norman conquest that the Pagan festival of Whitsuntide fully melted into the Christian holiday of Pentecost. Its original name is Whittentide, the time of choosing the wits or wisemen to the wittenagemotte. It was consecrated to Hertha, the goddess of peace and fertility; and no quarrels might be maintained, no blood shed, during this truce of the goddess. Each village, in the absence of the baron at the assembly of the nations, enjoyed a kind of saturnalia. The vassals met upon the common green around the May-poles, where they erected a village lord, or king, as he was called, who chose his queen. He wore an oaken, and she a hawthorn wreath; and together they gave laws to the rustic sports during these sweet days of freedom. The Maypole, then, was the English tree of liberty. How are these times of village simplicity and merriment vanished!

CURIOUS CUSTOM AT OAKHAM.--Oakham is remarkable for the following curious custom. Every peer of the realm, the first time he comes within the precincts, forfeits a shoe from his horse to the lord of the manor and castle, unless he agrees to redeem it with money; in which case a shoe is made according to his direction, ornamented in proportion to the sum given by way of fine, and nailed on the castle hall door. Some shoes are of curious workmanship, and stamped with the names of the donors: some are made very large, and some gilt. An ancient poet says of this county,

"Small shire that can produce to thy proportion good, One vale of special name, one forest, and one flood."

A CURIOUS PRACTICE IN NORTH HOLLAND.--To every house, of whatever quality, there is an artificial door, elevated near three feet above the level of the ground, and never opened but upon two occasions. When any part of the family marries, the bride and bridegroom enter the house by this door; and when either of the parties die, the corpse is carried out by the same door. Immediately after the due ceremonies are performed in either of these cases, this door is fastened up, never to turn on its hinges again, till some new event of a similar nature demands its services.

CHAP. LXIII.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.--(Continued.)

Shrovetide--Candlemas Day--Origin of Valentine's Day--Origin of Plough Monday--New Years Gifts--Origin of Christmas Boxes--Chiltern Hundreds--Origin of the Term "John Bull"--Origin of the Old Adage, "If it rains on St. Swithin's Day, it will rain Forty Days afterwards"--Curfew Bell.

SHROVETIDE,--in its original meaning, signifies the time of confessing sins to a priest. Tide refers to time; and shrove, shrive, or shrift, are derived from the Saxon, and signify confession. In the earlier constitution of the church, it is ordered, "That on the week next before Lent, every man should go to his shrift, and his shrift should shrive him in such a manner as the deeds which he had done required."

This custom of confessing to the priest at this season, was laid aside at the Reformation.

Fitzstephen informs us, that anciently, on Shrove-Tuesday, schoolboys used to bring "cocks of the game" to their masters, and entertain themselves with cock-fighting. The masters presided at the battle, and claimed the runaway cocks as their perquisite.

The custom of throwing at cocks on this day is not of very ancient institution: it is gradually growing out of use; to which amendment of our manners, the ingenious pencil of Hogarth probably contributed.

Shrove-Tuesday is, in the north, called Fastern's E'en, because the following day is the commencement of Lent.

Shrove-Monday is also termed Collop-Monday; in the north, collops and eggs being on that day a constant dish, as on the next day the Papists take leave of flesh.

Our custom of eating pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday, was probably borrowed from the Greek church. The Russians begin their Lent always eight weeks before Easter; the first week they eat eggs, milk, cheese, and butter, and make great cheer with pancakes, and such other things.

In the Oxford almanacks, the Saturday preceding this day is termed Festum Overum, Egg feast.

On Shrove-Tuesday, the people in every parish throughout England were obliged, one by one, to confess their sins to their own parish priests, in their own parish churches. And that this might be done more regularly, the great bell in every parish was rung at ten o'clock, or perhaps sooner, that it might be heard by all, and that they might attend according to the custom then in use. And though we are now Protestants, yet the custom of ringing the great bell in an ancient parish church still continues, and has the name of the pancake bell, probably, because after the confession it was customary to dine on pancakes or fritters; and many people even now have these articles as part of their dinner on this day.

This used to be a great holiday amongst apprentices; but a contempt of old customs seems gaining ground in this country, and those, or many of them above-mentioned, will probably soon be forgotten.

Another account of the origin of frying pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday, has been given. It is said that one Simon Eyre, a shoemaker, being chosen lord-mayor of London, made a pancake feast on Shrove-Tuesday for all the apprentices in London; and from that it became a custom.

He ordered, that upon ringing of a bell in every parish, the apprentices should leave work, and shut up their shops for that day; which being ever since yearly observed, is called the pancake bell: he made them a large feast of puddings, pies, and pancakes, and what remained, when all had dined, was given to the poor: afterwards in that year (1446,) he built Leadenhall.

CANDLEMAS DAY.--This is the feast of the purification, which was formerly celebrated with many lights in churches. The custom of going in procession on Candlemas-day with lighted candles in the hand, is said to have been derived from the Romans, who went about Rome with torches, and candles brenning (burning) in worship of Februa, the mother of Mars. This was afterwards, by Pope Fergius, converted into the worship of our Lady, and her Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. Wheatley says, "The practice of using abundance of lights, both in churches and processions, continued in England till the second year of Edward VI. when Bishop Cranmer forbade it, by order of the Privy Council."

VALENTINE'S DAY.--Valentine was a pope, or bishop of Rome, that lived in the ninth century; who, on this day, established an annual custom of the poorer clergy drawing patrons by lots for the commenced year; and these patrons, or benefactors, were called Valentines. After his death he was canonized for a saint, and his feast-day kept on the fourteenth day of February, which was thought to be his birth-day. Mr. John Gordon, in his memoirs and account of the popes, says, "that Valentine was too good a man to be a good pope, and died forty days after his consecration, or instalment; being choked with a fish-bone."

This custom, in Britain, evidently appears to have been copied by the laity from the clergy, in the days of popery, and is a very ancient custom, being almost of a thousand years standing. The birds too are supposed to choose their mates, and pair, on this day; which, no doubt, is an additional reason to our youth of both sexes who are approaching to maturity, to write their verses, and with much ingenuity ply scissars, pen, and pencil, in honour of their selected or allotted lovers.

PLOUGH-MONDAY.--This day is held on the ninth of January, the Monday after Twelfth-day. The ploughmen, in the north country, draw a plough from door to door, and beg money for drink; from whence this took its name. Plough-day had its origin when the feudal system prevailed in this country, when the lords and barons had their lands tilled by their vassals, or tenants. The Christmas holidays terminated on Twelfth-day, and the ploughing season for the new year commenced the first Monday after; on which day, the sock-men (as this sort of ploughmen were then called) were obliged to appear with their ploughs, &c. at a place appointed there, to have them examined, whether they were in a proper condition to perform their lord's work; for ploughs were then scarce, and it was a mark of some consequence to possess one in good order. Hence the appellation of Plough-Monday has ever since being applied to the first Monday after Twelfth-day. It is conjectured, that the system of begging money arose at a time when they could not plough the land on account of its being frozen, as watermen drag about a boat in severe frosts, and beg money, because they are then unable to ply on the river.

NEW YEAR'S GIFTS.--Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New Year's Gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romulus, and who, having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenua, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized this custom afterwards, and gave to these persons the name of Strenæ. The Romans on that day celebrated a festival in honour of Janus, and paid their respects at the same time to Juno; but they did not pass it in idleness, lest they should become indolent during the rest of the year. They sent presents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to shew their friends that they wished them a happy and agreeable life. Clients, or those who were under the protection of the great, carried presents of this kind to their patrons, adding to them a small piece of silver. Under Augustus, the senate, the knights, and the people, presented such gifts to him, and in his absence deposited them in the capitol. Of the succeeding princes, some adopted this custom, and others abolished it; but it always continued among the people. The early Christians condemned it, because it appeared to be a relic of paganism, and a species of superstition; but when it began to have no other object than that of being a mark of esteem, the church ceased to disapprove of it.

CHRISTMAS BOXES.--On looking into history, we find that this custom derived its existence much about the time that mass was first said by a Catholic priest. Rome, which originally gave birth to superstition, had an incredible number of clergy to support, and, among other devices, this was invented as one, and took its name of Mass from the Latin word mitto, to send. This word mitto was a kind of remembrancer, or rather dictator, which said, "Send gifts, offerings, and oblations to the priests, that they may intercede with Christ to save your soul by saying so many masses."

Hence it was called Christ's mass, or, as it is now abbreviated, Christmas. Thus far the etymology of the word is indisputable, and every man who has attended to the minutiæ of sacred history, must know the fact to be as here related. The word box, is a part of the same priestcraft trade, and took its origin from the following circumstance:--

Whenever a ship sailed from any of those ports where the religious profession was under the authority of Rome, a certain saint was always named, unto whose protection it's safety was committed, and in that ship there was a box, and into that box every poor person put something, in order to induce the priests to pray to that saint for the safe return of the vessel; which box was locked up by the priests, who said the money should not be taken out until the vessel came back.

CHILTERN HUNDREDS.--Frequent mention is made of members of parliament accepting the Chiltern Hundreds. The following is the explanation:--

The Chiltern Hundreds are hundreds, or divisions of counties, parcelled out by the wise Alfred, and now annexed to the crown; they still retain their peculiar courts.

The stewards of these courts are appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer; their salary is 20s. a year. As the law enacts that a member of parliament who receives a place under the Crown, may not sit, unless re-elected,--accepting the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds is merely a formal manner of resigning a seat, when the member wishes to be rechosen.

ORIGIN OF THE TERM "JOHN BULL."--Dr. John Bull was the first Gresham professor of music, and organist and composer to Queen Elizabeth. John, like a true Englishman, travelled for improvement; and having heard of a famous musician at St. Omer's, he placed himself under him as a novice; but a circumstance very soon convinced the master, that he was inferior to the scholar. The musician shewed John a song, which he had composed in forty parts! telling him at the same time, that he defied all the world to produce a person capable of adding another part to his composition. Bull desired to be left alone, and to be indulged for a short time with pen and ink. In less than three hours, he added forty parts more to the song. Upon which the Frenchman was so much surprised, that he swore in great ecstasy, he must be either the Devil, or John Bull; which has ever since been proverbial in England.

Origin of the Old Adage, "IF IT RAINS ON SAINT SWITHIN'S DAY, IT WILL RAIN FOR FORTY DAYS AFTERWARDS."

In the year 805, St. Swithin, bishop of Winchester, dying, was canonized by the then pope. He was singular in his desire to be buried in the open church-yard, and not in the chancel of the minister, as was customary with the bishops; which request was complied with: but the monks, on his being canonized, taking it into their heads that it was disagreeable for the saint to lie in the open church-yard, resolved to move his body into the choir, which was to have been done in solemn procession on the 15th of July. It rained, however, so violently on that day, and for forty days succeeding, as had hardly ever been known, which made them set aside their design, as contrary to the will of Heaven; and instead of removing the body, they shewed their veneration by erecting a chapel over his grave.

Origin of the Saying, when people speak improperly, "THAT'S A BULL."--This became a proverb from the repeated blunders of one Obadiah Bull, a lawyer of London, who lived in the reign of king Henry VII.

CURFEW BELL.--The curfew bell (called, in the low Latin of the middle ages, ignitegium, or peritegium, and in French, couvrefew) was a signal for all persons to extinguish their fires at a certain hour. In those ages, people made fires in their houses in a hole or pit in the centre of the floor, under an opening formed in the roof; and when the fire was burnt out, or the family went to bed, the hole was shut by a cover of wood or earth. This practice still prevails among the cottagers in some parts of Scotland, and perhaps in other parts of the kingdom. In the dark ages, when all ranks of people were turbulent, a law was almost every where established, that the fire should be extinguished at a certain time in the evening; that the cover should be put over the fire-place, and that all the family should retire to rest, or at least keep within doors. The time when this ought to be done, was signified by the ringing of a bell, called therefore the curfew bell, or ignitegium. This was the law of William the Conqueror, who first introduced the practice into England, and which was abolished by Henry the First, in 1100.

The ringing of the curfew bell gave rise to the Prayer Bell, as it is called, which is still retained in some Protestant countries. Pope John the Twenty-third, with a view to avert certain apprehended misfortunes which rendered his life uncomfortable, gave orders, that every person, on hearing the ignitegium, should repeat the Ave Maria three times. When the appearance of a comet, and the dread of Turks, alarmed all Christendom, Pope Calixtus the Third increased these periodical times of prayer, by ordering the prayer bell to be rung also at noon.

CHAP. LXIV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.--(Concluded.)

Romish Indulgences--Act of Faith--Baptism of Bells--Curious Baptism--Kalmuck Praying Machines--Curious Penance at Calcutta.

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS.

ROMISH INDULGENCES.--In the Romish church, indulgences are a remission of the punishment due to sins, granted by the church, and supposed to save the sinner from purgatory. According to the Romish doctrine, all the good works of the saints, over and above those which were necessary towards their own justification, are deposited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in one inexhaustible treasury. The keys of this were committed to St. Peter, and to his successors the popes, who may open it at pleasure, and by transferring a portion of this superabundant merit to any particular person, for a sum of money, may convey to him either the pardon of his own sins, or a release for any one in whom he is interested, from the pains of purgatory. Indulgences were first invented in the eleventh century, by Urban II. as a recompense for those who went in person upon the glorious enterprise of conquering the Holy Land. They were afterwards granted to those who hired a soldier for that purpose; and in process of time were bestowed on such as gave money for accomplishing any pious work enjoined by the pope. This power of granting indulgences was greatly abused.

Pope Leo X. in order to carry on the magnificent structure of St. Peter's at Rome, published indulgences, and plenary remission, to all who should contribute money towards it. Finding the project take, he granted to Albert, elector of Mentz, and archbishop of Magdeburg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and the neighbouring parts, and farmed out those of other countries to the highest bidders; who, to make the best of their bargain, procured the ablest preachers to cry up the value of the ware. The form of these indulgences was as follows: "May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy Pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee, first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred, then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how enormous soever they may be, even for such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see, and as far as the keys of the holy church extend: I remit to you all punishment which you deserve in purgatory on their account; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that innocence and purity which you possessed at baptism; so that when you die, the gates of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened; and if you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full force when you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."

The terms in which the retailers of indulgences described their benefits, and the necessity of purchasing them, are so extravagant, that they appear almost incredible. They maintain, that if any man purchase letters of indulgence, his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. That the souls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indulgences are purchased, as soon as the money tinkles in the chest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and ascend into heaven: That the efficacy of indulgences is so great, that the most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would be remitted and expiated by them, and the person be freed both from punishment and guilt: That this was the unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to himself: That the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was equally efficacious with the cross of Christ. "Lo! (say they) the heavens are open; if you enter not now, when will you enter? For twelve-pence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory; and are you so ungrateful, that you will not rescue your parent from torment? If you had but one coat, you ought to strip yourself instantly, and sell it, in order to purchase such benefits, &c."--This monstrous abuse of indulgences contributed greatly to the Reformation of religion in Germany, where Martin Luther first began to declaim against the preachers of indulgences, and afterwards against indulgences themselves. Since that period, the popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power: however, they still carry on a great trade with them to the Indies, where they are purchased at two rials apiece, and sometimes more. The pope likewise grants indulgences to persons at the point of death; that is, he grants them, by a brief, power to choose what confessor they please, who is authorized thereby to absolve them from all their sins in general.

We proceed to another custom of the Romish church, called the ACT OF FAITH.--Auto da Fé, in the Romish church, is a solemn day observed by the Inquisition, for the punishment of heretics, and the absolution of the innocent persons who have been accused. It is usually contrived to fall on some grand festival, that the execution may take place with the greater pomp and solemnity. At least, it is always on a Sunday. The auto da fé may be considered as the last act of the inquisitorial tragedy; it is a kind of gaol delivery, appointed as often as a sufficient number of prisoners in the Inquisition are convicted of heresy, either by their own voluntary or extorted confession, or on the evidence of witnesses. The process is as follows:--In the morning they are brought into a great hall, where they are clothed in certain habits, which they are to wear in the procession, and by which they know their doom. The procession is led on by the Dominican friars, who enjoy this privilege, because St. Dominic, their founder, instituted the Inquisition. Before them is carried the standard of the holy office, in which the image of the founder is wrought in rich embroidery, holding a sword in one hand, and an olive branch in the other, with the inscription, "Justice and Mercy." These friars are followed by the penitents, who have narrowly escaped burning, and who over their black coats have flames painted, with their points turned downwards. Next come the negative and relapsed who are intended to be burnt, and who have flames on their habits pointing upwards. After these follow such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, and who, besides flames pointing upwards, have their pictures painted on their breasts, and surrounded by dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed. Each prisoner is attended by a familiar of the Inquisition; and those intended to be burnt, have also on each side a Jesuit, who is continually advising them to abjure. After the prisoners, follow a troop of familiars on horseback; after them, the Inquisitors, and other officers, upon mules; and lastly, the inquisitor-general, upon a white horse, led by two men with black hats and green hatbands. A scaffold is erected sufficiently large for containing two or three thousand people; at one end of the scaffold are the prisoners, at the other end the inquisitors. After a sermon, consisting of encomiums on the Inquisition, and of invectives against heretics, a priest ascends a desk near the scaffold, and, having received the abjuration of the penitents, recites the final sentence of those who are to be put to death, and delivers them to the secular power, at the same time earnestly beseeching that their blood be not touched, nor their lives put in danger!!!

The prisoners being thus in the hands of the civil magistrate, are immediately loaded with chains, and carried first to the secular gaol, and thence, in an hour or two, brought before the civil judge. After inquiring in what religion they intend to die, the civil judge pronounces sentence on such as declare they die in the communion of the church of Rome, that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to ashes; on such as die in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are immediately carried to the place of execution, where as many stakes are set up as there are prisoners to be burnt, and about each stake is laid a quantity of dry furze. The stakes of the professed, or of such as persist in their heresy, are about four yards in height, and towards the top have a small board, on which the prisoner is seated. The negative and relapsed being first strangled and burnt, the professed mount their stakes by a ladder; and the Jesuits, after repeatedly exhorting them to be reconciled to the church, part with them, and say that they leave them to the devil, who is standing at their elbow to receive their souls, and to carry them with him to the flames of hell. On hearing this, a great shout is raised by the people, who cry, 'Let the dogs' beards be made!' This is performed by thrusting flaming furze, fastened to long poles, against their chins, till their faces are burned to a coal. This inhuman act is accompanied with the loudest acclamations of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the stakes, over which the professed are chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat upon which they sit, and they seem rather roasted than burnt. There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle: the sufferers continually cry out, while they are able, 'Pity, for the love of God!' Yet it is beheld by all ages, and by both sexes, with transports of joy and admiration!

Another curious custom in the same church, is, THE BAPTISM OF BELLS.--"Being come to Veletre, the abbot took up his lodging with one of his friends, and I betook myself to an inn, near the Piazza. My host asked me if I had not a mind to see the ceremony which was to be celebrated the next day at the dome, (so they call the cathedral churches in Italy;) he told me there was a bell to be baptized, whereof a great lord was to be the godfather, and a lady of quality the godmother; and that there would be a great appearance of the nobility, who had been invited to the solemnity from all parts. I had before this seen bells baptized in France; but because I knew that the Italians surpass all other nations in the magnificence of their ceremonies, and that they commonly season them with a double portion of superstition, I resolved with myself to see it baptized, and with that design I staid all the next day at Veletre. I went to the church in the morning, to take a view of the preparatives that had taken up a whole week's time, which I found to be great and sumptuous indeed. The bell was placed at the lower end of the body of the church, hanging upon two gudgeons, covered with rich hangings of velvet of a violet colour, and the bell itself was accoutred with a kind of robe of the same stuff. There were two theatres built on each side of it for the musicians, and an amphitheatre for the ladies who were to be present at the ceremony. The pillars and walls of the church were richly adorned with curious sheets of silk, and pictures. Near to the bell was erected an altar very neatly set forth, and on it lay a white satin robe, which was to be put upon the bell as soon as it should be baptized, with a great and choice garland of flowers: there was also upon the altar a Roman ritual, a censer, and a vessel with holy water, and round about the altar rich elbow chairs for the priests who were to perform the ceremony. Just over against it a throne was seen, most magnificently hung, for the godfather and godmother of the bell.

"About ten o'clock the company came, and having taken their several places, the priests began their function. He who officiated was a bishop in partibus, whom the bishop of Veletre, being at that time very sick, had deputed for this purpose, and his chair was placed upon the steps of the high altar. He struck up the first Psalm, which was continued by the music. The psalms, by the way, which may be seen in the Roman ritual, have as much reference to the baptizing of the moon, as to the baptizing of a bell: for the prophet David very probably had not the least notion of the baptism of bells. After the psalms were ended, the bishop began the blessing of holy water, to sanctify it in the first place, to the end that afterwards it might sanctify the bell also. This benediction is very long, and no less ridiculous; which being finished, the bishop and priests dipped spunges in it, with which they rubbed over the bell, from the top to the bottom, within and without, being in this regard certainly much better baptized than children are, upon whose heads only they pour or sprinkle it. They repeated, in the mean time, abundance of prayers, which speak of nothing else but heavenly blessings, that are to purify, sanctify, and consecrate the bell. Ut hoc tintinnabulum (say they) coeleste benedictione perfundere, purificare, sanctificare, et consecrare digneris: 'That thou wouldest be pleased to rinse, purify, sanctify, and consecrate this bell with thy heavenly benediction.'

"The bell being thus washed, they dried it with clean napkins; and the bishop having taken the vial of holy oils, which are those they bless on Holy Thursday for the whole year following, he therewith anointed the cross of metal, which is on the top of the bell, in order to make the devils flee at the sound or ringing of it: Ut hoc audientes tintinnabulum, tremiscant et fugiant ante crucis in eo depictum vexillum: 'That hearing this bell, they may tremble and flee before the banner of thy cross designed upon it.' He afterwards made seven other crosses with the said oil upon the outside of the bell, and four on the inside. This done, he made the godfather and godmother draw near, and demanded of them in Italian, 'Whether they were the persons that presented this bell to be consecrated?' Who having answered that they did, he then asked them, 'Whether the metal of the bell, and the workmanship of it, had been paid for to the artificers?' To which they answered, 'Yea.'--They make this demand, because it had sometimes happened, that for want of proper payment, the workmen have seized and fetched away their bells the same day, or the day after they had been baptized, and have melted them down to be employed to profane uses. The third question he asked of them was, 'Whether they believed all that the Catholic apostolic churches believes concerning the holiness and virtue of bells?' The answer to which was affirmative also. In the last place, he demanded of them, 'What name they desired should be put upon the bell?' To which the lady replied, 'Mary.' Then the bishop took two great silk ribands, which had been fastened to the gudgeons of the bell, and gave each of them one in their hands, and pronounced, with a loud intelligible voice, the words of consecration, which are these,--Consecretur et sanctificetur signum istud, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Amen. 'Let this sign be consecrated and sanctified in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen.' Then turning himself to the people, he said, 'The name of this bell is Mary.' He then takes the censer, and censeth it on the outside round about, and afterwards puts the censer under the bell, filling it with sacred fumes, and repeating prayers and invocations, that it might be filled with the dew of the Holy Spirit, that at the sound of it the enemy of all good may take his flight.

"The office was carried on with a great number of psalms, which they repeated, the music all the while performing wonders; and then the bishop, to sum up the whole ceremony, arrayed the bell with the white robe of a proselyte, or convert, and with a loud voice read the gospel of 'Mary and Martha.' I supposed at that time that the reason of their reading this gospel was, because the bell was called Mary; but I have since seen, in the Roman ritual, that the same gospel is read at the consecration of all bells, whatever their names be. This is what I am astonished at, because that gospel hath no reference at all to the ceremony. The whole solemnity being thus ended, the bishop gave his benediction, and the priests received great presents from the godfather and godmother."

A CURIOUS BAPTISM, which took place at DUBLIN, in the year 1807.--A Moor, a native of Mogadore, in Africa, a strict observer of the religion of Mahomet, wearing always, of course, the costume of his country, resided a few months in the above city. A family, where he occasionally visited, being about to baptize their infant, solicited the stranger to stand godfather, which was immediately consented to; and on the appointed day, he appeared splendidly arrayed in his turban and robes, at the sacred font, where, with due solemnity, he answered to the accustomed interrogatives,--"All this I stedfastly believe." To add still further to the oddity of the circumstance, the father was a member of the Roman Catholic church, and the mother of the Established one.

Some account of KALMUCK PRAYING MACHINES: from Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia.--"Among the most remarkable of the sacred utensils of the temples, is the Kürdä, a cylindrical vessel of wood or metal, either very small, or of immense size. In its centre is fixed an iron axle; but the interior of the cylinder, which is quite hollow, is filled with sacred writings, the leaves of which are all stuck one to another at the edge, throughout the whole length. This paper is rolled tightly round the axis of the cylinder till the whole space is filled up. A close cover is fixed on at each end, and the whole kürdä is very neatly finished, painted on the outside with allegorical representations, or Indian prayers, and varnished. This cylinder is fastened upright in a frame by the axis; so that the latter, by means of a wheel attached to it below, may be set a-going with a string, and with a slight pull kept in a constant rotatory motion. When this cylinder is large, another, twice as small, and filled with writing, is fixed for ornament at the top of it. The inscription on such prayer-wheels commonly consists of masses for souls, psalms, and the six great general litanies, in which the most moving petitions are preferred for the welfare of all creatures. The text they sometimes repeat a hundred, or even a thousand times, attributing, from superstition, a proportionably augmented effect to this repetition, and believing that by these frequent copies, combined with their thousands of revolutions, they will prove so much the more efficacious. You frequently see, as well on the habitations of the priests, as on the whole roof of the temple, small kürdä placed close to each other, in rows, by way of ornament; and not only over the gates, but likewise in the fields, frames set up expressly for these praying-machines, which, instead of being moved by a string, are turned by the wind, by means of four sails, shaped and hollowed out like spoons.

"Other similar kürdä are fastened to sticks of moderate thickness; a leaden weight is then fastened to the cylinder by a string, which, when it is once set a-going, keeps it, with the help of the stick, in constant motion. Such like prayer-wheels, neatly wrought, are fastened upon short sticks to a small wooden pedestal, and stand upon the altars, for the use of pious persons. While the prayer-wheel is thus turned round with one hand, the devotee takes the rosary in the other, and at the same time repeats penitential psalms.

"A fourth kind of these kürdä is constructed on the same principle as those which are turned by wind, only it is somewhat smaller, and the frame is adapted to be hung up by a cord, in the chimneys of the habitations or huts of the Monguls. When there is a good fire, they are likewise set in motion by the smoke and the current of air, and continue to turn round as long as the fire is kept up.

"A fifth kind of kürdä is erected on a small stream of water, upon a foundation like that of a mill, over which a small house is built to protect it from the weather. By means of the wheel attached to it, and the current, the cylinder is in like manner kept in a constant circular motion. These water kürdä are commonly constructed on a large scale, and maintained at the joint expense of the inhabitants of a whole district. They have a reference to all aquatic animals, whether alive or dead, whose temporal and eternal happiness is the aim of the writings contained in them, in like manner as the object of the fire. Kürdä is the salvation of the souls of all animals suffering by fire."

CURIOUS ACCOUNT OF AN EXPIATORY PENANCE AT CALCUTTA.--About a mile from the town is a plain, where the natives annually undergo a very strange kind of penance on the 9th of April; some for the sins they have committed, others for those they may commit, and others in consequence of a vow made by their parents. This ceremony is performed in the following manner. Thirty bamboos, each about the height of twenty feet, are erected in the plain above-mentioned. On the top of these they contrive to fix a swivel, and another bamboo of thirty feet or more crosses it, at both ends of which hangs a rope. The people pull down one end of this rope, and the devotee, placing himself under it, the brahmin pinches up a large piece of skin under both the shoulder blades, sometimes in the breasts, and thrusts a strong iron hook through each. These hooks have lines of Indian grass hanging to them, which the priest makes fast to the rope at the end of the cross bamboo, and at the same time puts a sash round the body of the devotee, laying it loosely in the hollow of the hooks, lest, by the skin giving way, he should fall to the ground. The people then haul down the other end of the bamboo: by which the devotee is immediately lifted up thirty feet or more from the ground, and they run round as fast as their legs can carry them. Thus the devotee is thrown out the whole length of the rope, where, as he swings, he plays a thousand antic tricks; being painted and dressed in a very particular manner, on purpose to make him look more ridiculous. Some of them continue swinging half an hour, others less. The devotees undergo a preparation of four days for this ceremony. On the first and third, they abstain from all kinds of food; but eat fruit on the other two. During this time of preparation they walk about the streets in their fantastical dresses, dancing to the sound of drums and horns; and some, to express the greater ardour of devotion, run a wire of iron quite through their tongues, and sometimes through their cheeks.

Happy are Christians in being delivered from the darkness, absurdities, and horrors of superstition, by the bright effulgence of the Sun of righteousness!

CHAP. LXV.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.

----------------A wand'ring fire Compact of unctuous vapour, which the night Condenses, and the cold environs round, Kindled through agitation to a flame, (Which oft, they say, some evil spirit attends,) Hovering, and blazing with delusive light, Misleads th' amaz'd night-wanderer from his way Through bogs and mire. Milton.

ON THE IGNIS FATUUS.

The Ignis Fatuus is a luminous appearance, which is most frequently observed in boggy districts and near rivers, though sometimes also in dry places. By its appearance, benighted travellers are said to have been sometimes led into imminent danger, taking it for a candle at a distance; from which seemingly mischievous property it has been thought by the vulgar to be a spirit of a malignant nature, and been named accordingly, Will-with-a-Wisp, or Jack-with-a-Lantern; for the same reason that it had its Latin name Ignis Fatuus. This light is frequently seen about burying-places and dunghills. Some countries are also remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and some parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are so uncertain and variable, that they can scarcely be described, especially as philosophical observers seldom meet with it. Dr. Derham, however, one night perceived one of them, and got so near that he had a very advantageous view of it. This is very difficult to be obtained; for, among other singularities of the ignis fatuus, it avoids the approach of any person, and flies from place to place as if it were animated. That which Dr. Derham observed, was in some boggy ground betwixt two rocky hills; and the night was dark and calm, by which means he was enabled to advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared like a complete body of light without any division, so that he was sure it could not be occasioned by insects. It kept dancing about a dead thistle, till a very slight motion of the air, occasioned, as he supposed, by his near approach to it, made it jump to another place; after which it kept flying before him as he advanced.

Beccari obtained information, that two of these lights appeared in the plains about Bologna, the one north, the other south of that city, and were to be seen almost every dark night, especially that to the eastward, giving a light equal to an ordinary faggot. The latter appeared to a gentleman of his acquaintance, as he was travelling; moved constantly before him for about a mile, and gave a better light than a torch which was carried before him. Both these appearances gave a very strong light, and were constantly in motion. Sometimes they would rise, sometimes sink; but commonly they would hover about six feet from the ground; they would also frequently disappear on a sudden, and appear again in some other place. They differed also in size and figure, sometimes spreading pretty wide, and then contracting themselves; sometimes breaking into two, and then joining again. Sometimes they would appear like waves, at others they would seem to drop sparks of fire: they were but little affected by the wind; and in wet or rainy weather, were frequently observed to cast a stronger light than in dry weather: they were also observed more frequently when snow lay upon the ground, than in the hottest summer; but he was assured, that there was not a dark night throughout the whole year, in which they were not to be seen. The ground east of Bologna, where the largest of these was observed, is a hard chalky soil mixed with clay, which retains moisture long, but breaks and cracks in hot weather. On the mountains, where the soil is looser, the ignes fatui were less. From the best information, M. Beccari found that these lights were very frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes his narrative with the following singular account.--

"An intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening, between eight and nine o'clock, in a hilly road about ten miles south of Bologna, perceived a light which shone very strongly upon some stones which lay on the banks of the Rio Verde. It seemed to be about two feet above the stones, and near the water. In size and figure it had the appearance of a parallelo-piped, above a foot in length, and half a foot high, the largest side being parallel to the horizon. Its light was so strong, that he could plainly see by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of the river; only in the east corner of it the light was rather faint, and the square figure less perfect, as if it were cut off or darkened by the segment of a circle. On examining it a little nearer, he was surprised to find that it changed gradually from a bright red to a yellowish, and then to a pale colour, in proportion as he drew nearer; and when he came to the place itself it quite vanished. Upon this, he stepped back, and not only saw it again, but found that the farther he went from it, the stronger and brighter it grew. When he examined the place of this luminous appearance, he could perceive no smell, nor any other mark of fire," Another gentleman informed M. Beccari, that he had seen the same light five or six different times in spring and autumn; and that it always appeared of the same shape, and in the very same spot. One night in particular, he observed it come out of a neighbouring field to settle in the usual place.

A very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is given by Dr. Shaw, in his Travels to the Holy Land. It appeared in the valleys of mount Ephraim, and attended him and his company for above an hour. Sometimes it appeared globular, or like the flame of a candle, at others it spread to such a degree as to involve the whole country in a pale inoffensive light, then contracted itself, and suddenly disappeared, but in less than a minute it would appear again; sometimes, running swiftly along, it would expand itself at certain intervals over more than two or three acres of the adjacent mountains. The atmosphere from the beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick and hazy; and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles of their horses, was very clammy and unctuous. Lights resembling the ignis fatuus are sometimes observed at sea, skipping about the masts and rigging of ships; and Dr. Shaw informs us, that he has seen these in such weather as that just mentioned, when he saw the ignis fatuus in Palestine. Similar appearances have been observed in various other situations; and we are told of one which appeared about the bed of a woman in Milan, surrounding it, as well as her body, entirely. This light fled from the hand which approached; but was at length entirely dispersed by the motion of the air.

Of the same kind also, most probably, are those small luminous appearances which sometimes appear in houses, or near them, called, in Scotland, Elf-candles, and which are supposed to portend the death of some person about the house. In general these lights are harmless, though not always; for some of them have encompassed stacks of hay and corn, and set them on fire; so that they became objects of great terror to the country people. Of these, it was observed, that they would avoid a drawn sword, or sharp-pointed iron instrument; and that they would be driven away by a great noise.

Several philosophers have endeavoured to account for these appearances, but hitherto with no great success; nor indeed does there seem to be sufficient data for solving all their phenomena. Sir Isaac Newton calls it a vapour shining without heat; and supposes that there is the same difference between a vapour of the ignis fatuus and flame, that there is between the shining of rotten wood and burning coals. But though this seems generally to be the case, there are exceptions, as has been instanced in the vapours which set fire to the stacks of corn. Dr. Priestley supposes that the light is of the same nature with that produced by putrescent substances; others, that the electrical fluid is principally concerned; but none have attempted to give any particular solution of the phenomena.

From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus in marshes, moist ground, burying-places, and dunghills, putrefaction seems to be concerned in the production of it. This process is attended with the emission of an aqueous steam, together with a quantity of fixed inflammable and alkaline air, blended together in one common vapour. It is likewise attended with some degree of heat, and there are some vapours, that of sulphur particularly, which becomes luminous with a degree of heat much less than that sufficient to set fire to combustibles. The putrid vapour, therefore, may be capable of shining with a still smaller degree of heat than that of sulphur, and consequently may become luminous by that which putrefaction alone affords. This would account for the ignis fatuus, were it only a steady luminous vapour arising from places where putrid matters are contained; but its extreme mobility, and flying from one place to another on the approach of any person, cannot be accounted for on this principle. If one quantity of the putrid vapour becomes luminous by means of heat, all the rest ought to do so likewise; so that though we may allow heat and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of necessity we must have recourse to some other agent, which can be no other than electricity. Without this, it is impossible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour should not be carried away by the wind; but so far is this from being the case, that the ignes fatui described by M. Beccari, were but little affected by the wind. It is, besides, proved by undoubted experiment, that electricity is always attended with some degree of heat; and this, however small, may be sufficient to give a luminous property to any vapour on which it acts strongly: not to add, that the electric fluid itself is no other than light, and may therefore by its action easily produce a luminous appearance independent of any vapour. We have a strong proof that electricity is concerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing the ignis fatuus, from an experiment related by Dr. Priestley, of a flame of this kind being artificially produced.

A gentleman, who had been making many electrical experiments for a whole afternoon in a small room, on going out of it, observed a flame following him at some little distance. This was doubtless a true ignis fatuus, and the circumstances necessary to produce it were then present, viz. an atmosphere impregnated with animal vapour, and likewise strongly electrified, for the quantity of perspiration emitted by a human body is by no means inconsiderable; and it, as well as the electricity, would be collected by reason of the smallness of the room. In this case, however, there seems to have been a considerable difference between the artificial ignis fatuus, and those commonly met with; for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out of the room, but the natural ones commonly fly from those who approach them. This may be accounted for, from a difference between the electricity of the atmosphere in the one room and the other; in which case the flame would naturally be attracted towards that place where the electricity was either different in quality or in quantity; but in the natural way, where all bodies may be supposed equally electrified for a great way round, a repulsion will as naturally take place. Still, however, this does not seem to be always the case. In those instances where travellers have been attended by an ignis fatuus, we cannot suppose it to have been influenced by any other power than what we call attraction, and which electricity is very capable of producing. Its keeping at some distance, is likewise easily accounted for; as we know that bodies possessed of different quantities of electricity may be made to attract one another for a certain space, and then repel without having ever come into contact. On this principle we may account for the light which surrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from the hand of any other person. On the same principle may we account for those mischievous vapours which set fire to the hay and corn stacks, but were driven away by presenting to them a pointed iron instrument, or by making a noise. Both these are known to have a great effect upon the electric matter; and by means of either, lightning may occasionally be made to fall upon, or to avoid, particular places, according to the circumstances by which the general mass happens to be effected. On the whole, therefore, it seems most probable, that the ignis fatuus is a collection of vapours of the putrescent kind, very much affected by electricity; according to the degree of which, it will either give a weak or strong light, or even set fire to certain substances. This opinion seems to be confirmed from some luminous appearances observed in privies, where the putrid vapours have been collected into balls, and exploded violently on the approach of a candle. This last effect, however, we cannot so well ascribe to the electricity, as to the ascension of the inflammable air which abounds in such places.

In the Appendix to Dr. Priestley's third volume of Experiments and Observations on Air, Mr. Warltire gives an account of some very remarkable ignes fatui, which he observed on the road to Bromsgrove, about five miles from Birmingham. The time of observation was the 12th of December, 1776, before daylight. Many of these lights were playing in an adjacent field, in different directions; from some of which suddenly sprang up bright branches of light, somewhat resembling the explosion of a rocket that contained many brilliant stars, if the discharge was upwards, instead of the usual direction; and the hedge, and trees on each side of the hedge, were illuminated. This appearance continued but a few seconds, and then the jack-with-a-lantern played as before. Mr. Warltire was not near enough to observe if the apparent explosion was attended with any report.

Cronstedt gives it as his opinion, that ignes fatui, as well as falling stars, are owing to collections of inflammable air raised to a great height in the atmosphere. But, with regard to the latter, the vast height at which they move, evidently shews that they cannot be the effect of any gravitating vapour whatever; for the lightest inflammable air is one-twelfth of that of the common atmosphere: and we have no reason to believe, that at the distance of forty or fifty miles from the earth, the latter has near one-twelfth of its weight at the surface. From the account given by Mr. Warltire, we should be apt to conclude, that there is a strong affinity betwixt the ignes fatui and fireballs, insomuch that the one might be very easily converted into the other. Electricity can assume both these appearances, as is evident in the case of points; or even when the atmosphere is violently electrified, as around the string of an electrified kite, which always will appear to be surrounded with a blue flame in the night, if the electricity be very strong. On the whole, it appears that electricity, acting upon a small quantity of atmospherical air with a certain degree of vigour, will produce an appearance resembling an ignis fatuus; with a superior force it will produce a fire-ball; and a sudden increase of electrical power might produce those sparks and apparent explosions observed by Mr. Warltire. This appearance has produced many superstitious fears in the ignorant and uneducated.

To those who have, unfortunately, been badly educated in this respect, a friendly act would be, to endeavour with sound reasoning to convince them of their error, and dissuade them from giving heed, in future, to idle, superstitious, or inconsistent stories of any kind; advising them to furnish themselves with such knowledge, as may have a tendency to produce true pleasure and happiness through life, and which, when dying, they can reflect upon without uneasiness. "The natural offspring of prevailing superstition is infidelity. Of the truth of this, the present times afford us a lamentable example. Where ignorance and fear once ruled supreme, there has rash philosophy but too successfully planted presumption and atheism. 'Tis the diffusion of pure and solid knowledge, which alone can preserve us from the dominion of these opposite tyrants. How should this consideration increase our zeal and stimulate our endeavours! The immediate sphere of our action may be circumscribed, but our exertions will not on that account be entirely lost. In that circumscribed sphere let us labour to root out every superstitious lying vanity, and plant pure religion and unsophisticated truth in its stead.

"How charming, how enlivening to the soul, to gaze upon the dawning beams of opening light, to behold them irradiate that dismal gloom of intellectual darkness, which long overwhelmed the millions of mankind: how supremely pleasing, to view them wider and wider spreading their invigorating influence: how rapturously transporting, to contemplate the resplendent prospect of pure and perfect day!

"--------------Power supreme! O everlasting King! to thee we kneel, To thee we lift our voice!"--

"O spread thy benign, thy vivifying light over the dwellings of the sons of men; dispel the yet impending mists of ignorance and superstition: and, O preserve us from the dismal gulf of infidelity and atheism; let thy truth run and prevail gloriously; let pure celestial wisdom overspread the earth as the waters cover the sea!--Then shall millions kneel before thee with grateful and enraptured hearts; then shall they rejoice to sing the praises of thee, their Benefactor, their Father, and their God: then shall this vale of tears be filled with the mansions of joy and gladness, and become a blissful foretaste of those regions, where thy saints, crowned with unfading glory and felicity, surround thy throne with never-ceasing hallelujahs!"

See Naylor on Vulgar Superstitions.

CHAP. LXVI.

CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.--(Continued.)

Extraordinary Properties and Effects of Lighting--Thunder Rod--Fire Balls--Terrible Effects of Electrified Clouds--Surprising Effects of extreme Cold--Astonishing Expansive Force of Freezing.

----By conflicting winds together dashed, The thunder holds his black tremendous throne: From cloud to cloud the rending lightnings rage; Till, in the furious elemental war Dissolv'd, the whole precipitated mass Unbroken floods and solid torrents pours. Thomson.

EXTRAORDINARY PROPERTIES AND EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING.--A very surprising property of lightning of the zigzag kind, especially when near, is, its seeming omnipresence. If two persons are standing in a room looking different ways, and a loud clap of thunder, accompanied with zigzag lightning, happens, they will both distinctly see the flash, not only by that indistinct illumination of the atmosphere which is occasioned by fire of any kind, but the very form of the lightning itself, and every angle it makes in its course, will be as distinctly perceptible as if both had looked directly at the cloud from whence it proceeded. If a person happened at that time to be looking on a book, or other object which he held in his hand, he would distinctly see the form of the lightning between him and the object at which he looked. This property seems peculiar to lightning, and to belong to no other kind of fire whatever. In August 1763, a most violent storm of thunder, rain, and hail, happened at London, which did damage in the adjacent country to the amount of £50,000. Hailstones fell of an immense size, from two to ten inches in circumference, but the most surprising circumstance attending the hurricane was, the sudden flux and reflux of the tide in Plymouth pool, exactly corresponding with the like agitation in the same place, at the time of the great earthquake at Lisbon. Instances have also occurred where lightning, by its own proper force, without any assistance from those less common agitations of the atmosphere or electric fluid, has thrown stones of immense weight to considerable distances; torn up trees by the roots, and broke them in pieces; shattered rocks; beat down houses, and set them on fire, &c. The following singular effect of lightning, upon a pied bullock, is recorded in the sixty-sixth volume of the Philosophical Transactions.--

"In the evening of Sunday the 28th of August, 1774, there was an appearance of a thunder storm, but we heard no report. A gentleman who was riding near the marshes not far from this town, (Lewes) saw two strong flashes of lightning running along the ground of the marsh, at about nine o'clock P. M. On Monday morning, when the servants of Mr. Roger, a farmer at Swanborough, went into the marsh to fetch the oxen to their work, they found one of them, a four-year-old steer, standing up, to appearance much burnt, and so weak as to be scarcely able to walk. The animal seemed to have been struck by lightning in a very extraordinary manner. He was of a white and red colour; the white in large marks, beginning at the rump bone, and running in various directions along both sides; the belly was all white, and the whole head and horns white likewise. The lightning, with which he must have been undoubtedly struck, fell upon the rump bone, which was white, and distributed itself along the sides in such a manner as to take off all the hair from the white marks as low as the bottom of the ribs, but so as to leave a list of white hair, about half an inch broad, all round where it joined to the red, and not a single hair of the red appears to have been touched. The whole belly was unhurt, but the end of the sheath of the penis had the hair taken off; it was also taken off from the dewlap: the horns and the curled hair on the forehead were uninjured; but the hair was taken off from the sides of the face, from the flat part of the jaw-bones, and from the front of the face, in stripes. There were a few white marks on the side and neck, which were surrounded with red; and the hair was taken off from them, leaving half an inch of white adjoining to the red. The farmer anointed the ox with oil for a fortnight; the animal purged very much at first, and was greatly reduced in flesh, but afterwards recovered." In another account of this accident, the author supposes that the bullock had been lying down at the time he was struck; which shews the reason that the under parts were not touched. "The lightning, conducted by the white hair, from the top of the back down the sides, came to the ground at the place where the white hair was left entire."

The author of this account says, that he inquired of Mr. Tooth, a farrier, whether he ever knew of a similar accident; and that he told him "the circumstance was not new to him; that he had seen many pied bullocks struck by lightning in the same manner; that the texture of the skin under the white hair was always destroyed, though looking fair at first; but after a while it became sore, throwing out a putrid matter in pustules, like the small-pox with us, which in time falls off, when the hair grows again, and the bullocks receive no farther injury;" which was the case with the bullock in question. In a subsequent letter, however, the very same author informs us, that he had inquired of Mr. Tooth, "whether he ever saw a stroke of lightning actually fall upon a pied bullock, so as to destroy the white hair, and shew evident marks of burning, leaving the red hair uninjured? He said he never did; nor did he recollect any one that had. He gave an account, however, of a pied horse, belonging to himself, which had been struck dead by lightning in the night time." The explosion was so violent, that Mr. Tooth imagined his house had been struck, and therefore immediately got up. On going into the stable, he found the horse almost dead, though it kept on its legs near half an hour before it expired. The horse was pied white on the shoulder, and greatest part of the head, viz. the forehead and nose, where the greatest force of the stroke came. "The hair was not burnt nor discoloured, only so loosened at the root, that it came off with the least touch. And this is the case, according to Mr. Tooth's observation, with all that he has seen or heard of, viz. the hair is never burnt, but the skin always affected. In the horse, all the blood in the veins under the white parts of the head was quite stagnated, though he could perceive it to flow in other parts as usual; and the skin, together with one side of the tongue, was parched and dried up to a greater degree than he had ever seen before." Another instance is mentioned of this extraordinary effect of lightning upon a bullock, in which even the small red spots on the sides were unaffected; and in this, as well as the former, the white hair on the under part of the belly, and on the legs, was left untouched.

One very singular effect of lightning is, that it has been observed to kill alternately, that is, supposing a number of people standing in a line; if the first person was killed, the second would be safe; the third would be killed, and the fourth safe; the fifth killed, &c. Effects of this kind are generally produced by the most violent kind of lightning; namely, that which appears in the form of balls, which frequently divide themselves into several parts before they strike. If one of these parts of a fire-ball strike a man, another will not strike the person who stands immediately close to him; because there is always a repulsion between bodies electrified the same way. Now, as these parts into which the balls break have all the same kind of electricity, it is evident that they must for that reason repel one another, and this repulsion is so strong, that a man may be interposed within the stroke of two of them, without being hurt by either.

THUNDER ROD.--Dr. Franklin has demonstrated the identity of thunder with the electric explosion. He availed himself of many curious discoveries which he had made of electrical laws: in particular, having observed that electricity was drawn off at a great distance, and without the least violence of action, by a sharp metallic point, he proposed to philosophers to erect a tall mast or pole on the highest part of a building, and to furnish the top of it with a fine metallic point, properly insulated, with a wire leading to an insulated apparatus for exhibiting the common electrical appearances. To the whole of this contrivance he gave the name of Thunder Rod, which it still retains. He had not a proper opportunity of doing this himself, at the time of his writing his dissertation in a letter from Philadelphia to the Royal Society of London; but the contents were so scientific, and so interesting, that in a few weeks they were known over all Europe. His directions were followed in many places. In particular, the French academicians, encouraged by the presence of their monarch, and the great satisfaction which he expressed at the repetition of Dr. Franklin's most instructive experiments, which discovered and made known the theory of positive and negative electricity, as it is now received, were eager to execute his orders, and make his grand experiment, which promised so fairly to bring this tremendous operation of nature, not only within the pole of science, but in the management of human power. But in the mean time, Dr. Franklin, impatient of delay, and perhaps incited by the honourable desire of well-deserved fame, put his own scheme in practice. His inventive mind suggested to him a method of presenting a point to a thunder cloud at a considerable distance. This was, by fixing his point on the head of a paper kite, which the wind should raise to the clouds, while the wet string that held it should serve for a conductor of the electricity. With a palpitating heart, Dr. Franklin, unknown to his neighbours, and accompanied only by his son, went into the fields, and sent up his messenger that was to bring him news from the heavens. He obtained only a few sparks from his apparatus that day; but returned to his house in a state of perfect satisfaction with his success. We may justly consider this as one of the greatest of philosophical discoveries, and as doing the highest honour to the inventor; for it was not a suggestion from an accidental observation, but arose from a scientific comparison of facts, and a sagacious application of the doctrine of positive and negative electricity; a doctrine wholly Dr. Franklin's, and the result of the most acute and discriminating observation. It was this alone, that suggested the whole; and, by explaining to his satisfaction the curious property of sharp points, gave him the courage to handle the thunderbolt of the heavens. It is now a point fully ascertained, that thunder and lightning are the electric snap and spark, as much superior to our puny imitations as we can conceive from the immense extent of the instruments in the hands of Nature.

If (says Dr. Franklin,) a conductor, one foot thick, and five feet long, will produce such snaps as agitate the whole human frame, what may we not expect from a surface of ten thousand acres of electrified clouds? How loud must be the explosion! how terrible the effects!

To this wonderful discovery, Dr. Darwin alludes in the following lines:--

Led by the phosphor light, with daring tread Immortal Franklin sought the fiery bed; Where, nurs'd in night, incumbent tempest shrouds The seeds of thunder in circumfluent clouds, Besieg'd with iron points his airy cell, And pierc'd the monster slumb'ring in his shell.

FIRE BALLS,--are a kind of luminous bodies, commonly appearing at a great height above the earth, with a splendour surpassing that of the moon, and sometimes equalling her apparent size. They generally proceed in this hemisphere from north to south with vast velocity, frequently breaking into several smaller ones, sometimes vanishing with a report, and sometimes not. These luminous appearances, no doubt, constitute one branch of the ancient prodigies, or blazing stars. They sometimes resemble comets, in being attended with a train; but frequently they appear with a round well-defined disk. The first of these, of which we have any accurate account, was observed by Dr. Halley and others, at different places, in 1719. From the slight observations they could take of its course among the stars, its perpendicular height was computed at about seventy miles from the surface of the earth. The height of others has also been computed, and found to be various; though in general it is supposed to be beyond the limits assigned to our atmosphere, or where it loses its refractive power. The most remarkable of these on record appeared on the 18th of August, 1783, about nine o'clock in the evening. It was seen to the northward of Shetland, and took a southerly direction for an immense space, being observed as far as the southern provinces of France and Rome. During its course, it appears frequently to have changed its shape; sometimes appearing in the form of one ball, sometimes two or more; sometimes with a train, sometimes without one. It passed over Edinburgh nearly in the zenith, and had then the appearance of a well-defined round body, extremely luminous, and of a greenish colour; the light which it diffused on the ground giving likewise a greenish cast to objects. After passing the zenith, it was attended by a train of considerable length, which, continually augmenting, at last obliterated the head entirely; so that it looked like a wedge, flying with the obtuse end foremost. The motion was not apparently swift, by reason of its great height; though in reality it must have moved with great rapidity, on account of the vast space it travelled over in a short time. In other places its appearance was very different. At Greenwich, we are told, that "two bright balls, parallel to each other, led the way, the diameter of which appeared to be about two feet; these were followed by an expulsion of eight others, not elliptical, seeming gradually to fall to pieces, for the last was small. Between each two balls a luminous serrated body extended, and at the last a blaze issued, which terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated from the whole. The balls were tinted first by a pure bright light, then followed a delicate yellow, mixed with azure, red, green, &c. which, with a coalition of bolder tints, and a reflection from the other balls, gave the most beautiful rotundity and variation of colours, that the human eye could be charmed with. The sudden illumination of the atmosphere, and the form and singular transition of this bright luminary, contributed much to render it awful: nevertheless, the amazingly vivid appearance of the different balls, and other rich connecting parts, not very easy to delineate, gave an effect equal to the rainbow in the zenith of its glory."

TERRIBLE EFFECTS OF ELECTRIFIED CLOUDS.--The most extraordinary instance of this kind perhaps on record, happened in the island of Java, in the East Indies, in August, 1772. On the 11th of that month, at midnight, a bright cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district called Cheribou, and at the same time several reports were heard like those of a gun. The people who dwelt on the upper parts of the mountain, not being able to fly fast enough, a great part of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference, detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance, rising and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The effects of it were astonishing: every thing was destroyed for seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; plantations were buried in the earth; and two thousand one hundred and forty people lost their lives, besides fifteen hundred head of cattle, and a vast number of horses, goats, &c.

Another instance of a very destructive cloud, the electric qualities of which at present can scarcely be doubted, is related by Mr. Brydone, in his Tour through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of October, 1757. "About three-quarters of an hour after midnight, there was seen, to the south-west of the city of Valetta, a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed its colour, till at last it became like a flame of fire mixed with black smoke. A dreadful noise was heard on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It passed over the port, and came first on an English ship, which in an instant was torn in pieces, and nothing left but the hull; part of the masts, sails, and cordage, were carried to a considerable distance with the cloud. The small boats and selloques, that fell in its way, were all broken to pieces and sunk. The noise increased, and became more frightful. A sentinel, terrified at its approach, ran into his box; but both he and it were lifted up and carried into the sea, where he perished. It then traversed a considerable part of the city, and laid in ruins almost every thing that stood in its way. Several houses were laid level with the ground, and it did not leave one steeple in its passage. The bells of some of them, together with the spires, were carried to a considerable distance; the roofs of the churches demolished and beat down, &c. It went off at the north-east point of the city, and, demolishing the lighthouse, is said to have mounted up into the air with a frightful noise, and passed over the sea to Sicily, where it tore up some trees, and did other inconsiderable damage; but nothing material, as its fury had been spent at Malta. The number of killed and wounded amounted to near two hundred; and the loss of shipping, &c. was very considerable."--The effects of thunder storms, and the vast quantity of electric matter formed in the clouds which produce these storms, are so well known, that it is superfluous to mention them. It appears, however, that even these clouds are not so highly electrified as to produce their fatal effects on those who are immersed in them. It is only the discharge of part of their electricity upon such bodies as are either not electrified at all, or not so highly electrified as the cloud, that does all the mischief. We have, however, only the following instance on record, of any persons' being immersed in the body of a thunder cloud. Professor Saussure, and young Mr. Jalabert, when travelling over one of the high Alps, were caught among clouds of this kind; and, to their astonishment, found their bodies so full of electrical fire, that spontaneous flashes darted from their fingers with a crackling noise, and the same kind of sensation as when strongly electrified by art.

* * * * *

Among the awful phenomena of nature, none have excited more terror than lightning and thunder. Some of the profligate Roman emperors, of whom history records that they procured themselves to be deified, confessed, by their trembling and hiding themselves, when they heard the thunder, that there was a divine power greater than their own--Coela tonantem Jovem. The greatest security against the terrors of a thunder-storm, although no certain one against its effects, is that life of piety and virtue, which is the best guardian of every earthly blessing. The good man, who knows that every event is under the direction of an overruling Providence, and that this life is only a part of his existence, introductory to the blissful scenes of immortality, will behold the terrors of the storm with unshaken resolution: grateful to the Supreme Being, if permitted to escape from the danger; and acquiescing in the Divine Will, if thus to be conveyed, by an easy and instantaneous passage, to that heaven where his conversation had long been, and to that God with whom he delighted to walk.

These sentiments are beautifully expressed in the following lines, written in a midnight thunder-storm, by the celebrated Mrs. Carter, and addressed to a lady:--

Let coward guilt with pallid fear To shelt'ring caverns fly, And justly dread the vengeful fate That thunders thro' the sky:

Protected by that hand, whose law The threat'ning storms obey, Intrepid virtue smiles secure, As in the blaze of day.

In the thick cloud's tremendous gloom, The lightning's lurid glare, It views the same All-gracious Pow'r, That breathes the vernal air.

Thro' nature's ever-varying scene, By diff'rent ways pursu'd, The one eternal end of Heav'n Is universal good.

The same unchanging mercy rules When flaming ether glows, As when it tunes the linnet's voice, Or blushes in the rose.

By reason taught to scorn those fears That vulgar minds molest, Let no fantastic terrors break My dear Narcissa's rest.

Thy life may all the tend'rest care Of Providence defend, And delegated angels round Their guardian wings extend.

When thro' creation's vast expanse The last dread thunders roll, Untune the concord of the spheres, And shake the rising soul;

Unmov'd may'st thou the final storm Of jarring worlds survey, That ushers in the glad serene Of everlasting day.

The following lines on the same subject were written by Mrs. Chapone:--

In gloomy pomp, whilst awful midnight reigns, And wide o'er earth her mournful mantle spreads; Whilst deep-voiced thunders threaten guilty heads, And rushing torrents drown the frighted plains; And quick-glanc'd lightnings, to my dazzled sight, Betray the double horrors of the night:

A solemn stillness creeps upon my soul, And all its powers in deep attention die; My heart forgets to beat; my stedfast eye Catches the flying gleam; the distant roll, Advancing gradual, swells upon my ear With louder peals, more dreadful as more near.

Awake, my soul, from thy forgetful trance! The storm calls loud, and meditation wakes: How at the sound pale superstition shakes, Whilst all her train of frantic fears advance! Children of darkness, hence! fly far from me! And dwell with guilt and infidelity!

But come, with look compos'd and sober pace, Calm Contemplation, come! and hither lead Devotion, that on earth disdains to tread; Her inward flame illumes her glowing face, Her upcast eye, and spreading wings, prepare Her flight for heaven, to find her treasure there.

She sees, enraptur'd through the thickest gloom, Celestial beauty beam, and 'midst the howl Of warring winds, sweet music charms her soul; She sees, while rifted oaks in flames consume, A Father God, that o'er the storm presides, Threatens to save,--and loves when most he chides.

SURPRISING EFFECTS OF EXTREME COLD.--By extreme degrees of cold, trees are burst, rocks rent, and rivers and lakes frozen several feet deep: metallic substances blister the skin like red-hot iron: the air, when drawn in by respiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a cough: even the effects of fire in a great measure seem to cease; and metals, though kept for a considerable time before a strong fire, will still freeze water when thrown upon them. When the French mathematicians wintered at Tornea, in Lapland, the external air, when suddenly admitted into their rooms, converted the moisture of the air into whirls of snow; their breasts seemed to be rent when they breathed it; the contact of it was intolerable to their bodies; and the spirit of wine, which had not been highly rectified, burst some of their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous parts.

Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals, in countries where the winters are very severe. Thus seven thousand Swedes perished at once, in attempting to pass the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden. It is not necessary, indeed, that the cold, in order to prove fatal to human life, should be so very intense as has been just mentioned. There is only requisite a degree somewhat below 32° of Fahrenheit, accompanied with snow or hail, from which shelter cannot be obtained. The snow which falls upon the clothes, or the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and, by a continual evaporation, carries off the animal heat to such a degree, that a sufficient quantity is not left for the support of life. In such cases, the person first feels himself extremely chill and uneasy; he begins to grow listless, unwilling to walk or use exercise to keep himself warm; and at last turns drowsy, sits down to refresh himself with sleep, but wakes no more.

An instance of this was seen not many years ago at Terra del Fuego; where Dr. Solander, with some others, having taken an excursion up the country, the cold was so intense, that one of their number died. The Doctor himself, though he had warned his companions of the danger of sleeping in that situation, yet could not be prevented from making that dangerous experiment himself; and though he was awaked with all possible expedition, his body was so much shrunk in bulk, that his shoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmost difficulty that he was recovered.

In those parts of the world where vast masses of ice are produced, the accumulation of it, by absorbing the heat of the atmosphere, occasions an absolute sterility in the adjacent countries, as is particularly the case with the island of Iceland; where the vast collections of ice floating out from the Northern Ocean, and stopped on that coast, are sometimes several years in thawing. Indeed, where great quantities of ice are collected, it would seem to have a power like fire, of both augmenting its own intenseness and that of the adjacent bodies.

ASTONISHINGLY EXPANSIVE FORCE OF FREEZING WATER.--Although cold, in general, contracts most bodies, and heat expands them, yet there are some instances to the contrary, especially in the extreme cases or states of these qualities of bodies. Thus, though iron, in common with other bodies, expands with heat; yet, when melted, it is always found to expand in cooling again. Thus also, though water expands gradually as it is heated, and contracts as it cools, yet in the act of freezing it suddenly expands again, and that with an enormous force, capable of rending rocks, or bursting the very thick shells of metal, &c. A computation of the force of freezing water, has been made by the Florentine academicians, from the bursting of a very strong brass globe or shell by freezing water in it; when, from the known thickness and tenacity of the metal, it was found that the expansive power of a spherule of water only one inch in diameter, was sufficient to overcome a resistance of more than twenty-seven thousand pounds, or thirteen tons and a half.

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