Appendix

Appendix

1. INDIAN LANGUAGE.

I.

Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of the Odjibwa Substantive.[270]

[270] Mr. Du Ponceau did me the honor, in 1834, to translate these two inquiries on the substantive in full, for the prize paper on the Algonquin, before the National Institute of France.

INQUIRY 1.

Observations on the Ojibwai substantive. 1. The provision of the language for indicating gender--Its general and comprehensive character--The division of words into animate and inanimate classes. 2. Number--its recondite forms, arising from the terminal vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective person.

Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian languages, have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the use of the verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its inflections. Either less attention has been paid to the other parts of speech, or results less suited to create high expectations of their flexibility and powers have been attained. The Indian verb has thus been made to stand out, as it were in bold relief, as a shield to defects in the substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact, compensating, by its multiform appendages of prefix and suffix--by its tensal, its pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its adverbial terminations, for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts of speech. Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present inquiry, the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have considered the substantive, and its more important adjuncts.

Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and the actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object to another, are perhaps the first points to demand attention in the invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local, and exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and the verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as in all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices, with less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would appear to be reconcilable with a clear expression of the circumstances of time and place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and repose, and the other accidents, on which their definite employment depends. But to enable the substantives and attributives to perform these complex offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo changes and modifications, by which words and phrases become very concrete in their meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable to the eye. Hence the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of the language, so composite in its aspect and in its forms.

To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible, the prominent ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been the paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence, concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials to the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the verb and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike, than the language, viewed in its original, elementary state--in a vocabulary, for instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a vocabulary can now be formed, and the same language as heard under its oral, amalgamated form. Its transpositions may be likened to a picture, in which the copal, the carmine, and the white lead, are no longer recognized as distinct substances, but each of which has contributed its share towards the effect. It is the painter only who possesses the principle, by which one element has been curtailed, another augmented, and all, however seemingly discordant, made to coalesce.

Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and compounds; to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and substantives verbal qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon a few syllables, or upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to supply modes of contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say, short cuts, and by-paths to meanings, which are equally novel and interesting. To arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate thread, where analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of those accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules of material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only after a process of this kind, that the principle of combination--that secret wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with a reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of the most interesting and important, which the subject presents. And it is a labor which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view, until we have separately considered the several parts of speech, and the grammatical laws by which the language is held together; and thus established principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more successfully labor.

1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it must be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself so constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words, of whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are applied to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. This principle has been grafted upon most words, and carries its distinctions throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language; but a gender of so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common distinctions of a masculine and feminine, and to give a twofold character to the parts of speech. The concords which it requires, and the double inflections it provides, will be mentioned in their appropriate places. It will be sufficient here to observe, that animate nouns require animate verbs for their nominatives, animate adjectives to express their qualities, and animate demonstrative pronouns to mark the distinctions of person. Thus, if we say, "I see a man; I see a house," the termination of the verb must be changed. What was in the first instance wâb imâ, is altered to wâb indân. Wâb, is here the infinitive, but the root of this verb is still more remote. If the question occurs "Is it a good man, or a good house," the adjective, which, in the inanimate form is onishish-í, is, in the animate onishish-i[n']. If the question be put, "Is it this man, or this house," the pronoun this, which is mâ bum, in the animate, is changed to mâ ndun, in the inanimate.

Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects, reptiles, crustacæ, the sun, and moon, and stars, thunder, and lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always easy to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real or fancied properties--the uses to which they are applied, or the ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase; a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable in the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the mask of authority; vermilion, the appropriate paint of the warrior; wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby transferred to the animate class.

It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only employed as animates, while the objects are referred to as whole and complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot, head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck, back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle, swan, dove, are distinguished as animates; but beak, wing, tail, are arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf, root, inanimates.

Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule--the reasons for which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either in peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities or uses of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws of the bear, and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the neck, are invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and horns of all quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and mystic purposes; the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man, are similarly situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all trees (except the birch), and the branches, the roots, and the resin of the spruce, and its congeners.

In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life; neuter nouns will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist without my knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the adjectives, but it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which they are applied neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The subject in all its bearings is interesting, and a full and minute description of it would probably elicit new light respecting some doubtful points in the language, and contribute something towards a curious collateral topic--the history of Indian opinions. I have stated the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions as fully as it is in my power, and without following its bearings upon points which will more properly come under discussion at other stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it is believed, has been given, and having thus met, at the threshold, a principle deeply laid at the foundation of the language, and one which will be perpetually recurring, I shall proceed to enumerate some other prominent features of the substantive.

2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without number. But there are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of indicating it, as the Odjibwa. There are as many modes of forming the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction between a limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the pronoun, an inclusive and an exclusive plural. Whether we say man or men, two men or twenty men, the singular inin´i, and the plural nin´iwug, remains the same. But if we say we, or us, or our men (who are present), or we, or us, or our Indians (in general), the plural we, and us, and our--for they are rendered by the same form--admit of a change to indicate whether the objective person be included or excluded. This principle, of which full examples will be given under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by means of the pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and substantives, creating the necessity of double conjugations and double declensions, in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for "Our Father," which, in the inclusive form is Kósinân, is, in the exclusive, Nósinân.

The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects, but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is variously made. But the plurals making inflections take upon themselves an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns plural would end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u. But to mark the gender, the letter g is added to animates, and the letter n to inanimates, making the plurals of the first class terminate in âg, eeg, ig, ôg, ug, and of the second class in ân, een, in, ôn, un. Ten modes of forming the plural are thus provided, five of which are animate, and five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line of distinction is thus drawn between the two classes of words; so unerring, indeed, in its application, that it is only necessary to inquire how the plural is formed, to determine whether it belonged to one or the other class. The distinctions which we have endeavored to convey will, perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples of the use of each of the plurals.

Animate Plural.

a. Odjibwâi, a Chippewa. Odjibwaig, Chippewas. e. Ojee, a Fly. Oj-eeg, Flies. i. Kosénan, Our father, (in.) Kosenân-ig, Our fathers, (in.) o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees. u. Ais, a Schell. Ais-ug, Shells.

Inanimate Plural.

a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires. e. Wadôp, Alder. Wadôp-een, Alders. i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits. o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds. u. Meen, Berry. Meen-un, Berries.

Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition of the g, or n, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In other instances, as in peenai, a partridge--seebi, a river--it requires a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule previously stated. Thus, peenai, is rendered peenai-wug--and seebi, seebi-wun. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, instead of the long sound of a, as in ogimâ, a chief, ishpatinâ, a hill, the plural is ogim-ag, ishpatinân. But these are mere modifications of two of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to be considered as additional plurals.

Comparatively few substances are without number. The following may be enumerated:--

Missun´, Firewood. Ussáimâ, Tobacco. Pinggwi, Ashes. Naigow, Sand. Méjim, Food. Ahwun, Mist. Kôn, Snow. Kimmiwun, Rain. Mishk´wi, Blood. Ossâkumig, Moss. Ukkukkuzhas, Coals. Unitshimin, Peas.

Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it is less an object, in this lecture, to pursue exceptions into their minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not to every word, to at least a majority of words in the language.

There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so peculiar in itself, that not to point it out would be an unpardonable remissness in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an object neither to extenuate faults nor to overrate beauties. This exception consists in the want of number in the third person of the declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate verbs. Not that such words are destitute of number, in their simple forms, or when used under circumstances requiring no change of these simple forms--no prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at a glance, how very limited such an application of words must be, in a transpositive language.

Thus mang and kâg (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection wug, becoming mang wug and kâg wug (loons and porcupines). So, in their pronominal declension:--

My loon Ni mang oom Thy loon Ki mang oom My porcupine Ni gâg oom Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom My loons Ni mang oom ug Thy loons Ki mang oom ug My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug

But his loon, or loons (o many oom un), his porcupine or porcupines (o gâg oom un), are without number. The rule applies equally to the class of words in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father and thy father, nôs and kôs, become my fathers and thy fathers, by the numerical inflection ug, forming nôsug and kôsug. But ôsun, his father or fathers, is vague, and does not indicate whether there be one father or twenty fathers. The inflection un, merely denotes the object. The rule also applies equally to sentences in which the noun is governed by or governs the verb. Whether we say, "I saw a bear," ningi wâbumâ mukwah, or "a bear saw me," mukwah ningi wâbumig, the noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But ogi wâbumân muk-wun, "he saw bear," is indefinite, although both the verb and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt, or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite article, paizhik, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, paizhik mukwun ogi wâbumân, conveys with certainty the information "he saw a bear." But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not uniformly un, but sometimes een, as in ogeen, his mother, and sometimes ôn, as in odakeek-ôn, his kettle, in all which instances, however, the number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and it is a remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate, that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective form), forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no number in the third person.

3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of those tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting additional precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated verbiage. The strong tendency to combination and amalgamation, existing in the language, renders it difficult, in fact, to discuss the principles of it in that elementary form which could be wished. In the analysis of words and forms we are constantly led from the central point of discussion. To recur, however, from these collateral unravellings to the main thread of inquiry, at as short and frequent intervals as possible, and thus to preserve the chain of conclusions and proofs, is so important, that, without keeping the object distinctly in view, I should despair of conveying any clear impressions of those grammatical features which impart to the language its peculiar character.

It has been remarked that the distinctions of number are founded upon a modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are likewise founded upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five declensions of the noun to mark the possessive, ending in the possessive in âm, eem, im, ôm, um, oom. Where the nominative ends with a vowel, the possessive is made by adding the letter m, as in maimai, a woodcock, ni maimaim, my woodcock, &c. Where the nominative ends in a consonant, as in ais, a shell, the full possessive inflection is required, making nin daisim, my shell. In the latter form, the consonant d is interposed between the pronoun and noun, and sounded with the noun, in conformity with a general rule. Where the nominative ends in the broad in lieu of the long sound of a, as in ogimâ, a chief, the possessive is âm. The sound of i, in the third declension, is that of i in pin, and the sound of u, in the fifth declension, is that of u in bull. The latter will be uniformly represented by oo.

The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and inanimate classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter, as knife, bowl, paddle, &c.

Inanimate nouns are thus declined.

Nominative.

Ishkôdai, Fire.

Possessive.

My, Nin Dishkod-aim. Thy, Ki Dishkod-aim. His, O Dishkod-aim. Our, Ki Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.) -- Ni Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dishkod-aim-iwâ. Their, O Dishko-aim-iwâ.

Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the separable pronouns before them as follows:--

Môkoman, A Knife. Ni môkoman, My Knife. Ki môkoman, Thy Knife. O môkoman, His Knife, &c.

Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner as inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the possessive inflections, aim, eem, im, ôm, oom, the objective particle un, denoting the compound inflection of this person, both in the singular and plural, aimun, eemun, imun, ômun, oomun, and the variation of the first vowel sound, âmun. Thus, to furnish an example of the second declension, bizhiki, a bison, changes its forms to nim, bizhik-im, my bison--ke bizhik-im, thy bison, O bizhik-imun, his bison, or bisons.

The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left for future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We cannot simply say, "The chief has killed a bear," or, to reverse the object upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, "The bear has killed a chief." But, ogimâ ogi nissân muk-wun, literally, "Chief he has has killed him bear," or, mukwah ogi nissân ogimân, "Bear he has killed him chief." Here the verb and the noun are both objective in un, which is sounded ân, where it comes after the broad sound of a, as in nissân, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the English possessive ('s), upon the inflections aim, eem, im, ôm, oom, and âm, respectively, and the meaning of him, and of course he, her, his, hers, they, theirs (as there is no declension of the pronoun, and no number to the third person), upon the objective particle un, we shall then translate the above expression, o bizhik-eemum, his bison's hisn. If we reject this meaning, as I think we should, the sentence would read, "His bison," him, a mere tautology.

It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being the object on which the verb exerts its influence--a mode of expression, which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed superfluous, in modern languages; but may have some analogy in the Latin accusatives am, um, em.

It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly by inseparable suffixes. That the termination un, is one of these inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact, that it retains its connection with the noun, whether the latter follow or precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may be.

Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say, Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un, "Frenchmen, they did love Pontiac him." Or to reverse it, Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân, "Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved." The termination un, in both instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the following instance, Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un, "Englishmen, they did love Tecumseh," or Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug oji sagiân, "Tecumseh, he did Englishmen he loved."

In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound, whether it is accompanied or not accompanied by a modification of the sense. The particle un, which thus marks the third person and persons, is sometimes pronounced wun, and sometimes yun, as the harmony of the word to which it is suffixed may require. But not the slightest change is thereby made in its meaning.

Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun.

Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L.[271] W. he did fight them, his enemy, or enemies.

O sâgi-ân inini-wun.

He, or she, loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men.

Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd.

They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live.

Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun.

Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs.

[271] L. for literally.

In these sentences, the letters w and y are introduced before the inflection un, merely for euphony's sake, and to enable the speaker to utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective vowel, without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in these examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the noun, indicated by the final consonant n, as in sagiâ-n, objective of the verb to love. This is merely a modification of un, where it is requisite to employ it after broad a (aw), and it is applicable to nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in the phrase, "He saw a chief," O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n, both noun and verb terminate in n. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes. And this leads to the conclusion, which we are in some measure compelled to state in anticipation of our remarks on the verb: That verbs must not only agree with their nominatives in number, person, and gender (we use the latter term for want of a more appropriate one), but also with their objectives. Hence, the objective sign n in the above examples. Sometimes this sign is removed from the ending of the verb, to make room for the plural of the nominative person, and is subjoined to the latter. Thus,

O sagiâ(wâ)n. They love them (him or them).

In this phrase, the interposed syllable (wâ) is, apparently, the plural--it is a reflective plural--of he--the latter being indicated, as usual, by the sign O. It has been observed, above, that the deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied "by numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence," and this interposed particle (wâ) affords an instance in point.

The number of the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered precise, but the objective is still indefinite.

When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or when two nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the third person, both have the full objective inflection. Thus,

Os-(un). Odi-(yun). His father's dog. L. His father--his dog or dogs.

There are certain words, however, which will not admit the objective un, either in its simple or modified forms. These are rendered objective in een, or ôn.

O wâbumâ-(n), ossin-(een). He sees the stone. L. He sees him--stone or stones. O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een). L. He sees him, tree or trees. He sees an oak tree. O mittig wâb (een), gyai o bikwuk-(ôn). His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows, him or them. Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n), akkik-(ôn). They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles.

The syllable wâ, in the verb of the last example included between bars (instead of parentheses), is the reflective plural they pointed out in a preceding instance.

I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each pronominal declension.

a. First declension, forming the first and second persons in aim, and the third in aimun.

Nominative.

Pinâi, a partridge. Pinâi-wug, partridges.

First and second person.

My, Nim Bin-aim. Thy, Ki Bin-aim. Our, Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive plural. Our, Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive plural. Your, Ki Bin-aim wâ.

Third person.

His, O Bin-aim (un). Their, O Bin-aim iwâ (n).

e. Second declension forming the first and second persons in eem, and the third in eemun.

Nominative.

Ossin, a stone. Ossineen, stones.

First and second persons.

My, Nin Dossin-eem. Thy, Ki Dossin-eem. Our, Ki Dossin-eeminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dossin-eeminân. (ex.) Your, Ke Dossin-eemewâ.

Third person.

His, O Dossin-eem(un). Their, O Dossin-eemewâ (n).

i. Third declension forming the first and second persons in im, and the third in imun.

Nominative.

Ais, a shell. Aisug, shells.

First and second persons.

My, Nin Dais-im. Thy, Ki Dais-im. Our, Ki Dais-iminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dais-iminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dais-imiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Dais-im (un). Their, O Dais-imewâ (n).

o. Fourth declension forming the first and second persons in ôm, and the third in ômun.

Nominative.

Monidô, a Spirit. Monidôg, Spirits.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Monid-ôm. Thy, Ki Monid-ôm. Our, Ki Monid-ôminân. (in.) Our, Ni Monid-ôminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Monid-ômiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Monid-ôm (un). Their, O Monid-ômewâ (n).

u. (oo) Fifth declension forming the first and second persons in oom, and the third in oomun.

Nominative.

Môz, a Moose. Môzôg, Moose.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Môz-oom. Thy, Ki Môz-oom. Our, Ki Môz-oominân. (in.) Our, Ni Môz-oominân. (ex.) Your, Ki Môz-oomiwu.

Third person.

His, O Môz oom (un). Their, O Môz oomiwâ (n).

aw. Additional declension, required when the noun ends in the broad, instead of the long sound of a, forming the possessive in âm, and the objective in âmun.

Nominative.

Ogimâ, a Chief. Ogimâg, Chiefs.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Dôgim âm. Thy, Ki Dôgim âm. Our, Ki Dôgim âminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dôgim âminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dôgim âmiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Dôgim âm (un). Their, O Dôgim âmiwâ (n).

The abbreviations, in., and ex., in these declensions, mark the inclusive and exclusive forms of the pronoun plural. The inflection of the third person, as it is superadded to the first and second, is included between parentheses, that the eye, unaccustomed to these extended forms, may readily detect it.

Where the inseparable, instead of the separable pronoun is employed, the possessive inflection of the first and second person is dispensed with, although the inflection of the third is still retained.

Os: Father.

S. singular.

Nos. My father. Kos. Thy father. Os-un. His father. Sing. and plural. Nos-inân. Our father. (ex.) Kos-inân. Our father. (in.) Kos-iwâ. Your father. Os-iwân. Their father. Sing. and plural.

S. plural.

Nos-ug. My fathers. Kos-ug. Thy fathers. Os-un. His fathers. Sing. and plural. Nos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (ex.) Kos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (in.) Kos-iwâg. Your fathers. Os-iwân. Their fathers. Sing. and plural.

The word dog, and this word alone, is declined in the following manner.

Annimoosh: a Dog.

S. singular.

Nin Dy (or Di) My dog. Ki Dy Thy dog. O Dy-un His dog or dogs. Ki Dy-inân Our dog. (in.) Ni Dy-inân Our dog. (ex.) Ki Dy-iwâ Your dog. O Dy-iwân Their dog, &c.

S. plural.

Nin Dy-ug My dogs. Ki Dy-ug Thy dogs. O Dy-un His dogs, &c. Ki Dy-inânig Our dogs. (in.) Ni Dy-inânig Our dogs. (ex.) Ki Dy-iwâg Your dogs. O Dy-iwân His dogs, &c.

The word Dy, which supplies this declension, is derived from Indyiâm mine. pron. an.--a derivative form of the word, which is, however, exclusively restricted, in its meaning, to the dog. If the expression Nin Dy or N' Dy, is sometimes applied to the horse, it is because it is thereby intended to call him, my dog, from his being in a state of servitude similar to that of the dog. It must be borne in mind, as connected with this subject, that the dog, in high northern latitudes, and even as far south as 42 degrees, is both a beast of draught and of burden. He is compelled during the winter season to draw the odâban, or Indian sleigh; and sometimes to support the burden upon his back, by means of a kind of drag constructed of slender poles.

A review of the facts which have been brought together respecting the substantive, will show that the separable or inseparable pronouns under the form of prefixes, are throughout required. It will also indicate, that the inflections of the first and second persons which occupy the place of possessives, and those of the third person, resembling objectives, pertain to words, which are either primitives, or denote but a single object, as moose, fire. There is, however, another class of substantives, or substantive expressions, and an extensive class--for it embraces a great portion of the compound descriptive terms--in the use of which no pronominal prefixes are required. The distinctions of person are, exclusively, supplied by pronominal suffixes. Of this character are the words descriptive of country, place of dwelling, field of battle, place of employment, &c. The following example will furnish the inflections applicable to this entire class of words:--

Aindâd: Home, or place of dwelling.

S. singular. Aindâ-yân. My home. Aindâ-yun. Thy home. Aindâ-d. His home. Aindâ-yâng. Our home. (ex.) Aindâ-yung. Our home. (in.) Aindâ-yaig. Your home. Aindâ-wâd. Their home.

S. plural.

Aindâ-yân-in. My homes. Aindâ-yun-in. Thy homes. Aindâ-jin. His homes. Aindâ-yâng-in. Our homes. (ex.) Aindâ-yung-in. Our homes. (in.) Aindâ-yaig-in. Your homes. Aindâ-wâdjin. Their homes.

By these examples, it is perceived that the final d in aindâd is not essential to its primitive meaning; and that the place of the pronoun is, in respect to this word, invariably a suffix. Aindâd means, truly, not home, but his home. The plural is formed by the inflection in, except in the third person, where the sound of d sinks in j.

INQUIRY 2.

Further remarks on the substantive--Local, diminutive, derogative, and tensal inflections--Mode in which the latter are employed to denote the disease of individuals, and to indicate the past and future seasons--Restricted or sexual terms--Conversion of the substantive into a verb, and the reciprocal character of the verb by which it is converted into a substantive--Derivative and compound substantives--Summary of the properties of this part of speech.

In the view which has been taken of the substantive in the preceding Inquiry, it has been deemed proper to exclude several topics, which, from their peculiarities, it was believed could be more satisfactorily discussed in a separate form. Of this character are those modifications of the substantive by which locality, diminution, a defective quality, and the past tense are expressed; by which various adjective and adverbial significations are given; and, finally, the substantives themselves converted into verbs. Such are also the mode of indicating the masculine and feminine (both merged, as we have shown, in the animate class), and those words which are of a strictly sexual character, or are restricted in their use either to males or females. Not less interesting is the manner of forming derivatives, and of conferring upon the derivatives so formed a personality, distinguished as either animate or inanimate, at the option of the speaker.

Much of the flexibility of the substantive is derived from these properties, and they undoubtedly add much to the figurative character of the language. Some of them have been thought analogous to case, particularly that inflection of the noun which indicates the locality of the object. But if so, then there would be equally strong reasons for establishing an adjective, and an adverbial, as well as a local case, and a plurality of forms in each. But it is believed that no such necessity exists. There is no regular declension of these forms, and they are all used under limitations and restrictions incompatible with the true principles of case.

It is under this view of the subject, that the discussion of these forms has been transferred, together with the other accidents of the substantive just adverted to, and reserved as the subject-matter of a separate inquiry. And in now proceeding to express the conclusions at which we have arrived touching these points, it will be an object so to compress and arrange the materials before us, as to present within a small compass the leading facts and examples upon which each separate position depends.

1. That quality of the noun which, in the shape of an inflection, denotes the relative situation of the object, by the contiguous position of some accessory object, is expressed in the English language by the prepositions in, into, at, or on. In the Indian, they are denoted by an inflection. Thus, the phrase "In the box," is rendered in the Indian by one word, mukukoong. Of this word, mukuk, simply, is box. The termination, oong, denoting the locality, not of the box, but of the object sought after. The expression appears to be precise, although there is no definite article in the language.

The substantive takes this form, most commonly, after a question has been put, as Anindi ni môkoman-ais? "Where is my penknife?" Mukukoong (in the box), addôpowin-ing (on the table), are definite replies to this question. But the form is not restricted to this relation. Chimân-ing n'guh pôz, "I shall embark in the canoe;" wakyigum n'ghu izhâ, "I shall go into the house," are perfectly correct, though somewhat formal expressions, when the canoe or the house are present to the speaker's view.

The meaning of these inflections has been restricted to in, into, at, and on, but they are the more appropriate forms of expressing the first three senses, there being other modes besides these of expressing the preposition on. These modes consist in the use of prepositions, and will be explained under that head. The choice of the one or the other is, however, with the speaker. Generally, the inflection is employed when there is some circumstance or condition of the noun either concealed or not fully apparent. Thus, Muzzinyigun-ing, is the appropriate term for "In the book," and may also be used to signify "On the book." But if it is meant only to signify on the book, something visible being referred to, the preposition ogidj would be used, that word indicating with certainty on, and never in. Wakyigun-ing indicates with clearness "In the house;" but if it is necessary to say "On the house," and it be meant at the same time to exclude any reference to the interior, the expression would be changed to ogidj wakyigun.

It will be proper further to remark in this place, in the way of limitation, that there is also a separate preposition signifying in. It is pinj. But the use of this word does not, in all cases, supersede the necessity of inflecting the noun. Thus, the expression pindigain, is literally walk in, or enter. But if it is intended to say, "Walk in the house," the local, and not the simple form of house must be used; and the expression is, Pindigain waky'igun-ing, "Enter in the house," the verbal form which this preposition pinj puts on, having no allusion to the act of walking, but merely implying position.

The local inflection, which, in the above examples, is ing and oong, is further changed to aing and eeng, as the ear may direct--changes which are governed chiefly by the terminal vowel of the noun. Examples will best supply the rule, as well as the exceptions to it.

SIMPLE FORM. LOCAL FORM.

a. First inflection in aing.

Ishkodai Fire Ishkod-aing In, &c. the fire. Muskodai Prairie Muskod-aing In, &c. the prairie. Mukkuddai Powder Mukkud-aing In, &c. the powder. Pimmedai Grease Pimmid-aing In, &c. the grease.

e. Second inflection in eeng.[272]

[272] The double vowel is here employed to indicate the long sound of i, as i in machine.

Seebi River Seeb-eeng In, &c. the river. Neebi Water Neeb-eeng In, &c. the water. Miskwi Blood Miskw-eeng In, &c. the blood. Unneeb Elm Unneeb-eeng In, &c. the elm.

i. Third inflection in ing.

Kôn Snow Kôn-ing In, &c. the snow. Min Berry Meen-ing In, &c. the berry. Chimân Canoe Chimân-ing In, &c. the canoe. Muzziny´egun Book Muzziny´egun-ing In, &c. the book.

o. Fourth inflection in oong.

Azhibik Rock Azhibik-oong In, &c. the rock. Gizhig Sky Gizhig-oong In, &c. the sky. Kimmiwun Rain Kimmiwun-oong In, &c. the rain. Akkik Kettle Akkik-oong In, &c. the kettle.

Throw it in the fire. 1. Puggidôn ishkod-aing. Go into the prairie. 2. Muskôdaing izhân. He is in the elm. 3. Unnib-eeng iâ. It is on the water. 4. Nib-eeng attai. Put it on the table. 5. Addôpôwin-ing attôn. Look in the book. 6. Enâbin muzziny´igun-ing. You stand in the rain. 7. Kimmiwun-oong ki nibow. What have you in that box? 8. Waigonain aitaig mukuk-oong? Put it in the kettle. 9. Akkik-oong attôn, or Pôdawain. My bow is not in the lodge; neither is it in the canoe, nor on the rock. 10. Kâwin pindiq iâsi ni mittigwâb; kâwiuh gyai chimân-ing; kâwin gyai âzhibik-oong.

An attentive inspection of these examples will show that the local form pertains either to such nouns of the animate class as are in their nature inanimate, or at most possessed of vegetable life. And here another conclusion presses upon us; that where these local terminations, in all their variety, are added to the names of animated beings, when such names are the nominatives of adjectives or adjective-nouns, these words are converted into terms of qualification, indicating like, resembling, equal. Thus, if we wish to say to a boy, "He is like a man," the expression is, Inin-ing izzhinâgozzi; or, if to a man, "He is like a bear," Mukk-oong izzhinâgozzi; or, to a bear, "He is like a horse, Pabaizhikogâzh-ing izzhinâgozzi. In all these expressions, the word izzhi is combined with the pronominal inflection â (or nâ) and the animate termination gozzi. And the inflection of the nominative is merely an adjective corresponding with izzhi--a term indicative of the general qualities of persons or animated beings. Where a comparison is instituted, or a resemblance pointed out, between inanimate instead of animate objects, the inflection gozzi is changed to gwud, rendering the expression, which was, in the animate form, _izzhinâ_gozzi, in the inanimate form _izzhinâ_zgwud.

There is another variation of the local form of the noun, in addition to those above instanced, indicative of locality in a more general sense. It is formed by ong or nong--frequent terminations in geographical names. Thus, from Ojibwai, Chippewa, is formed _Ojibwai_nong, "Place of the Chippewas." From Wamattigozhiwug, Frenchmen, is formed _Wamittigozhi_nong, "Place of Frenchmen." From Ishpatinâ, Hill, Ishpatinong, "Place of the hill," &c. The termination ing, is also sometimes employed in this more general sense, as in the following names of places:--

Monomonikâ_ning_. In the place of wild rice. Moninggwunikâ_ning_. In the place of sparrows. Ongwashagoosh_ing_. In the place of the fallen tree, &c.

2. The diminutive forms of the noun are indicated by ais, eas, ôs, and aus, as the final vowel of the word may require. Thus, Ojibwai, a Chippewa, becomes Ojibw-ais, a little Chippewa: Inin´i, a man, inin-ees, a little man: Amik, a beaver, amik-ôs, a young beaver: Ogimâ, a chief, ogim-âs, a little chief, or a chief of little authority. Further examples may be added.

SIMPLE FORM. DIMINUTIVE FORM.

--ais.

A woman Eekwâ Eekwâz-ais. A partridge Pinâ Pin-ais. A woodcock Mâimâi Mâim-ais. An island Minnis Minnis-ais. A grape Shômin Shômin-ais. A knife Môkoman Môkoman-ais.

--ees.

A stone Ossin Ossin-ees. A river Seebi Seeb-ees. A pigeon Omimi Omim-ees. A bison Pizhiki Pizhik-ees. A potato Opin Opin-ees. A bird Pinâisi Pinâish-ees.

--ôs.

A moose Môz Môz-ôs. An otter Nigik Nigik-ôs. A reindeer Addik Addik-ôs. An elk Mushkôs Mushkôs-ôs. A hare Wâbôs Wâbôs-ôs. A box Mukuk Mukuk-ôs.

--aus.

A bass Ogâ Og-âs. A medal Shôniâ Shôni-âs. A bowl Onâgun Onâg-âns. A bed Nibâgun Nibâg-aûns. A gun Pâshkizzigun Pâshkizzig-âns. A house Wakyigun Wakyig-âns.

In the last four examples, the letter n, of the diminutive, retains its full sound.

The use of diminutives has a tendency to give conciseness to the language. As far as they can be employed they supersede the use of adjectives, or prevent the repetition of them. And they enable the speaker to give a turn to the expression, which is often very successfully employed in producing ridicule or contempt. When applied to the tribes of animals, or to inorganic objects, their meaning, however, is, very nearly, limited to an inferiority in size or age. Thus, in the above examples, pizhik-ees, signifies a calf; omim-ees, a young pigeon; and ossin-ees, a pebble, &c. But inin-ees, and ogim-âs, are connected with the idea of mental or conventional as well as bodily inferiority.

1. I saw a little chief, standing upon a small island, with an inferior medal abouthis neck. Ogimâs n'gi wâbumâ nibowid minnisainsing onâbikowân shoniâsun.

2. Yamoyden threw at a young pigeon. Ogi pukkitaiwun omimeesun Yamoyden.

3. A buffalo calf stood in a small stream. Pizhikees ki nibowi sibeesing.

4. The little man fired at a young moose. Ininees ogi pâshkizwân môzôsun.

5. Several diminutive-looking bass were lying in a small bowl, upon a small table. Addôpowinaising attai onâgâns abbiwâd ogâsug.

Some of these sentences afford instances of the use, at the same time, of both the local and diminutive inflections. Thus, the word minnisainsing, signifies literally, "in the little island;" seebees-ing, "in the little stream;" addôpowinais ing, "on the small table."

3. The preceding forms are not the only ones by which adjective qualities are conferred upon the substantive. The syllable ish, when added to a noun, indicates a bad or dreaded quality, or conveys the idea of imperfection or decay. The sound of this inflection is sometimes changed to eesh, oosh, or aush. Thus, Chimân, a canoe, becomes Chimânish, a bad canoe; Ekwai, a woman, Ekwaiwish, a bad woman; nibi, water, becomes nibeesh, turbid or strong water; mittig, a tree, becomes mittigoosh, a decayed tree; akkik, a kettle, akkikoosh, a worn-out kettle. By a further change, wibid, a tooth, becomes wibidâsh, a decayed or aching tooth, &c. Throughout these changes the final sound of sh is retained, so that this sound alone, at the end of a word, is indicative of a faulty quality.

In a language in which the expressions bad-dog and faint-heart are the superlative terms of reproach, and in which there are few words to indicate the modifications between positively good and positively bad, it must appear evident that adjective inflections of this kind must be convenient, and sometimes necessary modes of expression. They furnish a means of conveying censure and dislike, which, though often mild, is sometimes severe. Thus, if one person has had occasion to refuse the offered hand of another--for it must be borne in mind that the Indians are a hand-shaking people as well as the Europeans--the implacable party has it at his option, in referring to the circumstance, to use the adjective form of hand, not onindj, but oninjeesh, which would be deemed contemptuous in a high degree. So, also, instead of odâwai winini, a trader, or man who sells, the word may be changed to _odâwai winini_wish, implying a bad or dishonest trader. It is seldom that a more pointed or positive mode of expressing personal disapprobation or dislike is required; for, generally speaking, more is implied by these modes than is actually expressed.

The following examples are drawn from the inorganic as well as organic creation, embracing the two classes of nouns, that the operation of these forms may be fully perceived.

SIMPLE FORM. ADJECTIVE FORM.

--ish.

A bowl Onâgun Onâgun-ish. A house Wakyigun Wakyigun-ish. A pipe Opwâgun Opwâgun-ish. A boy Kweewizais Kweewizais-ish. A man Inini Ininiw-ish.

--eesh.

Water Neebi Neeb-ish. A stone Ossin Ossin-eesh. A potato Opin Opin-eesh. A fly Ojee Oj-eesh. A bow Mittigwâb Mittigwâb-eesh.

--oosh.

An otter Neegik Neegik-oosh. A beaver Ahmik Ahmik-oosh. A reindeer Addik Addik-oosh. A kettle Akkeek Akkeek-oosh. An axe Wagâkwut Wagâkwut-oosh.

--aush.

A foot Ozid Ozid-âsh. An arm Onik Onik-âsh. An ear Otowug Otowug-âsh. A hoof Wunnussid Wunnussid-âsh. A rush mat Appukwa Appukw-âsh.

These forms cannot be said, strictly, to be without analogy in the English, in which the limited number of words terminating in ish, as saltish, blackish, furnish a correspondence in sound with the first adjective form.

It may subserve the purposes of generalization to add, as the result of the foregoing inquiries, that substantives have a diminutive form, made in ais, ees, ôs, or âs; a derogative form, made in ish, eesh, oosh, or âsh; and a local form, made in aing, eeng, ing, or oong. By a principle of accretion, the second or third may be added to the first form, and the third to the second.

EXAMPLE.

Serpent, s. Kinai´bik.

---- s. diminutive. ----ôns, implying Little serpent. ---- s. derogative. ----ish, " Bad serpent. ---- s. local. ----ing, " In (the) serpent. ---- s. dim. and der. ----ônsish, " Little bad serpent. ---- s. dim. and lo. ----ônsing, " In (the) little serpent. ---- s. dim. der. and lo. ----ônsishing, " In (the) little bad serpent. 4. More attention has, perhaps, been bestowed upon these points than their importance demanded; but, in giving anything like a comprehensive sketch of the substantive, they could not be omitted; and, if mentioned at all, it became necessary to pursue them through their various changes and limitations. Another reason has presented itself. In treating of an unwritten language, of which others are to judge chiefly from examples, it appeared desirable that the positions advanced should be accompanied by the data upon which they respectively rest--at least, by so much of the data employed as to enable philologists to appreciate the justice or detect the fallacy of our conclusions. To the few who take any interest in the subject at all, minuteness will not seem tedious, and the examples will be regarded with deep interest.

As much of our time as we have already devoted to these lesser points of inquiry, it will be necessary, at this place, to point out other inflections and modifications of the substantive, to clear it from obscurities, that we may go into the discussion of the other parts of speech unincumbered.

Of these remaining forms, none is more interesting than that which enables the speaker, by a simple inflection, to denote that the individual named has ceased to exist. This delicate mode of conveying melancholy intelligence, or alluding to the dead, is effected by placing the object in the past tense.

Aiekid-ôpun aieko Garrangula-bun. So the deceased Garrangula spoke.

The syllable bun, in this sentence, added to the noun, and ôpun added to the verb, place both in the past tense. And, although the death of the Indian orator is not mentioned, that fact would be invariably inferred.

Names which do not terminate in a vowel sound, require a vowel prefixed to the tensal inflection, rendering it ôbun or ebun. Inanimate as well as animate nouns take these inflections.

PRESENT. PAST FORM.

Tecumseh, Tecumsi-bun. Tammany, Tamani-bun. Skenandoah, Skenandoa-bun. Nôs (my father), Nos-êbun. Pontiac, Pontiac-ibun. Waub Ojeeg, Waub Ojeeg-ibun. Tarhe, Tarhi-bun. Mittig (a tree), Mittig-ôbun. Akkik (a kettle), Akkik-ôbun. Môz (a moose), Môz-ôbun.

By prefixing the particle Tah to these words, and changing the inflection of the animate nouns to iwi, and the inanimates to iwun, they are rendered future. Thus, Tah Pontiac-iwi; Tah Mittig-iwun, &c.

The names for the seasons only come under the operation of these rules, when the year before the last, or the year after the next, is referred to. The last and the ensuing season are indicated as follows:--

PRESENT. LAST. NEXT.

Spring, Seegwun, Seegwun-oong, Seegwung. Summer, Neebin, Neebin-oong, Neebing. Autumn, Tahgwâgi, Tahgwâg-oong, Tahgwâgig. Winter, Peebôn, Peebôn-oong, Peebông.

I spent last winter in hunting. Ning´i nunda-wainjigai peebônoong. I shall go to Detroit next spring. Ninjah izhâ Wâwiâ´tunong seegwung.

5. _Sexual Nouns.--_The mode of indicating the masculine and feminine having been omitted in the preceding Inquiry, as not being essential to any concordance with the verb or adjective, is, nevertheless, connected with a striking peculiarity of the language--the exclusive use of certain words by one or the other sex. After having appeared to the founders of the language a distinction not necessary to be engrafted in the syntax, there are yet a limited number of words to which the idea of sex so strongly attaches, that it would be deemed the height of impropriety in a female to use the masculine, and in a male to use the feminine expressions.

Of this nature are the words Neeji and Nindongwai, both signifying my friend, but the former is appropriated to males and the latter to females. A Chippewa cannot, therefore, say to a female, my friend; nor a Chippewa woman to a male, my friend. Such an interchange of the terms would imply arrogance or indelicacy. Nearly the whole of their interjections--and they are numerous--are also thus exclusively appropriated; and no greater breach of propriety in speech could be committed, than a woman's uttering the masculine exclamation of surprise, Tyâ! or a man's descending to the corresponding female interjection, N'yâ!

The word Neenimoshai, my cousin, on the contrary, can only be applied, like husband and wife, by a male to a female, or a female to a male. If a male wishes to express this relation of a male, the term is Neetowis; and the corresponding female term Neendongwooshai.

The terms for uncle and aunt are also of a twofold character, though not restricted like the preceding in their use. Neemishomai, is my uncle by the father's side; Neezhishai, my uncle by the mother's side. Neezigwoos, is my paternal aunt; Neewishai, my maternal aunt.

There are also exclusive words to designate elder brother and younger brother; but, what would not be expected after the fore going examples, they are indiscriminately applied to younger brothers and sisters. Neesgai, is my elder brother, and neemissai, my elder sister. Neeshemai, my younger brother or younger sister, and may be applied to any brother or sister except the eldest.

The number of words to which the idea of sex is attached, in the usual acceptation, is limited. The following may be enumerated.

MASCULINE. FEMININE.

Inin´i, A man. Ekwai´, A woman. Kwee´wizais, A boy. Ekwa´zais, A girl. Oskinahwai, A young man. Oskineegakwai, A young woman. Akiwaizi, An old man. Mindimô´ed, An old woman. Nôsai, My father. Nin Gah, My mother. Ningwisis, My son. Nin dânis, My daughter. Ni ningwun, My son-in-law. Nis sim, My daughter-in-law.

MASCULINE. FEMININE.

Ni nâbaim, My husband. Nimindimôimish, My wife. Nimieshomiss, My grandfather. Nôkômiss, My grandmother. Ogimâ, A chief. Ogemâkwâ, A chiefess. Addik, A reindeer. Neetshâni, A doe. Annimoosh, A dog. Kiskisshâi, A bitch.

The sex of the brute creation is most commonly denoted by prefixing the words Iâbai, male, and Nôzhai, female.

6. Reciprocal Changes of the Noun.--The pronominal particles with which verbs as well as substantives are generally encumbered, and the habit of using them in particular and restricted senses, leave but little occasion for the employment of either the present or past infinitive. Most verbs are transitives. A Chippewa does not say I love, without indicating, by an inflection of the verb, the object beloved: and thus the expression is constantly, I love him, or her, &c. Neither does the infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate form of the verb.

In changing their nouns into verbs, it will not, therefore, be expected that the change should uniformly result in the infinitive, for which there is so little use, but in such of the personal forms of the various moods as circumstances may require. Most commonly, the third person singular of the indicative, and the second person singular of the imperative, are the simplest aspects under which the verb appears; and hence these forms have been sometimes mistaken for, and reported as the present infinitive. There are some instances in which the infinitive is employed. Thus, although an Indian cannot say I love, thou lovest, &c., without employing the objective forms of the verb to love, yet he can say I laugh, I cry, &c.; expressions in which, the action being confined to the speaker himself, there is no transition demanded. And in all similar instances the present infinitive, with the proper pronoun prefixed, is employed.

There are several modes of transforming a substantive into a verb. The following examples will supply the rules, so far as known, which govern these changes:--

INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.

Chimân, a canoe. Chimai, he paddles. Chimain, paddle thou. Pashkizzigun, a gun. Pashkizzigai, he fires. Pashkizzigain, fire thou. Jeesidyigun, a broom. Jeesidyigai, he sweeps. Jeesidyigain, sweep thou. Weedjeeagun, a helper. Weedôkagai, he helps. Weedjeei-wain, help thou. Ojibwâi, a Chippewa. Ojibwâmoo, he speaks Ojibwâmoon, speak thou Chippewa. Chippewa.

Another class of nouns is converted into the first person, indicative, of a pseudo-declarative verb, in the following manner:--

Monido, A spirit. Ne Monidôw, I (am) a spirit. Wassaiâ, Light. Ne Wassaiâw, I (am) light. Ishkodai, Fire. Nin Dishkodaiw, I (am) fire. Weendigô, A monster. Ni Weendigôw, I (am) a monster. Addik, A deer. Nin Daddikoow, I (am) a deer. Wakyigun, A house. Ni Wakyiguniw, I (am) a house. Pinggwi, Dust, ashes. Nim Binggwiw, I (am) dust, &c.

The word am, included in parenthesis, is not in the original, unless we may suppose the terminals ow, aw, iw, oow, to be derivatives from Iaw. These changes are reciprocated by the verb, which, as often as occasion requires, is made to put on a substantive form. The particle win, added to the indicative of the verb, converts it into a substantive. Thus--

Keegido, He speaks. Keegidowin, Speech. Pâshkizzigai, He fires. Pashkizzigaiwin, Ammunition. Agindasoo, He counts. Agindasoowin, Numbers. Wahyiâzhinggai, He cheats. Wahyiâzhinggaiwin, Fraud. Minnikwâi, He drinks. Minnikwâiwin, Drink. Kubbâshi, He encamps. Kubbâishiwin, An encampment. Meegâzoo, He fights. Meegâzoowin, A fight. Ojeengai, He kisses. Ojeendiwin, A kiss. Annôki, He works. Annôkiwta, Work. Pâpi, He laughs. Pâpiwin, Laughter. Pimâdizzi, He lives. Pimâdoiziwin, Life. Onwâibi, He rests. Onwâibiwin, Rest. Annamiâ, He prays. Annamiâwin, Prayer. Nibâ, He sleeps. Nibâwin, Sleep. Odâwai, He trades. Odâwaiwin, Trade.

Adjectives are likewise thus turned into substantives:--

Keezhaiwâdizzi, He generous. Keezhaiwâdizziwin, Generosity. Minwaindum, He happy. Minwaindumowin, Happiness. Keezhaizeâwizzi, He industrious. Keezhaizhâwizziwin, Industry. Kittimâgizzi, He poor. Kittimâgizziwin, Poverty. Aukkoossi, He sick. Aukkoossiwin, Sickness. Kittimishki, He lazy. Kittimishkiwin, Laziness. Nishkâdizzi, He angry. Nishkâdizziwin, Anger. Baikâdizzi, She chaste. Baikâdizziwin, Chastity.

In order to place the substantives thus formed in the third person, corresponding with the indicative from which they were changed, it is necessary only to prefix the proper pronoun. Thus, Ogeezhaiwâdizziwin, his generosity, &c.

7. Compound Substantives.--The preceding examples have been given promiscuously from the various classes of words, primitive and derivative, simple and compound. Some of these words express but a single idea, as, ôs, father--gah, mother--môz, a moose--kâg, a porcupine--mang, a loon--and appear to be incapable of further division. All such words may be considered as primitives, although some of them may be contractions of dissyllabic words. There are also a number of dissyllables, and possibly some trisyllables, which, in the present state of our analytical knowledge of the language, may be deemed both simple and primitive. Such are neebi, water; ossin, a stone; geezis, the sun; nodin, wind. But it may be premised, as a principle which our investigations have rendered probable, that all polysyllabic words, all words of three syllables, so far as examined, and most words of two syllables, are compounds.

The application of a syntax, formed with a view to facilitate the rapid conveyance of ideas by consolidation, may, it is presumable, have early led to the coalescence of words, by which all the relations of object and action, time and person, were expressed. And in a language which is only spoken, and not written, the primitives would soon become obscured and lost in the multiform appendages of time and person, and the recondite connection of actor and object. And this process of amalgamation would be a progressive one. The terms that sufficed in the condition of the simplest state of nature, or in a given latitude, would vary with their varying habits, institutions, and migrations. The introduction of new objects and new ideas would require the invention of new words, or what is much more probable, existing terms would be modified or compounded to suit the occasion. No one who has paid much attention to the subject, can have escaped noticing a confirmation of this opinion, in the extreme readiness of our western Indians to bestow, on the instant, names, and appropriate names--to any new object presented to them. A readiness not attributable to their having at command a stock of generic polysyllables--for these it would be very awkward to wield--but, as appears more probable, to the powers of the syntax, which permits the resolution of new compounds from existing roots, and often concentrates, as remarked in another place, the entire sense of the parent words, upon a single syllable, and sometimes upon a single letter.

Thus it is evident that the Chippewas possessed names for a living tree, mittig, and a string, aiâb, before they named the bow mittigwâb--the latter being compounded under one of the simplest rules from the two former. It is further manifest that they had named earth akki, and (any solid, stony, or metallic mass) âbik, before they bestowed an appellation upon the kettle, akkeek, or akkik, the latter being derivatives from the former. In process of time these compounds became the bases of other compounds, and thus the language became loaded with double, and triple, and quadruple compounds, concrete in their meaning and formal in their utterance.

When the introduction of metals took place, it became necessary to distinguish the clay from the iron pot, and the iron from the copper kettle. The original compound, akkeek, retained its first meaning, admitting the adjective noun piwâbik (itself a compound) iron, when applied to a vessel of that kind, piwâbik akkeek, iron kettle. But a new combination took place to designate the copper kettle, mishwâkeek, red metal kettle; and another expression to denote the brass kettle, ozawâbik akkeek, yellow metal kettle. The former is made up from miskôwâbik, copper (literally red-metal--from miskwâ, red, and âbik, the generic above mentioned), and akkeek, kettle. Ozawâbik, brass, is from ozawâ, yellow, and the generic âbik--the term akkeek being added in its separate form. It may, however, be used in its connected form of wukkeek, making the compound expression ozawâbik wukkeek.

In naming the horse paibâizhikôgazhi, i. e. the animal with solid hoofs, they have seized upon the feature which most strikingly distinguished the horse from the cleft-footed animals, which were the only species known to them at the period of the discovery. And the word itself affords an example, at once, both of their powers of concentration, and brief, yet accurate description, which it may be worth while to analyze. Paizhik is one, and is also used as the indefinite article--the only article the language possesses. This word is further used in an adjective sense, figura-tively indicating, united, solid, undivided. And it acquires a plural signification by doubling, or repeating the first syllable, with a slight variation of the second. Thus, Pai-baizhik denotes not one, or an, but several; and when thus used in the context, renders the noun governed plural. Oskuzh is the nail, claw, or horny part of the foot of beasts, and supplies the first substantive member of the compound gauzh. The final vowel is from ahwaisi, a beast; and the marked o, an inseparable connective, the office of which is to make the two members coalesce, and harmonize. The expression thus formed becomes a substantive, specific in its application. It may be rendered plural like the primitive nouns, may be converted into a verb, has its diminutive, derogative, and local form, and, in short, is subject to all the modifications of other substantives.

Most of the modern nouns are of this complex character. And they appear to have been invented to designate objects, many of which were necessarily unknown to the Indians in the primitive ages of their existence. Others, like their names for a copper-kettle and a horse, above mentioned, can date their origin further back than the period of the discovery. Of this number of nascent words, are most of their names for those distilled or artificial liquors, for which they are indebted to Europeans. Their name for water, neebi, for the fat of animals, weenin, for oil or grease, pimmidai, for broth, nâbôb, and for blood, miskwi, belong to a very remote era, although all but the first appear to be compounds. Their names for the tinctures or extracts derived from the forest, and used as dyes, or medicines, or merely as agreeable drinks, are mostly founded upon the basis of the word âbo, a liquid, although this word is never used alone. Thus--

Shomin-âbo, Wine, From Shomin, a grape, âbo, a liquor. Ishkôdâi-wâbo, Spirits, From Ishkôdâi, fire, &c. Mishimin-âbo, Cider, From Mishimin, an apple, &c. Tôtôsh-âbo, Milk, From Tôtôsh, the female breast, &c. Sheew-âbo, Vinegar, From Sheewun, sour, &c. Annibeesh-âbo, From Annibeeshun, leaves, &c. Ozhibiegun-aubo, From Ozhibiêgai, he writes, &c.

In like manner their names for the various implements and utensils of civilized life, are based upon the word Jeegun, one of those primitives, which, although never disjunctively used, denotes, in its modified forms, the various senses implied by our words instrument, contrivance, machine, &c. And by prefixing to this generic a substantive, verb, or adjective, or parts of one or each, an entire new class of words is formed. In these combinations, the vowels e and o are sometimes used as connectives.

Keeshkeebô-jeegun, A saw, From Keeshkeezhun, v. a. to cut. Seeseebô-jeegun, A file, From Seesee, to rub off, &c. Wassakoonen-jeegun, A candle, From Wassakooda, bright, biskoona, flame, &c. Beeseebô-jeegun, A coffee-mill, From Beesâ, fine grains, &c. Minnikwâd-jeegun, A drinking-vessel, From Minnekwâi, he drinks, &c. Tâshkeebôd-jeegun, A saw-mill, From Taushkâ, to split, &c. Mudwâiabeed-jeegun, A violin, From Mudwâwâi, sound, âiâb, a string, &c.

Sometimes this termination is shortened into gun, as in the following instances:--

Onâ-gun, A dish. Tikkina-gun, A cradle. Neeba-gun, A bed. Puddukkyi-gun, A fork. Puggimmâ-gun, A war-club. Opwâ-gun, A pipe. Wassâitshie-gun, A window. Wakkyi-gun, A house. Pôdahwâ-gun, A fire-place. Sheema-gun, A lance.

Another class of derivatives is formed from wyân, indicating, generally, an undressed skin. Thus--

Muk-wyân, A bear skin, From Mukwah, a bear, and wyaun, a skin. Wazhusk-wyân, A muskrat skin, From Wazhusk, a muskrat, &c. Wabôs-wyân, A rabbit skin, From Wabôs, a rabbit, &c. Neegik-wyân, An otter skin, From Neegih, an otter, &c. Ojeegi-wyân, A fisher skin, From Ojeeg, a fisher, &c. Wabizhais-ewyân, a martin skin, from wabizhais, a martin, &c.

Wâbiwyân, a blanket, and bubbuggiwyân, a shirt, are also formed from this root. As the termination wyân, is chiefly restricted to undressed skins, or peltries, that of waigin is, in like manner, generally applied to dressed skins or to cloths. Thus--

Monido-waigin, Blue cloth, shrouds, From Monido, spirits, &c. Misk-waigin, Red cloth, From Miskwâ, red, &c. Nondâ-waigin, Scarlet. Peezhiki-waigin, A buffalo robe, From Peezhiki, a buffalo, &c. Addik-waigin, A cariboo skin, From Addik, a cariboo, &c. Ozhauwushk-waigin, Green cloth, From Ozhâwushkwâ, green.

An interesting class of substantives is derived from the third person singular of the present indicative of the verb, by changing the vowel sound of the first syllable, and adding the letter d to that of the last, making the terminations in aid, âd, eed, id, ood. Thus, Pimmoossâ, he walks, becomes pâmmoossâd, a walker.

aid.

Munnissai, He chops. Mânissaid, A chopper. Ozhibeigai, He writes. Wâzhibeigaid, A writer. Nundowainjeegai, He hunts. Nândowainjeegaid, A hunter.

âd.

Neebâ, He sleeps. Nâbâd, A sleeper. Kwâbahwâ, He fishes (with Kwyâbahwâd, A fisher (with scoop net). scoop net). Puggidowâ, He fishes (with Pâgidowâd, A fisher (with seine). seine).

eed.

Annokee, He works. Anokeed, A worker. Jeessakea, He juggles. Jossakeed, A juggler. Munnigobee, He pulls bark. Mainigobeed, A bark puller.

id.

Neemi, He dances. Nâmid, A dancer. Weesinni, He eats. Wâssinid, An eater. Pimâdizzi, He lives. Paimaudizzid, A living being.

ood.

Nugamoo, He sings. Naigumood, A singer. Keegido, He speaks. Kâgidood, A speaker. Keewonimoo, He lies. Kâwunimood, A liar.

This class of words is rendered plural in ig--a termination, which, after d final in the singular, has a soft pronunciation, as if written jig. Thus, Nâmid, a dancer, nâmidjig, dancers.

The derogative form is given to these generic substantives by introducing ish, or simply sh, in place of the d, and changing the latter to kid, making the terminations in ai, aishkid, in â, âshkid, in e, eeshkid, in i, ishkid, and in oo, ooshkid. Thus, naindowainjeegaid, a hunter, is changed to naindowainjeegaishkid, a bad or unprofitable hunter. Naibâd, a sleeper, is changed to naibâshkid, a sluggard. Jossakeed, a juggler, to jossakeeshkid, a vicious juggler. Wâsinnid, an eater, to wâssinishkid, a gormandizer. Kâgidood, a speaker, kâgidooshkid, a babbler. And in these cases the plural is added to the last educed form, making kâgidooshkidjig, babblers, &c.

The word nittâ, on the contrary, prefixed to those expressions, renders them complimentary. For instance, nittâ naigumood, is a fine singer, nittâ kâgidood, a ready speaker, &c.

Flexible as the substantive has been shown to be, there are other forms of combination that have not been adverted to--forms, by which it is made to coalesce with the verb, the adjective, and the preposition, producing a numerous class of compound expressions. But it is deemed most proper to defer the discussion of these forms to their several appropriate heads.

Enough has been exhibited to demonstrate its prominent grammatical rules. It is not only apparent that the substantive possesses number and gender, but it also undergoes peculiar modifications to express locality and diminution, to denote adjective qualities and to indicate tense. It exhibits some curious traits connected with the mode of denoting the masculine and feminine. It is modified to express person and to distinguish living from inanimate masses. It is rendered possessive by a peculiar inflection, and provides particles, under the shape either of prefixes or suffixes, separable or inseparable, by which the actor is distinguished from the object--and all this, without changing its proper substantive character, without putting on the aspect of a pseudo adjective, or a pseudo verb. Its changes to produce compounds are, however, its most interesting, its most characteristic trait. Syllable is heaped upon syllable, word upon word, and derivative upon derivative, until its vocabulary is crowded with long and pompous phrases, most formidable to the eye.

So completely transpositive do the words appear, that like chessmen on a board, their elementary syllables can be changed at the will of the player, to form new combinations to meet new contingencies, so long as they are changed in accordance with certain general principles and conventional rules; in the application of which, however, much depends upon the will or the skill of the player. What is most surprising, all these changes and combinations, all these qualifications of the object, and distinctions of the person, the time, and the place, do not supersede the use of adjectives, and pronouns, and verbs, and other parts of speech woven into the texture of the noun, in their elementary and conjunctive forms.

III.

Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-Adjective.

INQUIRY 3.

Observations on the adjective--Its distinction into two classes denoted by the presence or absence of vitality--Examples of the animates and inanimates--Mode of their conversion into substantives--How pronouns are applied to these derivatives, and the manner of forming compound terms from adjective bases to describe the various natural phenomena--The application of these principles in common conversation, and in the description of natural and artificial objects--Adjectives always preserve the distinction of number--Numerals--Arithmetical capacity of the language--The unit exists in duplicate.

1. It has been remarked that the distinction of words into animates and inanimates, is a principle intimately interwoven throughout the structure of the language. It is, in fact, so deeply imprinted upon its grammatical forms, and is so perpetually recurring, that it may be looked upon, not only as forming a striking peculiarity of the language, but as constituting the fundamental principle of its structure, from which all other rules have derived their limits, and to which they have been made to conform. No class of words appears to have escaped its impress. Whatever concords other laws impose, they all agree, and are made subservient in the establishment of this.

It might appear to be a useless distinction in the adjective, when the substantive is thus marked; but it will be recollected that it is in the plural of the substantive only that the distinction is marked; and we shall, presently have occasion to show that redundancy of forms is, to considerable extent, obviated in practice.

For the origin of the principle itself, we need look only to nature, which endows animate bodies with animate properties and qualities, and vice versâ. But it is due to the tribes who speak this language, to have invented one set of adjective symbols to express the ideas peculiarly appropriate to the former, and another set applicable exclusively to the latter; and to have given the words good and bad, black and white, great and small, handsome and ugly, such modifications as are practically competent to indicate the general nature of the objects referred to, whether provided with, or destitute of, the vital principle. And not only so, but, by the figurative use of these forms, to exalt inanimate masses into the class of living beings, or to strip the latter of its properties of life--a principle of much importance to their public speakers.

This distinction is shown in the following examples, in which it will be observed that the inflection izzi generally denotes the personal, and au, un, or wud, the impersonal forms.

ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE.

Bad, Monaudud, Monaudizzi. Ugly, Gushkoonaugwud, Gushkoonaugoozzi. Beautiful, Bishegaindaugwud, Bisheguindaugoozzi. Strong, Söngun, Söngizzi. Soft, Nökun, Nökizzi. Hard, Mushkowau, Mushkowizzi. Smooth, Shoiskwau, Shoiskoozzi. Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mukkuddäwizzi. White, Waubishkau, Waubishkizzi. Yellow, Ozahwau, Ozahwizzi. Red, Miskwau, Miskwizzi. Blue, Ozhahwushkwau, Ozhahwushkwizzi. Sour, Sheewun, Sheewizzi. Sweet, Weeshköbun, Weeshköbizzi. Light, Naugun, Naungizzi.

It is not, however, in all cases, by mere modifications of the adjective that these distinctions are expressed. Words totally different in sound, and evidently derived from radically different roots, are, in some few instances, employed; as in the following examples:--

ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE.

Good, Onisheshin, Minno. Bad, Monaudud, Mudjee. Large, Mitshau, Mindiddo. Small, Pungee, Uggaushe. Old, Geekau, Gitizzi.

It may be remarked of these forms, that, although the impersonal will, in some instances, take the personal inflections, the rule is not reciprocated, and minno, and mindiddo, and gitizzi, and all words similarly situated, remain unchangeably animates. The word pungee is limited to the expression of quantity, and its correspondent, uggaushi, to size or quality. Kishedä (hot) is restricted to the heat of a fire; keezhautä, to the heat of the sun. There is still a third term to indicate the natural heat of the body; kizzizoo. Mitshau (large) is generally applied to countries, lakes, rivers, &c.; mindiddo, to the body; and gitshee, indiscriminately. Onishishin, and its correspondent, onishishshä, signify handsome or fair, as well as good. Kwonaudy, a. a., and kwonaudyewun, a. i., mean, strictly, handsome, and imply nothing further. Minno is the appropriate personal form for good. Mudjee and monaudud may reciprocally change genders, the first by the addition of iee, and the second by altering ud to izzi.

Distinctions of this kind are of considerable importance in a practical point of view, and their observance or neglect is noticed with scrupulous exactness by the Indians. The want of inanimate forms to such words as happy, sorrowful, brave, sick, &c., creates no confusion, as inanimate nouns cannot, strictly speaking, take upon themselves such qualities; and when they do--as they sometimes do--by one of those extravagant figures of speech which are used in their tales of transformations, the animate form answers all purposes; for in these tales the whole material creation may be clothed with animation. The rule, as exhibited in practice, is limited, with sufficient accuracy, to the boundaries prescribed by nature.

To avoid a repetition of forms, were the noun and the adjective both to be employed in their usual relation, the latter is endowed with a pronominal or substantive inflection; and the use of the noun in its separate form is thus wholly superseded. Thus, onishishin, a. i., and onishishsha, a. a., become wänishishing, "That which is good or fair," and wänishishid, "He who is good or fair." The following examples will exhibit this rule under each of its forms:--

COMPOUND OR NOUN-ADJECTIVE ANIMATE.

Black, Mukkuddawizzi, Mäkuddäwizzid. White, Waubishkizzi, Wyaubishkizzid. Yellow, Ozahwizzi, Wäzauwizzid. Red, Miskwizzi, Mäskoozzid. Strong, Söngizzi, Swöngizzid.

NOUN-ADJECTIVE INANIMATE.

Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mäkuddäwaug. White, Waubishkau, Wyaubishkaug. Yellow, Ozahwau, Wäzhauwaug. Red, Miskwau, Maiskwaug.

The animate forms, in these examples, will be recognized as exhibiting a further extension of the rule, mentioned in the preceding Inquiry, by which substantives are formed from the indicative of the verb by a permutation of the vowels; and these forms are likewise rendered plural in the manner there mentioned. They also undergo changes to indicate the various persons. For instance, onishisha is thus declined to mark the person:--

Wänishish-eyaun, I (am) good or fair. Wänishish-eyun, Thou (art) good or fair. Wänishish-id, He (is) good or fair. Wänishish-eyaung, We (are) good or fair. (ex.) Wänishish-eyung, We (are) good or fair. (in.) Wänishish-eyaig, Ye (are) good or fair. Wänishish-idjig, They (are) good or fair.

The inanimate forms, being without person, are simply rendered plural by in, changing maiskwaug to maiskwaug-in, &c. &c. The verbal signification which these forms assume, as indicated in the words am, art, is, are, is to be sought in the permutative change of the first syllable. Thus, o is changed to wä, muk to mäk, waub to wy-aub, ozau to wäzau, misk to maisk, &c. The pronoun, as is usual in the double compounds, is formed wholly by the inflections eyaun, eyun, &c.

The strong tendency of the adjective to assume a personal or pronomico-substantive form, leads to the employment of many words in a particular or exclusive sense; and, in any future practical attempts with the language, it will be found greatly to facilitate its acquisition, if the adjectives are arranged in distinct classes, separated by this characteristic principle of their application. The examples we have given are chiefly those which may be considered strictly animate or inanimate, admit of double forms, and are of general use. Many of the examples recorded in the original manuscripts employed in these inquiries, are of a more concrete character, and, at the same time, a more limited use. Thus, shaugwewe is a weak person; nökaugumme, a weak drink; nökaugwud, a weak or soft piece of wood. Sussägau is fine, but can only be applied to personal appearance; beesau, indicates fine grains. Keewushkwä is giddy, and keewushkwäbee, giddy with drink--both being restricted to the third person. Söngun and songizzi are the personal and impersonal forms of strong, as given above, but mushkowaugumme is strong drink. In like manner, the two words for hard, as above, are restricted to solid substances. Sunnuhgud is hard (to endure). Waindud is easy (to perform). Söngodää is brave; shaugedää, cowardly; keezhinghowizzi, active; kizheekau, swift; onaunegoozzi, lively; minwaindum, happy; gushkaindum, sorrowful; but all these forms are confined to the third person of the indicative, singular. Pibbigwun is a rough or knotted substance; pubbiggozzi, a rough person. Keenwau is long or tall (any solid mass). Kaynozid is a tall person. Tahkozid a short person. Wassayau is light; wassaubizzoo, the light of the eye; wasshauzhä, the light of a star or any luminous body. Keenau is sharp; keenaubikud, a sharp knife or stone. Keezhaubikeday is hot metal, a hot stove, &c. Keezhaugummeday is hot water. Uubudgeetön is useful, a useful thing. Wauweeug is frivolous, anything frivolous in word or deed. Tubbushish appears to be a general term for low. Ishpimming is high in the air. Ishpau is applied to any high fixture, as a house, &c. Ishpaubikau is a high rock. Taushkaubikau, a split rock.

These combinations and limitations meet the inquirer at every step; they are the current phrases of the language; they present short, ready, and often beautiful modes of expression; and, as they shed light both upon the idiom and genius of the language, I shall not scruple to add further examples and illustrations. Ask a Chippewa the name for a rock, and he will answer awzhebik. The generic import of awbik has been explained. Ask him the name for red rock, and he will answer miskwaubik; for white rock, and he will answer waubaubik; for black rock, mukkuddäwaubik; for yellow rock, ozahwaubik; for green rock, ozhahwushkwaubik; for bright rock, wassayaubik; for smooth rock, shoishkwaubik, &c.--compounds in which the words red, white, black, yellow, &c., unite with aubik. Pursue this inquiry, and the following forms will be elicited:--

Impersonal.

Miskwaubik-ud, It (is) a red rock. Waububik-ud, It (is) a white rock. Mukkudäwaubik-ud, It (is) a black rock. Ozahwaubik-ud, It (is) a yellow rock. Wassayaubik-ud, It (is) a bright rock. Shoiskwaubik-ud, It (is) a smooth rock.

Personal.

Miskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a red rock. Waububik-izzi, He (is) a white rock. Mukkudäwaubik-izzi, He (is) a black rock. Ozahwaubik-izzi, He (is) a yellow rock. Wassayaubik-izzi, He (is) a bright rock. Shoiskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a smooth rock.

Add bun to these terms, and they are made to have passed away; prefix tah to them, and their future appearance is indicated. The word "is" in the translations, although marked with parentheses, is not deemed wholly gratuitous. There is, strictly speaking, an idea of existence given to these compounds, by the particle au, in aubic, which seems to be indirectly a derivative from that great and fundamental root of the language Iau. Bik is apparently the radix of the expression for "rock."

Let this mode of interrogation be continued, and extended to other adjectives, or the same adjectives applied to other objects, and results equally regular and numerous will be obtained. Minnis, we shall be told is an island; miskominnis, a red island; mukkuddäminnis, a black island; waubeminnis, a white island, &c. Annokwut, is a cloud; miskwaunakwut, a red cloud; mukkuddawukwut, a black cloud; waubahnokwut, a white cloud; ozahwushkwahnakwut, a blue cloud, &c. Neebe is the specific term for water; but is not generally used in combination with the adjective. The word guma, like aubo, appears to be a generic term for water, or potable liquids. Hence, the following terms:--

Gitshee, Great. Gitshiguma, Great water. Nokun, Weak. Nökauguma, Weak drink. Mushkowau, Strong. Mushkowauguma, Strong drink. Weeshkobun, Sweet. Weeshkobauguma, Sweet drink. Sheewun, Sour. Sheewauguma, Sour drink. Weesugun, Bitter. Weesugauguma, Bitter drink. Minno, Good. Minwauguma, Good drink. Monaudud, Bad. Mahnauguma, Bad drink. Miskwau, Red. Miskwauguma, Red drink. Ozahwau, Yellow. Ozahwauguma, Yellow drink. Weenun, Dirty. Weenauguma, Dirty water. Peenud, Clean. Peenauguma, Clean water.

From minno, and from monaudud, good and bad, are derived the following terms: Minnopogwud, it tastes well; minnopogoozzi, he tastes well; mawzhepogwud, it tastes bad; mawzhepogoozzi, he tastes bad. Minnomaugwud, it smells good; minnomaugoozzi, he smells good; mauzhemaugud, it smells bad; mauzhemaugoozzi, he smells bad. The inflections gwud, and izzi, here employed, are clearly indicative, as in other combinations, of the words it and him.

Baimwa, is sound; baimwäwa, the passing sound; minwäwa, a pleasant sound; maunwäwa, a disagreeable sound; mudwayaushkau, the sound of waves dashing on the shore; mudwayaunnemud, the sound of winds; mudwayaukooshkau, the sound of falling trees; mudwäkumigishin, the sound of a person falling upon the earth; mudwaysin, the sound of any inanimate mass falling on the earth. These examples might be continued ad infinitum. Every modification of circumstances, almost every peculiarity of thought, is expressed by some modification of the orthography. Enough has been given to prove that the adjective combines itself with the substantive, the verb, and the pronoun, that the combinations thus produced are numerous, afford concentrated modes of conveying ideas, and oftentimes, happy turns of expression. Numerous and prevalent as these forms are, they do not, however, preclude the use of adjectives in their simple forms. The use of the one or the other appears to be generally at the option of the speaker. In most cases brevity or euphony dictates the choice. Usage results from these applications of the principles. There may be rules resting upon a broader basis; but if so, they do not appear to be very obvious. Perhaps the simple adjectives are often employed before verbs and nouns, in the first and second persons singular.

Ningee minno neebau-nabun, I have slept well. Ningee minno weesin, I have eaten a good meal. Ningee minno pimmoossay, I have walked well, or a good distance. Kägät minno geezhigud, It (is) a very pleasant day. Kwanaudy ningödahs, I have a handsome garment. Ke minno iau nuh, Are you well? Auneende ain deyun, What ails you? Keezhamonedo aupädush shäwainemik, God prosper you. Aupädush shäwaindaugoozzegun, Good luck attend you. Aupädush nau kinwainzh pimmaudizziyun, May you live long. Onauneegoozzin, Be (thou) cheerful. Ne minwaindum waubumenaun, I (am) glad to see you. Kwanaudj kweeweezains, A pretty boy. Kägät söngedää, He (is) a brave man. Kägät onishishsha, She (is) handsome. Gitshee kinözee, He (is) very tall. Uggausau bäwizzi, She (is) slender. Gitshee sussaigau, He (is) fine dressed. Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug meegwunug, They (are) beautiful feathers. Ke daukoozzinuh, Are you sick? Monaudud muundun muskeekee, This (is) bad medicine. Monaudud aindauyun, My place of dwelling (is) bad. Aindauyaun mitshau, My place of dwelling (is) large. Ne mittigwaub onishishsha, My bow (is) good. Ne bikwukön monaududön, But my arrows (are) bad. Ne minwaindaun appaukoozzegun, I love mild or mixed tobacco. Kauweekau neezhikay ussämau ne But I never smoke pure tobacco. suggus-wannausee, Monaudud maishkowaugumig, Strong drink (is) bad. Keeguhgee budjeëgonaun, It makes us foolish. Gitshee Monedo neebe ogee özhetön, The Great Spirit made water. Ininewug dush ween ishködäwaubo ogee But man made whiskey. oz-hetönahwau,

These expressions are put down promiscuously, embracing verbs and nouns as they presented themselves, and without any effort to support the opinion, which may or may not be correct, that the elementary forms of the adjectives are most commonly required before verbs and nouns in the first and second persons. The English expression is thrown into Indian in the most natural manner, and, of course, without always giving adjective for adjective or noun for noun. Thus, God is rendered, not monedo, but Geezha monedo, merciful spirit. Good luck is rendered by the compound phrase, shäwaindaugoozzegun, indicating in a very general sense, the influence of kindness or benevolence on success in life. Söngedää is, alone, a brave man, and the word kägät prefixed, is an adverb. In the expression "mild tobacco," the adjective is entirely dispensed with in the Indian, the sense being sufficiently rendered by the compound noun appaukoozzegun, which always means the Indian weed or smoking mixture. Ussämau, on the contrary, without the adjective, signifies pure tobacco. Bikwukön, signifies blunt or lumpy-headed arrows; assowaun, is the barbed arrow. Kwonaudj kweeweezains means, not simply "pretty boy," but pretty little boy; and there is no mode of using the word boy but in this diminutive form, the word itself being a derivative kewewe coryugal, with the regular diminutive in ains. Onauneegoozzin, embraces the pronoun, verb, and adjective, be thou cheerful. In the last phrase of the examples, "man" is rendered men (inineewuy) in the translation, as the term man cannot be employed in the general plural sense it conveys in this connection in the original. The word "whiskey" is rendered by the compound phrase, ishködawaubo, literally fire-liquor, a generic for all kinds of ardent spirits.

These aberrations from the literal terms will convey some conceptions of the difference of the two idioms, although, from the limited nature and object of the examples, they will not indicate the full extent of the difference. In giving anything like the spirit of the original, much greater deviations in the written forms must appear. And in fact, not only the structure of the language, but the mode and order of thought of the Indians is so essentially different, that any attempts to preserve the English idiom, to give letter for letter, and word for word, must go far to render the translation pure nonsense.

2. Varied as the adjective is in its changes, it has no comparative inflection. A Chippewa cannot say that one substance is hotter or colder than another, or of two or more substances unequally heated, that this or that is the hottest or coldest, without employing adverbs or accessory adjectives; and it is accordingly by adverbs and accessory adjectives that the degrees of comparison are expressed.

Pimmaudizziwin, is a very general substantive expression, indicating the tenor of being or life. Izzhewäbizziwin, is a term near akin to it, but more appropriately applied to the acts, conduct, manner, or personal deportment of life. Hence the expressions--

Nem bimmaudizziwin, My tenor of life. Ke bimmaudizziwin, Thy tenor of life. O pimmaudizziwin, His tenor of life, &c. Nin dizhewäbizziwin, My personal deportment. Ke dizhewäbizziwin, Thy personal deportment. O Izzhewäbizziwin, His personal deportment, &c.

To form the positive degree of comparison from these terms, minno, good, and mudjee, bad, are introduced between the pronoun and verb, giving rise to some permutations of the vowels and consonants, which affect the sound only. Thus--

Ne minno pimmaudizziwin, My good tenor of life. Ke minno pimmaudizziwin, Thy good tenor of life. Minno pimmaudizziwin, His good tenor of life. Ne mudjee pimmaudizziwin, My bad tenor of life. Ke mudjee pimmaudizziwin, Thy bad tenor of life. Mudjee pimmaudizziwin, His bad tenor of life.

To place these forms in the comparative degree, nahwudj, more, is prefixed to the adjective; and the superlative is denoted by mahmowee, an adverb or an adjective as it is variously applied, but the meaning of which is, in this connection, most. The degrees of comparison may be, therefore, set down as follows:--

Positive, Kishedä. Hot (restricted to the heat of a fire), Comparative, Nahwudj kishedä. More hot, Superlative, Mahmowee kishedä. Most hot.

Your manner of life is good, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin onishishin. Your manner of life is better, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin nahwudj onishishin. Your manner of life is best, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin mahwoweé onishishin. His manner of life is best, Odizzhewäbizziwin mahmowee onishishinine. Little Turtle was brave, Mikkenoköns söngedääbun. Tecumseh was braver, Tecumseh nahwudj söngedääbun. Pontiac was bravest, Pontiac mahmowee söngedääbun.

3. The adjective assumes a negative form when it is preceded by the adverb. Thus, the phrase songedää, he is brave, is changed to kahween söngedääsee, he is not brave.

POSITIVE.

Neebwaukah, He is wise. Kwonaudjewe, She is handsome. Oskineegee, He is young. Shaugweewee, He is feeble. Geekkau, He is old. Mushkowizzi, He is strong.

NEGATIVE.

Kahween neebwaukah-see, He is not wise. Kahween kwonaudjewee-see, She is not handsome. Kahween oskineegee-see, He is not young. Kahween Shaugweewee-see, He is not feeble. Kahween Geekkau-see, He is not old. Kahween Mushkowizzi-see, He is not strong.

From this rule the indeclinable adjectives, by which is meant those adjectives which do not put on the personal and impersonal forms by inflection, but consist of radically different roots, form exceptions.

Are you sick? Ke dahkoozzi nuh? You are not sick! Kahween ke dahkoozzi-see. I am happy, Ne minwaindum. I am unhappy, Kahween ne minwainduz-see. His manner of life is bad, Mudjee izzhewabizzi. His manner of life is not bad, Kahween mudjee izzhewabizzi-see. It is large, Mitshau muggud. It is not large, Kahween mitshau-seenön.

In these examples, the declinable adjectives are rendered negative in see; the indeclinable, remain as simple adjuncts to the verbs; and the latter put on the negative form.

4. In the hints and remarks which have now been furnished respecting the Chippewa adjective, its powers and inflections have been shown to run parallel with those of the substantive, in its separation into animates and inanimates; in having the pronominal inflections; in taking an inflection for tense--a topic which, by the way, has been very cursorily passed over--and in the numerous modifications to form the compounds. This parallelism has also been intimated to hold good with respect to number--a subject deeply interesting in itself, as it has its analogy only in the ancient languages--and it was therefore deemed best to defer giving examples, till they could be introduced without abstracting the attention from other points of discussion.

Minno and mudjee, good and bad, being of the limited number of personal adjectives which modern usage permits being applied, although often improperly applied to inanimate objects, they, as well as a few other adjectives, form exceptions to the use of number. Whether we say "a good man" or "a bad man," "good men" or "bad men," the words minno and mudjee remain the same. But all the declinable and coalescing adjectives--adjectives which join on, and, as it were, melt into the body of the substantive--take the usual plural inflections, and are governed by the same rules in regard to their use, as the substantive; personal adjectives requiring personal plurals, &c.

ADJECTIVES ANIMATE.

Singular.

Onishishewe mishemin, Good apple. Kwonaudjewe eekwä, Handsome woman. Songedää inine, Brave man. Bishegaindaugoozzi peenasee, Beautiful bird. Ozahwizzi ahmo, Yellow bee.

Plural.

Onishishewe-wug mishemin-ug, Good apples. Kwonaudjewe-wug eekwä-wug, Handsome women. Songedää-wug inine-wug, Brave men. Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug peenasee-wug, Beautiful birds. Ozahwizzi-wug ahm-ög, Yellow bees.

ADJECTIVES INANIMATE.

Singular.

Onishishin mittig, Good tree. Kwonaudj tshemaun, Handsome canoe. Monaudud ishkoda, Bad fire. Weeshkobun aidetaig, Sweet fruit.

Plural.

Onishishin-ön mittig-ön, Good trees. Kwonaudjewun-ön tshemaun-un, Handsome canoes. Monaudud-ön ishkod-än, Bad fires. Weeshkobun-ön aidetaig-in, Sweet fruits.

Peculiar circumstances are supposed to exist in order to render the use of the adjective, in this connection with the noun, necessary and proper. But, in ordinary instances, as the narration of events, the noun would precede the adjective; and oftentimes, particularly where a second allusion to objects previously named became necessary, the compound expressions would be used. Thus, instead of saying "the yellow bee," wazzahwizzid would distinctly convey the idea of that insect, had the species been before named. Under similar circumstances, kain-waukoozzid, agausheid, söngaunemud, mushkowaunemud, would respectively signify, "a tall tree," "a small fly," "a strong wind," "a hard wind." And these terms would become plural in jig, which, as before mentioned, is a mere modification of ig, one of the five general animate plural inflections of the language.

Kägät wahwinaudj abbenöjeeug, is an expression indicating they are very handsome children. But beeweezheewug monetösug denotes small insects. Minno neewugizzi, is "good tempered," "he is good tempered." Mawshininewugizzi, is "bad tempered," both having their plural in wug. Nin nuneenahwaindum, "I am lonesome." Nin nuneenahwaindaumin, "we (excluding you) are lonesome." Waweea, is a term generally used to express the adjective sense of round. Kwy, is the scalp; weewikwy, his scalp. Hence, weewukwon, "hat," wayweewukwonid, "a wearer of the hat;" and its plural, wayweewukwonidjig, "wearers of the hats"--the usual term applied to Europeans, or white men generally. These examples go to prove that under every form in which the adjective can be traced, whether in its simplest or most compound state, it is susceptible of number.

The numerals of the language are converted into adverbs by the inflection ing, making one, once, &c. The unit exists in duplicate.

Päzhik, One, general unit. } Aubeding, Once. Ingoot, One, numerical unit. } Neesh, Two. Neeshing, Twice. Niswee, Three. Nissing, Thrice. Neewin, Four. Neewing, Four times. Naunun, Five. Nauning, Five times. N'goodwaswä, Six. N'goodwautsking, Six times. Neeshwauswä, Seven. Neeshwautshing, Seven times. Shwauswe, Eight. Shwautshing, Eight times. Shongusswe, Nine. Shongutshing, Nine times. Metauswe, Ten. Meetaushing, Ten times.

These inflections can be carried as high as they can compute numbers. They count decimally. After reaching ten, they repeat, ten and one, ten and two, &c. to twenty. Twenty is a compound signifying two tens; thirty, three tens, &c.; a mode which is carried up to one hundred--n'goodwak. Wak then becomes the word of denomination, combining with the names of the digits until they reach a thousand, meetauswauk, literally ten hundred. Here a new compound term is introduced, made by prefixing twenty to the last denominator, neeshtonnah duswak, which doubles the last term, thirty triples it, forty quadruples it, &c. till the computation reaches to ten thousand, n'goodwak dushing n'goodwak, one hundred times one hundred. This is the probable extent of all certain computation. The term gitshee (great), prefixed to the last denomination, leaves the number indefinite.

There is no form of the numerals corresponding to second, third, fourth, &c. They can only further say, nittum, first, and ishkwaudj, last.

IV.

Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties of the Pronoun.

INQUIRY 4.

Nature and principles of the pronoun--Its distinction into preformative and subformative classes--Personal pronouns--The distinction of an inclusive and exclusive form in the number of the first person plural--Modifications of the personal pronouns to imply existence, individuality, possession, ownership, position, and other accidents--Declension of pronouns to answer the purpose of the auxiliary verbs--Subformatives, how employed to mark the persons--Relative pronouns considered--Their application to the causative verbs--Demonstrative pronouns--Their separation into two classes, animates and inanimates--Example of their use.

Pronouns are buried, if we may so say, in the structure of the verb. In tracing them back to their primitive forms, through the almost infinite variety of modifications which they assume, in connection with the verb, substantive, and adjective, it will facilitate analysis to group them into preformative and subformative, which include the terms that have already been made use of--pronominal prefixes, and suffixes--and which admit of the further distinction of separable and inseparable. By separable, is intended those forms which have a meaning by themselves, and are thus distinguished from the inflective and subformative pronouns, and pronominal particles, significant only in connection with another word.

1. Of the first class, are the personal pronouns Neen (I), Keen (Thou), and Ween or O (He or She). They are declined, to form the plural persons, in the following manner:--

I, Neen. We, Keen owind. (in.) We, Neen owind. (ex.) Thou, Keen. Ye, Keen owau. He or she, Ween or O. They, Ween owau.

Here the plural persons are formed by a numerical inflection of the singular. The double plural of the first person, of which both the rule and examples have been incidentally given in the remarks on the substantive, is one of those peculiarities of the language which may, perhaps, serve to aid in a comparison of it with other dialects, kindred and foreign. As a mere conventional agreement for denoting whether the person addressed be included or excluded, it may be regarded as an advantage to the language. It enables the speaker, by the change of a single consonant, to make a full and clear discrimination, and relieves the narration from doubts and ambiguity, where doubts and ambiguity would otherwise often exist. On the other hand, by accumulating distinctions, it loads the memory with grammatical forms, and opens a door for improprieties of speech. We are not aware of any inconveniences in the use of a general plural; but, in the Indian, it would produce confusion. And it is, perhaps, to that cautious desire of personal discrimination, which is so apparent in the structure of the language, that we should look for the reason of the duplicate forms of this word. Once established, however, and both the distinction, and the necessity of a constant and strict attention to it, are very obvious and striking. How shall he address the Deity? If he say, "Our Father who art in heaven," the inclusive form of our makes the Almighty one of the suppliants, or family. If he use the exclusive form, it throws him out of the family, and may embrace every living being but the Deity. Yet, neither of these forms can be used very well in prayer, as they cannot be applied directly to the object addressed. It is only when speaking of the Deity, under the name of father, to other persons, that the inclusive and exclusive forms of the word our can be used. The dilemma may be obviated by the use of a compound descriptive phrase, Wä ö se mig o yun, signifying, "Thou, who art the father of all," or "universal father." In practice, however, the question is cut short by those persons who have embraced Christianity. It has seemed to them that, by the use of either of the foregoing terms, the Deity would be thrown into too remote a relation to them; and I have observed that in prayer they invariably address Him by the term used by children for the father of a family--that is, nosa, "my father."

The other personal pronouns undergo some peculiar changes when employed as preformatives before nouns and verbs, which it is important to remark. Thus neen, is sometimes rendered ne, or nin, and sometimes nim. Keen, is rendered ke, or kin. In compound words, the mere signs of the first and second pronouns, N and K, are employed. The use of ween is limited; and the third person, singular and plural, is generally indicated by the sign O.

The particle suh, added to the complete forms of the disjunctive pronouns, imparts a verbal sense to them; and appears, in this instance, to be a succedaneum for the substantive verb. Thus Neen, I, becomes neensuh, it is I. Keen, thou, becomes keensuh, it is thou; and ween, he or she, weensuh, it is he or she. This particle may be also added to the plural forms.

Keenowind suh, It is we. (in.) Neenowind suh, It is we. (ex.) Keenowau suh, It is ye, or you. Weenowau suh, It is they.

If the word aittah, be substituted for suh, a set of adverbial phrases are formed:--

Neen aittah, I only. Neen aittah wind, We, &c. (ex.) Keen aittah wind, We, &c. (in.) Keen aittah, Thou only. Keen aittah wau, You, &c. Ween aittah, He or she only. Ween aittah wau, They, &c.

In like manner, nittum, first, and ishkwaudj, last, give rise to the following arrangement of the pronoun:--

Neen nittum, I first. Keen nittum, You or thou first. Ween nittum, He or she first. Keen nittum ewind, We first. (in.) Neen nittum ewind, We first. (ex.) Keen nittum ewau, Ye or you first. Ween nittum ewau, They first.

ISHKWAUDJ.

Neen ishkwaudj, I last. Keen ishkwaudj, Thou last. Ween ishkwaudj, He or she last. Keenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (in.) Neenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (ex.) Keenowau ishkwaudj, Ye or you last. Weenowau ishkwaudj, They last.

The disjunctive forms of the pronoun are also sometimes preserved before verbs and adjectives.

NEEZHIKA. Alone, (an.)

Neen neezhika, I alone. Keen neezhika, Thou alone. Ween neezhika, He or she alone. Keenowind neezhika, We alone. (in.) Neenowind neezhika, We alone. (ex.) Keenowau neezhika, Ye or you alone. Weenowau neezhika, They alone.

To give these expressions a verbal form, the substantive verb, with its pronominal modifications, must be superadded. For instance, I am alone, &c. is thus rendered:--

Neen neezhika nindyau, I am alone + aumin. Keen neezhika keedyau, Thou art alone + aum. Ween neezhika iyau, He or she is alone, &c. + wug.

In the subjoined examples, the noun OW, body, is changed to a verb, by the permutation of the vowel, changing OW, to AUW; which last takes the letter d before it when the pronoun is prefixed:--

I am a man, Neen nin dauw. Thou art a man, Keen ke dauw. He is a man, Ween ah weeh. We are men, (in.) Ke dauw we min. We are men, (ex.) Ne dauw we min. Ye are men, Ke dauw mim. They are men, Weenowau ah weeh wug.

In the translation of these expressions, "man" is used as synonymous with "person." If the specific term inine had been introduced, in the original, the meaning thereby conveyed would be, in this particular connection, "I am a man," with respect to courage, &c. in opposition to effeminacy. It would not be simply declarative of corporeal existence, but of existence in a particular state or condition.

In the following phrases, the modified forms, or the signs only, of the pronouns are used:

N'debaindaun, I own it. Ke debaindaun, Thou ownst it. O debaindaun, He or she owns it. N'debaindaum-in, We own it. (ex.) Ke debaindaum-in, We own it. (in.) Ke debaindaun-ewau, Ye own it. O debaindaun-ewau, They own it.

These examples are cited as exhibiting the manner in which the prefixed and preformative pronouns are employed, both in their full and contracted forms. To denote possession, nouns specifying the things possessed are required; and, what would not be anticipated had not full examples of this species of declension been given in another place, the purposes of distinction are not affected by a simple change of the pronoun, as I to mine, &c., but by a subformative inflection of the noun, which is thus made to have a reflective operation upon the pronoun speaker. It is believed that sufficient examples of this rule, in all the modifications of inflection, have been given under the head of the substantive. But as the substantives employed to elicit these modifications were exclusively specific in their meaning, it, may be proper here, in further illustration of an important principle, to present a generic substantive under their compound forms.

I have selected for this purpose one of the primitives. IE-AU´, is the abstract term for matter. It is in the animate form. Its inanimate correspondent is IE-EE´. These are two important roots. And they are found in combination, in a very great number of derivative words. It will be sufficient here, to show their connection with the pronoun, in the production of a class of terms in very general use.

Animate Forms.

Possessive.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nin dyë aum, Mine. Nin dyë auminaun, Ours. (ex.) Ke dyë auminaun, Ours. (in.) Ke dyë aum, Thine. Ke dyë aumewau, Yours.

Objective.

O dyë aum-un, His or Hers. O dyë aumewaun, Theirs.

Inanimate Forms.

Possessive.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nin dyë eem, Mine. Nin dyë eeminaun, Ours. (ex.) Ke dyë eeminaun, Ours. (in.) Ke dyë eem, Thine. Ke dyë eemewau, Yours.

Objective.

O dyë eem. His or Hers. O dyë eemewau, Theirs. (pos. in.)

In these forms the noun is singular throughout. To render it plural, as well as the pronoun, the appropriate general plurals ug and un, or ig and in, must be superadded. But it must be borne in mind, in making these additions, "that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective case), forms the objective case to animate, which have no number in the third person." (p. 461.) The particle un, therefore, which is the appropriate plural for the inanimate nouns in these examples, is only the objective mark of the animate.

The plural of I, is naun, the plural of thou and he, wau. But as these inflections would not coalesce smoothly with the possessive inflections, the connective vowels i and e are prefixed, making the plural of I, inaun, and of thou, &c., ewau.

If we strike from these declensions the root IE, leaving its animate and inanimate forms AU and EE, and adding the plural of the noun, we shall then, taking the animate declension as an instance, have the following formula of the pronominal declensions:

---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- Pronoun singular. | Place of the noun. | | Possessive inflection. | | | Objective inflection to the noun singular. | | | | Connective vowel. | | | | | Plural inflection of the | | | | | pronoun. | | | | | | Objective inflection, | | | | | | noun plural. | | | | | | | Plural of the noun. ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- Ne | | aum | | i | naun | | ig Ke | | aum | | e | wau | | g O | | aum | un | | | | O | | aum | | e | wau | n | ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+----

To render this formula of general use, six variations (five in addition to the above) of the possessive inflection are required, corresponding to the six classes of substantives, whereby aum would be changed to äm, eem, im, öm, and oom, conformably to the examples heretofore given in treating of the substantive. The objective inflection would also be sometimes changed to een, and sometimes to oan.

Having thus indicated the mode of distinguishing the person, number, relation, and gender, or what is deemed its technical equivalent, the mutations words undergo, not to mark the distinctions of sex, but the presence or absence of vitality, I shall now advert to the inflections which the pronouns take for tense, or rather to form the auxiliary verbs, have, had, shall, will, may, &c.; a very curious and important principle, and one which clearly demonstrates that no part of speech has escaped the transforming genius of the language. Not only are the three great modifications of time accurately marked in the verbal form of the Chippewas, but, by the inflection of the pronoun, they are enabled to indicate some of the oblique tenses, and thereby to conjugate their verbs with accuracy and precision.

The particle gee added to the first, second, and third person singular, of the present tense, changes them to the perfect past, rendering I, thou, he, I did, have, or had; thou didst, hast, or hadst; he or she did, have, or had. If gah be substituted for gee, the first future tense is formed, and the perfect past added to the first future, forms the conditional future. As the eye may prove an auxiliary in the comprehension of forms which are not familiar, the following tabular arrangement of them is presented.

First person, I.

Nin gee, I did, have, had. Nin gah, I shall, will. Nin gah gee, I shall have, will have.

Second person, Thou.

Ke gee, Thou didst, hast, hadst. Ke gah, Thou shalt, wilt. Ke gah gee, Thou shalt have, wilt have.

Third person, He or She.

O gee, He or she did, have, had. O gah, He or she did, have, had. O gah gee, He or she shall have, will have.

The present and imperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by dau, and the perfect by gee suffixed, as in other instances.

First person, I.

Nin dau, I may, can, &c. Nin dau gee, I may have, can have, &c.

Second person, Thou.

Ke dau, Thou mayst, canst, &c. Ke dau gee, Thou mayst have, canst have, &c.

Third person, He or She.

O dau, He or she may, can, &c. O dau gee, He or she may have, can have, &c.

In conjugating the verbs through the plural person, the singular terms for the pronoun remain, and they are rendered plural by a retrospective action of the pronominal inflections of the verb. In this manner the pronoun-verb auxiliary has a general application, and the necessity of double forms is avoided.

The preceding observations are confined to the formative or prefixed pronouns. The inseparable suffixed or subformative are as follows:--

Yaun, My. Yun, Thy. Id or d, His or hers. Yaung, Our. (ex.) Yung, Our. (in.) Yaig, Your. Waud, Their.

These pronouns are exclusively employed as suffixes, and as suffixes to the descriptive compound substantives, adjectives, and verbs. Both the rule and examples have been stated under the head of the substantives, p. 463, and adjectives, p. 492. Their application to the verb will be shown as we proceed.

2. Relative Pronouns.--In a language which provides for the distinction of person by particles prefixed or suffixed to the verb, it will scarcely be expected that separate and independent relative pronouns should exist, or if such are to be found, their use, as separate parts of speech, must, it will have been anticipated, be quite limited; limited to simple interrogatory forms of expression, and not applicable to the indicative or declaratory. Such will be found to be the fact in the language under review; and it will be perceived from the subjoined examples, that in all instances requiring the relative pronoun who, other than the simple interrogatory forms, this relation is indicated by the inflections of the verb, or adjective, &c. Nor does there appear to be any declension of the separate pronoun corresponding to whose and whom.

The word Ahwaynain, may be said to be uniformly employed in the sense of who, under the limitations we have mentioned. For instance--

Who is there? Ahwaynain e-mah ai-aud? Who spoke? Ahwaynain kau keegoedood? Who told you? Ahwaynain kau weendumoak? Who are you? Ahwaynain iau we yun? Who sent you? Ahwaynain waynönik? Who is your father? Ahwaynain kös? Who did it? Ahwaynain kau tödung? Whose dog is it? Ahwaynain way dyid? Whose pipe is that? Ahwaynain döpwaugunid en-eu? Whose lodge is it? Ahwaynain way weegewomid? Whom do you seek? Ahwaynain nain dau wau bumud? Whom have you here? Ahwaynain oh-amau ai auwaud?

Not the slightest variation is made in these phrases between who, whose, and whom.

Should we wish to change the interrogative, and to say he who is there, he who spoke, he who told you, &c., the separable personal pronoun ween (he) must be used in lieu of the relative; and the following forms will be elicited:--

Ween, kau unnönik, He (who) sent you. Ween, kau geedood, He (who) spoke. Ween, ai-aud e-mah, He (who) is there. Ween, kau weendumoak, He (who) told you. Ween, kau tödung, He (who) did it, &c.

If we object that, in these forms, there is no longer the relative pronoun who, the sense being simply he sent you, he spoke, &c., it is replied that, if it be intended only to say he sent you, &c., and not he who sent you, &c., the following forms are used:--

Ke gee unnönig, He (sent) you. Ainnözhid, He (sent) me. Ainnönaud, He (sent) him. Iau e-mau, He is there. Ke geedo, He (spoke). Ke gee weendumaug, He (told) you. Ke to dum, He did it.

We reply to this answer of the native speaker, that the particle kau prefixed to a verb, denotes the past tense; that in the former series of terms in which this particle appears, the verbs are in the perfect indicative, and in the latter, they are in the present indicative, marking the difference only between sent and send, spoke and speak, &c.; and that there is absolutely no relative pronoun in either series of terms. We further observe, that the personal pronoun ween, prefixed to the first set of terms, may be prefixed, with equal propriety, to the second set, and that its use or disuse is perfectly optional with the speaker, as he may wish to give additional energy or emphasis to the expression. To these positions, after reflection, discussion, and examination, we receive an assent, and thus the uncertainty is terminated.

We now wish to apply the principle thus elicited to verbs causative, and to other compound terms--to the adjective verbs, for instance--and to the other verbal compound expressions, in which the objective and the nominative persons are incorporated as a part of the verb, and are not prefixes to it. This may be shown in the causative verb--

TO MAKE HAPPY.

Mainwaindumëid, He (who) makes me happy. Mainwaindumëik, He (who) makes thee happy. Mainwaindumëaud, He (who) makes him happy. Mainwaindumëinung, He (who) makes us happy. (in.) Mainwaindumëyaug, He (who) makes us happy. (ex.) Mainwaindumëinnaig, He (who) makes ye or you happy. Mainwaindumëigowaud, He (who) makes them happy.

And so the forms might be continued throughout all the objective persons--

Mainwaindum ë yun, Thou (who) makest me happy, &c.

The basis of these compounds is minno, "good," and aindum, "the mind." Hence, minwaindum, "he happy." The adjective, in this connection, cannot be translated "good," but its effect upon the noun is to denote that state of the mind which is at rest with itself. The first change from this simple compound, is to give the adjective a verbal form; and this is effected by a permutation of the vowels of the first syllable--a rule of very extensive application--and by which, in the present instance, the phrase "he happy," is changed to "he makes happy," (mainwaindum.) The next step is to add the suffix personal pronouns, id, ik, aud, &c., rendering the expressions, "he makes me happy," &c. But, in adding these increments, the vowel e is thrown between the adjective-verb and the pronoun suffixed, making the expression, not mainwaindum-yun, but mainwaindum ëyun. Generally, the vowel e, in this situation, is a connective, or introduced merely for the sake of euphony. And those who maintain that it is here employed as a personal pronoun, and that the relative who is implied by the final inflection, overlook the inevitable inference, that if the marked e stands for me in the first phrase, it must stand for thee in the second, he in the third, us in the fourth, &c. As to the meaning and office of the final inflections id, ik, &c., whatever they may, in an involuted sense, imply, it is quite clear, by turning to the list of suffixed personal pronouns, and animate plurals, that they mark the persons, I, thou, he, &c., we, ye, they, &c.

Take, for example, minwaindumëigowaud, "he (who) makes them happy." Of this compound, minwaindum, as before shown, signifies "he makes happy." But as the verb is in the singular number, it implies that but one person is made happy; and the suffixed personal pronouns singular, mark the distinctions between me, thee, and he, or him.

Minwaindum-e-ig is the verb plural, and implies that several persons are made happy; and, in like manner, the suffixed personal pronouns plural, mark the distinctions between we, ye, they, &c.; for it is a rule of the language, that a strict concordance must exist between the number of the verb and the number of the pronoun. The termination of the verb consequently always indicates whether there be one or many objects to which its energy is directed. And as animate verbs can be applied only to animate objects, the numerical inflections of the verb are understood to mark the number of persons. But this number is indiscriminate, and leaves the sense vague until the pronominal suffixes are superadded. Those who, therefore, contend for the sense of the relative pronoun "who" being given in the last-mentioned phrase, and all phrases similarly formed by a succedaneum, contend for something like the following form of translation: "He makes them happy--him!" or "Him--he (meaning 'who') makes them happy."

The equivalent for what, is waygonain.

What do you want? Waygonain wau iauyun? What have you lost? Waygonain kau wonetöyun? What do you look for? Waygonain nain dahwau bundahmun? What is this? Waygonain ewinain maundun? What will you have? Waygonain kad iauyun? What detained you? Waygonain kau oon dahme egöyun? What are you making? Waygonain wayzhetöyun? What have you there? Waygonain e-mau iauyun?

The use of this pronoun, like the preceding, appears to be confined to simple interrogative forms. The word auneen, which sometimes supplies its place, or is used for want of the pronoun which, is an adverb, and has considerable latitude of meaning. Most commonly, it may be considered as the equivalent for how, in what manner, or at what time.

What do you say? Auneen akeedöyun? What do you call this? Auneen aizheneekaudahmun maundun?(i.) What ails you? Auneen aindeeyun? What is your name? Auneen aizheekauzoyun? Which do you mean, this or that? (an.) Auneen ah-ow ainud, woh-ow gämau ewaidde? Which do you mean, this or that? (in.) Auneen eh-eu ewaidumun oh-oo gämau ewaidde? Which boy do you mean? Auneen ah-ow-ainud?

By adding to this word the particle de, it is converted into an adverb of place, and may be rendered where.

Where do you dwell? Auneende aindauyun? Where is your son? Auneende ke gwiss? Where did you see him? Auneende ke waubumud? Where did you see it? Auneende ke waubundumun? Where are you going? Auneende azhauyun? Where did you come from? Auneende ka oonjeebauyun? Where is your pipe? Auneende ke döpwaugun? Where is your gun? Auneende ke baushkizzigun?

By a still further modification, it is rendered an adverb of inquiry of the cause or motive.

Why do you do so? Auneeshween eh eu todumun? Why do you say so? Auneeshween eh eu ekeedoyun? Why are you angry? Auneeshween nishkaudizzeyun? Why will you depart? Auneeshween wee matyauyun? Why will you not depart? Auneeshween matyauseewun? Why have you come? Auneeshween ke peëzhauyun? Tell me why? Weendumowishin auneeshween? Wherefore is it so? Auneeshween eh-eu izzhewaibuk? (in.) Wherefore did you strike him? Auneeshween ke pukketaywud?

3. Demonstrative pronouns are either animate or inanimate, and may be arranged as follows:--

ANIMATE. INANIMATE.

Mau-bum (impersonal), } This. Maun-dun (inanimate proper). Woh-ow (personal), } Oh-oo (inanimate conventional). Ah-ow, That. Eh-eu. Mau-mig, These. Mau-min. Ig-eu (personal), } Those. In-eu (inanimate proper). I-goo (impersonal), } O-noo (inanimate conventional).

These words are not always used merely to ascertain the object, but often, perhaps always, when the object is present to the sight, have a substantive meaning, and are used without the noun. It creates no uncertainty, if a man be standing at some distance to say, Ah-ow; or if a canoe be lying at some distance, to say, Eh-eu; the meaning is clearly, that person, or that canoe, whether the noun be added or not. Or, if there be two animate objects standing together, or two inanimate objects lying together, the words maumig (a.), or maumin (i.), if they be near, or ig-eu, (a.), or in-eu (i.), if they be distant, are equally expressive of the materiality of the objects, as well as their relative position. Under other circumstances the noun would be required, as where two animate objects of diverse character--a man and a horse for instance--were standing near each other; or a canoe and a package of goods were lying near each other--and, in fact, under all circumstances--the noun may be used after the demonstrative pronoun, without violating any rule of grammar, although not without the imputation, in many instances, of being over-formal and unnecessarily minute. What is deemed redundant, however, in oral use, and amongst a people who supply much by sight and gesticulation, becomes quite necessary in writing the language; and, in the following sentences, the substantive is properly employed after the pronoun:--

This dog is very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozo woh-ow annemoosh. These dogs are very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozowug o-goo annemooshug. Those dogs are fat, Ig-eu annemooshug ween-in-oowug. That dog is fat, Ah-ow annemoosh ween-in-oo. This is a handsome knife, Gagait onishishin maundun mokomahn. These are handsome knives, Gagait wahwinaudj o-noo mokomahnun. Those are bad knives, Monaududön in-euwaidde mokomahnun. Give me that spear, Meezhishin eh-eu ahnitt. Give me those spears, Meezhishin in-eu unnewaidde ahnitteen. That is a fine boy, Gagait kwonaudj ah-ow kweewezains. Those are fine boys, Gagait wahwinaudj ig-euwaidde kweewezainsug. This boy is larger than that, Nahwudj mindiddo woh-ow kweewezains ewaidde dush. That is what I wanted, Meeh-eu wau iauyaumbaun. This is the very thing I wanted, Mee-suh oh-oo wau iauyaumbaun.

In some of these expressions, the pronoun combines with an adjective, as in the compound words ineuwaidde and igeuwaidde, those yonder (in.), and those yonder (an.). Compounds which exhibit the full pronoun in coalescence with the adverb ewaidde, yonder.

2. NATURAL HISTORY.

V.

ZOOLOGY.

1. Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern parts of the United States. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. (Northwest Journal.)

2. Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr. Schoolcraft in the Northwest. By WILLIAM COOPER. (Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History.)

3. CONCHOLOGY.--List of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, in the Western and Northwestern Territory. By WILLIAM COOPER.

HELIX.

1. HELIX ALBOLABRIS, Say. Near Lake Michigan.

2. HELIX ALTERNATA, Say. Banks of the Wabash, near and above the Tippecanoe. Mr. Say remarks, that these two species, so common in the Atlantic States, were not met with in Major Long's second expedition, until their arrival in the secondary country at the eastern extremity of Lake Superior.

PLANORBIS.

3. PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS, Say. Itasca (or La Biche) Lake, the source of the Mississippi.

4. PLANORBIS TRIVOLVIS, Say. Lake Michigan. These two species were also observed by Mr. Say, as far east as the Falls of Niagara.

LYMNEUS.

5. LYMNEUS UMBROSUS, Say, Am. Con. iv. pl. xxxi. Fig. 1. Lake Winnipec, Upper Mississippi, and Rainy Lake.

6. LYMNEUS REFLEXUS, Say, l. c. pl. xxxi. Fig. 2. Rainy Lake, Seine River, and Lake Winnipec.

7. LYMNEUS STAGNALIS. Lake a la Crosse, Upper Mississippi.

PALUDINA.

8. PALUDINA PONDEROSA, Say. Wisconsin River.

9. PALUDINA VIVIPARA, Say, Am. Con. i. pl. x. The American specimens of this shell are more depressed than the European, but appear to be identical in species.

MELANIA.

10. MELANIA VIRGINICA, Say. Lake Michigan.

ANODONTA.

11. ANODONTA CATARACTA, Say. Chicago, Lake Michigan. This species, Mr. Lea remarks, has a great geographical extension.

12. ANODONTA CORPULENTA, Nobis. Shell thin and fragile, though less so than others of the genus; much inflated at the umbones, margins somewhat compressed; valves connate over the hinge in perfect specimens; surface dark brown, in old shells; in younger, of a pale dingy green, and without rays, in all I have examined; beaks slightly undulated at the tip. The color within is generally of a livid coppery hue, but sometimes, also, pure white.

Length of a middling sized specimen, four and a half inches, breadth, six and a quarter. It is often eighteen inches in circumference round the border of the valves, with a diameter through the umbones of three inches. Inhabits the Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin.

This fine shell, much the largest I have seen of the genus, was first sent by Mr. Schoolcraft, to the Lyceum, several years ago. So far as I am able to discover, it is undescribed, and a distinct and remarkable species. It may be known by its length being greater in proportion to its breadth than in the other American species, by the subrhomboidal form of the posterior half, and generally, by the color of the nacre, though this is not to be relied on. It appears to belong to the genus SYMPHYNOTA of Mr. Lea.

ALASMODONTA.

13. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA, Barnes. SYMPHYNOTA COMPLANATA, Lea. Shell Lake, River St. Croix, Upper Mississippi. Many species of shells found in this lake grow to an extraordinary size. Some of the present collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, measure nineteen inches in circumference.

14. ALASMODONTA RUGOSA, Barnes. St. Croix River, and Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River.

15. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA, Say. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River; very large.

16. ALASMODONTA EDENTULA? Say. ANODON AREOLATUS? Swainson. Lake Vaseux. The specimens of this shell are too old and imperfect to be safely determined.

UNIO.

17. UNIO TUBERCULATUS, Barnes. Painted Rock, Upper Mississippi.

18. UNIO PUSTULOSUS, Lea. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien, to Lake Pepin.

19. UNIO VERRUCOSUS, Barnes, Lea. St. Croix River of the Upper Mississippi.

20. UNIO PLICATUS, Le Sueur, Say. Prairie du Chien, and River St. Croix.

The specimens of U. PLICATUS sent from this locality by Mr. Schoolcraft have the nacre beautifully tinged with violet, near the posterior border of the shell, and are also much more ventricose than those found in more eastern localities, as Pittsburg, for example; at the same time, I believe them to be of the same species. Similar variations are observed in other species; the specimens from the south and west generally exhibiting a greater development.

21. UNIO TRIGONUS, Lea. From the same locality as the last, and like it unusually ventricose.

22. UNIO EBENUS, Lea. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin.

23. UNIO GIBBOSUS, Barnes. St. Croix River, Upper Mississippi,

24. UNIO RECTUS, Lamarck. U. PRÆLONGUS, Barnes. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin, and the River St. Croix. The specimens collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, vary much in the color of the nacre. Some have it entirely white, others rose purple, and others entirely of a very fine dark salmon color. This species inhabits the St. Lawrence as far east as Montreal.

25. UNIO SILIQUOIDEUS, Barnes, and U. INFLATUS, Barnes. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin. Large, ponderous, and the epidermis finely rayed.

26. UNIO COMPLANATUS, Lea. U. PURPUREUS, Say. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River. Lake Vaseux is an expansion of the River St. Mary, a tributary of the upper lakes. This shell does not appear to exist in any of the streams flowing into the Mississippi.

27. UNIO CRASSUS, Say. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien.

28. UNIO RADIATUS, Barnes. Lake Vaseux. The specimen is old and imperfect, but I believe it to be the U. RADIATUS of our conchologists, which is common in Lake Champlain and also inhabits the St. Lawrence.

29. UNIO OCCIDENS, Lea. U. VENTRICOSUS, Say, Am. Con. U. VENTRICOSUS, Barnes? Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, and Shell Lake. Epidermis variously colored, and marked with numerous rays.

30. UNIO VENTRICOSUS, Barnes. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin and Shell Lake. The varieties of this, and the preceding pass insensibly into each other. Those from Shell Lake are of extraordinary size.

31. UNIO ALATUS, Say. SYMPHYNOTA ALATA, Lea. Upper Mississippi, and Shell Lake. Found also in Lake Champlain, by the late Mr. Barnes.

32. UNIO GRACILIS, Barnes. SYMPHYNOTA GRACILIS, Lea. Upper Mississippi, and Shell Lake. The specimens brought by Mr. Schoolcraft are larger and more beautiful than I have seen from any other locality.

VI.

BOTANY.

1. _A List of Species and Localities of Plants collected in the Northwestern Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft of 1831 and 1832._ By DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., Surgeon to the expeditions.

The localities of the following plants are transcribed from a catalogue kept during the progress of the expeditions, and embrace many plants common to our country, which were collected barely for the purpose of comparison. A more detailed account will be published at some future day.

Aster tenuifolius, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " sericea, Nuttall. River de Corbeau, Missouri Ter. " lævis? Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. " concolor, Willdenow. Fox River, Northwest Ter. " (N. Spec.). Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter. Andropogon furcatus, Willdenow. Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter. Alopecurus geniculatus, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. Aira flexuosa. Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. Allium tricoccum, Aiton. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. " cernuum, Roth. River de Corbeau to the sources of the Miss. " (N. Spec.). St. Louis River of Lake Superior. Amorpha canescens, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. Artemisia canadensis, Mx. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " sericea, Nuttall. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. " gnaphaloides, Nuttall. Fox River, Northwest Ter. Arabis hirsuta, De Candolle. Upper Mississippi. " lyrata, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Arundo canadensis, Mx. Lake Superior. Arenaria lateriflora, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Alnus glauca, Mx. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. Alliona albida, Walter. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. Aronia sanguinea. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Alectoria jubata. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Aletris farinosa. Prairies of Michigan Ter. Bidens beckii, Torrey. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. Bunias maritima, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. Baptisia coerulea, Michaux. Fox River, Northwest Ter. Blitum capitatum. Northwest Ter. Betula papyracea, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " glandulosa. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. Bartramia fontana. Lake Superior. Bromus canadensis, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. Batschia canescens. Plains of the Mississippi. " " Var. (or N. Spec.). Lake Superior. Carex paucifolia. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " scirpoides, Schkuhr. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " limosa, Linn. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " curata, Gmelin. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " (apparently N. Spec. allied to C. scabrata.) Sources of the Miss. " washingtoniana, Dewy. Lake Superior. " lacustris, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " oedere, Ehrhart. Leech Lake. " logopodioides, Schkuhr. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. " rosea, Var. Lake Superior. " festucacea, Schkuhr. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. Cyperus mariscoides, Elliott. Upper Mississippi. " alterniflorus, Schwinitz. River St. Clair, Mich. Ter. Cnicus pitcheri, Torrey. Lakes Michigan and Superior. Coreopsis palmata, Nuttall. Prairies of the Upper Mississippi. Cardamine pratensis. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Calamagrostis coarctata, Torrey. Lake Winnipec. Cetraria icelandica. Lakes Superior and Michigan. Corydalis aurea, Willdenow. Cass Lake, Upper Mississippi. " glauca, Persoon. Lake Superior. Cynoglossum amplexicaule, Michaux. Sault Ste. Marie. Cassia chamoecrista. Upper Mississippi. Corylus americana, Walter. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " rostrata, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Cistus canadensis, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Cornus circinata, L'Heritier. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Cypripedium acaule, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Cymbidium pulchellum, Swartz. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Corallorhiza multiflora, Torrey. Lake Superior. Convallaria borealis, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. " trifolia, Linn. Lake Superior. Cenchrus echinatus, Linn. Upper Mississippi. Cerastium viscosum, Linn. Lake Superior. " oblongifolium, Torrey. Michigan Ter. Campanula acuminata, Michaux. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. Cinna arundinacea, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. Drosera linearis, Hooker. Lake Superior. " rotundifolia. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " americana, Muhlenberg. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Dracocephalum virginicum, Willdenow. Red Cedar River, Northwest Territory. Delphinium virescens, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. Danthonia spicata, Willdenow. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. Dirca palustris, Willdenow. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. Equisetum limosum, Torrey. Lake Superior. " _palustr_e, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " variegatum, Smith. Lake Michigan. Erigeron integrifolium, Bigelow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. " purpureum, Willdenow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. " (N. Spec.). Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. Erigeron heterophyllum, Var. or (N. Spec.). Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. Eryngium aquaticum, Jussieu. Galena, Ill. Euphorbia corollata, Willdenow. Red Cedar River. Eriophorum virginicum, Linn. Lake Superior. " alpinum, Linn. Lake Superior. " polystachyon, Linn. Lake Superior. Empetrum nigrum, Michaux. Lake Superior. Erysimum chiranthoides, Linn. Lake Superior: Eriocaulon pellucidum, Michaux. Lake Superior. Euchroma coccinea, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. Elymus striatus, Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. " virginicus, Linn. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. Festuca nutans, Willdenow. Lake Winnipec. Glycera fluitans, Brown. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. Gyrophora papulosa. Lake Superior. Gentiana crinita, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. Geranium carolinianum. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. Galium lanceolatum, Torrey. Red Cedar River to the Mississippi. Gerardia pedicularis. Fox River, Northwest Ter. " maritima, Rafinesque. Lake Michigan. Galeopsis tetrahit, Var. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. Gnaphalium plantaginium, Var. Sources of the Mississippi. Goodyera pubescens, Willdenow. Lake Superior. Hippophæ canadensis, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " argentea, Pursh. Lake Superior. Hedeoma glabra, Persoon. Lake Michigan to the sources of the Miss. Hydropeltis purpurea, Michaux. Northwest Ter. Hippuris vulgaris. Yellow River to sources of the Mississippi. Hudsonia tomentosa, Nuttall. Lake Superior. Hypericum canadense. Lake Superior. " prolificum, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. Hieracium fasciculatum, Pursh. Pukwàewa Lake, Northwest Ter. Hierochloa borealis, Roemer & Schultes. Lake Superior. Holcus lanatus. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. Houstonia longifolia, Willdenow. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. Heuchera americana, Linn. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. Hypnum crista-castrensis. Sources of the Mississippi. Hordeum jubatum. Upper Red Cedar Lake. Helianthus decapetalis. Northwest Ter. " gracilis, Torrey. Upper Lake St. Croix, Northwest Ter. Hyssopus anisatus, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. " scrophularifolius, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. Inula villosa, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. Ilex canadensis, Michaux. Lake Superior. Juncus nodosus. St. Mary's River. " polycephalus, Michaux. Lake Superior. Koeleria nitida, Nuttall. Lake Winnipec. Lycopodium dendroideum, Michaux. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. " annotinum, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. Lonicera hirsuta, Eaton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " sempervirens, Aiton. Lake Superior. Lechea minor. Upper Mississippi. Linhea borealis, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Lathyrus palustris. Lake Superior. " decaphyllus, Pursh. Leech Lake. " maritimus, Bigelow. Lake Superior. Lobelia kalmii, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " claytoniana, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. " puberula? Michaux. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. Liatris scariosa, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " cylindrica, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. Lysimachia revoluta, Nuttall. Lake Superior. " thyrsifolia, Michaux. Lake Superior. Ledum latifolium, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Myrica gale, Willdenow. Lake Superior. Malva (N. Spec.). Upper Mississippi. Monarda punctata, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. " oblongata, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. Microstylis ophioglossoides, Willdenow. Lac la Biche [Itasca]. Myriophyllum spicatum. Lake Superior. Mitella cordifolia, Lamarck. Lake Superior. Menyanthes trifoliata. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. Myosotis arvensis, Sibthorp. St. Clair River, Mich. Ter. Nelumbium luteum, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. OEnothera biennis, Var. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. " serrulata, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. Psoralea argophylla, Pursh. Falls of St. Anthony. Primula farinosa, Var. Americana, Torrey. Lakes Huron and Superior. " mistassinica, Michaux. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Pingwicula (N. Spec.). Presque Isle, Lake Superior. Parnassia americana, Muhlenberg. Lake Michigan. Pedicularis gladiata, Michaux. Fox River. Pinus nigra, Lambert. Lake Superior. " banksiana, Lambert. Lake Superior. Populus tremuloides, Michaux. Northwest Ter. " lævigata, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. Prunus depressa, Pursh. Lakes Superior and Michigan. Petalostemon violaceum, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " candidum, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. Potentilla tridentata, Aiton. Lake Superior. " fruticosa, Linnæus. Lakes Superior and Michigan. Pyrola uniflora, Mauvais River of Lake Superior. Polygonum amphibium, Linnæus. St. Croix River. " cilinode, Michaux. Lake Superior. " articulatum, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " coccinium, Willdenow. St. Croix River. Polygala polygama, Walter. Northwest Ter. Phlox aristata, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. Poa canadensis. Upper Mississippi. Pentstemon gracile, Nuttall. Upper Red Cedar Lake. " grandiflorum, Nuttall. Falls of St. Anthony. Physalis lanceolata, Var. (or N. Spec.). Lac la Biche [Itasca]. Quercus coccinea, Wangenheim. Upper Red Cedar Lake. " obtusiloba, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. Ranunculus filiformis, Michaux. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. " pusillus, Pursh. Mich. Ter. " prostratus, Lamarck. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. " lacustris, Beck & Tracy. Upper Mississippi. Rudbeckia hirta, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi and Michigan Ter. " digitata, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. Rubus parviflorus, Nuttall. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " hispidus, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " saxatilis, Var. canadensis, Michaux. Lake Superior. Rosa gemella, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " rubifolia, Brown. Michigan Ter. Ribes albinervum, Michaux. Sources of the St. Croix River. Saururus cernuus, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. Streptopus roseus, Michaux. Lake Superior. Sisymbrium brachycarpum, Richardson. Lake Superior. " chiranthoides, Linnæus. Lake Superior. Swertia deflexa, Smith. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. Silphium terebinthinaceum, Elliott. Michigan Territory to the Miss. " gummiferum. Fox River to the Mississippi. Stachys aspera, Var. Michaux. Lake Superior. Sterocaulon paschale. Lake Superior. Struthiopteris pennsylvanica, Willdenow. Lake Superior. Scirpus frigetur? Lake of the Isles, Northwest Ter. " palustris, Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. Salix prinoides, Pursh. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. " longifolia, Muhlenberg. Upper Mississippi. Spiræa opulifolia, Var. tomentella, De Candolle. Lake Superior. Sorbus americana, Willdenow. Lake Huron to the head of Lake Superior. Smilax rotundifolia Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. Silene antirrhina, Linnæus. Lac la Biche. Saxifraga virginiensis, Michaux. Lake Superior. Scutellaria ambigua, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. Solidago virgaurea, Var. alpina. Lake Superior. Stipa juncea, Nuttall. Usawa R. Symphora racemosa, Michaux. Source of the Miss. R. Senecio balsamitæ, Var. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. Sagittaria heterophylla, Pursh. Upper Miss. Tanacetum huronensis, Nuttall. Lakes Michigan and Superior. Tussilago palmata, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. Tofeldia pubens, Michaux. Lake Superior. Triglochin maritimum, Linnæus. Lake Superior. Thalyctrum corynellum, De Candolle. St. Louis River. Triticum repens, Linnæus. Leech Lake. Troximon virginicum, Pursh. Lake Winnipec. Talinum teretifolium, Pursh. St. Croix River. Tradescantia virginica. Upper Mississippi. Utricularia cornuta, Michaux. Lake Superior. " purpurea, Walter. Lac Chetac, N. W. Ter. Uraspermum canadense, Lake Superior to the Miss. Viola lanceolata, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie. " pedata, Var. (or N. Spec.). Lac la Biche, sources of the Miss. Viburnum oxycoccus, Pursh. Lake Superior. " lentago. Lake Superior. Vernonia novoboracensis, Willdenow. Upper Miss. Verbena bracteosa, Michaux. Upper Miss. " stricta, Ventenat. Upper Miss. Zapania nodiflora, Michaux. Galena, Illinois. Zigadenus chloranthus, Richardson. Sandy shores of Lake Michigan. Zizania aquatica, Pursh. Illinois to the sources of the Miss.

VII.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

1. A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Geological Basin of Lake Superior. By Dr. D. HOUGHTON.

FREDONIA, N. Y., November 14, 1831.

SIR: In fulfilment of the duties assigned to me in the late expedition into the Indian country, under the direction of H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq., Indian Agent, I would beg leave to transmit to you the following observations relative to the existence of copper in the country bordering on the southern shore of Lake Superior.

It is without doubt true that this subject has long been viewed with an interest far beyond its actual merit. Each mass of native copper which this country has produced, however insulated, or however it may have been separated from its original position, appears to have been considered a sure indication of the existence of that metal in beds; and hence we occasionally see, upon maps of that section of our country, particular portions marked as containing "copper mines," where no copper now exists. But, while it is certain that a combination of circumstances has served to mislead the public mind with regard to the geological situation and existing quantity of that metal, it is no less certain that a greater quantity of insulated native copper has been discovered upon the borders of Lake Superior, than in any other equal portion of North America.

Among the masses of native copper which have engaged the attention of travellers in this section of country, one, which from its great size was early noticed, is situated on the Ontonagon River, a stream which empties its waters into the southern part of Lake Superior, 331 miles above the Falls of the Ste. Marie. The Ontonagon River is, with some difficulty, navigable by batteaux 36 miles, at which place, by the union of two smaller streams--one from an easterly and the other from a westerly direction--the main stream is formed. The mass of copper is situated on the western fork, at a distance of six or eight miles from the junction.

The face of the country through the upper half of the distance from Lake Superior is uneven, and the irregularity is given it by hills of marly clay, which occasionally rise quite abruptly to the height of one or two hundred feet. No rock was observed in situ, except in one place, where, for a distance, the red sandstone was observed, forming the bed of the river.

The mass of copper lies, partly covered by water, directly at the foot of a clay hill, from which, together with numerous boulders of the primitive rocks, it has undoubtedly been washed by the action of the water of the river. Although it is completely insulated, there is much to interest in its examination. Its largest surface measures three and a half by four feet, and this, which is of malleable copper, is kept bright by the action of the water, and has the usual appearance of that metal when worn. To one surface is attached a small quantity of rock, singularly bound together by threads of copper, which pass through it in all directions. This rock, although many of its distinctive characters are lost, is evidently a dark colored serpentine, with small interspersed masses of milky quartz.

The mass of copper is so situated as to afford but little that would enable us to judge of its original geological position. In examining the eastern fork of the river, I discovered small water-worn masses of trap-rock, in which were specks of imbedded carbonate of copper and copper black; and with them were occasionally associated minute specks of serpentine, in some respects resembling that which is attached to the large mass of copper; and facts would lead us to infer that the trap formation which appears on Lake Superior east of the Ontonagon River, crosses this section of country at or near the source of that river, and at length forms one of the spurs of the Porcupine Mountains.

Several smaller masses of insulated native copper have been discovered on the borders of Lake Superior, but that upon Ontonagon River is the only one which is now known to remain.

At as early a period as before the American Revolution, an English mining company directed their operations to the country bordering on Lake Superior, and Ontonagon River was one point to which their attention was immediately directed. Traces of a shaft, sunk in the clay hill, near a mass of copper, are still visible--a memento of ignorance and folly.

Operations were also commenced on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the mouth of a small stream, which, from that circumstance, is called Miners' River. Parts of the names of the miners, carved upon the sandstone rock at the mouth of the river, are still visible. What circumstance led to the selection of this spot does not now appear. No mineral traces are at this day perceptible, except occasional discolorations of the sandstone rock by what is apparently a mixture of the carbonates of iron and copper; and this is only to be observed where water, holding in solution an extremely minute portion of these salts, has trickled slowly over those rocks.

It does not, in fact, appear that the red sandstone, which constitutes the principal rock formation of the southern shore of Lake Superior, is in any instance metalliferous in any considerable degree. If this be true, it would require but little reflection to convince one of the inexpediency of conducting mining operations at either of the points selected for that purpose; and it is beyond a doubt true, that the company did not receive the least inducement to continue their labors.

In addition to these masses of native copper, an ore of that metal has long been known to the lake traders as the green rock, in which the characteristic substances are the green and blue carbonates of copper, accompanied by copper black. It is situated upon Keweena Point, 280 miles above the falls of the Ste. Marie. The ore is embraced by what is apparently a recently formed crag; and, although it is of a kind and so situated as to make an imposing appearance, there is little certainty of its existence in large quantities in this formation. The ore forms a thin covering to the pebbles of which the body of the rock is composed, and is rarely observed in masses separate from it. The crag is composed of angular fragments of trap-rock, and the formation is occasionally traversed by broad and continuous belts of calc. spar, here and there tinged with copper. Although the ore was not observed in any considerable quantity, except at one point, it apparently exists in minute specks through a greater part of the crag formation, which extends several miles, forming the shore of the lake.

This examination of the crag threw new interest upon the trap formation, which had been first observed to take the place of the sandstone at the bottom of a deep bay, called Montreal Bay, on the easterly side of Keweena Point. The trap-rock continues for a few miles, when the crag before noticed appears to lie directly upon it, and to form the extremity of the point; the crag, in turn, disappears, and the trap-rock is continued for a distance of six or eight miles upon the westerly side of the point, when the sandstone again reappears.

The trap-rock is of a compact granular texture, occasionally running into the amygdaloid and toadstone varieties, and is rich in imbedded minerals, such as amethystine quartz, smoky quartz, carnelian, chalcedony, agate, &c., together with several of the ores of copper. Traces of copper ore in the trap-rock were first noticed on the easterly side of Keweena Point, and near the commencement of the trap formation. This ore, which is an impure copper black, was observed in a vein of variable thickness, but not in any part exceeding two and a half inches. It is sufficiently compact and hard to receive a firm polish, but it is rather disposed to break into small irregular masses. A specimen furnished, upon analysis, 47.5 per cent. of pure copper.

On the western side of Keweena Point, the same ore appears under different circumstances, being disseminated through the body of the trap-rock, in grains varying in size from a pin's head to a pea. Although many of these grains are wholly copper black, they are occasionally only depositions of the mineral upon specks of carnelian, chalcedony, or agate, or are more frequently composed, in part, of what is apparently an imperfect steatite. The ore is so connected with, and so much resembles in color the rock, of which it may be said to be a constituent part, that they might easily, during a hasty examination, be confounded. A random specimen of the rock furnished, upon analysis, 3.2 per cent. of pure copper. The rock continues combined with that mineral for nearly the space of three miles. Extremely thin veins of copper black were observed to traverse this same rock; and in enlargements of these were discovered several masses of amorphous native copper. The latter mineral appeared in two forms--the one consisting of compact and malleable masses, varying from four to ten ounces each; and the other, of specks and fasciculi of pure copper, binding together confused masses of copper green, and partially disintegrated trap-rock; the latter was of several pounds' weight. Each variety was closely embraced by the rock, although the action of the water upon the rock had occasionally exposed to view points of the metal. In addition to the accompanying copper green, which was in a disintegrated state, small specks of the oxide of copper were associated in most of the native specimens.

Circumstances would not permit an examination of any portion of the trap formation, except that bordering directly upon the lake. But facts would lead us to infer that that formation extends from one side of Keweena Point to the other, and that a range of thickly wooded hills, which traverses the point, is based upon, if not formed of that rock. An Indian information, which, particularly upon such a subject, must be adopted with caution, would sanction the opinion that the prominent constituents are the same wherever the rock is observed.

After having duly considered the facts which are presented, I would not hesitate to offer, as an opinion, that the trap-rock formation was the original source of the masses of copper which have been observed in the country bordering on Lake Superior; and that, at the present day, examinations for the ores of copper could not be made in that country with hopes of success, except in the trap-rock itself; which rock is not certainly known to exist upon any place upon Lake Superior, other than Keweena Point.

If this opinion be a correct one, the cause of, failure of the mining company in this region is rendered plain. Having considered each insulated mass of pure metal as a true indication of the existence of a bed in the vicinity, operations were directed to wrong points; when, having failed to realize their anticipations, the project was abandoned without further actual investigation. We would be induced to infer that no attempts were made to learn the original source of the metal which was discovered, and thus, while the attention was drawn to insulated masses, the ores, ordinary in appearance, but more important in sitû, were neglected; and perhaps, from the close analogy in appearance to the rock with which they were associated, no distinction was observed.

What quantity of ore the trap-rock of Keweena Point may be capable of producing, can only be determined by minute and laborious examination. The indications which were presented by a hasty investigation are here embodied, and with deference submitted to your consideration.

I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient, servant, DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

Hon. LEWIS CASS, Secretary of War.

2. Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver and Ores of Silver in the Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Traces of this metal which have been found in the drift and boulder stratum of both Lakes Huron and Superior, indicate the existence of the metal in place. During my residence at St. Mary's, two specimens of its occurrence were brought to my notice. The first of these consisted of points of native silver in a moderately large mass of native copper, found in 1823, near the entrance of the Nama or Sturgeon River into Keweena Lake, of the large peninsula of that name, in Lake Superior. Like the majority of such masses of the region, it had no adhering portion of rock or vein stone, from which a judgment might be formed of its original position.

I had, the prior year, set up my mineralogical cabinet in my office, and stated to the Indians, who roved over large tracts, my solicitude to collect specimens of the mineral productions of the country of every description, and, indeed, of its zoology, always acknowledging their comity, in bringing me specimens in any department of natural history, by some small present; and I found this to be a means of extending my inquiries.

Subsequently, I received a boulder specimen from the shores of Lake Huron, containing veins of native silver. Part of the metal had been detached. I submitted these specimens to the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, in 1825. The following remarks are taken from their annals.

Mineralogical and Chemical Characters.--By examining this mineral, it will be perceived to possess the color, lustre, malleability, and other obvious characters of native silver. It is so soft as to be easily cut by the knife; and in a state of purity which permits it to spread under the hammer. These characters serve to distinguish it from antimonial silver, which is not malleable; from native antimony which tarnishes on exposure, &c. The metal occurs in thin, massive veins in the rock. These veins sometimes intersect, but never cross each other. It is also disseminated in small particles through the stone, or spread in flattened masses over its surface. Some of these masses were detached by the discoverer, but have been preserved, and are presented to the Lyceum with the more solid and undisturbed portions.

By submitting a small portion of the metal to the action of nitric acid, I obtained an imperfect solution. On repeating the experiment, and adding a little sulphuric acid, the action was more brisk, and a clear and apparently perfect solution effected. By standing, however, a pulpy, white precipitate appeared at the bottom of the glass. This was collected and submitted to the action of the blowpipe, on a basis of charcoal. The result gave a number of minute, metallic globules, possessing greater lustre, malleability, and ductility, than the original mass. I repeated the latter experiment, adding to the nitro-sulphuric solution muriate of soda. A more perfect precipitation of the white powder was effected; but the results with the blowpipe remained the same.

Geognostic Position.--It is a rolled mass. An opinion of the specific character of the rock may be dubious, from the smallness of the specimen. It appears to have been detached from a stratum of gneiss, and is essentially composed of quartz. The blackish color of some parts of this latter mineral would, at first glance, lead us to attribute this color to the presence of hornblende; but, on closer examination, it will be perceived to be owing to a dark-colored steatite, which, in certain parts of the rock, is well developed, soft, and easily cut. A little calcspar is intermingled with the steatite.

Locality.--I am indebted to the politeness of Lieut. Lewis S. Johnston, of the British Indian Department, at Malden (U. C.), for the opportunity of adding this specimen to the mineralogical cabinet of the Lyceum. This gentleman, as he informed me, obtained it from an Indian, who picked it up on the southeastern shores of Lake Huron, near Point aux Barques, in Michigan Territory. That part of Lake Huron was cursorily examined by me, in the year 1820, in the course of the expedition conducted by Gov. Cass, through the upper lakes, &c. I consider it remarkable, even in a region abounding in rolled rocks, for the great number and variety of granite, gneiss, hornblende, and trap boulders, scattered along the shores of the lake. The water here is generally shallow and dangerous to approach in vessels; these boulder stones sometimes extending and presenting themselves above water for a mile or more from land. But we could not satisfy ourselves by an examination necessarily partial, that either of the primitive species mentioned, existed there in any other condition than as rolled masses, or displacements of rock strata, contiguous, perhaps, but not observed. Dr. Bigsby has informed me, that he observed the gneiss in sitû, on the northwestern shores of this lake. The nearest rock in place, and that which in fact constitutes the abraded and caverned promontory of Point aux Barques, is gray sandstone.

The occurrence of this metal in the copper-bearing and other metalliferous rocks of this region, may be confidently affirmed.[273]

[273] At the date of this publication, it is known that this metal occurs, both as a constituent of the mass copper in Lake Superior, and is also developed in veins in the stratification.

3. A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the Northwest in 1831 and 1832. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

CLASS I. Bodies not metallic, containing an acid.

1. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in small globular masses, in the trap-rock; also forming veins in the same formation. Some of the masses break into rhombic forms, and possess a certain but not perfect degree of transparency; others are opaque, or discolored by the green carbonate of copper. Also in the trap-rock between Fond du Lac and Old Grand Portage, Lake Superior, in perfect, transparent rhombs, exhibiting the property of double refraction. Also, at the lead mines, in Iowa County, in the marly clay formation, often exhibiting imperfect prisms, variously truncated.

2. CALCAREOUS TUFA. Mouth of the River Brulé, of Lake Superior. In small, friable, broken masses, in the diluvial soil. Also, in the gorge below the Falls of St. Anthony. In detached, vesicular masses, amidst debris.

3. COMPACT CARBONATE OF LIME. In the calcareous cliffs of horizontal formation, commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony. Carboniferous.

4. SEPTARIA. In the reddish clay soil, between Montreal River and Lapointe, Lake Superior.

5. GYPSUM. In the sandstone rock at the Point of Grand Sable West, Lake Superior. In orbicular masses, firmly imbedded. Not abundant. Granular, also imperfectly foliated.

6. CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. Serpentine rock, at Presque Isle, Lake Superior. Compact.

7. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA? With the preceding.

CLASS II. Earthy compounds, amorphous or crystalline.

8. COMMON QUARTZ. Huron Islands, Lake Superior; also the adjoining coast. In very large veins or beds. White, opaque.

9. GRANULAR QUARTZ. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Mississippi. In sitû.

10. SMOKY QUARTZ. In the trap-rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior, crystallized. In connection with amethystine quartz.

11. AMETHYST. With the preceding. Also, at the Pic Bay, and at Gargontwa, north shore of Lake Superior, in the trap-rock, in perfect crystals, of various intensity of color.

12. CHALCEDONY. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. In globular or orbicular masses, in amygdaloid rock. Often, in detached masses along the shores.

13. CARNELIAN. With the preceding.

14. HORNSTONE. In detached masses, very hard, on the shores of Lake Superior. Also, at Dodgeville, Iowa County, Mich. Ter., in fragments or nodular masses in the clay soil.

15. JASPER. In the preceding locality. Common and striped, exceedingly difficult of being acted on by the wheel. Not observed in sitû.

16. AGATE. Imbedded in the trap-rocks of Lake Superior, and also detached, forming a constituent of its detritus. Variously colored. Often made up of alternate layers of chalcedony, carnelian, and cacholong. Sometimes zoned, or in fortification points. Specimens not taken from the rock are not capable of being scratched by quartz or flint, and are incapable of being acted on by the file; consequently, harder than any of the described species.

17. CYANITE. Specimens of this mineral, in flat, six-sided prisms, imbedded in a dark primitive rock, were brought out from Lac du Flambeau outlet, where the rock is described as existing in sitû. The locality has not been visited, but there are facts brought to light, within the last two or three years, to justify the extension of the primitive to that section of country.

18. PITCHSTONE. A detached mass of this mineral, very black and lava-like, was picked up in the region of Lake Superior, where the volcanic mineral, trachyte, is common among the rolled masses. Neither of these substances have been observed in sitû.

19. MICA. Huron Islands, Lake Superior. In granite.

20. SCHORL. Common. Outlet of Lac du Flambeau. Also, in a detached mass of primitive rock at Green Bay.

21. FELDSPAR. Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior.

22. BASALT. Amorphous. Granite Point, Lake Superior.

23. STILBITE. Amygdaloid rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior.

24. ZEOLITE. Mealy. With the preceding.

25. ZEOLITE. Radiated. Lake Superior. This mineral consists of fibres, so delicate and firmly united as to appear almost compact, radiating from a centre. Some of the masses produced by this radiation measure 2.5 inches in diameter. They are of a uniform, pale, yellowish red. This mineral has not been traced in sitû, being found in detached masses of rock, and sometimes as water-worn portions of radii. Its true position would seem to be the trap-rock.

26. ASBESTUS. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. In the serpentine formation.

27. HORNBLENDE. Very abundant as a constituent of the primitive rocks on the Upper Mississippi, and in the basin of Lake Superior. Often in distinct crystals.

28. DIALLAGE, GREEN. Lake Superior. In detached masses, connected with primitive boulders. Harder than the species.

29. SERPENTINE, COMMON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

30. SERPENTINE, PRECIOUS. With the preceding. Color, a light pistachio green, and takes a fine polish. Exists in veins in the common variety.

31. PSEUDOMORPHOUS SERPENTINE. With the preceding. This beautiful green mineral constitutes a portion of the veins of the precious serpentine. Its crystalline impressions are very distinct.

32. ARGILLITE. River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. Nearly vertical in its position.

CLASS III. Combustibles.

33. PEAT. Marine sand formation composing the shore of Lake Superior, between White-fish Point and Grand Marais. Also, on the island of Michilimackinac.

CLASS IV. Ores and Metals.

34. NATIVE COPPER. West side of Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in a vein with carbonate of copper, and copper black, in the trap-rock.

35. COPPER BLACK. With the preceding.

36. CARBONATE OF COPPER, GREEN. With the preceding.

These two minerals (35 and 36) characterize the trap-rock of the peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior, from Montreal Bay, extending to and around its extremity, west, to Sand-hill Bay. The entire area may be estimated to comprise a rocky, serrated coast of about seventy-five miles in length, and not to exceed seven or eight miles in width. The principal veins are at a point called Roche Verd, and along the coast which we refer to as the Black Rocks. At the latter, native copper is one of the constituents of the vein.

Green and blue carbonate of copper was also observed in limited quantity, in small rounded masses, at one of the lead diggings near Mineral Point, Iowa County.

37. CHROMATE OF IRON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

38. SULPHURET OF LEAD. Lead mines of Iowa County, Michigan Territory.

39. EARTHY CARBONATE OF LEAD. Brigham's mine, Iowa County, Mich. Ter. Also, in small masses, of a yellowish white, dirty color, and great comparative weight, at several of the lead mines (diggings) in the more westerly and southern parts of the county.

4. Geological Outline of the Taquimenon Valley of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

The River Takquimenon originates on a plateau between the northern shores of Lake Michigan and the southeastern coast of Lake Superior. At a central point on this plateau, there lies a lake of moderate size, which, in the translated Indian phrase, is called Heartsblood Lake. A little to the west of this lake, and, perhaps, connected with it, originates the head stream of the North Manistic River of Lake Michigan, running southwest. Towards the northeast the Takwymenon takes its way, winding through level grassy plains, till it reaches the rim of the geological basin that circumscribes Lake Superior. The height of this point is conjectural. It is probably one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the lake.

To comprehend the geography of the region, it is necessary to advert to the fact that the sandstone formation, which appears in the picturesque form of the Pictured Rocks, is last seen in its range eastward at La Pointe des Grande Sable, where its surface is of a compact structure and dull red color. Between this locality and the bold cape of Point Iroquois, at the head of St. Mary's River, there intervenes an extensive formation of gravel, boulders, and sand. The length of this line of coast is about ninety miles, its breadth to the basinic rim, perhaps thirty. It is covered with small pines, spruce, birch, and poplar, with frequent sphagnous tracts and ponds; the lake shore, where the sands are continually accumulated, being higher than the interior portions. It has, from early days, been a favorite resort for beaver, from which it is called by the natives, Namikong, meaning, excellent place of beavers.

This tract of the Namikong is primarily due to diluvial formations, with a comparatively recent hem of lake action, consisting of sands and pebbles pushed up by the waves of Lake Superior. Through this tract, from the plateaux, four small rivers make their way to the lake. They are, in their order, from west to east, the river of Grand Mauvais, the Twin River, the Shelldrake, and the Tacquimenon, which enters the lake fifteen miles from Point Iroquois.

Of these streams, the Tacquimenon carries the largest body of water into the lake. It is already a stream of seventy feet wide, and three feet deep, when it reaches the rim of sandstone rocks referred to. Over these, it is plunged, at a single perpendicular leap, forty feet, falling like a curtain. It drops into a vast concavity in the sand rock, where the water is of unfathomable depth, black and still. I had reached this point in a canoe manned by Indians. They had urged their way up a very rapid brawling bed for six miles above the lower falls, and when we reached this still, deep, and dark basin, they said that care was required to keep from under the suction of the falling sheet.

The lower falls of the stream are probably twelve or fourteen feet. They are broken into several fan-shaped cascades, and present a picturesque appearance--an idea which has also impressed the Chippewas, for they refer to it as a favorite locality of fairies. Hence their name for it. Immediately below these falls the river winds about, making a peninsula, which is covered with deciduous trees and a fertile soil. The amount of water power at this point is such as must command attention whenever the country justifies settlement.

5. Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of Sandstone Rock at St. Mary's Falls. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Lake Superior presents to the eye the singular spectacle of a body of pure translucent water, five hundred miles in length from east to west, and one hundred and eighty or two hundred miles wide. This vast mass of water is thought to have an extreme depth--I know not on what principles--of nine hundred feet deep. It lies at an elevation of six hundred feet above the Atlantic ocean, at high water.

From this depth there has been protruded from its bottom two species of formations, which were thus elevated by volcanic forces, namely, the trap and the granitical series. Cones and high mural cliffs, with large rents, make this basis one of great inequalities. To fill up these, the sedimentary rocks, by a natural law of gravitation, let fall the dissolved and suspended matter which constitutes the horizontal strata, such as the neutral and deep-colored sandstones. This process also gives origin to grauwackes and the grauwacke slates and the argillites. But these horizontal deposits do not all retain their horizontality. They were tilted up by other volcanic forces, after the deposition and hardening of the sandstones, as we see them at the north foot of the Porcupine Mountains and along the rugged valley of the St. Louis River.

This secondary upheaval or series of upheavals, is conceived to furnish proof of epochs. Strata of the same mineral constitution and system of formation which are upheaved, are clearly of posterior age to the horizontal. Some of these strata of the secondary, epoch have only had their horizontality disturbed, while others are quite vertical. Yet, the disturbances of an epoch are only relative, and it remains true that any disturbance, however slight, in the fundamental series, throws the epoch beyond the newer fletz and tertiary formations.

Some theory of this kind is necessary in scrutinizing the position of the St. Mary's sandstone, which is manifestly of the palaozoic era. It has felt the impulse of disturbance, although it appears to be little. Evidences of this are most perceptible in the British Channel, on the north side of the Island of St. Joseph. This channel, and, indeed, the entire course of the river up to Lake Superior, is the line of juxtaposition between the rocks of elder and the secondary epoch. At the extreme foot of Sugar Island occurs the remains of a stratum of the sandstone era, consisting of white quartz filled with coarse red jasper pebbles. I observed remains of this stratum of remarkable rock, which have been broken off and swept away in the basin of Lake Huron, deposited in boulder masses on its southern shores.

The sandstone of St. Mary's is, structurally, brittle, fissile, and worthless, as a building material. Its substructure is complicated and made up of thin layers exactly deposited, as if from watery suspension, but deposited without disturbance. These sub-layers of construction, are sometimes cut off by parallel lines at right angles, or by new series of layers diagonally formed, or in echelon.

3. INDIAN TRIBES.

VIII.

CONDITION AND DISPOSITION.

1. Official Report of an Expedition through Upper Michigan and Northern Wisconsin in 1831.

SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 21, 1831.

SIR: In compliance with instructions to endeavor to terminate the hostilities between the Chippewas and Sioux, I proceeded into the Chippewa country with thirteen men in two canoes, having the necessary provisions and presents for the Indians, an interpreter, a physician to attend the sick, and a person in charge of the provisions and other public property. The commanding officer of Fort Brady furnished me with an escort of ten soldiers, under the command of a lieutenant; and I took with me a few Chippewas, in a canoe provided with oars, to convey a part of the provisions. A flag was procured for each canoe. I joined the expedition at the head of the portage, at this place, on the 25th of June; and, after visiting the Chippewa villages in the belt of country between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, in latitudes 44° to 46°, returned on the 4th of September, having been absent seventy-two days, and travelled a line of country estimated to be two thousand three hundred and eight miles. I have now the honor to report to you the route pursued, the means employed to accomplish the object, and such further measures as appear to me to be necessary to give effect to what has been done, and to insure a lasting peace between the two tribes.

Reasons existed for not extending the visit to the Chippewa bands on the extreme Upper Mississippi, on Red Lake, and Red River, and the River De Corbeau. After entering Lake Superior, and traversing its southern shores to Point Chegoimegon, and the adjacent cluster of islands, I ascended the Mauvaise River to a portage of 8-¾ miles into the Kaginogumac, or Long Water Lake. This lake is about eight miles long, and of very irregular width. Thence, by a portage of 280 yards, into Turtle Lake; thence, by a portage of 1,075 yards, into Clary's Lake, so called; thence, by a portage of 425 yards, into Lake Polyganum; and thence, by a portage of 1,050 yards, into the Namakagon River, a branch of the River St. Croix of the Upper Mississippi. The distance from Lake Superior to this spot is, by estimation, 124 miles.

We descended the Namakagon to the Pukwaewa, a rice lake, and a Chippewa village of eight permanent lodges, containing a population of 53 persons, under a local chief called Odabossa. We found here gardens of corn, potatoes, and pumpkins, in a very neat state of cultivation. The low state of the water, and the consequent difficulty of the navigation, induced me to leave the provisions and stores at this place, in charge of Mr. Woolsey, with directions to proceed (with part of the men, and the aid of the Indians) to Lac Courtorielle, or Ottowa Lake, and there await my arrival. I then descended the Namakagon in a light canoe, to its discharge into the St. Croix, and down the latter to Yellow River, the site of a trading-post and an Indian village, where I had, by runners, appointed a council. In this trip I was accompanied by Mr. Johnson, sub-agent, acting as interpreter, and by Dr. Houghton, adjunct professor of the Rensselaer school. We reached Yellow River on the 1st of August, and found the Indians assembled. After terminating the business of the council (of which I shall presently mention the results), I reascended the St. Croix and the Namakagon, to the portage which intervenes between the latter and Lac Courtorielle. The first of the series of carrying-places is about three miles in length, and terminates at the Lake of the Isles (Lac des Isles); after crossing which, a portage of 750 yards leads to Lac du Gres. This lake has a navigable outlet into Ottowa Lake, where I rejoined the advanced party (including Lieutenant Clary's detachment) on the 5th of August.

Ottowa Lake is a considerable expanse of water, being about twelve miles long, with irregular but elevated shores. A populous Chippewa village and a trading-post are located at its outlet, and a numerous Indian population subsists in the vicinity. It is situated in a district of country which abounds in rice lakes, has a proportion of prairie or burnt land, caused by the ravages of fire, and, in addition to the small fur-bearing animals, has several of the deer species. It occupies, geographically, a central situation, being intermediate, and commanding the communications between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, and between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi. It is on the great slope of land descending towards the latter, enjoys a climate of comparative mildness, and yields, with few and short intervals of extreme want, the means of subsistence to a population which is still essentially erratic. These remarks apply, with some modifications, to the entire range of country (within the latitudes mentioned) situated west and south of the high lands circumscribing the waters of Lake Superior. The outlet of this Lake (Ottowa) is a fork of Chippewa River, called Ottowa River.

I had intended to proceed from this lake, either by following down the Ottowa branch to its junction with the main Chippewa, and then ascending the latter into Lac du Flambeau, or by descending the Ottowa branch only to its junction with the northwest fork, called the Ochasowa River; and, ascending the latter to a portage of sixty pauses, into the Chippewa River. By the latter route time and distance would have been saved, and I should, in either way, have been enabled to proceed from Lac du Flambeau to Green Bay by an easy communication into the Upper Ouisconsin, and from the latter into the Menomonie River, or by Plover Portage into Wolf River. This was the route I had designed to go on quitting Lake Superior; but, on consulting my Indian maps, and obtaining at Ottowa Lake the best and most recent information of the distance and the actual state of the water, I found neither of the foregoing routes practicable, without extending my time so far as to exhaust my supplies. I was finally determined to relinquish the Lac du Flambeau route, by learning that the Indians of that place had dispersed, and by knowing that a considerable delay would be caused by reassembling them.

The homeward route by the Mississippi was now the most eligible, particularly as it would carry me through a portion of country occupied by the Chippewas, in a state of hostility with the Sioux, and across the disputed line at the mill. Two routes, to arrive at the Mississippi, were before me--either to follow down the outlet of Ottowa Lake to its junction with the Chippewa, and descend the latter to its mouth, or to quit the Ottowa Lake branch at an intermediate point, and, after ascending a small and very serpentine tributary, to cross a portage of 6,000 yards into Lake Chetac. I pursued the latter route.

Lake Chetac is a sheet of water about six miles in length, and it has several islands, on one of which is a small Chippewa village and a trading-post. This lake is the main source of Red Cedar River (called sometimes the Folle Avoine), a branch of the Chippewa River. It receives a brook at its head from the direction of the portage, which admits empty canoes to be conveyed down it two pauses, but is then obstructed with logs. It is connected by a shallow outlet with Weegwos Lake, a small expanse which we crossed with paddles in twenty-five minutes. The passage from the latter is so shallow that a portage of 1,295 yards is made into Balsam of Fir or Sapin Lake. The baggage is carried this distance, but the canoes are brought through the stream. Sapin Lake is also small; we were thirty minutes in crossing it. Below this point, the river again expands into a beautiful sheet of water, called Red Cedar Lake, which we were an hour in passing; and afterward into Bois François, or Rice Lake. At the latter place, at the distance of perhaps sixty miles from its head, I found the last fixed village of Chippewas on this stream, although the hunting camps, and other signs of temporary occupation, were more numerous below than on any other part of the stream. This may be attributed to the abundance of the Virginia deer in that vicinity, many of which we saw, and of the elk and moose, whose tracks were fresh and numerous in the sands of the shore. Wild rice is found in all the lakes. Game, of every species common to the latitude, is plentiful. The prairie country extends itself into the vicinity of Rice Lake; and for more than a day's march before reaching the mouth of the river, the whole face of the country puts on a sylvan character, as beautiful to the eye as it is fertile in soil, and spontaneously productive of the means of subsistence. A country more valuable to a population having the habits of our northwestern Indians could hardly be conceived of; and it is therefore cause of less surprise that its possession should have been so long an object of contention between the Chippewas and Sioux.

About sixty miles below Rice Lake commences a series of rapids, which extend, with short intervals, 24 miles. The remainder of the distance, to the junction of this stream with the Chippewa, consists of deep and strong water. The junction itself is characterized by commanding and elevated grounds, and a noble expanse of waters. And the Chippewa River, from this spot to its entrance into the Mississippi, has a depth and volume, and a prominence of scenery, which mark it to be inferior to none, and superior to most of the larger tributaries of the Upper Mississippi. Before its junction, it is separated into several mouths, from the principal of which the observer can look into Lake Pepin. Steamboats could probably ascend to the falls.

The whole distance travelled, from the shores of Lake Superior to the mouth of the Chippewa, is, by estimation, 643 miles, of which 138 should be deducted for the trip to Yellow River leaving the direct practicable route 505 miles. The length of the Mauvaise to the portage is 104; of the Namakagon, from the portage, 161; of the Red Cedar, 170; of the Chippewa, from the entrance of the latter, 40. Our means of estimating distances was by time, corrected by reference to the rapidity of water and strength of wind, compared with our known velocity of travelling in calm weather on the lakes. These estimates were made and put down every evening, and considerable confidence is felt in them. The courses were accurately kept by a canoe compass. I illustrate my report of this part of the route by a map protracted by Dr. Houghton. On this map, our places of encampment, the sites and population of the principal Indian villages, the trading-posts, and the boundary lines between the Sioux and Chippewa, are indicated. And I refer you to it for several details which are omitted in this report.

The present state of the controversy between the Sioux and the Chippewas will be best inferred from the facts that follow. In stating them, I have deemed it essential to preserve the order of my conferences with the Indians, and to confine myself, almost wholly, to results.

Along the borders of Lake Superior, comparatively little alarm was felt from the hostile relation with the Sioux. But I found them well informed of the state of the difficulties, and the result of the several war-parties that had been sent out the last year. A system of information and advice is constantly kept up by runners; and there is no movement meditated on the Sioux borders, which is not known and canvassed by the lake bands.

They sent warriors to the scene of conflict last year, in consequence of the murder committed by the Sioux on the St. Croix. Their sufferings from hunger during the winter, and the existence of disease at Torch Lake (Lac du Flambeau), and some other places, together with the entire failure of the rice crop, had produced effects, which were depicted by them and by the traders in striking colors. They made these sufferings the basis of frequent and urgent requests for provisions. This theme was strenuously dwelt upon. Whatever other gifts they asked for, they never omitted the gift of food. They made it their first, their second, and their third request.

At Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior (or La Pointe, emphatically so called), I held my first and stated council with the Indians. This is the ancient seat of the Chippewa power in this quarter. It is a central and commanding point, with respect to the country lying north, and west, and south of it. It appears to be the focus from which, as radii from a centre, the ancient population emigrated; and the interior bands consequently look back to it with something of the feelings of parental relation. News from the frontiers flies back to it with a celerity which is peculiar to the Indian mode of express. I found here, as I had expected, the fullest and most recent information from the lines. Mozojeed, the principal man at Ottowa Lake, had recently visited them for the purpose of consultation; but returned on the alarm of an attack upon his village.

The Indians listened with attention to the message transmitted to them from the President, and to the statements with which it was enforced. Pezhickee, the venerable and respected chief of the place, was their speaker in reply. He lamented the war, and admitted the folly of keeping it up; but it was carried on by the Chippewas in self-defence, and by volunteer parties of young men, acting without the sanction of the old chiefs. He thought the same remark due to the elder Sioux chiefs, who probably did not sanction the crossing of the lines, but could not restrain their young men. He lived, he said, in an isolated situation, did not mingle in the interior broils, and did not deem himself responsible for acts done out of his own village, and certainly not for the acts of the villages of Torch Lake, Ottowa Lake, and the St. Croix. He had uniformly advised his people to sit still and remain at peace, and he believed that none of his young men had joined the war-parties of last year. The Government, he said, should have his hearty co-operation in restoring peace. He referred to the sub-agency established here in 1826, spoke of its benefits, and wished to know why the agent had been withdrawn, and whether he would be instructed to return? In the course of his reply, he said that formerly, when the Indians lived under the British government, they were usually told what to do, and in very distinct terms; but they were now at a loss. From what had been said and done at the treaty of Fond du Lac, he expected the care and protection of the American government, and that they would advance towards, instead of (as in the case of the sub-agency) withdrawing from them. He was rather at a loss for our views respecting the Chippewas, and he wished much for my advice in their affairs.

I thought it requisite to make a distinct reply to this point. I told him that when they lived under the British government, they were justified in shaping their course according to the advice they received; but that, on the transfer of the country, their allegiance was transferred with it. And when our Government hoisted its flag at Mackinac (1796), it expected from the Indians living within our boundaries the respect due to it; and it acknowledged, at the same time, the reciprocal obligations of care and protection. That it always aimed to fulfil these obligations, of which facts within his own knowledge and memory would afford ample proofs. I referred him to the several efforts the Government had made to establish a lasting peace between the Chippewas and Sioux; for which purpose the President had sent one of his principal men (alluding to Gov. Cass), in 1820, who had visited their most extreme northwestern villages, and induced themselves and the Sioux to smoke the pipe of peace together at St. Peter's. In accordance with these views, and acting on the information then acquired, the President had established an agency for their tribe at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1822. That, in 1825, he had assembled at Prairie du Chien all the tribes who were at variance on the Upper Mississippi, and persuaded them to make peace, and, as one of the best means of insuring its permanency, had fixed the boundaries of their lands. Seeing that the Chippewas and Sioux still continued an harassing and useless contest, he had sent me to remind them of this peace and these boundaries, which, I added, you, Perikee, yourself agreed to, and signed, in my presence. I come to bring you back to the terms of this treaty. Are not these proofs of his care and attention? Are not these clear indications of his, views respecting the Chippewas? The chief was evidently affected by this recital. The truth appeared to strike him forcibly; and he said, in a short reply, that he was now advised; that he would hereafter feel himself to be advised, &c. He made some remarks on the establishment of a mission school, &c., which, being irrelevant, are omitted. He presented a pipe, with an ornamented stem, as a token of his friendship, and his desire of peace.

I requested him to furnish messengers to take belts of wampum and tobacco, with three separate messages, viz: to Yellow River, to Ottowa Lake, and to Lac du Flambeau, or Torch Lake; and also, as the water was low, to aid me in the ascent of the Mauvaise River, and to supply guides for each of the military canoes, as the soldiers would here leave their barge, and were unacquainted with the difficulties of the ascent. He accordingly sent his oldest son (Che-che-gwy-ung) and another person, with the messages, by a direct trail, leading into the St. Croix country. He also furnished several young Chippewas to aid us on the Mauvaise, and to carry baggage on the long portage into the first intermediate lake west of that stream.

After the distribution of presents, I left Chegoimegon on the 18th of July. The first party of Indians met at the Namakagon, belonging to a Chippewa village called Pukwaewa; having, as its geographical centre and trading-post, Ottowa Lake. As I had directed part of the expedition to precede me there, during my journey to Yellow River, I requested these Indians to meet me at Ottowa Lake, and assist in conveying the stores and provisions to that place--a service which they cheerfully performed. On ascending the lower part of the Namakagon, I learned that my messenger from Lake Superior had passed, and, on reaching Yellow River, I found the Indians assembled and waiting. They were encamped on an elevated ridge, called Pekogunagun, or the Hip Bone, and fired a salute from its summit. Several of the neighboring Indians came in after my arrival. Others, with their chiefs, were hourly expected. I did not deem it necessary for all to come in, but proceeded to lay before them the objects of my visit, and to solicit their co-operation in an attempt to make a permanent peace with the Sioux, whose borders we then were near. Kabamappa, the principal chief, not being a speaker, responded to my statements and recommendations through another person (Sha-ne-wa-gwun-ai-be). He said that the Sioux were of bad faith; that they never refused to smoke the pipe of peace with them, and they never failed to violate the promise of peace thus solemnly made. He referred to an attack they made last year on a band of Chippewas and half-breeds, and the murder of four persons. Perpetual vigilance was required to meet these inroads. Yet he could assert, fearlessly, that no Chippewa war-party from the St. Croix had crossed the Sioux line for years; that the murder he had mentioned was committed within the Chippewa lines; and although it was said, at the treaty of Prairie du Chien, that the first aggressor of territorial rights should be punished, neither punishment was inflicted by the Government, nor had any atonement or apology thus far been made for this act by the Sioux. He said his influence had been exerted in favor of peace; that he had uniformly advised both chiefs and warriors to this effect; and he stood ready now to do whatever it was reasonable he should do on the subject.

I told him it was not a question of recrimination that was before us. It was not even necessary to go into the inquiry of who had spilt the first blood since the treaty of Prairie du Chien. The treaty had been violated. The lines had been crossed. Murders had been committed by the Chippewas and by the Sioux. These murders had reached the ears of the President, and he was resolved to put a stop to them. I did not doubt but that the advice of the old chiefs, on each side, had been pacific. I did not doubt but that his course had been particularly so. But rash young men, of each party, had raised the war-club; and when they could not go openly, they went secretly. A stop must be put to this course, and it was necessary the first movement should be made somewhere. It was proper it should be made here, and be made at this time. Nothing could be lost by it; much might be gained; and if a negotiation was opened with the Sioux chiefs while I remained, I would second it by sending an explanatory message to the chiefs and to their agent. I recommended that Kabamappa and Shakoba, the war-chief of Snake River, should send jointly wampum and tobacco to the Petite Corbeau and to Wabisha, the leading Sioux chiefs on the Mississippi, inviting them to renew the league of friendship, and protesting their own sincerity in the offer. I concluded by presenting him with a flag, tobacco, wampum, and ribbons, to be used in the negotiation. After a consultation, he said he would not only send the messages, but, as he now had the protection of a flag, he would himself go with the chief Shakoba to the Petite Corbeau's village. I accompanied these renewed offers of peace with explanatory messages, in my own name, to Petite Corbeau and to Wabisha, and a letter to Mr. Taliaferro, the Indian agent at St. Peter's, informing him of these steps, and soliciting his co-operation. A copy of this letter is hereunto annexed. I closed the council by the distribution of presents; after which the Indians called my attention to the conduct of their trader, &c.

Information was given me immediately after my arrival at Yellow River, that Neenaba, a popular war-leader from the Red Cedar fork of Chippewa River, had very recently danced the war-dance with thirty men at Rice Lake of Yellow River, and that his object was to enlist the young men of that place in a war-party against the Sioux. I also learned that my message for Ottowa Lake had been promptly transmitted through Neenaba, whom I was now anxious to see. I lost not an hour in reascending the St. Croix and the Namakagon. I purchased two additional canoes of the Indians, and distributed my men in them, to lighten the draught of water, and facilitate the ascent; and, by pushing early and late, we reached Ottowa Lake on the fifth day in the morning. Neenaba had, however, delivered his message, and departed. I was received in a very friendly and welcome manner, by Mozojeed, of the band of Ottowa Lake; Wabezhais, of the Red Devil's band of the South Pukwaewa; and Odabossa, of the Upper Namakagon. After passing the usual formalities, I prepared to meet them in council the same day, and communicate to them the objects of my mission.

In the course of the conference at this place, I obtained the particulars of a dispute which had arisen between the Chippewas of this quarter, which now added to their alarm, as they feared the latter would act in coincidence with their ancient enemies, the Sioux. The reports of this disturbance had reached me at the Sault, and they continued, with some variations, until my arrival here. The following are the material facts in relation to this new cause of disquietude: In the summer of 1827, Okunzhewug, an old woman, the wife of Kishkemun, the principal chief of Torch Lake, a man superannuated and blind, attended the treaty of Butte des Morts, bearing her husband's medal. She was treated with the respect due to the character she represented, and ample presents were directed to be given to her; among other things, a handsome hat. The latter article had been requested of her by a young Menomonie, and refused. It is thought a general feeling of jealousy was excited by her good reception. A number of the Menomonies went on her return route as far as the Clover Portage, where she was last seen. Having never returned to her village, the Chippewas attributed her death to the Menomonies. Her husband died soon after; but she had numerous and influential relatives to avenge her real or supposed murder. This is the account delivered by the Chippewas, and it is corroborated by reports from the traders of that section of the country. Her singular disappearance and secret death at the Clover Portage, is undisputed; and whether caused or not by any agency of the Menomonies, the belief of such agency, and that of the most direct kind, is fixed in the minds of the Chippewas, and has furnished the basis of their subsequent acts in relation to the Menomonie hunting-parties who have visited the lower part of Chippewa River. Two women belonging to one of these parties were killed by a Chippewa war-party traversing that part of the country the ensuing year. The act was disclaimed by them as not being intentional, and it was declared they supposed the women to be Sioux. On a close inquiry, however, I found the persons who committed this act were relatives of Okunzewug, which renders it probable that the murder was intentionally perpetrated. This act further widened the breach between the two hitherto fraternal tribes; and the Chippewas of this quarter began to regard the Menomonie hunting-parties, who entered the mouth of the Chippewa River, as intruders on their lands. Among a people whose means of verbal information is speedy, and whose natural sense of right and wrong is acute, the more than usual friendship and apparent alliance which have taken place between the Menomonies and Sioux, in the contest between the Sacs and Foxes, and the murder by them jointly of the Fox chief White Skin and his companions at a smoking council, in 1830, have operated to increase the feeling of distrust; so much so, that it was openly reported at Chegoimegon, at Yellow River, and Ottowa Lake, that the Menomonies had formed a league with the Sioux against the Chippewas also, and they were fearful of an attack from them. A circumstance that had given point to this fear, and made it a subject of absorbing interest, when I arrived at Ottowa Lake, was the recent murder of a Menomonie chief by a Chippewa of that quarter, and the demand of satisfaction which had been made (it was sometimes said) by the Indian agent at Prairie du Chien, and sometimes by the commanding officer, with a threat to march troops into the country. This demand, I afterward learned from the Indians at Rice Lake, and from a conversation with General Street, the agent at Prairie du Chien, had not been made, either by himself or by the commanding officer; and the report had probably arisen from a conversation held by a subaltern officer in command of a wood or timber-party near the mouth of the Chippewa River, with some Chippewas who were casually met. Its effects, however, were to alarm them, and to lead them to desire a reconciliation with the Menomonies. I requested them to lose no time in sending tobacco to the Menomonies, and adjusting this difference. Mozojeed observed that the murder of the Menomonie had been committed by a person non compos, and he deplored the folly of it, and disclaimed all agency in it for himself and his band. The murderer, I believe, belonged to his band; he desired a reconciliation. He also said the measures adopted at Yellow River, to bring about a firm peace with the Sioux, had his fullest approbation, and that nothing on his part should be wanting to promote a result in every view so wise and so advantageous to the Indians. In this sentiment, Wabezhais and Odabossa, who made distinct speeches, also concurred. They confirmed their words by pipes, and all the assembly made an audible assent. I invested Mozojeed with a flag and a medal, that he might exert the influence he has acquired among the Indians beneficially for them and for us, and that his hands might thus be officially strengthened to accomplish the work of pacification. I then distributed presents to the chiefs, warriors, women, and children, in the order of their being seated, and immediately embarked, leaving them under a lively and enlivened sense of the good-will and friendship of the American government, on this first official visit to them, and with a sincere disposition, so far as could be judged, to act in obedience to its expressed and known wishes.

The Indians at Torch Lake being dispersed, and my message to them not having been delivered, from this uncertainty of their location, I should have found reasons for not proceeding in that direction, independent of the actual and known difficulties of the route at that time. I was still apprehensive that my appearance had not wholly disconcerted the war-party of Neenaba, and lost no time in proceeding to his village on the Red Cedar fork. We found the village at Lake Chetac, which in 1824 was 217 strong, almost totally deserted, and the trading-house burnt. Scattering Indians were found along the river. The mutual fear of interruption was such that Mr. B. Cadotte, Sen., the trader at Ottowa Lake, thought it advisable to follow in our train for the purpose of collecting his credits at Rice Lake.

While at breakfast on the banks of Sapin Lake, a returning war-party entered the opposite side of it; they were evidently surprised, and they stopped. After reconnoitring us, they were encouraged to advance, at first warily, and afterward with confidence. There were eight canoes, with two men in each; each man had a gun, war-club, knife, and ammunition-bag: there was nothing else except the apparatus for managing the canoe. They were all young men, and belonged to the vicinity of Ottowa Lake. Their unexpected appearance at this place gave me the first information that the war-party at Neenaba had been broken up. They reported that some of their number had been near the mill, and that they had discovered signs of the Sioux being out, in the moose having been driven up, &c. In a short conference, I recited to them the purpose of the council at Ottowa Lake, and referred them to their chiefs for particulars, enjoining their acquiescence in the proposed measures.

I found at Rice Lake a band of Chippewas, most of them young men, having a prompt and martial air, encamped in a very compact form, and prepared at a moment's notice, for action. They saluted our advance with a smartness and precision of firing that would have done honor to drilled troops. Neenaba was absent on a hunting-party; but one of the elder men pointed out a suitable place for my encampment, as I intended here to put new bottoms to my bark canoes. He arrived in the evening, and visited my camp with forty-two men. This visit was one of ceremony merely; as it was late, I deferred anything further until the following day. I remained at this place part of the 7th, the 8th, and until 3 o'clock on the 9th of August. And the following facts present the result of several conferences with this distinguished young man, whose influence is entirely of his own creation, and whose endowments, personal and mental, had not been misrepresented by the Indians on my route, who uniformly spoke of him in favorable terms. He is located at the most advanced point towards the Sioux borders, and, although not in the line of ancient chiefs, upon him rests essentially the conduct of affairs in this quarter. I therefore deemed it important to acquire his confidence and secure his influence, and held frequent conversations with him. His manner was frank and bold, equally free from servility and repulsiveness. I drew his attention to several subjects. I asked him whether the saw-mill on the lower part of the Red Cedar, was located on Chippewa lands? He said, Yes. Whether it was built with the consent of the Chippewas? He said, No; it had been built, as it were, by stealth. I asked him if anything had been subsequently given them in acknowledgment of their right to the soil? He said, No; that the only acknowledgment was their getting tobacco to smoke when they visited the mill; that the Sioux claimed it to be on their side of the line, but the Chippewas contended that their line ran to a certain bluff and brook below the mill. I asked him to draw a map of the lower part of Chippewa River, with all its branches, showing the exact lines as fixed by the treaty at Prairie du Chien, and as understood by them. I requested him to state the facts respecting the murder of the Menomonie, and the causes that led to it; and whether he, or any of his band, received any message from the agent or commanding officer at Prairie du Chien, demanding the surrender of the murderer? To the latter inquiry he answered promptly, No. He gave in his actual population at 142; but it is evident that a very considerable additional population, particularly men, resort there for the purpose of hunting a part of the year.

The day after my arrival, I prepared for and summoned the Indians to a council, with the usual formalities. I opened it by announcing the objects of my visit. Neenaba and his followers listened to the terms of the message, the means I had adopted to enforce it, and, finally, to the request of co-operation on the part of himself and band, with strict attention. He confined his reply to an expression of thanks, allusions to the peculiarity of his situation on an exposed frontier, and general, sentiments of friendship. He appeared to be mentally embarrassed by my request to drop the war-club, on the successful use of which he had relied for his popularity, and whatever of real power he possessed. He often referred to his young men, over whom he claimed no superiority, and who appeared to be ardently attached to him. I urged the principal topic upon his attention, presenting it in several lights. I finally conferred on him, personally, a medal and flag, and directed the presents intended for his band to be laid, in gross, before him.

After a pause, Neenaba got up, and spoke to the question, connecting it with obvious considerations, of which mutual rights, personal safety, and the obligation to protect the women and children, formed the basis. The latter duty was not a slight one. Last year, the Sioux had killed a chief on the opposite shore of the lake, and, at the same time, decoyed two children, who were in a canoe, among the rice, and killed and beheaded them. He said, in allusion to the medal and flag, that these marks of honor were not necessary to secure his attention to any requests made by the American government. And after resuming his seat awhile (during which he overheard some remarks not pleasing to him, from an Indian on the opposite side of the ring), he finally got up and declined receiving them until they were eventually pressed upon him by the young warriors. Everything appeared to proceed with great harmony, and the presents were quickly distributed by one of his men. It was not, however, until the next day, when my canoes were already put in the water, that he came with his entire party, to make his final reply, and to present the peace-pipe. He had thrown the flag over one arm, and held the war-club perpendicularly in the other hand. He said that, although he accepted the one, he did not drop the other; he held fast to both. When he looked at the one, he should revert to the counsels with which it had been given, and he should aim to act upon those counsels; but he also deemed it necessary to hold fast the war-club; it was, however, with a determination to use it in defence, and not in attack. He had reflected upon the advice sent to the Chippewas by the President, and particularly that part of it which counselled them to sit still upon their lands; but while they sat still, they also wished to be certain that their enemies would sit still. And the pipe he was now about to offer, he offered with a request that it might be sent to the President, asking him to use his power to prevent the Sioux from crossing the lines. The pipe was then lit, handed round, the ashes knocked out, and a formal presentation of it made. This ceremony being ended, I shook hands with them, and immediately embarked.

On the second day afterward, I reached the saw-mill, the subject of such frequent allusion, and landed there at 7 o'clock in the morning. I found a Mr. Wallace in charge, who was employed, with ten men, in building a new dam on a brook of the Red Cedar, the freshet of last spring having carried away the former one. I inquired of him where the line between the Sioux and Chippewas crossed. He replied that the line crossed above the mill, he did not precisely know the place; adding, however, in the course of conversation, that he believed the land in this vicinity originally belonged to the Chippewas. He said it was seven years since any Sioux had visited the mill; and that the latter was owned by persons at Prairie du Chien.

The rapids of the Red Cedar River extend (according to the estimates contained in my notes) about twenty-four miles. They commence a few miles below the junction of Meadow River, and terminate about two miles below the mills. This extension of falling water, referred to in the treaty as a fixed point, has led to the existing uncertainty. The country itself is of a highly valuable character for its soil, its game, its wild rice, and its wood. We found the butternut among those species which are locally included under the name of Bois franc, by the traders. The land can, hereafter, be easily brought into cultivation, as it is interspersed with prairie; and its fine mill privileges will add to its value. Indeed, one mile square is intrinsically worth one hundred miles square of Chippewa country, in some other places.

The present saw-mills (there are two), are situated 65 miles from the banks of the Mississippi. They are owned exclusively by private citizens, and employed for their sole benefit. The boards are formed into rafts; and these rafts are afterward attached together, and floated down the Mississippi to St. Louis, where they command a good price. The business is understood to be a profitable one. For the privilege, no equivalent has been paid either to the Indians or to the United States. The first mill was built several years ago, and before the conclusion of the treaty of Prairie du Chien, fixing boundaries to the lands. A permit was given for building, either verbal or written, as I have been informed, by a former commanding officer at Prairie du Chien. I make these statements in reference to a letter I have received from the Department since my return, but which is dated June 27th, containing a complaint of one of the owners of the mill, that the Chippewas had threatened to burn it, and requesting me to take the necessary precautionary measures. I heard nothing of such a threat, but believe that the respect which the Chippewas have professed, through me, for the American government, and the influence of my visit among them, will prevent a resort to any measures of violence; and that they will wait the peaceable adjustment of the line on the rapids. I will add that, wherever that line may be determined, in a reasonable probability, to fall, the mill itself cannot be supplied with logs for any length of time, if it is now so supplied, without cutting them on Chippewa lands, and rafting them down the Red Cedar. Many of the logs heretofore sawed at this mill, have been rafted up stream, to the mill. And I understood from the person in charge of it, that he was now anxious to ascertain new sites for chopping; that his expectations were directed up the stream, but that his actual knowledge of the country, in that direction, did not embrace a circumference of more than five miles.

The line between the Chippewa and Sioux, as drawn on the MS. map of Neenaba, strikes the rapids on Red Cedar River at a brook and bluff a short distance below the mill. It proceeds thence, across the point of land between that branch of the main Chippewa, to an island in the latter; and thence, up stream, to the mouth of Clearwater River, as called for by the treaty, and from this point to the bluffs of the Mississippi Valley (where it corners on Winnebago land), on Black River, and not to the "mouth" of Black River, as erroneously inserted in the 5th article of the treaty; the Chippewas never having advanced any claims to the lands at the mouth of Black River. This map, being drawn by a Chippewa of sense, influence, and respectability, an exact copy of it is herewith forwarded for the use of the Department, as embracing the opinions of the Chippewas on this point. The lines and geographical marks were drawn on paper by Neenaba himself, and the names translated and written down by Mr. Johnston.

It is obvious that the adjustment of this line must precede a permanent peace on this part of the frontiers. The number of Chippewas particularly interested in it is, from my notes, 2,102; to which, 911 may be added for certain bands on Lake Superior. It embraces 27 villages, and the most influential civil and war chiefs of the region. The population is enterprising and warlike. They have the means of subsistence in comparative abundance. They are increasing in numbers. They command a ready access to the Mississippi by water, and a ready return from it by land. Habits of association have taught them to look upon this stream as the theatre of war. Their young men are carried into it as the natural and almost only means of distinction. And it is in coincidence with all observation to say that they are now, as they were in the days of Captain Carver, the terror of the east bank of this river, between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers. No other tribe has now, or has had, within the memory of man, a village or permanent possession on this part of the shore. It is landed on in fear. It is often passed by other nations by stealth, and at night. Such is not an exaggerated picture. And with a knowledge of their geographical advantages, and numbers, and distribution, on the tributary streams, slight causes, it may be imagined, will often excite the young and thoughtless portion of them to raise the war-club, to chant the war-song, and follow the war-path.

To remove these causes, to teach them the folly of such a contest, to remind them of the treaty stipulations and promises solemnly made to the Government, and to the Sioux, and to induce them to renew those promises, and to act on fixed principles of political faith, were the primary objects committed to me; and they were certainly objects of exalted attainment, according as well with the character of the Government as with the spirit and moral and intellectual tone of the age. To these objects I have faithfully, as I believe, devoted the means at my command. And the Chippewas cannot, hereafter, err on the subject of their hostilities with the Sioux, without knowing that the error is disapproved by the American government, and that a continuance in it will be visited upon them in measures of severity.

Without indulging the expectation that my influence on the tour will have the effect to put an end to the spirit of predatory warfare, it may be asserted that this spirit has been checked and allayed; and that a state of feeling and reflection has been produced by it, which cannot fail to be beneficial to our relations with them, and to their relations with each other. The messages sent to the Sioux chiefs, may be anticipated to have resulted in restoring a perfect peace during the present fall and ensuing winter, and will thus leave to each party the undisturbed chase of their lands. The meditated blow of Steenaba was turned aside, and his war-party arrested and dispersed at the moment it was ready to proceed. Every argument was used to show them the folly and the insecurity of a continuance of the war. And the whole tenor and effect of my visit has been to inform and reform these remote bands. It has destroyed the charm of their seclusion. It has taught them that their conduct is under the super-vision of the American government; that they depend on its care and protection; that no other government has power to regulate trade and send traders among them; finally, that an adherence to foreign counsels, and to anti-pacific maxims, can be visited upon them in measures of coercion. That their country, hitherto deemed nearly inaccessible, can be penetrated and traversed by men and troops, with baggage and provisions, even in midsummer, when the waters are lowest; and that, in proportion as they comply with political maxims, as benevolent as they are just, will they live at peace with their enemies, and have the means of subsistence for an increased population among themselves. The conduct of the traders in this quarter, and the influence they have exerted, both moral and political, cannot here be entered upon, and must be left to some other occasion, together with statistical details and other branches of information not arising from particular instructions.

It may be said that the Indians upon the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, and their numerous branches, have been drawn into a close intercourse with Government. But it will be obvious that a perseverance in the system of official advice and restraints, is essential to give permanence to the effects already produced, and to secure a firm and lasting peace between them and the Sioux. To this end, the settlement of the line upon the Red Cedar Fork is an object which claims the attention of the Department; and would justify, in my opinion, the calling together the parties interested, at some convenient spot near the junction of the Red Cedar River with the Chippewa. Indeed, the handsome elevation, and the commanding geographical advantages of this spot, render it one which, I think, might be advantageously occupied as a military post. Such an occupancy would have the effect to keep the parties at peace; and the point of land, on which the work is proposed to be erected, might be purchased from the Sioux, together with such part of the disputed lands near the mills as might be deemed necessary to quiet the title of the Chippewas. By acquiring this portion of country for the purposes of military occupancy, the United States would be justified in punishing any murders committed upon it; and I am fully convinced that no measure which could, at this time, be adopted, would so certainly conduce to a permanent peace between the tribes. I therefore beg leave, through you, to submit these subjects to the consideration of the honorable the Secretary of War, with every distrust in my own powers of observation, and with a very full confidence in his.

I have the honor to be, sir, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

TO ELBERT HERRING, ESQ., Com. Ind. Affairs.

2. Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in Illinois, to Fort Winnebago, on the source of Fox River, Wisconsin. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Time admonishes me of my promise to furnish you some account of my journey from Galena to Fort Winnebago. But I confess, that time has taken away none of those features which make me regard it as a task. Other objects have occupied so much of my thoughts, that the subject has lost some of its vividness, and I shall be obliged to confine myself more exclusively to my notes than I had intended. This will be particularly true in speaking of geological facts. Geographical features impress themselves strongly on the mind. The shape of a mountain is not easily forgotten, and its relation to contiguous waters and woods is recollected after the lapse of many years. The succession of plains, streams, and settlements is likewise retained in the memory, while the peculiar plains, the soils overlaying them, and all the variety of their mineral and organic contents, require to be perpetuated by specimens and by notes, which impose neither a slight nor a momentary labor.

Limited sketches of this kind are, furthermore, liable to be misconceived. Prominent external objects can only be brought to mind, and these often reveal but an imperfect notion of the pervading character of strata, and still less knowledge of their mineral contents. Haste takes away many opportunities of observation; and scanty or inconvenient means of transporting hand specimens, often deprive us of the requisite data. Indeed, I should be loath to describe the few facts I am about to communicate, had you not personally visited and examined the great carboniferous and sandstone formation on the Mississippi and Wisconsin, and thus got the knowledge of their features. The parallelism which is apparent in these rocks, by the pinnacles which have been left standing on high--the wasting effects of time in scooping out valleys and filling up declivities--and the dark and castle-looking character of the cherty limestone bluffs, as viewed from the water, while the shadows of evening are deepening around, are suited to make vivid impressions. And these broken and denuded cliffs offer the most favorable points for making geological observations. There are no places inland where the streams have cut so deep. On gaining the height of land, the strata are found to be covered with so heavy a deposit of soil, that it is difficult to glean much that can be relied on respecting the interior structure.

The angle formed by the junction of the Wisconsin with the Mississippi, is a sombre line of weather-beaten rocks. Gliding along the current, at the base of these rocks, the idea of a "hill country," of no very productive character, is naturally impressed upon the observer. And this impression came down, probably, from the days of Marquette, who was the first European, that we read of, who descended the Wisconsin, and thus became the true discoverer of the Mississippi. The fact that it yielded lead ore, bits of which were occasionally brought in by the natives, was in accordance with this opinion; and aided, it may be supposed, in keeping out of view the real character of the country. I know not how else to account for the light which has suddenly burst upon us from this bank of the Mississippi, and which has at once proved it to be as valuable for the purposes of agriculture as for those of mining, and as sylvan in its appearance as if it were not fringed, as it were, with rocks, and lying at a great elevation above the water. This elevation is so considerable as to permit a lively descent in the streams, forming numerous mill-seats. The surface of the country is not, however, broken, but may be compared to the heavy and lazy-rolling waves of the sea after a tempest. These wave-like plains are often destitute of trees, except a few scattering ones, but present to the eye an almost boundless field of native herbage. Groves of oak sometimes diversify those native meadows, or cover the ridges which bound them. Very rarely does any rock appear above the surface. The highest elevations, the Platte Mounds, and the Blue Mound, are covered with soil and with trees. Numerous brooks of limpid water traverse the plains, and find their way into either the Wisconsin, Rock River, or the Mississippi. The common deer is still in possession of its favorite haunts; and the traveller is very often startled by flocks of the prairie-hen rising up in his path. The surface soil is a rich black alluvion; it yields abundant crops of corn, and, so far as they have been tried, all the cereal gramina. I have never, either in the West or out of the West, seen a richer soil, or more stately fields of corn and oats, than upon one of the plateaux of the Blue Mound.

Such is the country which appears to be richer in ores of lead than any other mineral district in the world--which yielded forty millions of pounds in seven years--produced a single lump of ore of two thousand cubic feet--and appears adequate to supply almost any amount of this article that the demands of commerce require.

The River of Galena rises in the mineral plains of Iowa county, in that part of the Northwestern Territory which is attached, for the purposes of temporary government, to Michigan. It is made up of clear and permanent springs, and has a descent which affords a very valuable water-power. This has been particularly remarked at the curve called Mill-seat Bend. No change in its general course, which is southwest, is, I believe, apparent after it enters the northwest angle of the State of Illinois. The town of Galena, the capital of the mining country, occupies a somewhat precipitous semicircular bend, on the right (or north) bank of the river, six or seven miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. Backwater, from the latter, gives the stream itself the appearance, as it bears the name, of a "river," and admits steamboat navigation thus far. It is a rapid brook immediately above the town, and of no further value for the purpose of navigation. Lead is brought in from the smelting furnaces, on heavy ox-teams, capable of carrying several tons at a load. I do not know that water has been, or that it cannot be made subservient in the transportation of this article from the mines. The streams themselves are numerous and permanent, although they are small, and it would require the aid of so many of these, on any projected route, that it is to be feared the supply of water would be inadequate. To remedy this deficiency, the Wisconsin itself might be relied on. Could the waters of this river be conducted in a canal along its valley from the portage to the bend at Arena, they might, from this point, be deflected in a direct line to Galena. This route would cut the mine district centrally, and afford the upper tributaries of the Pekatolika and Fever Rivers as feeders. Such a communication would open the way to a northern market, and merchandise might be supplied by the way of Green Bay, when the low state of water in the Mississippi prevents the ascent of boats. It would, at all times, obviate the tedious voyage, which goods ordered from the Atlantic cities have to perform through the straits of Florida and Gulf of Mexico. A railroad could be laid upon this route with equal, perhaps superior advantages. These things may seem too much like making arrangements for the next generation. But we cannot fix bounds to the efforts of our spreading population, and spirit of enterprise. Nor, after what we have seen in the way of internal improvement, in our own day and generation, should we deem anything too hard to be accomplished.

I set out from Galena in a light wagon, drawn by two horses, about ten o'clock in the morning (August 17th), accompanied by Mr. B. It had rained the night and morning of the day previous, which rendered the streets and roads quite muddy. A marly soil, easily penetrated by rain, was, however, as susceptible to the influence of the sun, and, in a much shorter period than would be imagined, the surface became dry. Although a heavy and continued shower had thoroughly drenched the ground, and covered it with superfluous water, but very little effects of it were to be seen at this time. We ascended into the open plain country, which appears in every direction around the town, and directed our course to Gratiot's Grove. In this distance, which, on our programme of the route, was put down, at fifteen miles, a lively idea of the formation and character of the country is given. The eye is feasted with the boundlessness of its range. Grass and flowers spread before and beside the traveller, and, on looking back, they fill up the vista behind him. He soon finds himself in the midst of a sylvan scene. Groves fringe the tops of the most distant elevations, and clusters of trees--more rarely, open forests--are occasionally presented. The trees appear to be almost exclusively of the species of white oak and rough-bark hickory. Among the flowers, the plant called rosin-weed attracts attention by its gigantic stature, and it is accompanied, as certainly as substance by shadow, by the wild indigo, two plants which were afterwards detected, of less luxuriant growth, on Fox River. The roads are in their natural condition; they are excellent, except for a few yards where streams are crossed. At such places there is a plunge into soft, black muck, and it requires all the powers of a horse harnessed to a wagon to emerge from the stream.

On reaching Gratiot's Grove, I handed letters of introduction to Mr. H. and B. Gratiot. These gentlemen appear to be extensively engaged in smelting. They conducted me to see the ore prepared for smelting in the log furnace; and also the preparation of such parts of it for the ash furnace as do not undergo complete fusion in the first process. The ash furnace is a very simple kind of air furnace, with a grate so arranged as to throw a reverberating flame upon the hearth where the prepared ore is laid. It is built against a declivity, and charged, by throwing the materials to be operated upon, down the flue. A silicious flux is used; and the scoria is tapped and suffered to flow out, from the side of the furnace, before drawing off the melted lead. The latter is received in an excavation made in the earth, from which it is ladled out into iron moulds. The whole process is conducted in the open air, with sometimes a slight shed. The lead ore is piled in cribs of logs, which are roofed. Hammers, ladles, a kind of tongs, and some other iron tools are required. The simplicity of the process, the absence of external show in buildings, and the direct and ready application of the means to the end, are remarkable, as pleasing characteristics about the smelting establishment.

The ore used is the common sulphuret, with a foliated, glittering and cubical fracture. It occurs with scarcely any adhering gangue. Cubical masses of it are found, at some of the diggings, which are studded over with minute crystals of calcareous spar. These crystals, when examined, have the form of the dog-tooth spar. This broad, square-shaped, and square-broken mineral, is taken from east and west leads, is most easy to smelt, and yields the greatest per centum of lead. It is estimated to produce fifty per cent. from the log furnace, and about sixteen more when treated with a flux in the ash furnace.

Miners classify their ore from its position in the mine. Ore from east and west leads, is raised from clay diggings, although these diggings may be pursued under the first stratum of rock. Ore from north and south leads, is termed "sheet minerals," and is usually taken from rock diggings. The vein or sheet stands perpendicularly in the fissure, and is usually struck in sinking from six to ten feet. The sheet varies in thickness from six or eight inches, in the broadest part, to not more than one. The great mass found at "Irish diggings" was of this kind.

I observed, among the piles of ore at Gratiot's, the combination of zinc with lead ore, which is denominated dry bone. It is cast by as unproductive. Mr. B. Gratiot also showed me pieces of the common ore which had undergone desulphuration in the log furnace. Its natural splendor is increased by this process, so as to have the appearance of highly burnished steel. He also presented me some uniform masses of lead, recrystallized from a metallic state, under the hearth of the ash furnace. The tendency to rectangular structure in these delicate and fragile masses is very remarkable. Crystallization appears to have taken place under circumstances which opposed the production of a complete and perfect cube or parallelogram, although there are innumerable rectangles of each geometric form.

In the drive from Gratiot's to Willow Springs, we saw a succession of the same objects that had formed the prominent features of the landscape from Galena. The platte mounds, which had appeared on our left all the morning, continued visible until we entered the grove that embraces the site of the springs. Little mounds of red earth frequently appeared above the grass, to testify to the labors of miners along this part of the route. In taking a hasty survey of some of the numerous excavations of Irish diggings, I observed among the rubbish small flat masses of a yellowish white amorphous mineral substance of great weight. I have not had time to submit it to any tests. It appears too heavy and compact for the earthy yellow oxide of lead. I should not be disappointed to find it an oxide of zinc. No rock stratum protrudes from the ground in this part of the country. The consolidated masses, thrown up from the diggings, appear to be silicated limestone, often friable, and not crystalline. Galena is found in open fissures in this rock.

We reached the springs in the dusk of the evening, and found good accommodations at Ray's. Distance from Galena thirty miles.

The rain fell copiously during the night, and on the morning (18th) gave no signs of a speedy cessation. Those who travel ought often, however, to call to mind the remark of Xenophon, that "pleasure is the result of toil," and not permit slight impediments to arrest them, particularly when they have definite points to make. We set forward in a moderate rain, but in less than an hour had the pleasure to perceive signs of its mitigating, and before nine o'clock it was quite clear. We stopped a short time at Bracken's furnace. Mr. Bracken gave me specimens of organic remains, in the condition of earthy calcareous carbonates, procured on a neighboring ridge. He described the locality as being plentiful in casts and impressions such as he exhibited, which appeared to have been removed from the surface of a shelly limestone. At Rock-Branch diggings, I found masses of calcareous spar thrown from the pits. The surface appears to have been much explored for lead in this vicinity. I stopped to examine Vanmater's lead. It had been a productive one, and affords a fair example of what are called east and west leads. I observed a compass standing on the line of the lead, and asked Mr. V. whether much reliance was to be placed upon the certainty of striking the lead by the aid of this instrument. He said that it was much relied on. That the course of the leads was definite. The present one varied from a due east and west line but nine minutes, and the lead had been followed without much difficulty. The position of the ore was about forty feet below the surface. Of this depth about thirty-six feet consisted of the surface rock and its earthy covering. A vein of marly clay, enveloping the ore, was then penetrated. A series of pits had been sunk on the course of it, and the earth and ore in the interstices removed, and drawn to the surface by a windlass and bucket. Besides the ore, masses of iron pyrites had been thrown out, connected with galena. In stooping to detach some pieces from one of these masses, I placed my feet on the verge of an abandoned pit, around which weeds and bushes had grown. My face was, however, averted from the danger; but, on beholding it, I was made sensible that the least deviation from a proper balance would have pitched me into it. It was forty feet deep. The danger I had just escaped fell to the lot of Mr. B.'s dog, who, probably deceived by the growth of bushes, fell in. Whether killed or not, it was impossible to tell, and we were obliged to leave the poor animal, under a promise of Mr. V., that he would cause a windlass to be removed to the pit, to ascertain his fate.

At eleven o'clock we reached Mineral Point, the seat of justice of Iowa county. I delivered an introductory letter to Mr. Ansley, who had made a discovery of copper ore in the vicinity, and through his politeness, visited the locality. The discovery was made in sinking pits in search of lead ore. Small pieces of green carbonate of copper were found on striking the rock, which is apparently silico-calcareous, and of a very friable structure. From one of the excavations, detached masses of the sulphuret, blue and green mingled, were raised. These masses are enveloped with ochery clay.

In riding out on horseback to see this locality, I passed over the ridge of land which first received the appellation of "Mineral Point." No digging was observed in process, but the heaps of red marly clay, the vigorous growth of shrubbery around them, and the number of open or partially filled pits, remain to attest the labor which was formerly devoted in the search for lead. And this search is said to have been amply rewarded. The track of discovery is conspicuously marked by these excavations, which often extend, in a direct line, on the cardinal points, as far as the eye can reach. Everywhere the marly clay formation appears to have been relied on for the ore, and much of it certainly appears to be in sitû in it. It bears no traces of attrition; and its occurrence in regular leads forbids the supposition of its being an oceanic arrangement of mineral detritus. At Vanmater's, the metalliferous clay marl is overlaid by a grayish sedimentary limestone. Different is the geological situation of what is denominated gravel ore, of which I noticed piles, on the route from Gratiot's. This bears evident marks of attrition, and appears to have been uniformly taken from diluvial earth.

On returning to the village from this excursion, I found Mr. B. ready to proceed, and we lost no time in making the next point in our proposed route. A drive of five miles brought us to the residence of Colonel Dodge, whose zeal and enterprise in opening this portion of our western country for settlement, give him claims to be looked up to as a public benefactor. I here met the superintendent of the mines (Captain Legate), and after spending some time in conversation on the resources and prospects of the country, and partaking of the hospitalities politely offered by Colonel D. and his intelligent family, we pursued our way. The village of Dodgeville lies at the distance of four miles. Soon after passing through it some part of our tackle gave way, in crossing a gully, and I improved the opportunity of the delay to visit the adjacent diggings, which are extensive. The ore is found as at other mines, in regular leads, and not scattered about promiscuously in the red marl. Masses of brown oxide of iron were more common here than I had noticed them elsewhere. Among the rubbish of the diggings, fragments of hornstone occur. They appear to be, most commonly, portions of nodules, which exhibit, on being fractured, various discolorings.

Night overtook us before we entered Porter's Grove, which is also the seat of mining and smelting operations. We are indebted to the hospitality of Mr. M., of whom my companion was an acquaintance, for opening his door to us, at an advanced hour of the evening. Distance from Willow Springs, twenty-five miles.

There is no repose for a traveller. We retired to rest at a late hour, and rose at an early one. The morning (19th) was hazy, and we set forward while the dew was heavy on the grass. Our route still lay through a prairie country. The growth of native grass, bent down with dew, nearly covered the road, so that our horses' legs were continually bathed. The rising sun was a very cheerful sight, but as our road lay up a long ascent, we soon felt its wilting effects. Nine miles of such driving, with not a single grove to shelter us, brought us to Mr. Brigham's, at the foot of the Blue Mound, being the last house in the direction to Fort Winnebago. The distance from Galena is sixty-four miles, and this area embraces the present field of mining operations. In rapidly passing over it, mines, furnaces, dwelling-houses, mining villages, inclosed fields, upland prairies (an almost continued prairie), groves, springs, and brooks, have formed the prominent features of the landscape. The impulse to the settlement of the country was first given by its mineral wealth; and it brought here, as it were by magic, an enterprising and active population. It is evident that a far greater amount of labor was a few years ago engaged in mining operations; but the intrinsic value of the lands has operated to detain the present population, which may be considered as permanent. The lands are beautifully disposed, well watered, well drained by natural streams, and easily brought into cultivation. Crops have everywhere repaid the labors of the farmer; and, thus far, the agricultural produce of the country has borne a fair price. The country appears to afford every facility for raising cattle, horses, and hogs. Mining, the cardinal interest heretofore, has not ceased in the degree that might be inferred from the depression of the lead market; and it will be pursued, with increased activity, whenever the purposes of commerce call for it. In the present situation of the country, there appear to be two objects essential to the lasting welfare of the settlements: first, a title to their lands from Congress; second, a northern market for the products of their mines and farms. To these, a third requisite may be considered auxiliary, namely, the establishment of the seat of territorial government at some point west of Lake Michigan, where its powers may be more readily exercised, and the reciprocal obligations of governor and people more vividly felt.

Mr. Brigham, in whom I was happy to recognize an esteemed friend, conducted us over his valuable plantation. He gave me a mass of a white, heavy metallic substance, taken as an accompanying mineral, from a lead of Galena, which he has recently discovered in a cave. Without instituting any examination of it but such as its external characters disclose, it may be deemed a native carbonate of lead. The mass from which it was broken weighed ninety or one hundred pounds. And its occurrence, at the lead, was not alone.

From the Blue Mound to Fort Winnebago is an estimated distance of fifty-six miles. The country is, however, entirely in a state of nature. The trace is rather obscure; but, with a knowledge of the general geography and face of the country, there is no difficulty in proceeding with a light wagon, or even a loaded team, as the Indian practice of firing the prairies every fall has relieved the surface from underbrush and fallen timber. After driving a few miles, we encountered two Winnebagoes on horseback, the forward rider having a white man in ties behind him. The latter informed us that his name was H., that he had come out to Twelve-mile Creek, for the purpose of locating himself there, and was in pursuit of a hired man, who had gone off, with some articles of his property, the night previous. With this relation, and a boshu[274] for the natives, with whom we had no means of conversing, we continued our way, without further incident, to Duck Creek, a distance of ten miles. We here struck the path, which is one of the boundary lines, in the recent purchase from the Winnebagoes. It is a deeply marked horse path, cutting quite through the prairie sod, and so much used by the natives as to prevent grass from growing on it; in this respect, it is as well-defined a landmark as "blazed tree," or "saddle." The surveyor appointed to run out the lines, had placed mile-posts on the route, but the Winnebagoes, with a prejudice against the practice which is natural, pulled up many, and defaced others. When we had gone ten miles further, we began to see the glittering of water through the trees, and we soon found ourselves on the margin of a clear lake. I heard no name for this handsome sheet of water. It is one of the four lakes, which are connected with each other by a stream, and have their outlet into Rock River, through a tributary called the Guskihaw. We drove through the margin of it, where the shores were sandy, and innumerable small unio shells were driven up. Most of these small pieces appeared to be helices. Standing tent-poles, and other remains of Indian encampments, appeared at this place. A rock stratum, dark and weather-beaten, apparently sandstone, jutted out into the lake. A little further, we passed to the left of an abandoned village. By casting our eyes across the lake, we observed the new position which had been selected and occupied by the Winnebagoes. We often assign wrong motives, when we undertake to reason for the Indian race; but in the present instance, we may presume that their removal was influenced by too near a position to the boundary path.

[274] This term is in use by the Algic or Algonquin tribes, particularly by the Chippewas. The Winnebagoes, who have no equivalent for it, are generally acquainted with it, although I am not aware that they have, to any extent, adopted it. It has been supposed to be derived from the French bon jour.

We drove to the second brook, beyond the lake, and encamped.

Comfort in an encampment depends very much upon getting a good fire. In this we totally failed last night, owing to our having but a small piece of spunk, which ignited and burned out without inflaming our kindling materials. The atmosphere was damp, but not sufficiently cooled to quiet the ever-busy mosquito. Mr. B. deemed it a hardship that he could not boil the kettle, so as to have the addition of tea to our cold repast. I reminded him that there was a bright moon, and that it did not rain; and that, for myself, I had fared so decidedly worse, on former occasions, that I was quite contented with the light of the moon and a dry blanket. By raising up and putting a fork under the wagon-tongue, and spreading our tent-cloth over it, I found the means of insulating ourselves from the insect hordes, but it was not until I had pitched my mosquito net within it that we found repose.

On awaking in the morning (20th), we found H., who had passed us the day before in company with the Winnebagoes, lying under the wagon. He had returned from pursuing the fugitive, and had overtaken us, after twelve o'clock at night. He complained of being cold. We admitted him into the wagon, and drove on to reach his camp at Twelve-mile Creek. In crossing what he denominated Seven-mile Prairie, I observed on our right a prominent wall of rock, surmounted with image-stones. The rock itself consisted of sandstone. Elongated water-worn masses of stone had been set up, so as to resemble, at a distance, the figures of men. The illusion had been strengthened by some rude paints. This had been the serious or the sportive work of Indians. It is not to be inferred, hence, that the Winnebagoes are idolaters. But there is a strong tendency to idolatry in the minds of the North American Indians. They do not bow before a carved image, shaped like Dagon or Juggernaut; but they rely upon their guardian spirits, or personal manitos, for aid in exigencies, and impute to the skins of animals, which are preserved with religious care, the power of gods. Their medicine institution is also a gross and bold system of semi-deification connected with magic, witchcraft, and necromancy. Their jossakeeds are impostors and jugglers of the grossest stamp. Their wabenos address Satan directly for power; and their metais, who appear to be least idolatrous, rely more upon the invisible agency of spirits and magic influence, than upon the physical properties of the medicines they exhibit.

On reaching Twelve-mile Creek, we found a yoke of steers of H., in a pen, which had been tied there two days and nights without water. He evinced, however, an obliging disposition, and, after refreshing ourselves and our horses, we left him to complete the labors of a "local habitation." The intermediate route to Fort Winnebago afforded few objects of either physical or mental interest. The upland soil, which had become decidedly thinner and more arenaceous, after reaching the Lake, appears to increase in sterility on approaching the Wisconsin. And the occurrence of lost rocks (primitive boulders), as Mr. B. happily termed them, which are first observed after passing the Blue Mound, becomes more frequent in this portion of the country, denoting our approach to the borders of the northwestern primitive formation. This formation, we have now reason to conclude, extends in an angle, so far south as to embrace a part of Fox River, above Apukwa Lake.

Anticipated difficulties always appear magnified. This we verified in crossing Duck Creek, near its entrance into the Wisconsin. We found the adjoining bog nearly dry, and drove through the stream without the water entering into the body of the wagon. It here commenced raining. Having but four miles to make, and that a level prairie, we pushed on. But the rain increased, and poured down steadily and incessantly till near sunset. In the midst of this rain-storm we reached the fort, about one o'clock, and crossed over to the elevated ground occupied by the Indian Department, where my sojourn, while awaiting the expedition, was rendered as comfortable as the cordial greeting and kind attention of Mr. Kinzie, the agent, and his intelligent family, could make it.

A recapitulation of the distances from Galena makes the route as follows, viz: Gratiot's Grove, fifteen miles; Willow Springs, fifteen; Mineral Point, seven; Dodgeville, nine; Porter's Grove, nine; Blue Mound, nine; Duck Creek, ten; Lake, ten; Twelve-mile Creek, twenty-four; Crossing of Duck Creek, eight; and Fort Winnebago, four; total, one hundred and twenty miles.

H. R. S.

To GEORGE P. MORRIS, ESQ., New York.

3. Official Report of the Exploratory Expedition to the Actual Source of the Mississippi River in 1832.

OFFICE OF THE INDIAN AGENCY OF SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 1, 1832.

SIR: I had the honor to inform you, on the 15th ultimo, of my return from the sources of the Mississippi, and that I should communicate the details of my observations to you as soon as they could be prepared.

On reaching the remotest point visited heretofore by official authority, I found that the waters on that summit were favorable to my tracing this river to its utmost sources. This point having been left undetermined by prior expeditions, I determined to avail myself of the occasion to take Indian guides, with light canoes, and, after encamping my heavy force, to make the ascent. It was represented to be practicable in five days. I accomplished it, by great diligence, in three. The distance is 158 miles above Cass Lake. There are many sharp rapids, which made the trial severe. The river expands into numerous lakes.

After passing about forty miles north of Red Cedar Lake, during which we ascended a summit, I entered a fine large lake, which, to avoid repetitions in our geographical names, I called Queen Anne's Lake. From this point the ascent of the Mississippi was due south; and it was finally found to have its origin in a handsome lake, of some seven miles in extent, on the height of land to which I gave the name of Itasca.

This lake lies in latitude 47° 13' 25". It lies at an altitude of 1,575 feet, by the barometer, above the Gulf of Mexico. It affords me satisfaction to say, that, by this discovery, the geographical point of the origin of this river is definitely fixed. Materials for maps and plans of the entire route have been carefully collected by Lieut. James Allen, of the U. S. Army, who accompanied me, with a small detachment of infantry, as high as Cass Lake; and, having encamped them at that point, with my extra men, he proceeded with me to Itasca Lake. The distance which is thus added to the Mississippi, agreeably to him, is 164 miles, making its entire length, by the most authentic estimates, to be 3,200 miles. In this distance there are numerous and arduous rapids, in which the total amount of ascent to be overcome is 173 feet.

Councils were held with the Indians at Fond du Lac, at Sandy Lake, Cass Lake, at the mouth of the Great De Corbeau River, &c.

In returning, I visited the military bands at Leech Lake; passing from thence to its source, and descending the whole length of the Crow-wing River, and thence to St. Anthony's Falls, I assembled the Sioux at the agency of St. Peter's, and at the Little Crow's village. The Chippewas of the St. Croix and Broule Rivers were particularly visited. Many thousands of the Chippewa and Sioux nations were seen and counselled with, including their most distinguished chiefs and warriors. Everywhere they disclaimed a connection with Black Hawk and his schemes. I left the Mississippi, about forty miles above the point where, in a few days, the Sauk chief was finally captured and his forces overthrown; and, reaching the waters of Lake Superior, at the mouth of the Brule, returned from that point to the agency at Sault de Ste. Marie.

The flag of the Union has secured respect from the tribes at every point; and I feel confident in declaring the Chippewas and Sioux, as tribes, unconnected with the Black Hawk movement.

I am, sir, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, U. S. Ind. Agent.

C. HERRING, ESQ., Commissioner of Indian Affairs

IV.

VACCINATION OF THE INDIANS.

4. Report of the number and position of the Indians vaccinated on the Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, conducted by Mr. Schoolcraft, in 1832. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 21, 1832.

SIR: In conformity with your instructions, I take the earliest opportunity to lay before you such facts as I have collected, touching the vaccination of the Chippewa Indians, during the progress of the late expedition into their country: and also "of the prevalence, from time to time, of the smallpox" among them.

The accompanying table will serve to illustrate the "ages, sex, tribe, and local situation" of those Indians who have been vaccinated by me. With the view of illustrating more fully their local situation, I have arranged those bands residing upon the shores of Lake Superior; those residing in the Folle Avoine country (or that section of country lying between the highlands southwest from Lake Superior, and the Mississippi River); and those residing near the sources of the Mississippi River, separately.

Nearly all the Indians noticed in this table were vaccinated at their respective villages; yet I did not fail to vaccinate those whom we chanced to meet in their hunting or other excursions.

I have embraced, with the Indians of the frontier bands, those half-breeds, who, in consequence of having adopted more or less the habits of the Indian, may be identified with him.

But little difficulty has occurred in convincing the Indians of the efficacy of vaccination; and the universal dread in which they hold the appearance of the smallpox among them, rendered it an easy task to overcome their prejudices, whatever they chanced to be. The efficacy of the vaccine disease is well appreciated, even by the most interior of the Chippewa Indians; and so universal is this information, that only one instance occurred where the Indian had never heard of the disease.

In nearly every instance the opportunity which was presented for vaccination, was embraced with cheerfulness and apparent gratitude; at the same time manifesting great anxiety that, for the safety of the whole, each one of the band should undergo the operation. When objections were made to vaccination, they were not usually made because the Indian doubted the protective power of the disease, but because he supposed (never having seen its progress), that the remedy must nearly equal the disease which it was intended to counteract.

Our situation, while travelling, did not allow me sufficient time to test the result of the vaccination in most instances; but an occasional return to bands where the operation had been performed, enabled me, in those bands, either to note the progress of the disease, or to judge from the cicatrices marking the original situation of the pustules, the cases in which the disease had proved successful.

------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- CHIPPEWA INDIANS. | MALES. | FEMALES. ------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- | U | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | U | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | n | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | O | n | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | O | d | | | | | v | d | | | | | v | e | t | t | t | t | e | e | t | t | t | t | e BANDS. | r | o | o | o | o | r | r | o | o | o | o | r | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . ------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- LAKE SUPERIOR | | | | | | | | | | | | {Sault Ste. Marie| 93| 22| 19| 8| 2| 1| 75| 28| 21| 10| 3| 1 {Grand Island | 17| 9| 7| 2|...|...| 12| 5| 7|...|...|... {Keweena Bay | 23| 11| 10| 6| 1|...| 20| 12| 17| 5| 2| 1 {Ontonagon River | 7| 8| 10| 3|...|...| 13| 5| 12| 6| 1|... {La Pointe | 37| 32| 40| 6| 2| 1| 38| 25| 28| 12| 2|... {Fond du Lac | 50| 21| 45| 10| 2|...| 41| 18| 35| 13| 6| 2 FOLLE AVOINE | | | | | | | | | | | | COUNTRY | | | | | | | | | | | | {Lac du Flambeau | 6| 2| 6| 1| 1|...| 2| 3| 4| 2| 2|... {Ottowa Lake | 11| 4| 8| 1|...|...| 10| 7| 3| 2|...|... {Yellow River | 11| 2| 6| 1|...|...| 11| 3| 6| 2| 1|... {Nama Kowagun of | {St. Croix River| 4| 1| 2| 1|...|...| 4|...| 3| 2|...|... {Snake River | 14| 3| 7| 4| 1| 1| 25| 3| 12| 1| 1|... SOURCES OF THE | | | | | | | | | | | | MISSISSIPPI RIVER| | | | | | | | | | | | {Sandy Lake | 75| 21| 47| 10| 2|...| 86| 19| 48| 23| 6| 2 {Lake Winnipeg | 4| 4| 10| 3|...|...| 1| 1| 1| 2|...|... {Cass, or Upper | | | | | | | | | | | | {Red Cedar Lake | 18| 5| 11| 6|...| 1| 18| 3| 8| 5| 1| 1 {Leech Lake | 76| 43| 73| 16| 4| 1| 96| 41| 61| 25| 2| 1 +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- Lake Superior |227|103|131| 35| 7| 2|199| 93|120| 46| 14| 5 Folle Avoine | | | | | | | | | | | | Country | 46| 12| 29| 8| 2| 1| 52| 12| 32| 9| 4|... Sources of the | | | | | | | | | | | | Mississippi |173| 73|141| 35| 6| 2|201| 64|118| 55| 9| 4 +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- Total | | | | | | | | | | | | |446|188|301| 78| 15| 5|452|169|270|110| 27| 9 ------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------

------------------+----------- CHIPPEWA INDIANS. | ------------------+---+---+--- | | | | | F | | | e | | M | m | T BANDS. | a | a | o | l | l | t | e | e | a | s | s | l | . | . | . ------------------+---+---+--- LAKE SUPERIOR | | | {Sault Ste. Marie|145|138|283 {Grand Island | 35| 24| 59 {Keweena Bay | 57|108 {Ontonagon River | 28| 37| 65 {La Pointe |118|106|224 {Fond du Lac |128|115|243 FOLLE AVOINE | | | COUNTRY | | | {Lac du Flambeau | 16| 15| 29 {Ottowa Lake | 24| 22| 46 {Yellow River | 20| 23| 43 {Nama Kowagun of | {St. Croix River| 8| 9| 17 {Snake River | 30| 42| 72 SOURCES OF THE | | | MISSISSIPPI RIVER| | | {Sandy Lake |155|184|339 {Lake Winnipeg | 21| 5| 26 {Cass, or Upper | | | {Red Cedar Lake | 41| 36| 77 {Leech Lake |213|226|439 +---+---+--- Lake Superior |505|477|982 Folle Avoine | | | Country | 98|109|207 Sources of the | | | Mississippi |430|451|881 +---+---+--- Total | 1| 1| 2 |033|037|070 ------------------+-----------

About one-fourth of the whole number were vaccinated directly from the pustules of patients laboring under the disease; while the remaining three-fourths were vaccinated from crusts, or from virus which had been several days on hand. I did not pass by a single opportunity for securing the crusts and virus from the arms of healthy patients; and to avoid, as far as possible, the chance of giving rise to a disease of a spurious kind, I invariably made use of those crusts and that virus, for the purposes of vaccination, which had been most recently obtained. To secure, as far as possible, against the chances of escaping the vaccine disease, I invariably vaccinated in each arm.

Of the whole number of Indians vaccinated, I have either watched the progress of the disease, or examined the cicatrices of about seven hundred. An average of one in three of those vaccinated from crusts has failed, while of those vaccinated directly from the arm of a person laboring under the disease, not more than one in twenty has failed to take effect--when the disease did not make its appearance after vaccination, I have invariably, as the cases came under my examination, revaccinated until a favorable result has been obtained.

Of the different bands of Indians vaccinated, a large proportion of the following have, as an actual examination has shown, undergone thoroughly the effects of the disease; viz: Sault Ste. Marie, Keweena Bay, La Pointe, and Cass Lake, being seven hundred and fifty-one in number; while of the remaining thirteen hundred and seventy-eight, of other bands, I think it may safely be calculated that more than three-fourths have passed effectually under the influence of the vaccine disease: and as directions to revaccinate all those in whom the disease failed, together with instructions as to time and manner of vaccination, were given to the chiefs of the different bands, it is more than probable that, where the bands remained together a sufficient length of time, the operation of revaccination has been performed by themselves.

Upon our return to Lake Superior, I had reason to suspect, on examining several cicatrices, that two of the crusts furnished by the surgeon-general, in consequence of a partial decomposition, gave rise to a spurious disease, and these suspicions were confirmed when revaccinating with genuine vaccine matter, when the true disease was communicated. Nearly all those Indians vaccinated with those two crusts, have been vaccinated, and passed regularly though the vaccine disease.

The answers to my repeated inquiries respecting the introduction, progress, and fatality of the smallpox, would lead me to infer that the disease has made its appearance at least five times, among the bands of Chippewa Indians noticed in the accompanying table of vaccination.

The smallpox appears to have been wholly unknown to the Chippewas of Lake Superior until about 1750; when a war-party, of more than one hundred young men, from the bands resident near the head of the lake, having visited Montreal for the purpose of assisting the French in their then existing troubles with the English, became infected with the disease, and but few of the party survived to reach their homes. It does not appear, although they made a precipitate retreat to their own country, that the disease was at this time communicated to any others of the tribe.

About the year 1770, the disease appeared a second time among the Chippewas, but, unlike that which preceded it, it was communicated to the more northern bands.

The circumstances connected with its introduction are related nearly as follows:--

Some time in the fall of 1767 or 8, a trader who had ascended the Mississippi, and established himself near Leech Lake, was robbed of his goods by the Indians residing at that lake; and, in consequence of his exertions in defending his property, he died soon after.

These facts became known to the directors of the Fur Company, at Mackinac; and, each successive year after, requests were sent to the Leech Lake Indians, that they should visit Mackinac, and make reparation for the goods they had taken, by a payment of furs, at the same time threatening punishment in case of a refusal. In the spring of 1770, the Indians saw fit to comply with this request; and a deputation from the band visited Mackinac, with a quantity of furs, which they considered an equivalent for the goods which had been taken. The deputation was received with politeness by the directors of the Company, and the difficulties readily adjusted. When this was effected, a cask of liquor and a flag closely rolled were presented to the Indians as a token of friendship. They were at the same time strictly enjoined neither to break the seal of the cask nor to unroll the flag, until they had reached the heart of their own country. This they promised to observe; but while returning, and after having travelled many days, the chief of the deputation made a feast for the Indians of the band at Fond du Lac, Lake Superior, upon which occasion he unsealed the cask and unrolled the flag for the gratification of his guests. The Indians drank of the liquor, and remained in a state of inebriation during several days. The rioting was over, and they were fast recovering from its effects, when several of the party were seized with violent pain. This was attributed to the liquor they had drunk; but the pain increasing, they were induced to drink deeper of the poisonous drug, and in this inebriated state several of the party died, before the real cause was suspected. Other like cases occurred; and it was not long before one of the war-party who had visited Montreal in 1750, and who had narrowly escaped with his life, recognized the disease as the same which had attacked their party at that time. It proved to be so; and of those Indians then at Fond du Lac, about three hundred in number, nearly the whole were swept off by it. Nor did it stop here; for numbers of those at Fond du Lac, at the time the disease made its appearance, took refuge among the neighboring bands; and although it did not extend easterly on Lake Superior, it is believed that not a single band of Chippewas north or west from Fond du Lac escaped its ravages. Of a large band then resident at Cass Lake, near the source of the Mississippi River, only one person, a child, escaped. The others having been attacked by the disease, died before any opportunity for dispersing was offered. The Indians at this day are firmly of the opinion that the smallpox was at this time communicated through the articles presented to their brethren by the agent of the Fur Company at Mackinac; and that it was done for the purpose of punishing them more severely for their offences.

The most western bands of Chippewas relate a singular allegory of the introduction of the smallpox into their country by a war-party, returning from the plains of the Missouri, as nearly as information will enable me to judge, in the year 1784. It does not appear that, at this time, the disease extended to the bands east of Fond du Lac; but it is represented to have been extremely fatal to those bands north and west from there.

In 1802 or 3, the smallpox made its appearance among the Indians residing at the Sault Ste. Marie, but did not extend to the bands west from that place. The disease was introduced by a voyager, in the employ of the Northwest Fur Company, who had just returned from Montreal; and although all communication with him was prohibited, an Indian imprudently having made him a visit, was infected with and transmitted the disease to others of the band. When once communicated, it raged with great violence, and of a large band scarcely one of those then at the village survived, and the unburied bones still remain, marking the situation they occupied. From this band the infection was communicated to a band residing upon St. Joseph's Island, and many died of it; but the surgeon of the military post then there, succeeded, by judicious and early measures, in checking it before the infection became general.

In 1824, the smallpox again made its appearance among the Indians at the Sault Ste. Marie. It was communicated by a voyager to the Indians upon Drummond's Island, Lake Huron; and through them several families at Sault Ste. Marie became infected. Of those belonging to the latter place, more than twenty in number, only two escaped. The disease is represented to have been extremely fatal to the Indians at Drummond's Island.

Since 1824, the smallpox is not known to have appeared among the Indians at the Sault Ste. Marie, nor among the Chippewas north or west from that place. But the Indians of these bands still tremble at the bare name of a disease which (next to the compounds of alcohol) has been one of the greatest scourges that has ever overtaken them since their first communication with the whites. The disease, when once communicated to a band of Indians, rages with a violence wholly unknown to the civilized man. The Indian, guided by present feeling, adopts a course of treatment (if indeed it deserves that appellation) which not unfrequently arms the disease with new power. An attack is but a warning to the poor and helpless patient to prepare for death, which will almost assuredly soon follow. His situation under these circumstances is truly deplorable; for while in a state that even, with proper advice, he would of himself recover, he adds fresh fuel to the flame which is already consuming him, under the delusive hope of gaining relief. The intoxicating draught (when it is within his reach) is not among the last remedies to which he resorts, to produce a lethargy from which he is never to recover. Were the friends of the sick man, even under these circumstances, enabled to attend him, his sufferings might be, at least, somewhat mitigated; but they too are, perhaps, in a similar situation, and themselves without even a single person to minister to their wants. Death comes to the poor invalid, and, perhaps, even as a welcome guest, to rid him of his suffering.

By a comparison of the number of Indians vaccinated upon the borders of Lake Superior with the actual population, it will be seen that the proportion who have passed through the vaccine disease is so great as to secure them against any general prevalence of the smallpox; and perhaps it is sufficient to prevent the introduction of the disease to the bands beyond, through this channel. But in the Folle Avoine country it is not so. Of the large bands of Indians residing in that section of country, only a small fraction have been vaccinated; while of other bands, not a single person has passed through the disease.

Their local situation undoubtedly renders it of the first importance that the benefits of vaccination should be extended to them. Their situation may be said to render them a connecting link between the southern and northwestern bands of Chippewas; and while on the south they are liable to receive the virus of the smallpox from the whites and Indians, the passage of the disease through them to their more northern brethren would only be prevented by their remaining, at that time, completely separated. Every motive of humanity towards the suffering Indian, would lead to extend to him this protection against a disease he holds in constant dread, and of which he knows, by sad experience, the fatal effects. The protection he will prize highly, and will give in return the only boon a destitute man is capable of giving; the deep-felt gratitude of an overflowing heart.

I have the honour to be, Very respectfully, sir, Your obedient servant, DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, ESQ., U. S. Ind. Agt., Sault de Ste. Marie.

4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY.

IX.

ASTRONOMICAL AND BAROMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

1. A Table of Geographical Positions on the Mississippi River at Low Water, observed in 1836.[275] By J. N. NICOLLET.

[275] Com. Doc. No. 237.

-------------------------------------------+-------------------+--------- |ESTIMATED DISTANCES| | BY WATER. |Altitudes PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +---------+---------+above the |From | From the| Gulf of |place to | Gulf of | Mexico. |place. | Mexico. | [276] -------------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------- Mouths of the Mississippi-- | Miles.| Miles.| Feet. | | | { The old Balize of the | | | Northeast { French and pilot-house, | ... | ... | ... pass { Light-house at the entrance | ... | ... | ... | | | South pass--light-house at the entrance | ... | ... | ... | | | { The new Balize and pilot-house| | | Southwest { on the east bayou | ... | ... | ... pass { The new light-house, completed| | | { January, 1840 | ... | ... | ... | | | New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | | front pavement | 104 | 104 | 10.5 | | | NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | | the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | | Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | | at low water, 113 feet. } | ... | ... | Range between high and low water, } | | | 13 feet. } | | | | | | Red River, north end of the island, | | | opposite the mouth | 236 | 340 | 76 | | | Natchez, light-house | 66 | 406 | 86 general level of the city | ... | ... | 264 | | | NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | | in 1835, 52 feet | | | | | | Yazoo River, the mouth | 128 | 534 | ... | | | White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | | mile above the mouth | 220 | 754 | 202 | | | New Madrid, Missouri | 361 | 1,115 | ... | | | Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 101 | 1,216 | 824 | | | Cape Girardeau | 41 | 1,257 | ... | | | St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | | of its pavement | 73 | 1,330 | 372 | | | St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 60 | 1,390 | 382 | | | Illinois River, the mouth | 36 | 1,426 | ... | | | Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | | small island at the mouth | 168 | 1,594 | 444 | | | Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | | mouth of the creek | 15 | 1,609 | 470 | | | Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | 30 | 1,639 | 486 | | | Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 39 | 1,678 | 505 | | | Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | | Davenport's residence | 44 | 1,722 | 528 | | | Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | | and Parkhurst | 15 | 1,737 | 554 | | | Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | | Fur Company's house | 195 | 1,932 | 642 | | | Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | | Prairie du Chien | ... | ... | 1,010 | | | Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | | Mississipi, 335 feet | 32 | 1,964 | 1,013 | | | Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 14 | 1,978 | ... | | | Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 23 | 2,001 | ... | | | Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 3 | 2,004 | ... | | | Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | | old mouth | 31 | 2,035 | 683 | | | Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | | the old mouth | ... | ... | 1,214 | | | Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | | Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | | east of Mississippi | ... | ... | 1,103

[276] The numbers in this column refer to the surface of the water in the Mississippi at the point mentioned, except when otherwise specially expressed.

-------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- | | WEST OF | | GREENWICH. PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |North | |latitudes. +----------- | |Longitudes | | in time. -------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- Mouths of the Mississippi-- | ° ´ ´´ | h. m. s. | | { The old Balize of the | | Northeast { French and pilot-house, | 29 7 15.3| 5 56 18.44 pass { Light-house at the entrance | 29 8 32.8| 5 56 5.52 | | South pass--light-house at the entrance | 28 59 42.3| 5 56 29.40 | | { The new Balize and pilot-house| | Southwest { on the east bayou | 28 59 49.5| 5 57 15.88 pass { The new light-house, completed| | { January, 1840 | 28 58 50 | 5 57 25.80 | | New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | front pavement | 29 57 23 | 5 59 56 | | NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | at low water, 113 feet. } | .. | .. Range between high and low water, } | | 13 feet. } | | | | Red River, north end of the island, | | opposite the mouth | 31 2 25 | 6 6 45 | | Natchez, light-house | 31 33 37 | 6 5 53.5 general level of the city | | | | NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | in 1835, 52 feet | | | | Yazoo River, the mouth | 32 28 00 | 6 3 58 | | White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | mile above the mouth | 33 57 20| 6 1 47 | | New Madrid, Missouri | 36 34 30| 5 57 49 | | Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 37 00 25| 5 56 10 | | Cape Girardeau | 37 18 39| 5 57 8 | | St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | of its pavement | 37 59 47| 6 0 44.7 | | St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 38 37 28| 6 1 2.6 | | Illinois River, the mouth | 38 58 12| ... | | Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | small island at the mouth | 40 21 43| 6 6 10 | | Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | mouth of the creek | 40 30 34| 6 6 4 | | Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | 40 52 56| ... | | Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 41 14 47| 6 5 26 | | Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | Davenport's residence | 41 31 50| ... | | Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | and Parkhurst | 41 36 8| 6 1 56 | | Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | Fur Company's house | 43 3 6| 6 4 37.3 | | Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | Prairie du Chien | | | | Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | Mississipi, 335 feet | ... | ... | | Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 43 29 26| 6 4 40 | | Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 43 47 00| 6 4 46 | | Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 43 49 00| 6 4 56 | | Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | old mouth | 43 57 14| 6 5 36 | | Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | the old mouth | ... | ... | | Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | east of Mississippi | ... | ...

-------------------------------------------+------------+------------ |WEST OF | |GREENWICH. | PLACES OF OBSERVATION. | |Authorities, +-----------+ &c. |Longitudes | | in arc. | -------------------------------------------+-----------+------------ Mouths of the Mississippi-- | ° ´ ´´ | | | { The old Balize of the | | Captain A. Northeast { French and pilot-house, | 89 4 36.6| Talcott. pass { Light-house at the entrance | 89 1 22.9| do. | | South pass--light-house at the entrance | 89 7 27.1| do. | | { The new Balize and pilot-house| | Southwest { on the east bayou | 89 18 58.2| do. pass { The new light-house, completed| | { January, 1840 | 89 21 27 | do. | | New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | front pavement | 89 59 4 | | | NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | at low water, 113 feet. } | ... |Albert Stein, Range between high and low water, } | | C. E. 13 feet. } | | | | Red River, north end of the island, | | opposite the mouth | 91 41 15 | Nicollet. | | Natchez, light-house | 91 28 22.5| do. general level of the city | | | | NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | in 1835, 52 feet | | | | Yazoo River, the mouth | 90 59 30 | Ferrer. | | White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | mile above the mouth | 90 26 45 |Nicollet. | | New Madrid, Missouri | 89 27 15 |Ferrer. | | Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 89 2 30 |Ferrer's | | longitude. | | Cape Girardeau | 89 17 00 |Long's 1st | | expedition. | | St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | of its pavement | 90 11 10 |Nicollet. | | St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 90 15 39 | do. | | Illinois River, the mouth | ... |Long's 1st | | expedition. | | Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | small island at the mouth | 91 32 30 |Nicollet. | | Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | mouth of the creek | 91 31 00 | do. | | Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | ... | do. | | Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 91 21 30 | do. | | Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | Davenport's residence | ... | do. | | Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | and Parkhurst | 90 29 00 | do. | | Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | Fur Company's house | 91 9 19.5| do. | | Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | Prairie du Chien | | | | Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | Mississipi, 335 feet | ... | do. | | Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 91 10 00 | do. | | Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 91 11 30 | do. | | Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 91 14 00 | do. | | Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | old mouth | 91 24 00 | do. | | Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | the old mouth | ... | do. | | Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | east of Mississippi | ... | do.

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS--CONTINUED. MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT LOW WATER.

-------------------------------------------+-------------------+--------- |ESTIMATED DISTANCES| | BY WATER. |Altitudes PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +---------+---------+above the |From | From the| Gulf of |place to | Gulf of | Mexico. |place. | Mexico. | -------------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------- Mountain Island, or Montagne qui trempe à|Miles. |Miles. | Feet. l'Eau of the French | 7 | 2,042 | ... Miniskah River, or White-water River | 27 | 2,069 | ... Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | | (Rivière aux Embarras of the French) | 1 | 2,070 | ... At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | | Chippeway River | 14 | 2,084 | ... Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | | corner of Lake Pepin | ... | ... | ... Reminicha (Montagne la Grange of the | | | French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 31 | 2,115 | 714 Top of Reminicha | ... | ... | 1,036 La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | | of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | | French) | 3 | 2,118 | ... St. Croix River, the mouth | 32 | 2,150 | 729 Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | | and Lake St. Croix | ... | ... | 866 St. Peter's, the mouth | 42 | 2,192 | 744 General level of the plateau on which Fort | | | Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | ... | 850 Pilot Knob, the top | ... | ... | 1,006 Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 8 | 2,200 | 856 Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| 19 | 2,219 | ... Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | | (Chippewas), | | | Crow River of the Americans | 10 | 2,229 | ... St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | | Sioux | 9 | 2,238 | ... Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 18 | 2,256 | ... Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | | mouth | 24 | 2,280 | ... Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | | Rapids | ... | ... | ... Osakis River, the mouth | 22 | 2,302 | ... Watab River, the mouth | 3 | 2,305 | ... Pekushino River, the mouth | 18 | 2,323 | ... Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | | above the mouth | 18 | 2,341 | 1,098 Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 10 | 2,351 | ... Nokay's River, the mouth | 18 | 2,369 | ... Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (Aile de | | | Corbeau River of the French, Crow-Wing | | | River of the Americans) | 12 | 2,381 | 1,130 Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | 18 | 2,399 | ... Pine River, the mouth | 30 | 2,429 | 1,176 Willow River, the mouth | 65 | 2,494 | ... Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 32 | 2,526 | 1,253 Swan River, the mouth | 38 | 2,564 | 1,290 Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | | falls | 63 | 2,627 | 1,840 Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | | mouth | 21 | 2,648 | ... Eagle Nest savannah (Marais aux Nids | | | d'Aigle of the French) | 16 | 2,664 | ... Leach Lake River, the mouth | 11 | 2,675 | 1,356 Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | | tongue of land near the entrance of the | | | Mississippi | 80 | 2,755 | 1,402 Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | | of the Mississippi | 45 | 2,800 | 1,456 Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 90 | 2,890 | 1,575 Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | | summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | | dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | | and Red River of the North | 6 | 2,896 | 1,680

-------------------------------------------+----------+----------- | | WEST OF PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |North | GREENWICH. |latitudes.+----------- | |Longitudes | | in time. -------------------------------------------+----------+----------- Mountain Island, or Montagne qui trempe à| ° ´ ´´ |h. m. s. l'Eau of the French | 44 1 7 | 6 6 2 Miniskah River, or White-water River | 44 12 36 | 6 7 25 Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | (Rivière aux Embarras of the French) | 44 13 20 | 6 7 22 At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | Chippeway River | 44 23 24 | 6 8 00 Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | corner of Lake Pepin | 44 36 20 | 6 9 40 Reminicha (Montagne la Grange of the | | French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 44 33 30 | 6 10 4 Top of Reminicha | ... | ... La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | French) | 44 34 00 | 6 10 8 St. Croix River, the mouth | 44 45 30 | 6 11 00 Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | and Lake St. Croix | ... | ... St. Peter's, the mouth | 44 52 46 | 6 12 19.6 General level of the plateau on which Fort | | Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | ... Pilot Knob, the top | ... | ... Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 44 58 40 | 6 12 42 Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| 45 15 00 | ... Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | (Chippewas), | | Crow River of the Americans | 45 16 00 | ... St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | Sioux | 45 20 30 | ... Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 45 18 14 | 6 15 50 Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | mouth | 45 24 25 | 6 16 30 Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | Rapids | 45 35 00 | 6 16 48 Osakis River, the mouth | 45 35 35 | 6 16 48 Watab River, the mouth | 45 37 00 | 6 16 58 Pekushino River, the mouth | 45 46 50 | 6 17 14 Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | above the mouth | 45 54 30 | 6 17 28 Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 46 4 00 | 6 17 4 Nokay's River, the mouth | 46 10 30 | 6 17 15 Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (_Aile de | | Corbeau River_ of the French, Crow-Wing | | River of the Americans) | 46 16 50 | 6 17 31 Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | 46 26 00 | ... Pine River, the mouth | 46 35 00 | ... Willow River, the mouth | 46 40 30 | 6 13 30 Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 46 47 10 | 6 12 38 Swan River, the mouth | 47 00 43 | 6 12 36 Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | falls | 47 14 50 | 6 13 47 Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | mouth | 47 11 4 | 6 14 10 Eagle Nest savannah (_Marais aux Nids | | d'Aigle_ of the French) | 47 18 10 | 6 14 36 Leach Lake River, the mouth | 47 14 00 | 6 14 52 Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | tongue of land near the entrance of the | | Mississippi | 47 25 23 | 6 18 16 Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | of the Mississippi | 47 28 46 | 6 19 22 Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 47 13 35 | 6 20 8 Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | and Red River of the North | |

-------------------------------------------+----------+------------ | WEST OF | PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |GREENWICH.|Authorities, +----------+ &c. |Longitudes| | in arc. | -------------------------------------------+----------+------------ Mountain Island, or Montagne qui trempe à| ° ´ ´´ | l'Eau of the French | 91 30 30 | Nicollet. Miniskah River, or White-water River | 91 51 15 | do. Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | (Rivière aux Embarras of the French) | 91 50 30 | do. At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | Chippeway River | 92 00 00 | do. Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | corner of Lake Pepin | 92 25 00 | do. Reminicha (Montagne la Grange of the | | French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 92 31 00 | do. Top of Reminicha | ... | do. La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | French) | 92 32 00 | do. St. Croix River, the mouth | 92 45 00 | do. Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | and Lake St. Croix | ... | do. St. Peter's, the mouth | 93 4 54 | do. General level of the plateau on which Fort | | Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | do. Pilot Knob, the top | ... | do. Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 93 10 30 | do. Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| ... | do. Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | (Chippewas), | | Crow River of the Americans | ... | do. St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | Sioux | ... | Nicollet. Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 93 57 30 | do. Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | mouth | 94 7 30 | do. Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | Rapids | 94 12 00 | do. Osakis River, the mouth | 94 12 00 | do. Watab River, the mouth | 94 14 30 | do. Pekushino River, the mouth | 94 18 30 | do. Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | above the mouth | 94 22 00 | do. Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 94 16 00 | do. Nokay's River, the mouth | 94 18 45 | do. Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (_Aile de | | Corbeau River_ of the French, Crow-Wing | | River of the Americans) | 94 22 45 | do. Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | ... | do. Pine River, the mouth | ... | do. Willow River, the mouth | 93 22 30 | do. Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 93 9 30 | do. Swan River, the mouth | 93 9 00 | do. Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | falls | 93 26 45 | do. Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | mouth | 93 32 30 | do. Eagle Nest savannah (_Marais aux Nids | | d'Aigle_ of the French) | 93 39 00 | do. Leach Lake River, the mouth | 93 43 00 | do. Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | tongue of land near the entrance of the | | Mississippi | 94 34 00 | do. Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | of the Mississippi | 94 50 30 | do. Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 95 2 00 | do. Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | and Red River of the North | |

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS--CONTINUED. REGIONS OF THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

-------------------------------+---------+----------+----------- | | | WEST OF |Altitudes| | GREENWICH. PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |above the|North | | Gulf of |latitudes.+----------- | Mexico. | |Longitudes | | | in time. -------------------------------+---------+----------+----------- Gayashk River, or Little Gull | Feet. | ° ´ ´´ |h. m. s. River, the mouth | 1,131 | 46 18 50 | 6 17 44 Gayashk Lake, or Little Gull | | | Lake, end of Long Point | 1,152 | 46 24 28 | 6 17 30 Kadicomeg Lake, or White-Fish | | | Lake, the entrance of Pine | | | River | 1,192 | 46 40 25 | 6 16 10 Lake Chanché, southwest end | ... | 46 46 35 | ... Lake Eccleston, northwest end | ... | 46 57 00 | ... Leech Lake, Otter-tail Point | 1,380 | 47 11 40 | 6 17 20 Leech Lake, the bay opposite | | | Otter-tail Point | ... | 47 7 22 | 6 17 28 Kabekonang River, the junction | | | of the upper fork, near the | | | next-mentioned portage | 1,406 | 47 16 00 | ... Portage from Kabekonang River | | | to La Place River, near the | | | west end | 1,540 | 47 15 00 | ... Assawa Lake, below the south | | | end | 1,532 | 47 12 10 | 6 19 40 Highest ridge on the portage | | | between Assawa Lake and | | | Itasca Lake | 1,695 | ... | ... Cleared pine camp, on Leech | | | Lake River | ... | 47 18 00 | 6 16 00

-------------------------------+----------+------------ |WEST OF | |GREENWICH.|Authorities, PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +----------+ &c. |Longitudes| | in arc. | -------------------------------+----------+------------ Gayashk River, or Little Gull | ° ´ ´´ | River, the mouth | 94 26 00 | Nicollet. Gayashk Lake, or Little Gull | | Lake, end of Long Point | 94 22 30 | do. Kadicomeg Lake, or White-Fish | | Lake, the entrance of Pine | | River | 94 2 30 | do. Lake Chanché, southwest end | ... | do. Lake Eccleston, northwest end | ... | do. Leech Lake, Otter-tail Point | 94 20 00 | do. Leech Lake, the bay opposite | | Otter-tail Point | 94 22 00 | do. Kabekonang River, the junction | | of the upper fork, near the | | next-mentioned portage | ... | do. Portage from Kabekonang River | | to La Place River, near the | | west end | ... | do. Assawa Lake, below the south | | end | 94 55 00 | do. Highest ridge on the portage | | between Assawa Lake and | | Itasca Lake | ... | do. Cleared pine camp, on Leech | | Lake River | 94 00 00 | do.

5. SCENERY.

X.

(a) Scenery of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Few portions of America can vie in scenic attractions with this interior sea. Its size alone gives it all the elements of grandeur; but these have been heightened by the mountain masses which nature has piled along its shores. In some places, these masses consist of vast walls, of coarse gray, or drab-colored sandstone, placed horizontally, until they have attained many hundred feet in height above the water. The action of such an immense liquid area, forced against these crumbling walls by tempests, has caused wide and deep arches to be worn into the solid structure, at their base, into which the billows roll, with a noise resembling low-pealing thunder. By this means, large areas of the impending mass are at length undermined and precipitated into the lake, leaving the split and rent parts, from which they have separated, standing like huge misshapen turrets and battlements. Such is the varied coast, called the Pictured Rocks.

At other points of the coast, volcanic forces have operated, lifting up these level strata into positions nearly vertical, and leaving them to stand, like the leaves of a vast open book. At the same time, the volcanic rocks sent up from below, have risen in high mountains, with ancient gaping craters. Such is the condition of the disturbed stratification at the Porcupine Mountains.

The basin and bed of this lake act like a vast geological mortar, in which the masses of broken and fallen stones are whirled about and ground down, till all the softer ones, such as the sandstones, are brought into the state of pure yellow sand. This sand is driven ashore by the waves, where it is shoved up in long wreaths, and dried by the sun. The winds now take it up, and spread it inland, or pile it immediately along the coast, where it presents itself in mountain masses. Such are the great sand dunes of the Grande Sables.

There are yet other theatres of action for this sublime mass of inland waters, where the lake has manifested, perhaps, still more strongly, its abrasive powers. The whole force of its waters, under the impulse of a northwest tempest, is directed against prominent portions of the shore, which consist of black and hard volcanic rocks. Solid as these are, the waves have found an entrance in veins of spar, or minerals of softer texture, and have thus been led on their devastating course inland, tearing up large fields of amygdaloid, or other rock; or, left portions of them standing in rugged knobs, or promontories. Such are the east and west coasts of the great peninsula of Keweena, which have recently become the theatre of mining operations.

When the visitor to these remote and boundless waters comes to see this wide and varied scene of complicated geological disturbances and scenic magnificence, he is absorbed in wonder and astonishment. The eye, once introduced to this panorama of waters, is never done looking and admiring. Scene after scene, cliff after cliff, island after island, and vista after vista are presented. One day's scenes of the traveller are but the prelude to another; and when weeks, and even months, have been spent in picturesque rambles along its shores, he has only to ascend some of its streams, and go inland a few miles, to find falls, and cascades, and cataracts of the most beautiful or magnificent character. Go where he will, there is something to attract him. Beneath his feet are pebbles of agates; the water is of the most crystalline purity. The sky is filled, at sunset with the most gorgeous piles of clouds. The air itself is of the purest and most inspiring kind. To visit such a scene is to draw health from its purest sources, and while the eye revels in intellectual delights, the soul is filled with the liveliest symbols of God, and the most striking evidences of his creative power.

(b) Letters of Mr. M. Woolsey. Southern Literary Messenger, 1836. Oneöta, p. 322.

These spirited and graphic letters are unavoidably excluded. The evidence they bear to the purity of principle, justness of taste, and excellence of character of a young man, now no more, ought to preserve his name from oblivion. He accompanied me in 1831, as a volunteer, in a leisure moment, an admirer of nature, seeking health.

INDEX.

A

A bear trapped, 98 A box of minerals stolen, 40 A granitical formation on Lake Superior, 88 A long fast, 126 A new philological principle in languages, 455 A phenomenon, 103 A precinct of Indian orgies, 115 A sub-expedition to Sandy Lake, 112 A war-party surprised, 552 Account of sub-explorations of Green Bay, 210 Acipenser oxyrinchus, 95 Acipenser spatularia, 163 Advance of Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountains, 109 African and Indian marriages, 108 Agaric mineral, 60 Agate, 87 Agglutinative properties of the Indian pronoun, 502 Aggregate fall of the Mississippi below Sandy Lake, 150; commencement of the calcareous rocks, 150 Algoma, 107 Algonquin language justly applauded, 122 Algonac, 50 Allenoga River, 250 Allen's Lake, 263 Aluminous minerals, 354 American Indian policy, 546 American antiquities, 166 Amygdaloid, 90 An Indian breakfast, 253 An Indian grave with hieroglyphics, 88 An Indian nonplused in the woods, 97 An Indian salute, 120 Analysis of Lake Superior copper at Utrecht, 364 Anodonta corpulenta, 516 Announcement of return of expedition, of 1820, 279 Antique markings on the pinus resinosa, 552 Antique notices of the lake mineralogy, 295 Antiquities, 157; first notice of in 1766, 165 Apparent tide in the Baltic, 191 Appearance of dune sand at Point aux Barques, 54 Appendix No. 2, 449 Apricots in bloom on the 22d of April, 41 Arched rock, 61 Argillaceous stratum of Detroit, 307 Argillite, 111 Artesian borings for water, 51 Art of the wounded duck, 249 Arts and manufactures of the Chippewas and Ottowas, 70 Ascent of the Assowa River, 235 Asphaltum and naphtha, 196 Assassination of Owen Keveny, 69 Assowa Lake, 239 Atmospheric heat 28th June, 96 Aux Sables Indians, 55

B

Bark letter in pictographic characters, 433 Barometrical height of Cass Lake, 139 Barytic minerals, 357 Basin of Lake Michigan, 335 Basin of Lake Superior, 318 Bat in wood, 396 Beltrami, 227 Birch Lake, 263 Birds inhabiting the region of Pakagama Falls, 130 Birds of Lake Superior, 104 Birds of the Wisconsin Valley, 181 Bituminous minerals, 358 Bivalve shells, 415 Black River, 103 Boatswain to Com. Perry in 1813, 194 Botany, 408 Boulders on the shores of Lake St. Clair, 49 Boundary between Michigan and Wisconsin, 103 Breadth of the Mississippi at Sandy Lake, 124 Brigham's residence at Blue Mound, 568 Brulé summit, 273 Buckshot gravel, 62 Buffalo hunt, 146

C

Cabotian Mountains, 110 Calcareous minerals, 350 Canadian canoe-song, 189 Canoe-race, 48 Capt. Douglass, 210 Capt. Jouett, 269 Capture and massacre of the garrison of old Mackinac, 63 Carnage River, 248 Carnelian, 87 Carver's Cave, 159 Carver's travels, 21 Cass, his official report, 280 Cass Lake, 130 Cass Lake basin, 328 Cass on Indian hieroglyphics, 430 Cassville, Wisconsin, 169 Chagoimegon, 105 Chalcedony and calcareous spar, 54 Charles Stokes, Esq., his geological memoir, 315 Charlevoix's visit to America, 20 Character and value of Dubuque's lead mines, 172 Character of the bison, 147 Character of the Canadian voyageur, 124 Cheboigan, its etymology, 213 Chenos, a masked coast, 73 Chicago, etymology of name, population, and greatness, 198 Chief Guelle Plat, 255 Chippewa character of the Kekeewin, 154 Chippewa dance, 87 Chippewa term of salutation, 84 Chippewa village, 94 Cinnamon-colored radiated quartz, 163 Claimants to mine lands, 365 Clinton River, 49 Club fungus partially fossilized, 204 Coal in Western New York, 391 Coast of boulders, 215 Col. Croghan's attack at Fort Holmes in 1814, 64 Col. Pierce, 58 Coluber æstivus, 50 Combustibles, 536 Commercial value of copper, 372 Conchology, 178 Connection with Blackhawk's plans disclaimed, 272 Cooper's description of shells, 515 Copper-bearing trap-dykes, 89 Copper boulder, its size, 97 Copper-head snake, 238 Copper ores of Mineral Point, 567 Cormorant, 130 Corn ripens at St. Peter's Valley, 153 Cornu-ammonis; a fossiliferous coast, 56 Corregonus albus, 260 Cost of lake transportation, 376 Council at Cass Lake, 251 Council at Sandy Lake, 226 Council at St. Peter's agency, 269 Council at the ultimate point of the first expedition, 133 Council with Indians; their hostility, 78; they raise the British flag, 79 Crow-wing River, 145 Crystals of iron pyrites, 196 Cupreous formation, 324 Cup-shaped concavities, 61

D

Dacota, or Nadownsie Indians, 158 Danger escaped, 566 Date and circumstance of Pike's visit to Sandy Lake, 117 Date of Prairie du Chien, 167 Date of the battle of Badaxe, 269 Date of Wisconsin as a territorial name, 176 De Witt Clinton offers the use of his library, 23 Dead scaffolded, 122 Defect of postal facilities, at Mackinac, 65 Depth of the Detroit clay beds, 51 Derogative inflections of the Indian noun, 476 Descent of Itasca River, 246 Description of the Indian canoe, 47 Desiderata of discovery, 227 Detroit completely burnt down in 1805, 44 Detroit first founded in 1701, 45 Difficulty of studying the Indian tongues, 441 Difficulty of the descent of the Brulé, 273 Diluvial elevations, 385 Diminutive forms of the Odjibwa noun, 474 Discover native copper, 90 Discovery of Itasca Lake, 573 Distance from Lake Superior to Lake Pepin, 544 Distance from St. Peter's to the gulf, 153; elevation of the country, 153 Distances travelled in the expedition of 1831, 544 Dr. McDonnell's letter, 439 Dr. Mitchell's summary of discoveries, 416 Drift-stratum, 115, 322 Dubuque City, 170 Du Ponceau's prize essay, 453

E

Earliest date of Winnebago history, 194 Earthy compounds, 534 Elementary structure of the Algonquin language, 442 Elk Island, 216 Elk River, its latitude, 147 Elevation of Lake Superior, 107 Elevation of the cliff of La Grange, 162 Elevation of the country at the Savanna Portage, 120 Encampment at St. Mary's, 76 Ephemeral insects, 167 Epoch of the deposit of St. Mary's sandstone, 539 Epochs of geological action proved by fossils, 400 Era of Pontiac's hostile movements, 62 Era of the discovery of the St. Lawrence, 121 Erismatolite, 103 Erratic block stratum, 53 Erratic block and drift stratum, 61 Essay on the Odjibwa substantive, 453 Establishment of a military post at St. Peter's, 152 Etymology, 116 Etymology of Manitowakie, 195 Etymology of Minnesota, 156 Etymology of Namikong, 85 Etymology of Pawating, 81 Etymology of Rum River, 150 Etymology of the word Konamik, 186 Etymology of the word Michilimackinac, 70 Etymology of the word Mississippi, 140 Etymology of the word Wisconsin, 179 Etymology of Waganukizzie, 207 Evidences of ancient Indian cultivation, 59 Evidences of diluvial action, 318 Explorations recommended, 285 Extensive and fertile bow-shaped area, 135

F

Fallacious appearance of a tide in Green Bay, 191 Fallacious information of the Indians, respecting the lead mines, 180 Falls and precipices, 110 Falls of St. Croix, 270 Falls of the Montreal River, 103 Federation group of islands of Lake Superior, 105, 321 Feud between the Sioux and Chippewas, 545 Final embarkation at Grosse Point, 49 Final separation of the party at Fort Dearborn, 197 First lake vessel built by La Salle, 212 First steamboat visits Michilimackinac in 1819, 212 Flat Rock Point, organic remains, 55 Flock of pigeons drowned in storms, 195 Flora of Lake Michigan, 206 Fluor spar, 353 Fond du Lac, 184 Fondness of the Indians for melons, 170 Forest-trees, 143 Forest-trees buried by oceanic drift, 51 Fort Holmes, when dismantled, 64 Fort Howard, 190 Fort Niagara built, 62 Fossil fauna of the West, 199 Fossil wood, 386 Foundation of old Mackinac, 62 Fox chief Aquoqua, 171 Fox River Valley, 184 Fox Village, 169 Freshwater conchology, 188 Freshwater shells of the Fox and Wisconsin, 416 Friendship of Wawetum, 67 Friendly act of the daughter of Wabojeeg, 80 Frogs inclosed in stone, 386 Fringillia vespertina, or Schoolcraft's grosbec, 515 Further discussion of the Odjibwa substantive, 470

G

Galena, 174 Generalizations on the Mississippi River, 139 Geographical data of the portage from Lake Superior to the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, 540 Geological deductions, 300 Geological memoranda, 119 Geological monuments, 332 Geology of Mackinac, 66 Geological outlines of the Lake Superior coast, 109 Geological phenomena, 245 Geology, 261 Glacial action, 216 Globe of sandstone from a geological pocket-hole, 316 Grammatical structure of sentences in the Odjibwa, 495 Granite Point, 88 Granular gypsum in sandstone, 86 Graphic granite, 84 Gratiot's Grove, 564 Grauwackke, 111 Grauwackke of Iron River, 321 Grave of Dubuque, 174 Gray wolf, 149, 166 Great copper boulder on Lake Superior, 294 Great sand dunes, 85 Green Bay City, 191 Group of the Manatouline Islands, 74 Grosbec--new species, 515 Gypsum, 65, 313

H

Habits of the anas canadensis, 234 Helix, 515 Hennepin, 151 Henry Inman, 23 Herds of buffalo east of the Mississippi, 432 High value of the Lake Superior copper mines urged on Congress, 368 Highest platform mound on the Mississippi, 157 Highlands of Sauble, 310 Historical data respecting Dubuque's mines, 174 Historical data respecting the smallpox, 578 Historical facts, 150 History of Green Bay, 190 History of the Chippewas, 121 History of the Fox Indians, 175 Hochungara, or Winnebagoes, 181 Holcus fragrans, 157 Houghton's analysis of the lake copper, 527 Houghton's plants, 519 How possessives are formed in the Chippewa, 461 Human skull in the solid part of a living tree, 396 Huron coast line, 309 Huttonian theory, 405 Hystrix, 73

I

Ice formed on the 19th of July, 127 Illigan Lake, 264 Image stone, 231 Importance of vaccination to Indians, 581 Impression of a trilobite in quartz, 66 Indian altar, 55 Indian birch-bark letter, 433 Indian boundary, 149 Indian chief Red Thunder, 158 Indian chief Red Wing, 163 Indian corn-dance, 160 Indian council, 99 Indian council at the mouth of the Crow-wing, 267 Indian dwarf, 178 Indian language, 453 Indian myth of Itasca, stanzas on, 243 Indian oratory, 256 Indian queen, 254 Indian summer, 428 Indian superstition respecting mines, 374 Indian symbol for a man, 113 Indian term for geologist, 90 Indian trait, 151 Indian translation of an expression, 144 Indian tribes visited in 1831, 540 Indian women engage in mining, 173 Indian women gathering rice, 130 Indians turn mineralogists, 90 Inquiries respecting the history of the Indians, 438 Inter-European amalgamation, 77 Intrepid act of Gen. Cass, 80 Iron sand, 106 Irving's Lake, 230 Island of ancient Indian sepulchre, 194 Itasca Lake, 246

J

James Riley, 78 Jargon of the northwest, 234 John Johnston, Esq., 80 Journey from Albany to Geneva, 41 Journey in a sleigh across the Highlands, 40

K

Kabamappa accuses the Sioux of treachery, 548 Kaginogumaug, or Longwater Lake, 261 Kakabika Falls, 247 Kakala, its probable meaning, 187 Kalamazoo, 203 Kubba-Kunna, 234

L

La Hontan's apocryphal discovery on Long River, 19 Lac Plè, 263 Lac Traverse, 229 Lac Vieux Desert, 263 Lacustrine clay-flats of Lake St. Clair, 49 Lake action, 318 Lake Audrusia, 228 Lake Chetac, 543 Lake Douglass, 265 Lake drift, 323 Lake Pepin, 163, 332 Lake St. Clair, 216 Landscape of Michilimackinac, 71 Last year the bison is seen east of the Mississippi, 148 Latitude of Mackinac, 64 Lead mines at Dubuque, 168, 333 Leading events in the life of Gen. Macomb, 72 Leaf River of the Crow-wing, 266 Learn the state of the Sauc war, 269 Leech Lake, 259 Leech Lake River, 129; etymology, 129 Left Hand River, 108 Legal claim to the mine tract, 174 Length of the Mississippi, 245 Letter to Nathaniel H. Carter, Esq., 409 Level of Lake Erie above tide-water, 43 Limits of the cervus sylvestris, 515 Line of discovery above Cass Lake, 244 List of latitudes and longitudes, 289 List of quadrupeds and birds observed, 413 Little Crow chief, 157 Little Vermilion Lake, 262 Localities of minerals and rock strata, 211 Locality of freshwater shells, 167 Long Prairie River, 266 Longitudinal phenomena, 109 Lt. Col. Fowle, notice of, 168 Lupus Americanus, 56 Lyceum of Natural History, New York, extract from its annals, 532

M

M. Woolsey, 588 Mackinac limestone, 312 Magnesian minerals, 356 Magnitude of Lake Michigan, 202 Marquette's discovery of the Mississippi, 17 Mass of native copper, on the shores of Winnebago Lake, 185 Massachusetts Island, 105 Mean temperature at the sources of the Upper Mississippi River, 123; party for the ultimate discovery of this river, 123 Mean temperature of St. Peter's Valley, 154 Mean velocity of current of Mississippi River, 126 Metallic masses, 100 Metallic minerals, 340 Meteorological journal kept at Chicago, 424 Meteorology, 418 Metoswa rapids, 229 Metunna Rapids, 266 Micaceous oxide of iron, 111 Michigan--its population at various periods, 46 Michilimackinac, 57, 311 Michilimackinac first becomes a capital for the fur trade, 68; J. J. Astor occupies it in 1816, 68 Miera, or Walk-in-the-water, 212 Milwaukie, its etymology, population, and resources, 196 Mine of Peosta, 171 Mineral character of Lake Superior, 100 Mineralogy and geology, 292 Mineralogy of the Northwest, 534 Miners' mode of classifying ore, 564 Mississippi first crossed by primary rocks, 147 Mississippi from the influx of the Missouri, 138 Mistake respecting American antiquities, 157 Mode of converting a noun to a verb in the Odjibwa, 481 Mollusks, 127 Montruille an object of pity, 131 Mozojeed, a chief of energy, 550 Mr. Monroe's message of 7th December, 1822, 363 Mr. Schoolcraft's Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior, 292 Mukkundwa Indians, ethnological sketch, 258 Murder of Gov. Semple, 255 Muskego River, 104 My first portage; what is "a piece," 90 Mythologic notion, 99

N

Naiwa rapids, 236 Native salt and native copper, 155 Native silver, and its ores, 531 Natural history, 515 Nebeesh Island and Rapids, 75 Neenaba, a partisan chief, 554 New localities of copper, 375 New seat for Hygeia and the Muses, 60 New species in conchology, 417 Nicollet's table of geographical positions, 582 Noble reply of an Algonquin chief, 63 Noble view, 83 Number in the Chippewa, 457 Number, value, &c. of the copper mines of Lake Superior, 363

O

Objects of governmental policy, 558 Oblations to the dead, 123 Observe the buffalo, 146 Odjibwa animate and inanimate adjectives, 490 Odjibwa compound words, 483 Odjibwa numerals, 501 Odjibwamong, 82 Offering food to the dead, 123 Official report of Gen. Cass, 280 Okunzhewug, a chieftainess, murdered, 550 Old English Copper-mining Company, 296 Old Mackinac, its date, 208 Onzig River, 84 Ores and metals, 536 Organic impressions, 313 Organization of the expedition of 1832, 223 Origin of the Indian race, 439 Ornithology, 130 Ortho-cerite limestone, 74 Ottowa Lake, 542

P

Pakagama Falls, 127 Palæontological rocks, 330 Palaozoic sandstone, 539 Peace Rock, 149 Pelican, 177 Perch or Assawa Lake, 362 Period of the first military occupation of old Mackinac, 64 Petrified leaf, with a sketch, 206 Pewabik River, 102 Physical Character of the Crow-wing River, 267 Physical characters of the Mississippi, 133 Pictographic device, 148 Pictographic Indian inscription, 113 Pictographic mode of communicating ideas, 430 Pictured rocks, 86 Pike's Bay, 251 Pipe-stone, or opwagunite, 155 Planorbis, 515 Planorbis companulatus, 246 Plants collected by Dr. Houghton, 519 Plastic clay of St. Clair flats, 308 Plateau of lakes and marshes, 128 Polydon, 416 Polyganum, 124 Population and statistics of Mackinac in 1820, 64 Population of Detroit in 1820, 45 Population of Leech Lake, 260 Population of Ottowas, 203 Porcupine Mountains, 91, 323 Porphyry and conglomerate boulders, 317 Portage to the sources of Crow-wing River, 260 Positive and negative forms of speech, in the Odjibwa, 497 Potatoes vegetate in pure pebbles, 62 Pouched rat, 156 Practicability of working the Superior mines of copper and iron, 370; advantages of transportation, 371 Preliminary incidents at Washington, 39 Preliminary Report of Exploring Expedition of 1832, 573 Primary forks of the Mississippi, 232; country disposed in plateaux, 233 Principles of the Odjibwa noun-adjective, 489 Produce of the copper mines of the world, 379 Pseudomorphous forms, 314 Pseudostoma pinetorum, 156 Pusabika River, 102

Q

Quartz geodes, 334 Quartzite rock, 127 Queen Anne's Lake, 280 Question of prepositions, 471

R

Racine, 197 Rapid glances at the geology of Western New York, 381 Rapids of the Mississippi above Sandy Lake, 125 Rattlesnake of the Wisconsin Hills, 181 Reach Detroit, after a passage of 62 hours, 44 Reach Itasca Lake, its outline, 241 Reach Lake Superior, 274 Rebus nutkanus, 129 Reciprocal death in a combat, 201 Red Banks, 194 Red jasper in quantity, 58 Red oxide of iron, 155 Red sandstone, 91 Red sandstone of Lake Superior, 316 Register of temperature in the United States, 426 Reorganization of the first expedition at Chicago, 200 Report of Dr. Houghton on the copper of Lake Superior, 526 Report of Mr. Schoolcraft to the Senate on the mineral lands of Lake Superior, 362 Residents of Chicago in 1820, 197 Return of expedition of 1820 to Detroit, 217; summary notice of, 217 Return to Sandy Lake, 142 Returns of the Cornwall and Devon copper mines, 378 Rifle shooting, 83 Rise of waters in the lakes, 214 River St. Croix, 162 Robert de la Salle, 17 Rosa parviflora, 144 Ruins of Fort St. Joseph, built in 1795, 75 Rule of euphony in the Algonquin language, 444; active and passive voices, 446; philosophical mode of denoting number, 445

S

Sacred island of the Indians, 70 Saganaw Bay, 54, 310 Saliferous red clay, 389 Sandstone in a vertical position, 102 Sandstone rock found in place on the east coast of Lake Huron, 52 Sandy Lake, 327 Sarracenia purpurea, or owl's moccasin, 214 Saurian, 249 Savanna of Gatchi Betobeeg, 141 Savanna summit, 118 Saw-mills in the Indian territory, 555 Scenery of Lake Superior, 587 Schoolcraft's examination of the Indian vowels, 443 Schoolcraft's geological report, 304 Schoolcraft's Island, 243 Schoolcraft's official report in 1831, 540 Septaria, 203 Serpentine rock, 322 Sexual nouns, 479 Sheboigan, its etymology, 195 Shingabawossin reopens negotiations, 81 Sienitic and hornblende rock, 148 Silicious minerals, 345 Silurian limestone, 167 Silver, a boulder specimen, 532 Silver medal presented, 99 Sioux masses of colored clays, 155 Site of a massacre in 1812, 200 Site of an ancient dune, 308 Skeleton paradigm of the Indian verb, 507 Sketch of Sandy Lake, 116 Sketch of the banks of the Mississippi from St. Anthony, 137 Sketch of the river at the Copper Rock, 97 Sketches addressed to Gen. George P. Morris, 560 Skull Cave, on the island of Mackinac, 66, Alexander Henry's adventures in 1763, 66. Smallpox appears among the Chippewas in 1750, 578 Society on the island; its peculiar phases, 69 Soil and climate of Minnesota, 153 Soldiers poor canoemen, 269 Source of Assowa River, 240; portage over the height of land, 240 South coast line of Lake Superior, 320 Species of freshwater shells, 181 St. Anthony's Falls, its Indian name, 151 St. Mary's Canal, 82 St. Paul's, Minnesota, 159 State of geological knowledge in 1819, 381 Stationary distances on Lake Superior, 92 Statistics of maple sugar made by the Indians, 71 Statistics of the fur trade, 68 Staurotide; native silver, 53 Steamboat Walk-in-the-Water, 43 Straits of St. Mary, 315 Stratification, 81 Stratum of quartzite rock, 141 Sub-exploring party, 94 Sub-formative pronouns in the Algonquin language, 509; relative pronouns, 509; demonstrative pronouns, 513 Summit Lake, 263 Sun above the horizon at 12 P. M., 106 Superstition of the Indians, 571 Synopsis of Appendix No. 1, 277

T

Table of latitudes and longitudes in the Northwest, 582 Tabular view of minerals of the Northwest, 338 Temperature required by tropical plants, 426 Tenacity of life of the deer, 235 Tensal inflections in the Algonquin, 478 Testimonial to Capt. Douglass and Mr. Schoolcraft, 287 The glutton, 141 The Mississippi viewed in sections, 137 The trap-rock the true copper-bearing medium, 530 Thirteen-striped squirrel, 156 Time required in passing Lake Superior, 107 Topography and astronomy, 288 Tortoise, 113 Tortuous channel, 129 Totem, 123 Tour from Galena to Fort Winnebago, 560 Track of Indian migration, 122 Tramp through a swamp, 112 Treaty of June 16, 1820, 81 Trunk of a tree fossilized, 396 Turtle River, 131

U

Ultimate point reached by the first expedition, 132 Unio, 167, 517 Unio food for the wild duck, 234 Unio Schoolcraftensis, 181 Upper Red Cedar Lake, 130 Uva ursi, 88

V

Vaccination of Indians, 574 Valley of Taquimenon, 537 Valley of the St. Croix, 332 Valley of the St. Louis, 325 Vast caldron in grauwackke, 103 Verbs in the Algonquin, how changed to substantives, 482 Vermilion canoe, 254 Vesicular crumbling limestone, 60 Vestiges of a wreck on Lake Michigan, 202 View of Lake Huron, 51 Views of skeptics on the Mosaical chronology, 407 Virginia Island, 105 Visit Niagara, its etymology, 41, 42 Visit to Gen. Dodge at his residence, 567 Visit to the locality of the great mass of copper on Lake Superior, 299 Vitric boulders, 324 Volcanic upheavals, 305 Voyageurs hired not to drink spirits, and to keep the Sabbath, 268

W

War-party of Neenaba broken up, 553 Water-worn agates on the lacustrine summit, 112 Waughpekennota, 193 White crystalline sand rock, 331 White Rock, 52 White springs of Ontario, 385 Width of Sandy Lake River at its outlet, 226 Width of the Mississippi at the outlet of Cass Lake, 227 Winnebago idea of geology, 185 Winonao laita, 164 Wisconsin, 183, 333 Wisconsin lead mines; aspect of the country, 561 Wolverine, 141

Y

Year 1820 opens with severe weather, 40 Yellow River war-party, 549

Z

Zeolite, 87 Zinc found in the Wisconsin mines, 565 Zoned agate, 237 Zoological objects inclosed in rock, or the solid parts of trees, &c., 392 Zoology, 408

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