Appendix

Appendix

1. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS.

I.

DETROIT, September 14, 1820.

SIR: I am happy to be enabled to state to you that I reached this place four days since, with some of the gentlemen who accompanied me on my late tour, after a very fortunate journey of four thousand miles, and an accomplishment, without any adverse accident, of every object intrusted to me. The party divided at Green Bay, with a view to circumnavigate Lake Michigan, and I trust they may all arrive here in the course of a week.

As soon as possible, I shall transmit to you a detailed report upon the subject.

Since my arrival, I have learned that Mr. Ellicott, professor of mathematics, at the military academy, is dead. I cannot but hope that the office will not be filled until the return of Captain Douglass. I do not know whether such an appointment would suit him; but from my knowledge of his views, feelings, and pursuits, I presume it would. And an intimate acquaintance with him during my tour enables me to say that in every requisite qualification, as far as I can judge, I have never found a man who is his superior. His zeal, talents, and acquirements are of the first order, and I am much deceived if he do not soon take a distinguished rank among the most scientific men in our country. His situation as an assistant professor to Colonel Mansfield, and his connection with the family of Mr. Ellicott, furnish additional reasons why he should receive this appointment.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

II.

DETROIT, October 21, 1820.

SIR: I had the honor to inform you some time since that I had reached this place by land from Chicago, and that the residue of the party were daily expected. They arrived soon after, without accident, and this long and arduous journey has been accomplished without the occurrence of any unfavorable incident.

I shall submit to you, as soon as it can be prepared, a memoir respecting the Indians who occupy the country through which we passed; their numbers, disposition, wants, &c. It will be enough at present to say, that the whole frontier is in a state of profound peace, and that the remote Indians, more particularly, exhibit the most friendly feelings towards the United States. As we approach the points of contact between them and the British, the strength of this attachment evidently decreases, and about those points few traces of it remain. During our whole progress but two incidents occurred which evinced in the slightest degree, an unfriendly spirit. One of these was at St. Mary's, within forty-five miles of Drummond's Island, and the other within thirty miles of Malden. They passed off, however, without producing any serious result.

It is due to Colonel Leavenworth to say, that his measures upon the subject of the outrage committed by the Winnebago Indians, in the spring, were prompt, wise, and decisive. As you have long since learned, the murderers were soon surrendered; and so impressive has been the lesson upon the minds of the Indians, that the transaction has left us nothing to regret, but the untimely fall of the soldiers.

In my passage through the Winnebago country, I saw their principal chiefs, and stated to them the necessity of restraining their young men from the commission of acts similar in their character to those respecting which a report was made by Colonel Smith. I have reason to believe that similar complaints will not again be made, and I am certain that nothing but the intemperate passions of individuals will lead to the same conduct. Should it occur, the act will be disavowed by the chiefs, and the offenders surrendered with as much promptitude as the relapsed state of the government will permit.

The general route which we pursued was from this place to Michilimackinac by the southern shore of Lake Huron. From thence to Drummond's Island and by the River St. Mary's to the Sault. We there entered Lake Superior, coasted its southern shore to Point Kewena, ascended the small stream, which forms the water communication across the base of the point, and, after a portage of a mile and a half, struck the lake on the opposite side. Fifty miles from this place is the mouth of the Ontonagan, upon which have been found large specimens of copper.

We ascended that stream about thirty miles, to the great mass of that metal, whose existence has long been known. Common report has greatly magnified the quantity, although enough remains, even after a rigid examination, to render it a mineralogical curiosity. Instead of being a mass of pure copper, it is rather copper imbedded in a hard rock, and the weight does not probably exceed five tons, of which the rock is the much larger part. It was impossible to procure any specimens, for such was its hardness that our chisels broke like glass. I intend to send some Indians in the spring to procure the necessary specimens. As we understand the nature of the substance, we can now furnish them with such tools as will effect the object. I shall, on their return, send you such pieces as you may wish to retain for the Government, or to distribute as cabinet specimens to the various literary institutions of our country. Mr. Schoolcraft will make to you a detailed report upon this subject, in particular, and generally upon the various mineralogical and geological objects to which his inquiries were directed. Should he carry into effect the intention, which he now meditates, of publishing his journal of the tour, enriched with the history of the facts which have been collected, and with those scientific and practical reflections and observations, which few men are more competent to make, his work will rank among the most important accessions which have ever been made to our national literature.

From the Ontonagon we proceeded to the Fond du Lac, passing the mouths of the Montreal, Mauvais, and Brulé Rivers, and entered the mouth of the St. Louis, or Fond du Lac River, which forms the most considerable water communication between Lake Superior and the Mississippi.

The southern coast of the lake is sterile, cold, and unpromising. The timber is birch, pine, and trees of that description which characterize the nature of the country. The first part of the shore is moderately elevated, the next, hilly, and even mountainous, and the last a low, flat, sandy beach. Two of the most sublime natural objects in the United States, the Grand Sable and the pictured rocks, are to be found upon this coast. The former is an immense hill of sand, extending for some miles along the lake, of great elevation and precipitous ascent. The latter is an unbroken wall of rocks, rising perpendicularly from the lake to the height of 300 feet, assuming every grotesque and fanciful appearance, and presenting to the eye of the passenger a spectacle as tremendous as the imagination can conceive, or as reason itself can well sustain.

The emotions excited by these objects are fresh in the recollection of us all; and they will undoubtedly be described, so that the public can appreciate their character and appearance. The indications of copper upon the western part of the coast, are numerous; and there is reason to suppose that silver, in small quantities, has been found.

The communication by the Montreal with the Chippewa River, and by the Mauvais and Brulé Rivers with the St. Croix, is difficult and precarious. The routes are interrupted by long, numerous, and tedious portages, across which the boats and all their contents are transported by the men. It is doubtful whether their communication can ever be much used, except for the purposes to which they are now applied. In the present state of the Indian trade, human labor is nothing, because the number of men employed in transporting the property is necessary to conduct the trade, after the different parties have reached their destination, and the intermediate labor does not affect the aggregate amount of the expense. Under ordinary circumstances, and for those purposes to which water communication is applied in the common course of civilized trade, these routes would be abandoned. From the mouth of the Montreal River alone to its source, there are not less than forty-five miles of portage.

The St. Louis River is a considerable stream, and for twenty-five miles its navigation is uninterrupted. At this distance, near an establishment of the Southwest Company, commences the Grand Portage about six miles in length, across spurs of the Porcupine ridge of mountains. One other portage, one of a mile and a half, and a continued succession of falls, called the Grand Rapids, extending nine miles, and certainly unsurmountable except by the skill and perseverance of the Canadian boatmen, conduct us to a comparatively tranquil part of the river. From here to the head of the Savannah River, a small branch of the St. Louis, the navigation is uninterrupted, and after a portage of four miles, the descent is easy into Lake au Sable, whose outlet is within two miles of the Mississippi.

This was until 1816 the principal establishment of the British Northwest Company upon these waters, and is now applied to the same purpose by the American Fur Company.

From Lac au Sable, we ascended the Mississippi to the Upper Red Cedar Lake, which may be considered as the head of the navigation of that river. The whole distance, 350 miles, is almost uninhabitable. The first part of the route the country is generally somewhat elevated and interspersed with pine woods. The latter part is level wet prairie.

The sources of this river flow from a region filled with lakes and swamps, whose geological character indicates a recent formation, and which, although the highest table-land of this part of the Continent, is yet a dead level, presenting to the eye a succession of dreary uninteresting objects. Interminable marshes, numerous ponds, and a few low, naked, sterile plains, with a small stream, not exceeding sixty feet in width, meandering in a very crooked channel through them, are all the objects which are found to reward the traveller for the privations and difficulties which he must encounter in his ascent to this forbidding region.

The view on all sides is dull and monotonous. Scarcely a living being animates the prospect, and every circumstance recalled forcibly to our recollection that we were far removed from civilized life.

From Lac au Sable to the mouth of the St. Peter's, the distance by computation is six hundred miles. The first two hundred present no obstacles to navigation. The land along the river is of a better quality than above; the bottoms are more numerous, and the timber indicates a stronger and more productive soil. But near this point commence the great rapids of the Mississippi, which extend more than two hundred miles. The river flows over a rocky bed, which forms a continuous succession of rapids, all of which are difficult and some dangerous. The country, too, begins here to open, and the immense plains in which the buffaloes range approach the river. These plains continue to the Falls of St. Anthony.

They are elevated fifty or sixty feet above the Mississippi, are destitute of timber, and present to the eye a flat, uniform surface, bounded at the distance of eight or ten miles by high ground. The title of this land is in dispute between the Chippewas and Sioux, and their long hostilities have prevented either party from destroying the game in a manner as improvident as is customary among the Indians. It is consequently more abundant than in any other region through which we travelled.

From the post, at the mouth of the St. Peter's, to Prairie du Chien, and from that place to Green Bay, the route is too well-known to render it necessary that I should trouble you with any observations respecting it.

The whole distance travelled by the party between the 24th of May and the 24th of September exceeded 4,200 miles, and the journey was performed without the occurrence of a single untoward accident sufficiently important to deserve recollection.

These notices are so short and imperfect that I am unwilling to obtrude them upon your patience. But the demands upon your attention are so imperious, that to swell them into a geographical memoir would require more time for their examination than any interest which I am capable of giving the subject would justify.

I propose hereafter to submit some other observations to you in a different shape.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

III.

Copy of a letter from Gov. Lewis Cass to Hon. John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, dated

DETROIT, September 20, 1820.

SIR: In examining the state of our topographical knowledge, respecting that portion of the Northwestern frontier over which we have recently passed, it occurs to me that there are several points which require further examination, and which might be explored without any additional expense to the United States.

The general result of the observations made by Capt. Douglass, will be submitted to you as soon as it can be prepared. And I believe he will also complete a map of the extensive route we have taken, and embracing the whole of the United States, bounded by the Upper Lakes and by the waters of the Mississippi, and extending as far south as Rock Island and the southern extremities of Lakes Michigan and Erie. The materials in his possession are sufficient for such an outline, and he is every way competent to complete it. But there are several important streams, respecting which it is desirable to procure more accurate information than can be obtained from the vague and contradictory relations of Indians and Indian traders. The progress of our geographical knowledge has not kept pace with the extension of our territory, nor with the enterprise of our traders. But I trust the accurate observations of Captain Douglass will render a resort to the old French maps for information respecting our own country entirely unnecessary.

I beg leave to propose to you, whether it would not be proper to direct exploring parties to proceed from several of our frontier posts into the interior of the country, and to make such observations as might lead to a correct topographical delineation of it. An intelligent officer, with eight or ten men, in a canoe, would be adequate to this object. He would require nothing more than a compass to ascertain his course, for it is not to be expected that correct astronomical observations could be taken. In ascending or descending streams, he should enter in a journal every course which he pursues, and the length of time observed by a watch. He should occasionally ascertain the velocity of his canoe, by measuring a short distance upon the bank, and should also enter in his journal his supposed rate of travelling. This, whenever it is possible, should be checked by the distance as estimated by traders and travellers. By a comparison of these data, and by a little experience, he would soon be enabled to ascertain with sufficient precision, the length of each course, and to furnish materials for combination, which would eventually exhibit a perfect view of the country. I do not know any additional expense which it would be necessary to encounter. An ordinary compass is not worth taking into consideration. A necessary supply of provisions, a small quantity of powder, lead, and tobacco, to present occasionally to the Indians, and a little medicine, are all the articles which would require particular attention. Officers employed upon such services should be directed to observe the natural appearances of the country; its soil, timber, and productions; its general face and character; the height, direction, and composition of its hills; the number, size, rapidity, &c., of its streams; its geological structure and mineralogical products; and any facts which may enable the public to appreciate its importance in the scale of territorial acquisitions, or which may serve to enlarge the sphere of national science.

It is not to be expected that officers detached upon the duties can enter into the detail of such subjects in a manner which their importance would render desirable. But the most superficial observer may add something to the general stock; and to point their inquiries to specific objects, may be the means of eliciting facts, which in other hands may lead to important results. The most important tributary stream of the Upper Mississippi is the Saint Peter's. The commanding officer at the mouth of that river might be directed to form an expedition for exploring it.

It is the opinion of Captain Douglass, and it is strongly fortified by my personal observation, and by the opinion of others, that Lieut. Talcott, of the Engineers, now at the Council Bluffs, would conduct a party upon this duty in a very satisfactory manner. He might ascend the St. Peter's to its source, and from thence cross over to the Red River, and descend the stream to the 49th parallel of latitude, with directions to take the necessary observations upon so important a point.[200] Thence up that branch of the Red River, interlocking with the nearest water of the Mississippi, and down this river to Leech Lake. From this lake, there is an easy communication to the River de Corbeau, which he could descend to the Mississippi, and thence to St. Peter's.[201]

[200] This is the origin of Major Long's second expedition.

[201] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833.

The St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, entering the Mississippi above and below the Falls of St. Anthony, might, in like manner, be explored by parties from the same post.[202] The former interlocks with the Mauvais and Brulé Rivers, but a descent into Lake Superior would not probably be considered expedient, so that the party would necessarily ascend and descend the same stream.[202]

[202] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833.

The Chippewa interlocks with the Montreal and Wisconsin Rivers, and consequently the same party could ascend the former and descend the latter stream.

A party from Green Bay might explore Rocky River from its source to its mouth.

A correct examination of Green Bay and of the Menomonie River might be made from the same post.

The St. Joseph and Grand River, of this peninsula, could be examined by parties detached from Chicago.

It is desirable, also, to explore the Grand Traverse Bay, about sixty miles south of Michilimackinac, on the east coast of Lake Michigan.

These are all the points which require particular examination. Observations made in the manner I have suggested, and connected with those already taken by Captain Douglass, would furnish ample materials for a correct chart of the country.

It is with this view that it might be proper, should you approve the plan I have submitted to you, to direct, that the reports of the officers should be transmitted to Captain Douglass, by whom they will be incorporated with his own observations, and will appear in a form best calculated to promote the views which you entertain upon the important subject of the internal geography of our country.

IV.

DETROIT, October 3, 1820.

SIR: On the eve of separating from my associates in our late tour, I owe it to them and to myself, that I should state to you my opinion respecting Captain Douglass and Mr. Schoolcraft.

I have found them, upon every occasion, zealous in promoting the objects of the Expedition, indefatigable in their inquiries and observations, and never withholding their personal exertions. Ardent in their pursuit after knowledge, with great attainments in the departments of literature to which they have respectively devoted themselves, and with powers which will enable them to explore the whole field of science, I look forward with confidence to the day when they will assume distinguished stations among our scientific men, and powerfully aid in establishing the literary fame of their country.

Should any object of a similar character again require similar talents, I earnestly recommend their employment. Whoever has the pleasure of being associated with them, will find how easily profound acquirements may be united with that urbanity of manners, and those qualities of the heart, which attach to each other those who have participated in the fatigues of a long and interesting tour.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

2. TOPOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.

Topographical materials were collected by Capt. Douglass, U.S.A., for a map of the northwestern portions of the United States, embracing the complete circumnavigation of the great lake basins, and accurate delineations of the sources of the Mississippi, as low down as the influx of the River Wisconsin. Being provided with instruments from the Military Academy of West Point, astronomical observations were made at every practical point over the vast panorama traversed by the Expedition. A line of some four thousand miles of previously unexplored country was visited; his notes and memoranda for a topographical memoir were full and exact; and they were left, I am informed, in a state of nearly perfect elaboration, accompanied by illustrations, and many drawings of scenery. Having written to his family recently, for the astronomical observations, they were transmitted by his son in a letter, of which the following is an extract:--

GENEVA, JUNE 23, 1854.

DEAR SIR: I inclose you herewith, on another page, the results of my father's observations of latitude and longitude, so far as I have been able to collect them. His calculations indicate great pains and labor to obtain accurate results. They are too voluminous to copy. I trust, however, that I have been as particular as was necessary in the inclosed memoranda. If anything else is wanting, I should like you to inform me.

I am, sir, with great respect, Your obedient servant, MALCOLM DOUGLASS.

V.

Results of Observations for Latitude and Longitude during the Expedition of 1820. By DAVID B. DOUGLASS, Capt. Engineers, U.S.A.

{By 3 sets of observations at Cunningham's } { Island, 1819, and reduced by } { exact measurement on the Boundary } { Bay } { } Mean {By 1 set of observations at Gibraltar } latitude { Island (Put-in Bay), taken, like the } of { preceding, in 1819, and reduced as } 42° 19´ 20´´ Detroit { before } { } {By 1 set of observations taken on } { Sugar Island, and reduced as before } { } {By mean results of 2 sets of observations--May} 17 and 21, 1820 } {By mean observation, Sept. 29, 1820 }

Mean longitude of Detroit, by 6 sets of observations, May 17 and 19, 1820 82 39 00

Latitude of Presque Isle, Lake Huron, June 5, 1820 45 19 45

Latitude of Mackinaw, by 4 sets of observations, June 7 and 11, 1820, by meridian observations, Sept. 12, 1820 45 50 54

Height of Fort Holmes. From the water to the brow of the hill near Robinson's Folly, nearly on a level with Fort Mackinaw 115.8

Thence to the top of the block H of Fort Holmes 260.9 ----- Total height, 376.7 feet

Longitude of Mackinaw, by several sets of observations, Sept. 12, 1820 84 28 40

Mean latitude of Sault de St. Marie, June 16, 1820 46 26 45

Latitude of Turtle Camp, on Lake Superior, June 22--primitive bluff (Granite Point.--S.) 46 41 15

Latitude of Keweena Camp 47 02 30

Mean latitude of Sandy River, July 4, 1820 46 55 24

Mean longitude (by 25 observations for degrees, and 25 observations for time). In time, 6 h. 3 m. 48 sec. In degrees 90 57 00

Latitude of the gallais[203] on the Grand Portage of St. Louis, July 6, 1820 46 39 34

Latitude of camp at head of Grand Portage, July 8, 1820 46 41 07

Latitude of camp at west end of Savanna Portage 46 51 47[204]

Mean latitude of Sandy Lake post, from observations, July 16 and 25 46 45 35

Mean longitude of Sandy Lake post, from 4 sets of observations, July 15 and 16 93 21 30

Latitude of Wolverine Camp, July 23, 1 day from Sandy Lake 47 4 15

Latitude of halting-place above forks of Leech River on the Mississippi, July 20 47 24 00[205]

Latitude of camp at Lake Winnipec, July 20 47 30 56

Latitude of halting-place near first return camp, July 21 47 27 10

Latitude of return camp; near the above, same day 47 26 40

Latitude of camp at Buffalo hunting-ground, above Pe-can-de-quaw Lake, July 28 and 29 46 00 00

Breadth of river at camp on the Buffalo Plain, 148 yards

Latitude of halting-place between the Great Falls and St. Francis River 45 25 43

Breadth of river at camp above Falls of St. Anthony, 200 yards

Mean latitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July 31, by 5 sets of observations 44 53 20

Mean longitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July 31, by 3 sets of observations 92 55 45

Latitude of Fort Prairie du Chien, Aug. 6 and 7. 43 03 19[206]

Latitude of Fox and Ouisconsin Portage, Aug. 14 and 15, 43° 42´ 36´´; say 43 42 00

Latitude of camp near mouth of River De Loup, Aug. 17 44 6 44

Latitude of Fort Howard, Green Bay, Aug. 21 44 31 38

Longitude of Fort Howard (some error), probably between 87° 45´ 30´´ and 87 46 00

Latitude of camp at Sturgeon Portage, Lake Michigan, Aug. 23 44 47 43

Latitude of camp 3 miles north of the Manetowag, Aug. 24 44 12 47

Latitude of camp south of the Sheboyegan, Aug. 25 43 41 26

Latitude of camp at Milwaukie, Aug. 26 43 01 35

Mean latitude of Fort Dearborn, Chicago, by 6 sets of equal altitudes, Aug. 31, and meridian altitude 41 54 06 Mean longitude of Fort Dearborn, 3 sets of observations. In time, 5 h. 50 m. 8 sec. In degrees 87 32 30

Longitude of Detroit, calculated from above 82 54 53

Latitude of camp near head of Lake Michigan, Aug. 31 and Sept. 1 41 38 48

Mean latitude of the extreme south point of Lake Michigan, 4 sets of observations and meridian observation 41 37 28

Latitude of camp next north of the St. Joseph's, near Kekalamazo, Sept. 3 42 32 16

Latitude of camp at Maskegon River, Sept. 4 43 13 41

Latitude of camp near Point aux Salles, Lake Michigan, Sept. 5 44 5 17

Latitude of camp at Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan, Sept. 7 45 34 24

[203] Galet, in the Canadian patois, means a smooth, flat rock.--H. R. S.

[204] A little doubtful.

[205] A little doubtful.

[206] Or 20´´.

3. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

VI.

Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

VERNON (Oneida County, N. Y.), November 6, 1820.

SIR: I have now the honor to submit such observations as have occurred to me, during the recent expedition under GOV. Cass, in relation to the copper mines on Lake Superior; reserving, as the subject of a future communication, the facts I have collected on the mineralogy and geology of the country explored generally.

The first striking change in the mineral aspect of the country north of Lake Huron, is presented near the head of the Island of St. Joseph, in the River St. Mary, where the calcareous strata of secondary rocks are succeeded by a formation of red sandstone, which extends northward to the head of that river at Point Iroquois, producing the falls called the Sault de Ste. Marie, fifteen miles below; and thence stretching northwest, along the whole southern shore of Lake Superior, with the interruptions noted, to Fond du Lac.

This extensive stratum is perforated at various points by upheaved masses of sienitic granite and trap, which appear in elevated points on the margin of the lake at Dead River, Keweena Point, Presque Isle, and the Chegoimagon Mountains. It is overlaid, in other parts, by a stratum of gray or neutral-colored sandstone, of uncommon thickness, which appears in various promontories along the shore, and, at the distance of ninety miles from Point Iroquois, constitutes a lofty perpendicular and caverned wall, upon the water's edge, called the Pictured Rocks.

So obvious a change in the geological character of the rock strata, in passing from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, prepares the observer to expect a corresponding one in the imbedded minerals and other natural features--an expectation which is realized during the first eighty leagues, in the discovery of various minerals. The first appearances of copper are seen at Keweena Point, two hundred and seventy miles beyond the Sault de Ste. Marie, where the debris and pebbles along the shore of the lake contain native copper disseminated in particles varying in size from a grain of sand to a mass of two pounds' weight. Many of the detached stones of this Point are also colored green by the carbonate of copper, and the rock strata exhibit traces of the same ore. These indications continue to the River Ontonagon, which has long been noted for the large masses of native copper found upon its banks, and about the contiguous country.

This river is one of the largest of thirty tributaries, mostly small, which flow into the lake between Point Iroquois and Fond du Lac. It originates in a district of mountainous country intermediate between the Mississippi River and lakes Huron and Superior. After running in a northern direction for about one hundred and twenty miles, it enters the latter at the computed distance of fifty miles west of the portage of Keweena, in north latitude 46° 52´ 2´´, according to the observations of Capt. Douglass. It is connected, by portages, with the Monomonee River of Green Bay, and with the Chippewa River of the Mississippi. At its mouth there is a village of Chippewa Indians of sixteen families, who subsist chiefly on the fish taken in the river. Their location, independent of that circumstance, does not appear to unite the ordinary advantages of an Indian village of the region.

A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from the lake up the river three or four leagues, where it is succeeded by hills of a broken, sterile aspect, covered, chiefly, with a growth of pine, hemlock, and spruce. Among these hills, which may be considered as lateral spurs of the Porcupine Mountains, the copper mines, so called, are situated, at the computed distance of thirty-two miles from the lake, and in the centre of a region characterized by its wild, rugged, and forbidding appearance. The large mass of native copper lies on the west bank of the river, at the water's edge, at the foot of an elevated bank, part of which appears to have slipped into the river, carrying with it the mass of copper, together with detached blocks of sienitic granite, trap-rock, and other species common to the soil at that place.

The copper, which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in connection with serpentine rock, one face of which it almost completely overlays. It is also disseminated in masses and grains throughout the substance of the rock. The surface of the metal, unlike most oxidable metals which have been long exposed to the atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy, which is probably attributable to the attrition of the semi-annual floods of the river.

The shape of the rock is very irregular; its greatest length is three feet eight inches; its greatest breadth, three feet four inches, with an average thickness of twelve inches. It may, altogether, contain eleven cubic feet.[207] It exceeds, in size, the great mass of native iron found some years ago on the banks of Red River, in Louisiana. I have computed the weight of metallic copper in the rock at twenty-two hundred pounds, which is about one-fifth of the lowest estimate made of it by former visitors. Henry, who visited it in 1766, estimated its weight at five tons. The quantity may, however, have been much diminished since its discovery, and the marks of chisels and axes upon it, with the discovery of broken tools, prove that portions have been cut off and carried away. Notwithstanding this reduction, it may still be considered one of the largest and most remarkable bodies of native copper on the globe, and is, so far as known, only exceeded in weight by a specimen found in a valley in Brazil, weighing twenty-six hundred and sixty-six Portuguese pounds. Viewed as a subject of scientific interest, it presents illustrative proofs of an important character. Its connection with a rock which is foreign to the immediate section of country where it lies,[208] indicates a removal from its original bed; while the intimate connection of the metal and matrix, and the complete envelopment of masses of the copper by the rock, point to a common and contemporaneous origin, whether that be referable to volcanic agency or water. This conclusion admits of an obvious application to the beds of serpentine and other magnesian rock found in other parts of the lake.

[207] This copper rock now (1854) lies in the yard of the War Office at Washington.

[208] A locality of serpentine rock has since been discovered at Presque Isle, on Lake Superior.

Several other large masses of native copper have been found, either on this river or within the basin of the lake, at various periods since the country has been known, and taken into different parts of the United States and of Europe. A recent analysis of one of these specimens, at the University of Leyden, proves it to be native copper in a state of uncommon purity, and uncombined with any notable portion of either gold or silver.

A mass of copper, weighing twenty-eight pounds, was discovered on an island in Lake Superior, eighty miles west of the Ontonagon. It was taken to Michilimackinac and disposed of. The War Department was formerly supplied with a specimen from this mass, and the analysis above alluded to is also understood to have been made from a portion of it. A piece weighing twelve pounds was found at Winnebago Lake. Other discoveries of this metal have been made, within the region, at various times and places.

The existence of copper in the region of Lake Superior appears to have been known to the earliest travellers and voyagers.

As early as 1689, the Baron La Hontan, in concluding a description of Lake Superior, adds: "That, upon it, we also find copper mines, the metal of which is so fine and plentiful that there is not a seventh part lost from the ore."--New Voyages to North America, London, 1703.

In 1721, Charlevoix passed through the lakes on his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and did not allow the mineralogy of the country to escape him.

"Large pieces of copper are found in some places on its banks [Lake Superior], and around some of the islands, which are still the objects of a superstitious worship among the Indians. They look upon them with veneration, as if they were the presents of those gods who dwell under the waters. They collect their smallest fragments, which they carefully preserve, without, however, making any use of them. They say that formerly a huge rock of this metal was to be seen elevated a considerable height above the surface of the water, and, as it has now disappeared, they pretend that the gods have carried it elsewhere; but there is great reason to believe that, in process of time, the waves of the lake have covered it entirely with sand and slime. And it is certain that in several places pretty large quantities of this metal have been discovered without being obliged to dig very deep. During the course of my first voyage to this country, I was acquainted with one of our order (Jesuits) who had been formerly a goldsmith, and who, while he was at the mission of Sault de Ste. Marie used to search for this metal, and made candlesticks, crosses, and censers of it, for this copper is often to be met with almost entirely pure."--Journal of a Voyage to North America.

In 1766, Captain Carver procured several pieces of native copper on the shores of Lake Superior, or on the Chippewa and St. Croix Rivers, which are noticed in his travels, without much precision, however, as to locality, &c. He did not visit the southern shores of Lake Superior, east of the entrance of the Brulé, or Goddard's River, but states that virgin copper is found on the Ontonagon. Of the north and northeastern shores, he remarks: "That he observed that many of the small islands were covered with copper ore, which appeared like beds of copperas, of which many tons lay in a small space."--Three Years' Travels, &c.

In 1771 (four years before the breaking out of the American Revolution), a considerable body of native copper was dug out of the alluvial earth on the banks of the Ontonagon River by two adventurers, of the names of Henry and Bostwick, and, together with a lump of silver ore of eight pounds' weight, it was transported to Montreal, and from thence shipped to England, where the silver ore was deposited in the British Museum, after an analysis had been made of a portion of it, by which it was determined to contain 60 per cent. of silver.

These individuals were members of a company which had been formed in England for the purpose of working the copper mines of Lake Superior. The Duke of Gloucester, Sir William Johnson, and other gentlemen of rank were members of this company. They built a vessel at Point aux Pins, six miles above the Sault Ste. Marie, to facilitate their operations on the lake. A considerable sum of money was expended in explorations and digging. Isle Maripeau and the Ontonagon were the principal scenes of their search. They found silver, in a detached form, at Point Iroquois, fifteen miles above the present site of Fort Brady.

"Hence," observes Henry, "we coasted westward, but found nothing till we reached the Ontonagon, where, besides the detached masses of copper formerly mentioned, we saw much of the same metal imbedded in stone.

"Proposing to ourselves to make a trial on the hill, till we were better able to go to work upon the solid rock, we built a house, and sent to the Sault de Ste. Marie for provisions. At the spot pitched upon for the commencement of our operations, a green-colored water, which tinges iron of a copper color, issued from the hill, and this the miners called a leader. In digging, they found frequent masses of copper, some of which were of three pounds' weight. Having arranged everything for the accommodation of the miners during the winter, we returned to the Sault.

"Early in the spring of 1772, we sent a boat-load of provisions, but it came back on the 20th day of June, bringing with it, to our surprise, the whole establishment of miners. They reported that, in the course of the winter, they had penetrated forty feet into the face of the hill, but, on the arrival of the thaw, the clay, on which, on account of its stiffness, they had relied, and neglected to secure it by supporters, had fallen in. That, from the detached masses of metal which, to the last, had daily presented themselves, they supposed there might be ultimately reached a body of the same, but could form no conjecture of its distance, except that it was probably so far off as not to be pursued without sinking an air shaft. And, lastly, that the work would require the hands of more men than could be fed in the actual situation of the country.

"Here our operations, in this quarter, ended. The metal was probably within our reach, but, if we had found it, the expense of carrying it to Montreal must have exceeded its marketable value. It was never for the exportation of copper that our company was formed, but always with a view to the silver, which it was hoped the ores, whether of copper or lead, might in sufficient quantity contain."--Travels and Adventures of Alexander Henry.

[In the summer of 1832, being detained by head winds at the mouth of Miner's River, on Lake Superior, I observed the names of several persons engraved on the sand rock, but much obliterated by the water's dashing over the rock. Tradition represents that Henry's miners were detained there, and that they made explorations of the river, which is named from the circumstance. The stream is a mere brook, coming over the shelving sand rock, which is a part of the precipitous range of the Pictured Rocks.]

Sir A. Mackenzie passed through Lake Superior, on his first voyage of discovery, in 1789. He remarks: "At the River Tennagon (Ontonagon) is found a quantity of virgin copper. The Americans, soon after they got possession of the country, sent an agent thither; and I should not be surprised to hear of their employing people to work the mine. Indeed, it might be well worthy the attention of the British subjects to work the mines on the north coast, though they are not supposed to be so rich as those on the south."--Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of North America.

It is difficult to conceive what, however, is apparent, from the references of Dr. Franklin to the subject, that the supposed mineral riches of Lake Superior had an important bearing on the discussions for settling the ultimate northern boundary of the United States. The British ambassadors had, it seems, from an old map which is before me, claimed a line through the Straits of Michilimackinac and the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, to the Gulf of Mexico.

The attention of the United States Government appears first to have been turned toward the subject during the administration of President John Adams, when the sudden augmentation of the navy rendered the employment of copper in the equipment of ships an object of moment. A mission was therefore authorized to proceed to Lake Superior, of the success of which, as it has not been communicated to the public, nothing can, with certainty, be stated; but from inquiries which have been made during the recent expedition, it is rendered probable that the actual state of our Indian relations, at the time, arrested the advance of the officer into the region where the most valuable beds of copper were supposed to exist, and that the specimens transmitted to Government were procured through the instrumentality of some friendly Indians, employed for the purpose.

Such are the lights which those who have preceded me in this inquiry have thrown upon the subject, all of which have operated in producing public belief in the existence of extensive copper mines on Lake Superior. Travellers have generally coincided that the southern shore of the lake is most metalliferous, and that the Ontonagon River may be considered as the seat of the principal mines. Mr. Gallatin, in his report on the state of American manufactures in 1810, countenances the prevalent opinion, while it has been reiterated in some of our literary journals, and in the numerous ephemeral publications of the times, until public expectation has been considerably raised in regard to them.

Under these circumstances, the recent expedition under Gov. Cass entered the mouth of the Ontonagon River on the 27th of June, having coasted along the southern shore of the lake from the head of the River St. Mary. We spent four days upon the banks of that stream, in the examination of its mineralogy, during which the principal part of our party was encamped at the mouth of the river. Gov. Cass, accompanied by such persons as were necessary in the exploration, proceeded, in two light canoes, to the large mass of copper which has already been described. We found the river broad, deep, and gentle for a distance, and serpentine in its course; then becoming narrower, with an increased velocity of current, and, before reaching the Copper Rock, full of rapids and difficult of ascent. We left our canoes at a point on the rapids, and proceeded on foot, across a rugged tract of country, around which the river formed an extensive semicircle. We came to the river again at the locality of copper. In the course of this curve the river is separated into two branches of nearly equal size. The copper lies on the right-hand fork, and it is subsequently ascertained that this branch is intercepted by three cataracts, at which the river descends over precipitous cliffs of sandstone. The aggregate fall of water at these cataracts has been estimated at seventy feet.

The channel of the river at the Copper Rock is rapid and shallow, and filled with detached masses of rock, which project above the water. The bed of the river is upon sandstone, similar to that under the Palisades on the Hudson. The waters are reddish, a color which they evidently owe to beds of ferruginous clay. The Copper Rock lies partly in the water. Other details in the geological structure and appearance of the country are interesting; but they do not appear to demand a more particular consideration in this report.

During our continuance upon this stream, we procured from an Indian a separate mass of copper weighing nearly nine pounds; which will be forwarded to the War Department. This specimen is partially enveloped with a crust of green carbonate of copper. Small fragments of quartz and sand adhere to the under side, upon which it would appear to have fallen in a liquid state. Several smaller pieces of this metal were procured during our excursion up the Ontonagon, or along the shores of the lake east of this stream.

It may be added that discoveries of masses of native copper, like those of gold and other metals, are generally considered indicative of the existence of mines in the neighborhood. The practical miner regards them as signs which point to larger bodies of the same metals, in the earth, and he is often determined by discoveries of this nature in the choice of the spot for commencing his labors. The predictions drawn from such evidence are more sanguine in proportion to the extent of the discovery. They are not, however, unerring indications, and appear liable to many exceptions. Metallic masses are sometimes found at great distances from their original repositories; and the latter, on the contrary, sometimes occur in the earth, or imbedded in rock strata, where there have been no great external discoveries.

From all the facts, which I have been able to collect on Lake Superior, and after a full deliberation upon them since my return, I have drawn the following conclusions:--

1. That the diluvial soil along the banks of the Ontonagon River, extending to its source, and embracing the contiguous region, which gives origin to the Monomonee River of Green Bay, and to the Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix Rivers of the Mississippi, contains very frequent, and several extraordinary masses of native, or metallic copper. But that no body of this metal, which is sufficiently extensive to become the object of profitable mining operations, has yet been found at any particular place. This conclusion is supported by the facts adduced, and, so far as theoretical aids can be relied upon, by an application of those facts to the theories of mining. A further extent of country might have been embraced, along the shores of Lake Superior, but the same remark appears applicable to it.

2. That a more intimate knowledge of the mineralogical resources of the country, may be expected to result in the discovery of valuable ores of copper, in the working of which occasional masses and veins of the native metal, may materially enhance the advantages of mining. This inference is rendered probable by the actual state of discoveries, and by the geological character of the country.

These deductions embrace all I have to submit on the mineral geography of the country, so far as regards the copper mines. Other considerations arise from the facilities which the country may present for mining--its adaptation to the purposes of agriculture--the state and disposition of the Indian tribes, and other topics which a design to commence metallurgical operations would suggest. But I have not considered it incumbent upon me to enter into details upon these subjects. It may, in brief, be remarked that the remote situation of the country does not favor the pursuit of mining. It would require the employment of a military force to protect such operations. For, whatever may be their professions, the Indian tribes of the north possess strong natural jealousies, and in situations so remote, are only to be restrained from an indulgence in malignant passions, by the fear of military chastisement.

In looking upon the southern shore of Lake Superior, the period appears distant, when the advantages flowing from a military post upon that frontier, will be produced by the ordinary progress of our settlements--for it presents but few enticements for the agriculturalist. A considerable portion of the shore is rocky, and its alluvions are, in general, of too sandy and light a character for profitable husbandry. With an elevation of six hundred and forty-one feet above the Atlantic, and drawing its waters from territories situated north of the forty-sixth degree of north latitude, Lake Superior cannot be represented as enjoying a climate favorable to the productions of the vegetable kingdom. Its forest trees are chiefly those of the fir kind, mixed with varieties of the betula, lynn, oak, and maple. Meteorological observations indicate, however, a warm summer, the average observed heat of the month of June being 69. But the climate is subject to a long and severe winter, and to sudden transitions of the summer temperature. We saw no Indian corn among the natives.

A country lacking a fertile soil, may still become a rich mining country, like the county of Cornwall in England, the Hartz Mountains in Germany, and a portion of Missouri, in our own country. But this deficiency must be compensated by the advantages of geographical position, a contiguous or redundant population, partial districts of good land, or a good market. To these, the mineral districts of Lake Superior can advance but a feeble claim, while it lies upwards of three hundred miles beyond the utmost point of our settlements, and in the occupation of savage tribes whose hostility has been so recently manifested.

Concerning the variety, importance, and extent of its latent mineral resources, I think little doubt can remain. Every fact which has been noticed tends to strengthen the belief that future observations will indicate extensive mines upon its shores, and render it an attractive field of mineralogical discovery. In the event of mining operations, the facilities of a ready transportation of the crude ores to the Sault de Ste. Marie, will point out that place as uniting, with a commanding geographical position, superior advantages for the reduction of the ores, and the general facilities of commerce. At this place, a fall of twenty-two feet, in the river, in the distance of half a mile, creates sufficient power to drive hydraulic works to any extent; while the surrounding country is such as to admit of an agricultural settlement.

I accompany this report with a geological sketch of a vertical section of the left bank of the Mississippi at St. Peter's, embracing a formation of native copper. This formation was first noticed by the officers of the garrison, who directed the quarrying of stone at this spot. The masses of copper found are small, none exceeding a pound in weight.

I have the honor to be, sir, With great respect, Your ob't servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VII.

Observations on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Region embracing the Sources of the Mississippi River, and the Great Lake Basins, during the Expedition of 1820. Illustrated with Geological Profiles, and Numerous Diagrams and Views of Scenery. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, U. S. Geol. and Minera. Exp.

To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

WASHINGTON, April 2, 1822.

SIR: I have the honor, herewith, to submit the general report of my observations on the geology and mineralogy of the region visited by the recent expedition to the sources of the Mississippi River. I transmitted to the Department on the 6th of November, 1820, a report on the existence of Copper Mines in the Basin of Lake Superior, together with specimens of the native metal, which were politely taken charge of at Albany by General Stephen Van Rensselaer, M. C. Will it be consistent with the views of the Department to print these reports?

I have the honor to be, sir, Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

REPLY.

WAR DEPARTMENT, April 6, 1822.

SIR: I have received your interesting report on the geology and mineralogy of that section of the western country embraced by the late expedition of Gov. Cass; and, although I have not had it in my power, as yet, to peruse it with attention, I will see you, at any time you please, on the subject of your letter respecting it.

I am, sir, Respectfully, Your obedient servant, J. C. CALHOUN.

Mr. HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

ALBANY, March, 1822.

SIR: Agreeably to your appointment as a member of the expedition to explore the sources of the Mississippi, by the way of the Lakes, I proceeded to join the party organized for that purpose at Detroit, by His Excellency Lewis Cass. Diurnal notes were kept of the changes in the geological features of the regions visited; of the mineralogy of the country; and of such facts as could be ascertained, with the means at command, to determine its general physical character and value.[209]

[209] The two geological profiles of the Mississippi Valley and the Lake Basins accompanying the original are here omitted; as, also, most of the illustrative views of scenery which accompanied the original.

I have heretofore reported to you the facts and appearances which indicate the existence of the ores of copper, and of valuable deposits of copper in its native form, in the basin of Lake Superior--a point which constituted one of the primary objects to which my attention was called--and I now proceed to state such particulars in the topics confided to me as fell within my observation.

In generalizing the facts, it must be observed that the expedition had objects of a practical character relative to the number, disposition, and feelings to be learned respecting the Indian tribes; that the transit over large portions of the country was necessarily rapid; and that few opportunities of elaborate or long-continued observations occurred at any one point. The topography was committed to a gentleman who is every way qualified for that topic, who was well supplied with instruments, and who will do ample justice to that department. I make these remarks to prepare you for a class of observations which are necessarily technical, and quite imperfect, and to which it is felt that it will not be an easy task to impart a high degree of interest, whatever may have been the anticipations.

To prepare the mind to appreciate the account which I give of changes and developments in the physical structure of the country, it may be observed that the American continent has experienced some of the most striking mutations in its structure at and north of the great chain of lakes. That chain is itself rather the evidence of disruptions and upheavals of formations, which give its northern coasts, to some extent, the character of ancient--very ancient--volcanic areas of action. These lakes form--except Erie and Ontario--the general boundaries between the primitive and secondary strata. But, however striking this fact may, at particular localities, appear--such as at the Straits of St. Mary, of which the east and west shores are, geologically, of different construction--yet nothing in the grand phenomena of the whole region visited is so remarkable as the boulder stratum, which is spread, generally, from the north to the south. Some of the blocks of rock are enormous, and would seem to defy any known cause of removal from their parent beds; others are smaller, and have had their angles removed, and far the greater number of these transported boulders are quite smooth and rounded by the force of attrition. This drift stratum has been tossed and scattered from its northern latitudes over the surface of the limestones and sandstones of the south. It is mixed with the diluvial soils, in Michigan and elsewhere; but it is evident that, in its diffusion south, the heavier pieces have settled first, while comparatively minute boulders have been carried over or dropped in the plains and prairies of Ohio, Illinois, and more southerly regions. Nobody, with an eye to geology, can mistake the heavy boulder deposits which mark the southern shores of Huron, and become still more abundant on the St. Mary's, the shores of Lake Superior, and along the channels of the River St. Louis and the Upper Mississippi.

Lake Superior has been the central theatre of volcanic upheavals; but they must have operated at very remote periods, for there is not only no evidence of existing volcanic fires, but the heavy debris everywhere bespeaks long intervals of quietude, and slow elementary degradation. Some of the upheavals were made after the deposition of the sandstone rocks, which are, as at the foot of the Porcupine Mountains, raised up to stand nearly vertical; while other districts of the granitic rock, as at Granite Point, had been elevated before the deposition of the sandstone rock, which is accurately adjusted to its asperities, and remains quite horizontal.

The granitical series of strata, which is apparent in northern New York in the Kayaderasseras Mountains, and at the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence, reappear on the north shores of Huron and Superior, underlie the bed of the latter, and rise up in the rough coast between the Chocolate River and Kewaiwenon, cross the Mississippi at the Petite Roche, above the Falls of St. Anthony, and put out spurs as low down as the source of the Fox, the St. Croix, and the head of the St. Peter's Rivers.

These glimpses of some of the leading points in the geological structure of the regions visited, will enable you to follow my details more understandingly. These details begin at Detroit. From this place the expedition passed, by water, along the southern shores of Lakes St. Clair, Huron, and Superior, to the Fond du Lac; thence, up the River St. Louis, to the Savanne summit. Thence we proceeded across the portage to Sandy Lake, which has an outlet into the Mississippi, and followed up the latter, through the lesser Lake Winnipek, to the entrance of the Turtle River, in Cass, or upper, Red Cedar Lake, which is laid down by Pike in north latitude 47° 42´ 40´´.[210] The state of the water was unfavorable to going higher.

[210] Pike's Expedition. This observation is corrected by Capt. Douglass to 47° 27´ 10´´; the point of observation being, however, a few miles south.

From this point, which formed the terminus of the expedition, we descended the Mississippi, making portages around the Falls of Pekagama and St. Anthony, to Prairie du Chien. An excursion was made by me down the Mississippi to the mineral district of Dubuque. We ascended the Wisconsin, to the portage into the Fox River, and traced the latter down to its entrance into Green Bay. At this point, the expedition separated; a part proceeding north, through the bay, to Michilimackinac, and a part going south, along the west shores of Lake Michigan, to Chicago, the latitude of which is placed by Capt. Douglass in 41° 54´ 06´´. At this place, a further division took place. Dr. Wolcott, having reached his station, remained. Governor Cass proceeded across the peninsula of Michigan to Detroit on horseback, leaving Capt. Douglass and myself to complete the survey of Lake Michigan. We rejoined the northern party detached at Green Bay, under Mr. Trowbridge and Mr. Doty, at Michilimackinac; and, after repassing the southern coast of Lakes Huron and St. Clair, reached Detroit.

Topographically, a very wide expanse of wilderness country had been seen. The entire length of route computed to have been traversed, exceeds four thousand miles, in the course of which we had crossed nineteen portages, over which all the baggage and canoes were conveyed on the shoulders of men. We encountered actual resistance from the Indians at only one point.[211] I kept my journals continually before me, and had my pencil in hand every morning as soon as it was light enough to discern objects. I began my geological observations at Detroit.

[211] Vide Narrative Journal.

This ancient city, founded by the French in 1701, stands upon an argillaceous stratum, which is divided, topographically, into an upper and lower bank. Wherever this clay has been examined by digging, it discloses pebbles of various species of rock, denoting it, as far as these extend at least, to be a part of the great drift stratum.

In digging a well near the old Council House, in the northeast part of the city, the top soil appeared to be less than two feet. The workmen then passed through a stratum of blue clay, of eight or ten feet, when they struck a vein of coarse sand, six or eight inches in thickness, through which the water entered profusely. The digging was carried through another bed of blue clay, twenty or twenty-two feet in depth, when the men reached a stratum of fine yellow sand, into which they dug three feet and stopped, having found sufficient water. The whole depth of the well is thirty-three feet. The water is clear and rapid. No vegetable or other remains were found, and but few primitive pebbles.

In another well, situated near the centre of the town, the depth of which is twelve feet, the top soil was found to be two feet and a half; then a bed of gravel, seven feet; a vein of blue clay, eight inches, and the residue a whitish-blue clay, very compact and hard; a copious supply of water having been found. The water is, however, slightly colored, and is of a quality called hard.

In some places, this clay drift yields balls of iron pyrites, which renders the water unpalatable. At what depth the rock would be struck, if the excavation were continued, can only be conjectured. A well has been dug, a short distance below the city, upwards of sixty feet, chiefly through clay and gravel, without reaching the rock; but abraded fragments of granite and hornblende rocks were thrown from the greatest depths.

The bed of the river opposite the city has been stated to consist of limestone rock, but without any proof or much probability. From the fact of its affording a good anchorage to vessels, I am inclined to think that it is wholly composed of clay and gravel.

DETROIT FLUVIATILE CLAY.--The argillaceous stratum of Detroit extends along both banks of the river to its head; passes around the shores of Lake St. Clair, and up the River St. Clair to Fort Gratiot--a distance of seventy miles. In this distance there are some moderate elevations and depressions in the surfaces of the soil, but no very striking changes in its general character and composition. The boulder stratum is prominent at Gros Point, at the foot of Lake St. Clair, where the shore exhibited some heavy blocks of granite, and other foreign rock.

ST. CLAIR FLATS OF PLASTIC CLAY.--At the mouth of the River St. Clair, the current is divided into several channels, and spread over a considerable tract of low ground, which is covered with grasses and aquatic plants. These channels have worn their way through beds of tough blue clay, called the flats, over which there is sometimes not over seven feet eight inches of water in the ship channel. They consequently form an impediment to commerce. The depth is, however, always increased in the spring season, when twelve inches more may be generally relied on. Frequently, during the droughts of summer, a change of wind, and its steady continuance for some time, will allow ships to pass without lighters. The permanent removal of this bar is, however, an object of national importance, which cannot but be felt, as the tonnage of the lakes increases.

ANCIENT DUNE; A BURIED FOREST.--The principal spot where the lands, in the immediate vicinity of the water, assume any considerable or abrupt elevation, is included between Black River of the St. Clair and Lake Huron. Here the outlet of the lake, which is rapid, washes the base of a ridge, or ancient dune, elevated fifty or sixty feet above the water. Fort Gratiot occupies the upper part of this elevation. The lower part consists of the blue clay stratum, corresponding in character with that found in the wells of Detroit. It is overlaid by a deposit of sand, forming two-thirds of the entire height. This elevation is crowned with a light forest of oak and other species. At the line of junction between the sand and clay, a number of trees are seen to be horizontally imbedded, projecting their roots and trunks in a striking manner above the water. These trees, on inspection, are merely preserved, not petrified. They appear to have been exposed to view, in modern times, by the wearing away of the bank. Certainly, none of the old travellers mention them.

The mode of this formation may be clearly seen. Winds, at some ancient period, have been the agent of blowing the sands, as they were washed up by the lake, and redepositing them on part of a prostrated forest, resting directly on the clay stratum. The trees, thus buried in dry sand, have been preserved. In process of time, the river encroached upon these antique beds, exposing them to view. There are also antique fresh-water shells found in similar positions near this spot. No rock is, thus far, found in sitû in ascending the lakes. The old surface of the country is wholly of diluvial formation, except where it shows lake action.

HURON COAST FROM FORT GRATIOT TO MICHILIMACKINAC.--About two hundred and thirty miles lie stretched out between these two points. Lake Huron charms the eye, with the view of its freshness and oceanic expanse. But the entrance is without rock scenery, and the student of its geology must be a patient gleaner along its shores. Long coasts of sand and gravel extend before the eye, and they are surmounted, at a moderate elevation, with a dense foliage, which limits the view of its structure to a narrow line. Portions of this coast are heavily loaded with the primitive debris[212] from the North. These are found, in some places, in heavy masses, but all are more or less abraded, showing that they have been transported from their original beds. In one of these, I observed crystals of staurotide.

[212] In 1824, an Indian brought me a specimen of native silver found on this part of the coast. It was imbedded in a boulder of mixed granite and steatite.

The first section of this coast reaches from Fort Gratiot to Point aux Barques, a distance of about seventy-five miles. Nearly midway lies the White Rock, a very large boulder of whitish-gray semi-crystalline limestone, lying off the shore about half a mile, in water of about one and a half fathom's depth. It is the effect of gulls lighting upon this rock, and not the intensity of the color of the stone, that has originated the name--which is a translation of the Roche Blanche of the older voyageurs. The Detroit clay-formation still characterizes the coast.

FIRST EMERGENCE OF ROCK, IN PLACE, ABOVE THE SURFACE.--We are passing, in this section, along and near to the outcrop of the secondary strata of the peninsula, but these strata are covered with a heavy deposit of diluvial clays, sands, and pebble drift. The first emergence of fixed rocks, above the line of the drift, occurs after passing Elm Creek in the advance to Ship Point (Pointe aux Barques). It is a species of coarse gray, loosely compacted sandstone, in horizontal layers. This rock continues to characterize the coast to and around the Ship Point promontory into Saganaw Bay. It possesses a few fossil remains of corallines; but the rock is not of sufficient compactness and durability for architectural purposes. It is conjectured to be one of the outlying series of the coal measures, of which this coast exhibits, further on, other evidences.

SAGANAW BAY.--The phenomena of this large body of water, which is some sixty miles long, appear to indicate an original rent in the stratification, having its centre of action very deep. If the peninsula of Michigan be likened to a huge fish's head, this bay may be considered as its open mouth. We crossed the inner bay from Point aux Chenes, where it is estimated to be twenty miles across.[213] The traverse is broken by an island, to which the Indians, with us, applied the name of Sha-wan-gunk.[214] It is composed of a dark-colored limestone, of dull and earthy fracture and compact structure. It presents broken and denuded edges at the water level. I observed in it nodular masses of chalcedony and calc. spar. The margin of the island bears fragments of the boulder stratum.

[213] Ships make the traverse where it is sixty miles wide.

[214] The reason of this name I did not learn. It is apparently the same name as that bestowed on a mountain range in Orange and Ulster Counties, New York, lying south of the Catskills, where it is sometimes called, for short, Shongum. The meaning is, evidently, something like South-land-place. The local unk may be translated hill, island, continent, &c. &c.

HIGHLANDS OF SAUBLE.--On crossing the bay, these highlands present themselves to view in the distance. They are the north-eastern verge of the most elevated central strata of the peninsula. Their structure can only be inferred from the formations along the margin of the lake, extending by Thunder Bay and Presque Isle, and the Isles of Bois Blanc and Round Island to Michilimackinac. At Thunder Bay, the compact limestone of the Saganaw Islands reappears, and is constantly in sight from this point to Presque Isle. It exists in connection with bituminous shale, at an island in Thunder Bay. It is of a dark carbonaceous character on the main opposite Middle Island, at a point which is called by the Indians Sho-sho-ná-bi-kó-king, or Place of the Smooth Rock. I noticed at this point the cyathophyllum helianthoides in abundance, and easily detached them from the rock. The more compact portions of this formation in the approach to Presque Isle, disclosed the ammonite, two species of the gorgonia, and the fragment of a species of chambered shell, whose character is indeterminate.

Much of the coast was footed, as the winds were adverse, and its debris thus subjected to a careful scrutiny. Wherever the limestone was broken up or receded from the water, long lines of yellow beach-sand and lake-gravel, including members of the erratic block stratum, intervened. In some localities, local beds of iron sand occur.

MICHILIMACKINAC.[215]--The approach to this island was screened from our view by the woody shores and forests of Bois Blanc, an island of some twelve miles in length lying off the main land; and the view of it first burst upon us in the narrow channel between it and Round Island. It is a striking geological monument of mutations. Here the calcareous rock, which had before exhibited itself in low ledges along the shore is piled up in masses, which reach an extreme altitude of three hundred and twelve feet. About two hundred feet of this elevation is precipitous on its south, east, and west edge. A hundred feet or more is piled up on its centre, part rock and part soil, in a crowning shape. The highest part of this apex, which is surmounted by the ruins of Fort Holmes, consists of the drift stratum, among which are boulders of sienite, and other foreign rocks. A locality of these abraded boulder-rocks, near the Dousman farm, is worthy of a visit from all who take an interest in the phenomena of boulders dispersed over the continent. The fishermen represent the water around this island to be eighty fathoms in depth. Yet, across these waters, to the utmost altitude of the island, these blocks of foreign rock have been transported. No force capable of effecting this is now known. And the argument of their having been transported on cakes of ice, in the nascent periods of the globe, is rendered stronger by these appearances than any geological proofs which I have yet seen.

[215] The name, as pronounced by the Indians, is Mich-en-i-mack-in-ong, meaning Place of Turtle Spirits, a notion of their mythology. It was anciently deemed a sacred spot, or one where Monetoes revealed themselves.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE MACKINAC LIMESTONE.--Nothing appears so completely to puzzle the observer as the first glance at this rock. It is different in appearance from the calcareous rocks, to which my attention has heretofore been called in Western New York, and in Missouri and Illinois. The difficulty is to find a point of comparison. I walked entirely around the island, partly in water, the northern shores being comparatively low. There appeared to be three layers. The first, which rises up from the depths of the lake, scarcely, if at all, reaches the water level. Upon this is superimposed a vesicular rock, of which the vesicles are filled with carbonate of lime in the state of agaric mineral. By exposure to the air, this substance readily decomposes, and assumes an almost limey whiteness, and sometimes a complete pulverulent state. The reticular, or vesicular lines, by which the mass is held together, are thus weakened, and large masses of the craggy parts fall, and assume the condition of debris at the water's edge. Some conditions of the reticulated filaments are covered with minute crystals of cal. spar; others of minutely crystallized quartz. There appear, at other localities, in low positions, layers of quartz in the condition of a coarse bluish, flinty, striped agate. The entire stratum appears to be a reproduced mass, which is plainly denoted, if I mistake not, by some imbedded masses of an elder lime-rock. The whole stratum is too shelly and fissured to be of value for economical purposes. It yields neither quicklime nor building stone.

Fort Mackinac is erected on the summit of this stratum. The two objects of curiosity, called the Arched Rock, and the point called Robinson's Folly, are evidences of this tendency of the cliffs to disintegration. The superior stratum which constitutes the nucleus of the Fort Holmes' summit, contains more silex, diffused throughout its structure. It is, however, of a loose, though hard and shelly character; and has, in the geological mutations of the island been chiefly demolished and washed away. The monumental mass of this period of demolition, called the Sugar Loaf, is a proof that it contained, either by its shape, or otherwise, a superior power of resisting these means of ancient prostration. Striking as it now appears, this is the simple story which it tells. Its apex is probably level, or nearly so, with the Fort Holmes's summit. Over the whole island, after these demolitions, the drift stratum was deposited.

The German geognosts apply the term mushelkalk, to this species of calcareous rock. It is, apparently, the magnesian limestone of English writers.

ANCIENT WATER LINES.--Such marks appear on the most compact parts of the cliffs, denoting the water to have stood, during the ancient boundaries of the lake, at higher levels.

LAKE ACTION.--It is known that strong currents set into the Straits of Michilimackinac, and out of it, from Lake Michigan, at this point. The fishermen, who set their nets at four hundred feet in the waters, often bring up, entangled in their nets, large compact masses of limestone, which have been fretted into a kind of lacework, by the rotatory motion of little pebbles and grains of sand, kept in perpetual motion by the water at the bottom of the lake.

ORGANIC IMPRESSIONS.--There are cast up among the lake debris of this island, casts of some species of orthocaratites, ammonites, and madrepores, which appear to be derived from the calcareous rocks in place in the basin of Lake Huron. But the rock strata of the island itself appear to be singularly destitute of these remains. The only species which I have noticed, is one that was thrown up from a well attempted to be dug, on the apex of Fort Holmes, by the British troops, while they held possession of the island in 1813, 1814, and 1815. But this is uniformly fragmentary. It has the precise appearance of the head of a trilobite, but never reveals the whole of the lateral lobes, nor any of the essential connecting parts. It is silicious.

GYSEUS FORMATION.--Evidences of the extension of this formation to this vicinity were brought to my notice; in consequence of which I visited the St. Martin's Islands, which belong to the Mackinac group. Masses of gypsum were found imbedded in the soil, both of the fibrous and compact variety. These islands are low diluvial formations. Similar masses are found on Goose Island; and the mineral has been found at Point St. Ignace on the main land.

Taken in connection with the discovery of this mineral, at a subsequent part of the journey on Grand River, the indications of the series of the saline group of rocks, so prevalent in the Mississippi Valley, are quite clear up to this extreme point, which is, however, very near the northern verge of this group.

HONEYCOMBED ROCKS.--As evidences of existing lake action, it has already been mentioned that the fishermen bring up, from great depths in the straits, pieces of compact limestone, completely fretted and excavated by small pebbles, which are kept in motion by the strong currents which prevail at profound depths. The process of their formation by these currents is such, as in some instances to give the appearance of cellepores, and analogous forms of organic life. I have seen nothing in these carious forms which does not reveal the mechanical action of these waters.

PSEUDOMORPHIC FORMS.--Amongst the limestone debris, of recent date, found on these shores, are pieces of rock which have an appearance as if they had been punctured with a lancet, or blade of a penknife. These incisions are numerous, and from their regularity, appear to have been moulded on some crystals which have subsequently decayed. Yet, there are difficulties in supposing such to have been the origin of these small angular orifices.

Whenever these masses are examined by obtaining a fresh fracture, they are found to consist of the compact gray and semi-granular rock of the inferior Mackinac group, but in no instance of the vesicular or silicious varieties. These blocks appear to be identical in character with the White Rock, before noticed.

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE HURON.--The next portion of the country examined was that of the north shores of the lake, extending from Michilimackinac to Point Detour, the west Cape of the Straits of St. Mary's, a distance computed to be forty miles. The calcareous rock, such as it appears in the inferior stratum of Mackinac, extends along this coast. The first three leagues of it, consist of an open traverse across an arm of the lake. Goose Island offers a shelter to the voyager, which is generally embraced. It consists of an accumulation of pebbles and boulders on a reef, with a light soil, resting on the lower limestone. It does not, perhaps, at any point, rise to an elevation of more than eight or ten feet above the water. Outard Point, a short league, or rather three miles further, exhibits the same underlying formation of rock, which is found wherever solid points put out into the lake, during the entire distance. The chain of islands called Chenos, extends about twenty miles, and affords shelter during storms to boatmen and canoemen, who are compelled to pass this coast. Large masses of the rock, with its angles quite entire, lie along parts of the shore, and appear to have been but recently detached. The intervals between these blocks and points of coast, are formed of the loose sand and pebbles of the lake, which are more or less affected by every tempest. The only organic remains and impressions are drift-specimens, which have been driven about by the waves, and are abraded. Broken valves of the anadonta, occasionally found in similar positions, denote that this species exists in the region, but that the outer localities of the coast are entirely unfavorable to their growth.

DRUMMOND ISLAND.--This island, now in the possession of British troops, who removed from Michilimackinac in 1816, is the western terminus of the Manatouline chain. We did not visit it, but learn from authentic sources, that it is a continuation of the nether Mackinac limestone--and that the locality abounds in loose petrifactions, which appear to have belonged to an upper stratum of the rock, now disrupted.[216]

[216] Dr. John Bigsby, in a memoir read before the London Geological Society, has described and figured several of these. In a memoir by Charles Stokes, Esq., of London, read before this Society in June, 1837, some of its most striking fossils are figured and described, with references to the prior discoveries of Dr. Bigsby, Captain Bayfield, and Dr. Richardson. Six new species of the Arctinoceras, and five of the Huronia, Ormoceras, and Orthocerata, are figured and described in the most splendid manner. This memoir is essential to all who would understand its fossil history, and that of the North generally.

STRAITS OF ST. MARY'S.--These straits, and the river which falls into their head, connect Lakes Huron and Superior. They appear to occupy the ancient line of junction between the great calcareous and granitic series of rocks on the continent. The limestone, which has been noticed along the north shore of the Huron from Michilimackinac, and which continues, with interruptions of water only, from Detour to Drummond Island, and the Manatoulines, is to be noticed up the straits as high as Isle a la Crosse, where the last locality of a pure carbonate of lime appears to occur. The island of St. Joseph is chiefly primitive rock, and its south end is heavily loaded with granitic, porphyritic, and quartz boulders. The north shores of the river, opposite and above this island, are entirely of the granitic series, which continues to Gros Cape of Lake Superior. On reaching the Nebeesh,[217] or Sailor's Encampment Island, sandstone rocks of a red color present themselves, and are found also on the American side of the river, and continue to characterize it to the Falls, or Sault de Ste. Marie,[218] and to Point Iroquois and Isle Parisien in Lake Superior.

[217] Strong water.

[218] Reached somewhere about 1641, by the French missionaries.

The Sault of St. Mary's is upon and over this red sandstone. The river makes several successive leaps, of a few feet at a time, in its central channel, falling, altogether, about twenty-two feet in half a mile. This gives it a foaming appearance, and the volume pours a heavy murmur on the ear.[219] It is, of course, a complete interruption to the navigation of vessels, which can, however, come to anchor near its foot, while barges may be pushed up, empty, on the American shore. The water-power created by such a change of level, is such as must commend the spot, at a future period, to manufacturers, lumbermen, and miners. The foot of these falls is heavily incumbered, both with masses of the disrupted sand-rock[220] and granitic and conglomerate boulders.

[219] In 1825, Lieutenant Charles F. Morton, U. S. A., sent to my office a mass of this red sand rock, of about twelve inches diameter, perfectly round and ball-shaped, which he had directed one of the soldiers to pick up, in an excursion among the islands of the lower St. Mary's. This ball was a monument of that physical throe which had originally carried this river through the sandstone pass of St. Mary's, having been manifestly rounded in what geologists have called "a pocket hole" in the rock at the falls, and afterwards carried away, with the disrupted rocks, down the valley.

[220] The Indiana call it Pauwateeg (water leaping on the rocks), when speaking of the phenomenon, and Pawating, when referring to the place of it.

RED SANDSTONE OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--That this is the old red sandstone, may be inferred simply from the fact that, although deposited originally in horizontal beds, its position has been disturbed in many localities.

PLASTIC CLAY STRATUM OF THE LAKES.--The northern extremity of Muddy Lake--a sheet of water some twenty miles in length--is the head of the straits, and the beginning of the River St. Mary's. This sheet of water has the property of being rendered slightly whitish, or turbid, by continuous winds. Its bottom appears to be formed of the same plastic blue clay which obstructs the passage of vessels of large draft on the St. Clair flats, and forms an impediment of a similar kind in this river in Lake George. This stratum seems to be the result of causes not now in operation. If dredged through, or excavated, there is no reason to suppose it would again accumulate; for the waters of the lake are clear and pure, and carry down no deposit of the kind. These clay deposits remain to attest physical changes which are past. They denote the demolition of formations of slate in the upper regions, which have been broken down and washed away when the dominion of the waters was far more potential than they now are.

This formation is favorable to the growth of some species of fresh-water shells. I observed several species of the anadonta and the plenorbis, and think, from the broken valves, that research would develop others.

PORPHYRY AND CONGLOMERATE BOULDERS.--A formation of red jasper, in common white quartz, exists, in the bed of intersection, on the southeastern foot of Sugar Island. The fragments of jasper are of a bright vermil red, quite opaque, and have preserved their angles. I had observed fragments of the formation along the shores of the lower part of the straits, and even picked up some specimens, entirely abraded, however, on the south shores of the Huron, between the White Rock and Michilimackinac--a proof of the course of the drift.

The granitic conglomerates appear quite conclusive, one would think, of the results of fusion. The attraction of aggregation would seem inadequate to hold together such diverse masses. In these curious and striking masses we see the red feldspathic granite, black and shining hornblende rock, white fatty quartz, and striped jasper, held together as firmly, and polished by attrition as completely, as if they were--what they are not--the results of crystallization in this aggregate form.

ERRATIC BLOCK GROUP.--Wherever, in fact, the geologist sets his foot, on the shores of the upper lakes, he finds himself on the great drift stratum, and cannot but revert to that era when waters, on a grander scale, swept over these plains, and the lakes played rampantly over wider areas.[221]

[221] During a subsequent residence of eleven years at this point, the excavations made on both sides of the river, in digging wells, canals made by the military, &c., fully demonstrated the truth of this general observation. In these positions, it was evident that some greatly superior force of watery removal, such as does not now exist, had heaped together particles of similar matters, according to laws which govern moving, compacted masses of water, leaving clay to settle according to the laws of diffused clay, sand of sand, and pebbles and boulders of pebbles and boulders. In their change and redeposit, gravity has evidently been the primary cause, modified by compressed currents, attraction, and probably those secret and still undeveloped magnetic and electric influences which exist in connection with astronomical phenomena. That the earth's surface, "standing out of the water and in the water," has been disrupted and preyed upon by oceanic power, no one, at this day of geological illumination, will deny.

BASIN OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--We entered this island sea as if by a kind of geological gate, in which the sandstone cliffs of Point Iroquois, on the one hand, stand opposite to the granitical hills of Gross Cape on the other.

In order to conceive of its geology, it may subserve the purposes of description to compare it to a vast basonic crater. The rim of this crater has been estimated, by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, at fifteen hundred miles. The primitive formations of Labrador and Hudson's Bay coasts come up, so as to form the eastern and northern sides of the rim, around which they stand in cliffs of sienitic greenstone and hornblendic rocks, in some places a thousand feet high. On its south and southwest shores, this formation of the elder class of rocks forms also a considerable portion of the coast; as in the rough tract of Granite Point, the Porcupine and Iron River Mountains, and the primitive tract west of Chegoimegon, or Lapointe. It will serve to denote the broken character of this rim, if we state that the entire plain of the lake, running against and fitting to this rim, was originally filled up with the red, gray, and mottled sandstone, which gave way and fell in at localities west of the great Keweena Peninsula, converting its bottom into an anteclinal axis.

Volcanic action, to which this disturbance in its westerly bearings may be attributed, appears to have thrown up the trap-rocks of the Pic, of the Porcupine chain, of the Isle Royal group, and other trap islands, and the long peninsula of Keweena. This system of forces appears to have spent itself from the northeast to the southwest. The shocks brought with them the elements of the copper and other metallic bodies which characterize the trap-rock. They exhausted their power, on the American side, west of the granitic tract of Chocolate and Dead Rivers, and the Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains. The most violent disturbance took place at the west of the Keweena Peninsula, and thence it was propagated in the direction of the higher Ontonagon, the Iron, and the Montreal rivers.

This disturbance of the level of the sandstone produced undulations, which are observable on the St. Mary's, where the variation from a level is not more than eight or ten degrees. They left portions of it--as between Isle au Train and the Firesteel River--undisturbed; and they threw other portions of it--as between Iron and Montreal rivers--almost completely on their edges.

The entire north shore from Gargontwa to the old Grand Portage, inclusive of the Michepicotin and Pic regions, cannot be particularly alluded to, as that part of the coast was not visited; but the accounts of observers represent it as consisting of trap-rocks. Without the application of such forces, it appears impossible to understand the geology of this lake, or to account for the sectional and disturbed formations.

The lake itself, whose depth is great, and which has an extreme length of about 500 miles, by an extreme width of some 180, is endowed with powerful means of existing elemental action. This consists almost entirely of the force of its winds and long, sweeping waves. Its bottom may, in this light, be looked upon as an immense mortar or triturating apparatus, in which its sandstones, trap-boulders, and pebbles are driven about and comminuted. This power has greatly changed its configuration, and the process of these mutations is daily going on.

It is only by such a power of geological action that we can account for the powerful demolitions and inroads which it has made upon some parts of its southern borders. The coasts of the Pictured Rocks, which have a prominent development of about 12 to 15 miles, consist in horizontal strata of coarse gray sandstone, of little cohering power. The effect of waves beating upon rocks is to communicate a curved line. This has operated to excavate numerous and extensive caves into the coast. These, after reaching hundreds of feet, have in some cases united. The effect is to isolate portions of the coast, and to leave it in fearful pinnacles, having many of the architectural characters of Gothic or Doric ruins.

The portion of coast immediately west of Grand Marrais is scarcely less unique. It denotes the effect of the prostrating power of the lake in another way. The sandstone of parts of the coast, ground down into yellow sand by this vast machinery, is lifted up by the winds as soon as it reaches the point of dryness, and heaped up into vast dunes. Standing trees are buried in these tempests of sand, and its effect is, for about nine miles along the coast, to present, at an elevation of several hundred feet, a scene of arid desolation, which can only be equalled by the Arabic deserts.

A dyke of trap seems once to have extended from the north shore to Point Keweena; but, if so, it has been prostrated, and its contents--veins and deposits, silicious and metallic--scattered profusely around the shores of the lakes. A cause less general is hardly sufficient to account for the wide distribution of fragments of the copper veins and vein-stones which have so long been noticed as characters of this lake. The basal remains of this antique dyke form the peninsula of Keweena. The tempests beating against this barrier from the northwest, have ripped up terrific areas from the solid rock, and left its covering, amygdaloid and rubblestones, in fantastic patches upon the more solid parts, or constituting islands in front of them.

STRUCTURE OF ITS SOUTHERN COAST.--The estimated distance from Sault Ste. Marie to Fond du Lac is a fraction over 500 miles. The sandstone, as it appears in the Falls of the St. Mary's, does not appear to be entirely level. It exhibits an undulation of about 8° or 10°, dipping to west-northwest. Two instances of this waved stratification of the Lake Superior sandstone deserve notice. The first terminates at the intersection of red sand rock at la Point des Grande Sables with the beginning of the horizontal strata of the Pictured Rocks. We again observe an inclination of the strata of a few degrees at Grand Island, which is moreingfish River, and appears to dip at Isle aux Trains, about twenty miles northeast. The scenery is peculiarly soft and pleasing in passing the Huron Islands, a granitic group, and directing the view, as in the sketch, to the coast and the rough granitical hills rising behind Huron Bay. The strata are level, as shown above, around the Bay of Presque Isle and Granite Point, and continue so, resting on the roots of the granitical tract of the Tötosh, or Schoolcraft, and Cradletop Mountains, and at Point aux Beignes, and Keweena Bay. This level position of the rock is preserved to the south cape of the shallow bay of the Bete Gre, on the north, at which the trap-dykes of the peninsula first begin; and so continues after passing that rugged coast of the vitreous series of that remarkable point, to and beyond Eagle River and Sandy Bay, in the approach to the portage of the Keweena.

The same horizontality is observed on the headland west of it, and upon all the points and headlands to Misery and Firesteel Rivers and the mouth of the Ontonagon. The trap-dyke of Keweena crosses this river about ten miles, in a direct line, inland.

At Iron River, we observe a stratum of compact gray grauwacke, over the hackly bed of which that river forces its way during the spring months, and stands in tanks and pools during the summer. On reaching the foot of the Porcupine Mountains, the sandstone, which is here of a dark chocolate color, with quartz pebbles of the bigness of a pigeon's egg, and organic remains of paleozoic type, is found to be tilted up into nearly a vertical position, as shown in the sketch. The grauwacke reappears, in a most striking manner, at the Falls of Presque Isle River, where the whole mass of water precipitated from the highlands drops into a vast pot-hole, a hundred feet wide and perhaps twice that depth. The whole upper series of rocks, from the Porcupine Cliffs west to the Montreal River, is a conglomerate. At the Falls of the Montreal, the river drops over the vertical edges of the red sandstone. Beyond the Bay of St. Chares, at Lapointe Chegoimigon, masses of sienitic mountains arise, which have their apex near La Riviere de Fromboise.

The Islands of the Twelve Apostles, or Federation Group, appear to be all based on the sienitic or trap, with overlying red sandstone; which latter again reappears on the point of the entrance into Fond du Lac Bay, and marks its southern coast, till near the entrance of the Brulé, or Misakoda River, as seen in the illustration beneath. Shores of sand then intercept its view to the entrance of the River St. Louis, and up its channel to its first rapids, about eighteen miles, where the red sandstone again appears, as the first series of the Cabotian Mountains.

SERPENTINE ROCK.--At the nearest point north of Rivier du Mort is a headland of this rock, jutting out from the granitical formation. Lapping against it, at the mouth of the river, is a curious formation of magnesian breccia. The serpentine rock appears, in nearly every locality examined, to be highly charged with particles of chromate of iron. It may be expected to yield the usual magnesian minerals.[222] Its position is between the Carp River and Granite Point, in the Bay of Presque Isle, or rather Chocolate River, for that river pours into this bay by far the largest quantity of water.[223]

[222] In 1831, in making some explorations of this rock with gunpowder, I found the serpentine in a crystalline state, of a beautiful deep-green color, but appearing as if the crystallization was pseudomorphous.

[223] The extensive iron mines of Marquette County, Upper Michigan, are now worked in this vicinity.

ANCIENT DRIFT-STRATUM.--In the intervals between the points and headlands, where the rock formation is exposed by streams or gorges, the drift, or erratic boulder stratum, is found. Such is its position beneath the sand-dunes of the Grandes Sables, and in the elder plains and uplands, stretching with interruptions on the coast from the head of the Mary's valley to that of the St. Louis. The edge of this formation is composed of the sand and loose pebbles and boulders of the lake. Mighty as are the existing causes of action of the lake in beating down and disrupting strata of every kind, and in reproducing alluvial lands and dunes, they are weak and local when compared to the causes which have spread these ponderous boulders, and drift masses over latitudes and longitudes which appear to be limited only by the leading elevations of the continent. That oceanic torrents of water, suddenly heaped on the land, and wedged into compactness and power now unknown to it, is after all, the most plausible theory of the dispersion of this formation, and this theory avoids the necessary local one of the glacial dispersion which presupposes a very low temperature over the whole surface of the globe.

KAUGWUDJU.[224]--This imposing mass of the trap-rocks is the highest on the southern shores of Lake Superior. The following outlines of it are taken from a point on the approach to the Ontonagon River, about forty miles distant.

[224] Porcupine Mountains. From kaug, a porcupine, and wudju, mountain.

They rise to their apex about thirty miles west of that stream, in north lat. 46° 52´ 2´´, as observed by Captain Douglass. They are distant three hundred and fifty miles from St. Mary's. In a serene day they present a lofty outline, and were seen by us from the east, at the distance of about eighty miles. The Indians represent them to have a deep tarn, with very imposing perpendicular walls, at one of the highest points. If Lake Superior be estimated at six hundred and forty feet above the Atlantic, as my notes indicate, its peaks are higher than any estimates we have of the source of the Mississippi, and are, at least, the highest elevations on this part of the continent. The granitical tract of the St. Francis, Missouri,[225] and of the quartz high lands of Wachita, Arkansas, the only two known primitive elevations between the Rocky and Alleghany chains, are far less elevated.

[225] Vide my view of the lead mines, in the Appendix to "Scenes and Adventures in the Ozark Mountains."

I have now taken a rapid glance at the formations along the southern shore of the lake between St. Mary's and Fond du Lac; but have passed by some features which may be thought to merit attention.

EXISTING LAKE DRIFT.--The gleaner among the rock debris of this lake has a field of labor which is not dissimilar to that of the fossilist. If he has not, so to say, to put joint to joint, to establish his conclusions, he has a mineralogical adjustment to make every way as obscure. A boulder of sienite, or a mass of sandstone, or grauwacke, may be easily referred to a contiguous rock. But when the observer meets with species which are apparently foreign to the region, he is placed in a dilemma between the toil of an impossible scrutiny and the danger of an unlicensed conjecture.

Among the more common masses which may be assigned a locality within the compass of the lake, are granites, sienites, hornblendes, greenstones, schists, traps, grauwackes, sandstones, porphyries, quartz rocks, serpentines, breccias, amygdaloids, amphiboles, and a variety of masses in which epidote and hornblende are essential constituents. With these, the coast mineralogist must associate, in place or out of place, agates, chalcedonies, carnelians, zeolite, prehnite, calcareous spar, crystalline quartz, amethystine quartz, coarse jaspers, noble serpentine, iron-sand, iron-glance, sulphate of lead, chromate of iron, native copper, carbonate of copper, and various species of pyrites. These were, at least, my principal rewards for about eighteen days' labor, in scrutinizing, at every possible point, its lengthened and varied coasts.

CUPREOUS FORMATION.--The whole region, above Grand Island at least, appears to have been the theatre of trap-dykes, and an extensive action from beneath, which brought to the surface the elements of the formation of copper veins. These have not been much explored; but, so far as observation goes, there are evidences which cannot be resisted, that the region contains this metal in various shapes and great abundance. I refer to my report of the 6th of November, 1820, for evidences of a valuable deposit of this metal in the valley of the Ontonagon River, and at other points. I found the metal in its native state at various other localities, and always under physical evidences which denoted its existence, in the geological column of the lake, in quantity. These indications were confined almost exclusively to the area intervening between the peninsula of Keweena, and La Pointe Chegoimegon, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles. Of this district, the two extremities would make the Ontonagon Valley about the centre.[226] A profile of one of the detached pieces, found in the Ontonagon Valley, and forwarded to you by Mr. Van Rensselaer, is herewith given.

[226] I would also refer, for subsequent information, to my report of the 1st of October, 1822, made in compliance to a resolution of the Senate, and printed in the Executive Documents of that year, No. 365, 17th Congress, 2d session.

VITRIC BOULDERS.--Among the debris of Lake Superior are masses of trachyte, and also small pieces of the sienitic series, in which the red feldspar has a calcined appearance, the quartz being, at the same time, converted into a perfectly vitreous texture. Similar productions, but not of the same exact character, exist on the sandy summits of the Grande Sable. These exhibit an exterior of glistening cells or orifices: it may be possible that they have been produced by fusion; but I think not. The smooth cells appear like grains of sand hurled by the winds over these bleak dunes. I have brought from that locality a single specimen of pitchstone, perfectly resinous, bleak and shining.

LA POINTE CHEGOIMEGON.--A sketch of these islands, as given in the Narrative, denotes that their number is greatly underrated, and will serve to show the configuration of a very marked part of the Superior coast. It must, hereafter, become one of the principal harbors and anchoring-ground for vessels of the lake.

VALLEY OF THE ST. LOUIS RIVER.--The St. Louis River takes its rise on the southern side of the Hauteur des Terres, being the same formation of the drift and erratic block stratum which gives origin, at a more westerly point, to the Mississippi. Its tributaries lie northwest of the Rainy Lakes. Vermilion Lake, a well-known point of Indian trade, is a tributary to its volume, which is large, and its outlet rushes with a great impetus to the lake. At what height its sources lie above Lake Superior, we can only conjecture. It was estimated to have a fall of two hundred and nine feet to the head of the Portage aux Coteaux, and may have a similar rise above.

By far its most distinguishing feature is its passage at the Grand Portage through the Cabotian Mountains. We entered it at Fond du Lac and pursued up its channel through alluvial grounds, in which it winds with a deep channel about nineteen or twenty miles to the foot of its first rapids. This point was found one mile above the station of the American Fur Company's trading-house. Here we encountered the first rock stratum, in the shape of our old geological acquaintance, the old red sandstone of Lake Superior. It was succeeded in the first sixteen miles, in the course of which the river is estimated to fall two hundred feet--most of it in the first twenty-nine miles--by trap, argillite, and grauwacke. Through these barriers the water forces its way, producing a series of rapids and falls which the observer often beholds with amazement. The river is continually in a foam for nine miles, and the wonder is that such a furious and heavy volume of water should not have prostrated everything before it. The sandstone, grauwacke, and the argillite, the latter of which stands on its edges, have opposed but a feeble barrier; but the trap species, resisting with the firmness, as it has the color of cast-iron, stand in masses which threaten the life and safety of everything which may be hurled against them. I found a loose specimen of sulphuret of lead and some common quartz in place in the slate rock, a vein of clorite slate, and a locality of coarse graphite, to reward my search.

The Portage aux Coteaux, which is over the basetting edges of the argillite, will give a lively idea of the effects of this rock upon the feet of the loaded voyageurs.

The sandstone is last seen near the Galley on the Nine Mile Portage. Above the Knife Portage, some eight miles higher, vast black boulders of hornblendic and basaltic blocks, are more frequent; and these masses are observed to be more angular in their shapes than the boulders and blocks of kindred character encountered on the shores of Lakes Superior and Huron. There is a vast sphagnous formation, which spreads westwardly from the head of the Coteau Portage, and gives rise to the remote tributaries of Milles lac and Rum River. Much of this consists of what the Indians term muskeeg, or elastic bog. Hurricanes and tempests have made fearful inroads upon areas of its timber, and it is seldom crossed, even by the Indians. This tract lies east of the summit of sand-hills and drift, which environ Sandy Lake, the Komtaguma of the Chippewas. The portage of the Savanna River, a tributary of the St. Louis, is the route pursued by persons with canoes; there is no other species of water craft adapted to this navigation. But wherever crossed, this swamp-land tract imposes labor and toil which are of no ordinary cast. It is the equivalent of the argillite which has been broken down and disintegrated, forming beds of clay soil which are impervious to the water, and we way regard this ancient slate formation of the true source of the St. Lawrence tributaries, as the remote origin of those extensive beds of an argillaceous kind, which exist at many places in the lower lakes and plains.

Immediately west of the Savanna Portage, the Komtaguma summit is reached. This summit consists wholly of arid pebble and boulder drift of the elder period. It exhibits evidences of broken-down amygdaloids, which not only furnish a part of its pebbles, but also of the contents of this stratum, in numerous agates and other subspecies of the quartz family which are found scattered over the surface. This is, in fact, the origin of that extensive diffusion of these species, which is found in the valley of the Upper Mississippi, as at Lake Pepin, &c., and which has even been traced, in small pieces, as low as St. Louis and Herculaneum in Missouri.[227] We may conclude that the ancient sandstones, slates, and rubblestone, and amygdaloids, of which traces still remain, were swept from the summit of the Mississippi by those ancient floods which appear to have diffused the boulder drift from the North.

[227] Vide View of the lead mines.

SANDY LAKE.--The first view of this body of water was obtained from one of those eminences situated at the influx of the west Savanna River.

This lake is bounded, on its western borders, by the delta of the Mississippi; its outlet is about two miles in length. We here first beheld the object of our search. The soil on its banks is of the richest alluvial character. From this point, dense forests and a moderately elevated soil, varying from three or four to fifteen feet, confined the view, on either side, during more than two days' march. On the third day after leaving Sandy Lake, at an early hour, we reached the Falls of Pakágama. Here the rock strata show themselves for the first time on the Mississippi, in a prominent ledge of quartz rock of a gray color. Through this formation the Mississippi, here narrowed to less than half its width, forces a passage. The fall of its level in about fifty rods may be sixteen or eighteen feet. There is no cascade or leap, properly so called, but a foaming channel of extraordinary velocity, which it is alike impossible to ascend or descend with any species of water craft. It lies in the shape of an elbow. We made the portage on the north side.

PAKÁGAMA SUMMIT.--The observer, when he has surmounted the summit, immediately enters on a theatre of savannas, level to the eye, and elevated but little above the water. Vistas of grass, reeds, and aquatic plants spread in every direction. On these grassy plains the river winds about, doubling and redoubling on itself, and increasing its cord of distance in a ratio which, by the most moderate computation, would seem extravagant. On those plateaux, and the small rivers and lakes connected with them, the wild rice reaches the highest state of perfection.

Our men toiled with their paddles till the third day, through this unparalleled maze of water and plants, when we reached the summit of the Upper Red Cedar or Cass Lake, where we encamped. In this distance no rock strata appeared, nor any formation other than a jutting ridge of sand, or an alluvial plain. Plateau on plateau had, indeed, carried us from one level or basin to another, like a pair of steps, till we had reached our extreme height.

CASS LAKE BASIN.--From estimates made, this lake is shown to lie at thirteen hundred and thirty feet above the Atlantic.[228] This is a small elevation, when we consider it as lying on the southern flank of the transverse formation which forms the connecting link with the Rocky Mountains. A rise or a subsidence of this part of the continent to this amount, would throw the Hudson's Bay and Arctic waters down the Mississippi valley. The scenery of its coasts is in part arenaceous plains, and in part arable land, yielding corn to the Indians.

[228] Agreeable to barometric observations made in 1836, by Mr. Nicollet, its true altitude is found to be 1,402 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. Its latitude, by the same authority, is 47° 25´ 23´´.

SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI.--In order to understand the geology of this region, it is necessary to premise, that the St. Lawrence, the Hudson's Bay, and the Mexican Gulf waters are separated by a ridge or watershed of diluvial hills, called the Hauteur des Terres, which begins immediately west of the basin of the Rainy Lakes and Rainy Lake River. This high ground subtends the utmost sources of the Mississippi, and reaches to the summit of Ottertail Lake, where it divides the tributaries of the Red River of Lake Winnepec from those of the Des Corbeau, or Great Crow-Wing River.

Within this basin, which circumscribes a sweep of several hundred miles, there appears to have been deposited, upon the trap and primary rocks which form its nucleus, a sedimentary argillaceous deposit, capable of containing water. Upon this, the sand and pebble drift reposes in strata of unequal thickness, and the sand is often developed in ridges and plains, bearing species of the pine. The effect has been, that the immense amount of vapor condensed upon these summits, and falling in dews, rains, and snows, being arrested by the impervious subsoil of clay, has concentrated itself in innumerable lakes, of all imaginable forms, from half a mile to thirty miles long. These are connected by a network of rivers, which pour their redundancy into the Mississippi, and keep up a circulation over the whole vast area. The sand plains often resting around the shores of these lakes create the impression of bodies of water resting on sand, which is a fallacy. Some of these bodies of water are choked up, or not well drained, and overflow their borders, forming sphagnous tracts. Hence the frequent succession of arid sand plains, impassable muskeegs, and arable areas on the same plateaux. Every system of the latter, of the same altitude, constitutes a plateau. The highest of these is the absolute source of the Mississippi waters. The next descending series forms another plateau, and so on, till the river finally plunges over St. Anthony's Falls.

In this descending series of plateaux, the Cass, Leech Lake, and Little Lake Winnipec form the third and fourth levels.

In descending the Mississippi below the Pakágama, the first stratum of rock, which rises through the delta of the river, occurs between the mouth of the Nokasippi and Elm Rivers, below the influx of the Great De Corbeau. This rock, which is greenstone trap, rises conspicuously in the bed of the stream, in a rocky isle seated in the rapid called--I know not with what propriety--the BIG FALLS, or Grande Chute. The precipitous and angular falls of this striking object decide that the bed of the stream is at this point on the igneous granitical and greenstone series. This formation is seen at a few points above the water, until we pass some bold and striking eminences of shining and highly crystalline hornblendic sienite, which rises in the elevation called by us Peace Rock, on the left bank, near the Osaukis Rapids. This rock lies directly opposite to the principal encampment on the 27th of July, which was on an elevated prairie on the west bank. To this point a delegation of Sioux had ascended on an embassy of peace from Fort Snelling to the Chippewas, having affixed on a pole what the exploring party called a bark letter, the ideas being represented symbolically by a species of picture writing, or hieroglyphics. In allusion to this embassy, this locality was called the Peace Rock. This rock is sienite. It is highly crystalline, and extends several miles. Its position must be, from the best accounts, in north latitude about 44° 30´. From this point to Rum River, a distance of seventy miles, no other point of the intrusion of this formation above the prairie soil was observed.

INTRODUCTION OF THE PALÆONTOLOGICAL ROCKS.--After passing some fifty miles below this locality there are evidences that the river, in its progress south, has now reached the vicinity of the great carboniferous and metalliferous formations, which, for so great a length, and in so striking a manner, characterize both banks of the Mississippi below St. Anthony's Falls. About nine or ten miles before reaching these Falls, this change of geological character is developed; and on reaching the Falls the river is found to be precipitated, at one leap, over strata of white sandstone, overlaid by the metalliferous limestone. The channel is divided by an island, and drops in single sheets, about sixteen to eighteen feet, exclusive of the swift water above the brink, or of the rapids for several hundred yards below. This sandstone is composed of grains of pure and nearly limpid quartz, held together by the cohesion of aggregation. If my observations were well taken it embraces, sparingly, orbicular masses of hornblende. It is horizontal, and constitutes, in some places, walls of stratification, which are remarkable for their whiteness and purity. This sandstone is overlaid by the cliff limestone, the same in character, which assumes at some points a silicious, and at others, a magnesian character. It is manifestly the same great metalliferous rock which accompanies the lead ore of Missouri and mines of Peosta or Dubuque. There rests upon it the elder drift stratum of boulders, pebble, and loam, which marks the entire valley. This latter embraces boulders of quartz and hornblende rock, along with limestones and sandstones. It is overlaid by about eighteen inches of black alluvial carbonaceous mould.

From St. Anthony's Falls the river is perpetually walled on either side with those high and picturesque cliffs which give it so imposing and varied an appearance, and its current flows on with a majesty which seems to the imagination to make it rejoice in its might, confident of a power which will enable it to reach and carry its name to the ocean in its unchanged integrity.

ST. PETER'S RIVER AND VALLEY.--The importance, fertility, and value of this tributary have particularly impressed every member of the party. Its position as the central point of the Sioux power, and its border position to the Chippewas, the representative tribe of the great Algonquin family, render it now a place of note, which fully justifies the policy of the department in establishing a military post at the confluence of the river; and the importance cannot soon pass away, in the progress of the settlement of the Mississippi Valley.[229] It is the great route of communication with the valley of the Red River of the North, and the agricultural and trading settlements of Lord Selkirk in that fertile valley, and its complete exploration by a public officer is desirable, if not demanded.[230]

[229] Thirty years has made it the centre of the new territory of Minnesota, which has now entered on the career of nations.

[230] This object was accomplished by an expedition by Major L. Long, in 1823.

Of its geological character but little is known, and that connects it with both the great formations which have been noticed as succeeding each other at the great Peace Rock. That the granitical formation reaches it at a high point is probable, from the large reported boulders. The Indians bring from the blue earth fork of it, one of their most esteemed green and blue argillaceous pigments, of which the coloring matter appears to be carbonate of copper. They also bring from the Coteau des Prairie, probably Carver's "shining mountains," specimens of that fine and beautiful red pipe stone, which has so long been known to be used by them for that purpose. This mineral is fissile, and moderately hard, which renders it fit for their peculiar ripe sculptures. I found small masses of native copper in the drift stratum at the mouth of this stream, on the top of the cliffs on the Mississippi, opposite the mouth of the St. Peter's.

CRYSTALLINE SAND ROCK.--This stratum reveals the same crystalline structure which is so remarkable in the sandstone caves, near the Potosi road, in the county of St. Genevieve, Missouri; and the sand obtained from it, like that mineral, would probably fuse, with alkali, in a moderate heat, and constitute an excellent material for the manufacture of glass. It is also, like the Missouri sandstone, cavernous. In both situations, these caves appear to be due to water escaping through fissures of the rock, where its cohesion is feeble, carrying it away grain by grain.

In stopping at one of these caves, about twelve miles below St. Peter's, we found this cause of structure verified by a lively spring and pond of limpid water flowing out of it.

VALLEY OF THE ST. CROIX.--This river originates in an elevated range of the elder sand and pebble drift, which lies on the summit between the Mississippi system of formations, and the Lake Superior basin. It communicates with the Brulé, which is "Goddard's River" of Carver, and with the Mauvaise or Bad River of that basin. Specimens of native copper have been found on Snake River, one of its tributaries.[231]

[231] This river was explored by me in 1831 and 1832, in two separate expeditions in the public service, accounts of which have been published in 1831 and 1832, of which abstracts are given in the preceding pages.

GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS.--In descending the river for the distance of about one hundred miles below St. Anthony's Falls, my attention was arrested, on visiting the high grounds, by a species of natural monuments, which appear as if made by human hands seen at a distance, but appear to be the results of the degradation and wasting away, on the Huttonian theory, of all but these, probably harder, portions of the strata.

LAKE PEPIN.--This sheet commends itself to notice by its extent and picturesque features. It is an expansion of the river, about twenty-four miles long, and two or three wide. Both its borders and bed reveal the drift stratum, and the observer recognizes here, boulders of the peculiar stratification which has, in ancient periods, characterized the high plateaux about the sources of the river. Such are its hornblendic, sienite, quartz, trap, and amygdaloid pebbles, and that variety of the quartz family which assumes the form of the agate and other kindred species. Moved as these materials are annually, lower and lower, by the impetus of the stream, other supplies, it may be inferred, are still furnished by the shifting sand and gravel bars from above. The mass must submit to considerable abrasion by this change, and the diminished size of the drifted masses become a sort of measure of the distance at which they are found from their parent beds.

CHIPPEWA RIVER.--This stream is the first to bring in a vast mass of moving sand. Its volume of water is large, which it gathers from the high diluvial plains that spread southwest of the Porcupine Mountains, and about the sources of the Wisconsin, the Montreal, and the St. Croix Rivers, with which it originates.

TROMPELDO (Le Montaine des Tromps d'Eaux).--This island mountain stands as if to dispute the passage of the Mississippi, whose channel it divides into two portions. Distinct from its height, which appears to correspond with the contiguous cliffs, and in the large amount of fresh debris at its base, it presents nothing peculiar in its geology.

PAINTED ROCK.--This vicinity is chiefly noted for its large and fine specimens of fresh-water shells.

WISCONSIN.--Like the Chippewa, this stream brings down in its floods, vast quantities of loose sand, which tend to the formation of bars and temporary islands. It originates in the same elevated plains, and bespeaks a considerable area at its sources, which must be arid. It is a region, however, in which lakes and rice lands abound, and it may, in this respect, be geologically of the same formation as the higher plateaux of the Mississippi, above the Sandy Lake summit. Its sides produce many species to enrich our fresh-water Conchology.

LEAD MINES OF PEOSTA AND DUBUQUE.--In my researches into the mineral geography of Missouri, in 1818 and 1819, I had explored a district of country between the rivers Merrimak and St. Francis, and on the Ozarks, which revealed many traits which it has in common with the Upper Mississippi. There, as here, the mineral deposits appear to be, in many cases, in a red marly clay, whether the clay is overlaid by the calcareous rock or not. There, as here, also, the limestone and sandstone strata are perfectly horizontal. The leads of ore appear, in this section, to be followed with more certainty, agreeable to the points of the compass; but this may happen, to some extent, because the practice of mining on individual account, with windlass and buckets, in the Missouri district, has led common observers to be more indifferent to exact scientific methods. To say that the digging, at these mines, is equally, or more productive, is perhaps just. Capital and labor have been rewarded in both sections of the country, in proportion as they have been perseveringly and judiciously expended.

I found much of the ore, which is a sulphuret, at Dubuque's Mines, lying in east and west leads. These leads were generally pursued in caves, or, more properly, fissures in the rock. In one of the excavations which I visited, the digging was continued horizontally under the first stratum of rock, after an excavation had been made perpendicularly, through the top soil and calcareous rock, perhaps thirty feet. The ore is a broad-grained cubical galena, easily reduced, and bids fair very greatly to enhance the value and resources of this section of the West.

Similar mines exist at Mississinawa, and the River Au Fevé,[232] both on the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi. And a system of leasing or management, such as I have suggested for the Missouri mines, appears equally desirable.

[232] GALENA has subsequently been made the capital of these mines.

QUARTZ GEODES.--The amount of silex in the cliff limestone is such, in some conditions of it, as to justify the term silico-calcareous. This condition of the rock at the passage of the Mississippi through the Rock River and Des Moines Rapids, is such as to produce a very striking locality of highly crystalline quartz geodes, which accumulates in the bed of the stream. Many of these geodes are from a foot to twenty-two inches in diameter, and on breaking them they exhibit resplendent crystals of limpid quartz. Sometimes these are amethystine; in other cases they present surfaces of chalcedony or cacholong. The latter minerals, if obtained from the rock, and before unduly hardening by exposure, would probably furnish a suitable basis for lapidaries.

INTERMEDIATE COUNTRY IN THE DIRECTION TO GREEN BAY.--There is a line which separates, on the north, the granitical and trap region from the metal-bearing limestone, and its supporting sandstone. This formation of the elder series of rocks, having been traced to the south shore of Lake Superior, and having been seen to constitute the supporting bed of the alluviums and diluviums of the Upper Mississippi, above the Peace Rock, it may subserve the purpose of inquiry to trace this line of junction by its probable and observed boundaries.

The line may be commenced where it crosses the Mississippi, at the Peace Rock, and extended to the St. Croix, the falls of which are on the trap-rock, to the sources of the Chippewa at Lac du Flambeau, and the Wisconsin near Plover Portage. The source of Fox River runs amid uprising masses of sienite, and this formation appears to pass thence northeasterly, across the Upper Menominee, to the district of the Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains, west of Chocolate River, on the shores of Lake Superior.

I observed the crystalline sandstone and its overlying cliff limestone, along the valley of the Wisconsin, where ancient excavations for lead ore have been made. There is an entire preservation of its characters, and no reason occurs why its mineralogical contents should not prove, in some positions, as valuable as they have been found in Missouri, or in the Dubuque district west of the Mississippi.

On reaching the Wisconsin Portage, the limestone is found to have been swept by diluvial action, from its supporting sand rock. Such is its position not far north of the highest of the four lakes, and again at Lake Puckway, in descending the Fox River; consequently, there are no lead discoveries in this region. On coming to the calcareous rock, which is developed along the channel of the river, below Winnebago Lake, it appears rather to belong to the lake system of deposits. Its superior stratum lies in patches, or limited districts, which appear to have been left by drift action. Petrefactions are found in these districts, and the character of the rock is dark, compact, or shelly. The lower series of deposits, such as they appear at the Kakala Rapids, at Washington Harbor, in the entrance to Green Bay, and in the cliffs north of Sturgeon Bay and Portage, are manifestly of the same age and general character as the inferior stratum of Michilimackinac and the Manatouline chain.

BASIN OF LAKE MICHIGAN.--This basin, stretching from the north to the south nearly four hundred miles, lies deeply in the series of formation of limestones, sandstone, and schists, to which we apply the term of the Michilimackinac system. Its north and west shores are skirted from Green Bay to a point north of the Sheboygan, with the calcareous stratum. At this point, the ancient drift, the lacustrine clay of Milwaukie and the prairie diluvium of Chicago, constitute a succession, of which the surface is a slightly waving line of the most fertile soils.

Among the pebbles cast ashore at the southern head of this lake I observed slaty coal. It seems, indeed, the only one of the lakes which reaches south into the coal basin of Illinois. If the level at which coal is found on the Illinois were followed through, it would issue in the basin of the lake below low-water mark. Digging for this mineral on the Chicago summit, promises indeed not to be unsupported by sound hypothesis.

After passing Chicago, of which a sketch is added, the sands which begin to accumulate at the Konamik, the River du Chemin, and the St. Joseph's River,[233] appear in still more prominent ridges, skirting the eastern coasts to and beyond Grand River. These sands, which are the accumulations of winds, are cast on the arable land, much in the manner that has been noticed at the Grand Sable on Lake Superior, and reach the character of striking dunes at the coast denominated the Sleeping Bear. The winds which periodically set from the western shore, produce continual abrasions of its softer materials, and are the sole cause of these intrusive sand-hills. Pent up behind them, the water is a cause of malaria to local districts of country, and many of the small rivers upon this side are periodically choked with sand. The sketch transmitted of this bleak dune-coast (omitted here), as it is seen at the mouth of Maskigon Lake, will convey a false idea of the value of this coast, even half a mile from the spot where the surf beats. It is designed to show the air of aridity which the mere coast line presents. The stratification regains its ordinary level and appearance before reaching the Plate or Omicomico River, and the peninsula of the Grand Traverse Bay, and the settlements of the Ottawa Indians on Little Traverse Bay, afford tracts of fertile lands. Point Wagonshonce consists of a stratum of limestone of little elevation, which constitutes the southeast cape of the strait. Here a lighthouse is needed to direct the mariner.

[233] The subjoined petrifaction of a leaf, apparently a species of betula, was obtained on this river. See ante, p. 206.

LAKE HURON.--Notices of this sheet of water have been given in our outward voyage. It appears rather as the junction of separate lakes which have had their basins fretted into one another, than as one original lake. Michigan is connected with it through the Straits of Michilimackinac. The Georgian Bay, north of the Manatouline chain, seems quite distinct. The Saganaw Bay is an element of another kind. The Manitouline chain separates the calcareous and granitic region, and its numerous trap and basaltic islands towards the north shore, of which there are many thousands, denote that it has been the scene of geological disturbance of an extraordinary kind.

ULTERIOR CONCLUSIONS.--In taking these several views of the geological structure of the Northwest--of the Lake Superior basin, and of the valleys of the St. Louis River--the region about the Upper Mississippi, its striking change at the Falls of St. Anthony--and the valleys of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, and the basins of Lakes Michigan and Huron, I am aware of the temerity of my task. Allowance must, however, be made for the rapidity of my transit over regions where the question was often the safety and personal subsistence of the party. A very large and diversified area was passed over in a short time. At no place was it possible to make elaborate observations. A thousand inconveniences were felt, but they were felt as the pressure of so many small causes impeding the execution of a great enterprise. A sketch has been made, which, it is hoped, will reveal something of the physical history and lineaments of the country. These glimpses at wild scenes, heretofore hid from the curious eye of man, have been made, at all points, with the utmost avidity. I have courted every opportunity to accumulate facts, and I owe much to the distinguished civilian who has led the party so successfully through scenes of toil and danger, not always unexpected, but always met in a calm, bold, and proper spirit, which has served to inspire confidence in all; to him, and to each one of my associates, I owe much on the score of comity and personal amenity and forbearance; and I have been made to feel, in the remotest solitudes, how easy it is to execute a duty when all conspire to facilitate it.

The views herein expressed are generalized in two geological maps (hereto prefixed), which, it is believed, will help to fix the facts in the mind. They exhibit the facts noticed, in connection with the theory established by them, and by all my observations, of the construction of this part of the continent.

The mineralogy of the regions visited is condensed in the following summary, drawn from my notes, which, it is believed, constitutes an appropriate conclusion to this report.

With the exception of one species, namely, the ores of copper, the region has not proved as attractive in this department as I found the metalliferous surface of Missouri. There are but few traces of mining, and those of an exceedingly ancient character, in the copper region of Lake Superior. The excavations in search of lead ore on the Upper Mississippi do not date back many years, but the indications are such as to show that few countries, even Missouri, exceed them in promises of mineral wealth.

I have employed the lapse of time between the termination of the exploration and the present moment, to extend my mineralogical observations to some parts of the Mississippi Valley which were not included in the line of the expedition, but which were visited in the following year, in the service of the Government, namely, the Miami of the Lakes, and Wabash Valleys, the Cave in Rock Region in Lower Illinois, and the Valley of the River Illinois. The whole is concentrated in the following notices:--

Tabular View of Minerals observed in the Northwest.

I. ORES.

Genera. Species. Subspecies. Varieties. { Copper { Native copper. { Fibrous. { { Green carbonate of copper { Compact. { Lead Sulphuret of lead Common. { Zinc Sulphuret of zinc Blende. { { { Common. { { { Radiated. METALLIC { { Sulphuret of iron { Spheroidal. MINERALS { { { Cellular. { { { Hepatic. { Iron { Magnetic oxide of iron Iron sand. { { Specular oxide of iron. Micaceous. { { { Ochrey. { { Red oxide of iron { Scaly. { { { Compact. { { Brown oxide of iron Ochrey. { Silver.

II. EARTHS AND STONES.

Genus. Species. Varieties.

{ { { Milky. { { { Radiated. { { { Tabular. { { Common { Greasy. { { quartz { Granular. { { { Arenaceous. { { { Pseudomorphous. { { { Amethystine. { { Amethyst { { { { Ferruginous { { { quartz { Yellow. { { { Red. { Quartz { Prase { { { Common. { { { Cacholong. { { Chalcedony { Carnelian. { { { Sardonyx. { { { Agate. { { Hornstone { { { Common. { { Jasper { Striped. { { { Red. { { Heliotrope SILICIOUS { { OPAL COMMON. MINERALS { { Silicious { Common. { slate { Basanite. { { Petrosilex { { Common. { Mica { Gold yellow. { { { Common. { Schorl { Indicolite. { { Feldspar Common. { Prehnite Radiated. { { Hornblende { Common. { { Actynolite. { { Woodstone { Mineralized wood. { { Agatized wood.

{ { Calcareous { { { spar { Crystallized. { { { Lamellar. { { Granular { { limestone { { { { Compact { Common. { { limestone { Earthy. { { { { Agaric { { { mineral { Common. { Carbonate { { Fossil farina. { of lime { { { { Oolite. { { Concreted { { { carbonate { Calcareous { Stalactite. { { of lime { sinter { Stalagmite. { { { { { { Calcareous tufa. CALCAREOUS { { Pseudomorphous carbonate MINERALS { { of lime. { { Marl Ludus helmontii. { { Fibrous. { Sulphate { Granular. { of lime Gypsum { Granularly foliated. { { Earthy. { Fluate of { lime Fluorspar

Genus. Varieties. { { Argillite. { Argillaceous slate { Bituminous shale. { { Chlorite Chlorite slate. { Stautoride. ALUMINOUS MINERALS { { Potters' clay. { { Pipe clay. { { Variegated clay. { Clay { Blue sulphated clay. { { Green sulphated clay. { Opwagunite.

{ Serpentine Common serpentine MAGNESIAN MINERALS { Steatite Steatite. { Asbestus Com. asbestus.

BARYTIC MINERALS Sulphate of barytes Lamellar. STRONTIAN Sulphate of strontian Foliated.

III. COMBUSTIBLES.

{ { Petroleum. { Bitumen { Maltha. BITUMINOUS MINERALS { { Asphaltum. { { Graphite Granular graphite. { Coal Slate coal.

IV. SALTS.

{ { Native salt. Soda { Muriate of soda ..... { Salt springs. { { Alkaline sulphate of Alum. { alumina

a. Metallic Minerals.

1. COPPER.

This metal is frequently found, in detached masses, in the diluvial soil along the southern shore of Lake Superior, and in the high and barren tract included between Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, and the Mississippi River, as general boundaries. Thus, it has been found upon the sources of the Menomonie, Wisconsin, Chippewa, St. Croix, and Ontonagon Rivers, but most constantly, and in the greatest quantity, upon the latter. There are many localities known only to the aborigines, who appear to set some value upon it, and have been in the habit of employing the most malleable pieces in several ways from the earliest times. It occurs mostly in detached masses, resting upon, or imbedded in, diluvial soil. These masses, which vary in size, are sometimes connected with isolated fragments of rock. Such is the geognostic position of the great mass of native copper upon the banks of the Ontonagon, which has been variously estimated to weigh from two to five tons. This extraordinary mass is situated at the base of a diluvial precipice composed of reddish loam and mixed boulders and pebbles of granite, greenstone, quartz, and sandstone and diallage rocks. The nearest strata, in situ, are red sandstone, grauwacke, and greenstone trap. A company of miners was formerly employed in searching for copper mines upon the banks of this river. They dug down about forty feet into the diluvial soil, at a spot where a green-colored water issued from the hill. In sinking this pit, several masses of native copper were found, and they discovered, as their report indicates, the same metal "imbedded in stone." But the enterprise was abandoned, in consequence of the falling in of the pit.

At Keweena Point, on Lake Superior, I found native copper along the shore of the lake, constituting small masses in pebbles, and, in one instance, in a mass of several pounds' weight, which was found in the Ontonagon Valley. I also observed the green carbonate of copper, in several places, in the detritus. The strata of this point appear to be charged with this mineral, particularly in its native forms. Hardly a mass of the loose rock is without some trace of the metal, or its oxides or salts. It would be difficult, on any known principles, to resist the testimony which is offered, by every observer, to favor the idea that extensive and very valuable mines exist. The whole lake shore, from this peninsula to the Montreal River, is replete with these evidences.

There are indications that this mineral pervades the rocks and soils, in a radius of one hundred and fifty miles or more, south and west of this central point. It has been discovered at the sources of the Menominee, Chippewa, Montreal, and St. Croix, and even at more distant points.

At St. Peter's, in digging down for the purpose of quarrying the rock, about eighteen inches depth of dark alluvium was passed; then a deposit of diluvial soil, with large fragments of limestone, greenstone, quartz rock, &c., about six feet; and, lastly, one foot of small pebbles, &c., constituting the copper diluvium. No large mass was found; nor any veins in the rock.

2. LEAD.

The only ore of lead known to exist within the limits to which these remarks are confined, is the sulphuret. In the year 1780, Peosta, a woman of the Misquakee, or Fox tribe of Indians, discovered a lead mine upon the west banks of the Mississippi, at the computed distance of twenty-five leagues below Prairie du Chien, which the Indians, in 1788, gave Julian Dubuque a right to work. This permission was partially confirmed by the Baron de Carondelet, Governor of Louisiana, in 1796. No patent was, however, issued; but Dubuque continued to prosecute the mining business to the period of his death, which happened in 1810, when the mines were again claimed by the original proprietors.

The ore is the common sulphuret of lead, or galena, which Dubuque stated to have yielded him seventy-five per cent. in smelting in the large way. He usually made from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds per annum.

I made a cursory visit to these mines, and found them worked by the Fox Indians, but in a very imperfect manner. They cover a considerable area, commencing at the mouth of the Makokketa River, sixty miles below Prairie du Chien. Traces of the ore are found, also, on the east bank of the Mississippi at several points. It occurs disseminated in a reddish loam, resting upon limestone rock, and is sometimes seen in small veins pervading the rock; but it has been chiefly explored in diluvial soil. It generally occurs in beds having little width, and runs in a direct course towards the cardinal points. They are sometimes traced into a crevice of the rock. At this stage of the pursuit, most of the diggings have been abandoned. Little spar or crystalline matrix is found in connection with the ore. It is generally enveloped by a reddish, compact earth, or marly clay. Occasionally, masses of calcareous spar occur; less frequently, sulphate of barytes, green iron earth, and ochrey brown oxide of iron. I did not observe any masses of radiated quartz, which form so conspicuous a trait in the surface of the metalliferous diluvion of the mining district of Missouri.

Sufficient attention does not appear to have been bestowed, by mineralogists, upon the metalliferous soil of the Mississippi Valley. It is certainly very remarkable that such vast deposits of lead ore, accompanied by veins of sulphate of barytes, calc spar, and other crystallized bodies, should be found in alluvial beds; and it would be very interesting to ascertain whether any analogous formations exist in Europe, or in any other part of the earth's surface. It is one of the most striking features of this deposit, that the ore, spars, &c., do not appear as the debris of older formations, and have no marks of having been worn or abraded, like those extraneous masses of rock which are very common in the alluvial soil of our continent. The lead ore and accompanying minerals appear to have been crystallized in the situations where they are now found. We should, perhaps, except from this remark the species of lead called gravel ore by the miners, which is in rounded lumps, and is never accompanied by spars.

Sulphuret of lead is also found near the spot where the small River Sissinaway enters the Mississippi, and two leagues south of it, upon the banks of the River Aux Fevre, at both of which places considerable quantities have been raised, and continue to be raised, for the purposes of smelting, by the Fox and Sac tribes of Indians. At these places, it is most frequently connected with a gangue of heavy spar and calcareous spar, with pyrites of iron. I procured from a trader, at Dubuque, several masses of galena crystallized in cubes and octahedrons.

In descending the Upper Mississippi, a specimen of galena was exhibited to me, by a Sioux Indian, at the village of the Red Wing, six miles above Lake Pepin, said to have been procured in that vicinity. Galena is also reported to have been discovered in several places on the south side of the Wisconsin River, and these localities may be entitled to future notice, as furnishing important hints.

3. ZINC.

The sulphuret of zinc (black blende) is found disseminated in limestone rock along the banks of Fox River, between the post of Green Bay and Winnebago Lake. Although frequently seen in small masses, no body of it is known to exist. I also found blende, in small, orbicular masses of calcareous marl, along the east shore of Lake Michigan, between the Rivers St. Joseph and Kikalemazo.

4. IRON.

This mineral is distributed, in several of its forms, throughout the region visited, although but little attention has yet been directed to its exploration. In the basin of Lake Superior it exists, in valuable masses, in the form of a magnetic oxide, on the coasts of the lake between Gitchi Sebing (Great River), called by the French Chocolate River, and Granite Point. Specimens from Dead River (Riviere du Morts) and Carp River, the Namabin of the Indians, in this district, denote the latter to be the chief locality. It is the iron glance, and occurs in mountain masses.

Sulphuret of Iron.--This variety is found, in limited quantities, in a state of crystallization, in clay beds, on the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. It is frequently in the form of a cube or an octahedron. Some of the crystals are in lumps of several pounds' weight, with a metallic lustre. Often the masses, on being broken, are found radiated, sometimes cellular, and occasionally irised.

Iron Sand.--The breaking-up and prostration of the sandstone and other sedimentary formations, along the shores of lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior, liberates this ore in considerable quantities. It arranges itself, on the principle of its specific gravities, in separate strata along the sandy shores, where it invariably occupies the lowest position at and below the water's edge. The shores of Fond du Lac, on Lake Superior, may be particularly mentioned as an abundant locality.

Micaceous Oxide of Iron.--In detached mass, among the debris of the River St. Louis and of Fond du Lac. It exists in veins in the clay slate which characterizes the banks of this river.

Ochrey Red Oxide of Iron. (Red ochre)--Is produced near a spot called the Big Stone, on the head of the River St. Peter's. It is said to occur in a loose form, in a stratum of several inches thick, lying below the soil of a level dry prairie or plain. The Sioux Indians, who employ it as a paint, make this statement. The color of a portion given to me by them is of a bright red; and a considerable proportion of the mass is in a state of minute division. Particles of quartz are occasionally mixed with it. This ore of iron is also represented to be found in the prairies north of Gros Point, along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago.

Ochrey red oxide of iron occurs on the shores of Big Stone Lake, at the source of the St. Peter's River. A large spring rises from a level, dry plain, a few feet beyond which the mineral occurs. The Indians, who employ it as a pigment, take it up with their knives. The stratum is about eight inches thick, but just below the surface it is mixed with common earth. The spring of water is pure and unadulterated.

5. SILVER.

The belief in the existence of silver ore in the region of the lakes, and particularly on Lake Superior, seems to have early prevailed. So much confidence was placed in the reports of its existence, that Henry tells when a company was formed in England for exploring the copper mines of Lake Superior (A. D. 1771), they were impelled to the search more from an expectation of the silver, which it was hoped would be found in connection with it, than from the copper.[234]

[234] This metal has subsequently (namely, in 1844) been found to constitute a percentage in the native copper of the Eagle River mines of Lake Superior. Traces of it were found in a mass of native copper found on the shores of Keweena Lake, by Mr. Moliday, in 1826. A mass of pure silver was discovered in a boulder in the drift of Lake Huron, west of White Rock, in 1824. These discoveries induce the belief that this element will be found to be extensively present in the eventual metallurgic operations of the Lake Superior basin.

b. Silicious Minerals.

1. QUARTZ.

This interesting species being distributed in its numerous varieties throughout the region visited, I shall confine my notices to a few localities.

Subs. 1.--Common Quartz.

Occurs in the form of large water-worn masses along the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Also, in veins in the granite of Lake Superior, and in the argillite of St. Louis River. These localities all consist of the opaque varieties, with a slight degree of translucence in some places. It exists in mass at Huron Bay, Lake Superior, and in fragments of red jasper on Sugar Island, St. Mary's River.

1. Radiated Quartz.--In detached masses on the Grange, and also at the rapids of the River Desmoines, on the Upper Mississippi. At the Grange, the crystals, which are usually minute, sometimes possess a cinnamon color, or pass into a variety of crystallized ferruginous quartz.

2. Tabular Quartz.--In small, flattened masses along the shores of Lake Pepin. These masses are transparent, or only translucent. Their color is generally white, but sometimes yellow. They appear to be closely allied to chalcedony.

3. Greasy Quartz.--In detached masses along the shores of Lake Superior.

4. Granular Quartz.--At the Falls of Puckaiguma, on the Upper Mississippi, in large, compact beds rising through the soil. Also, in some conditions of the cliffs commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony, Carrer's Cave, &c.

5. Arenaceous Quartz.--This is sometimes the condition of fine, even-grained, translucent sand rock of the preceding localities. Valuable as an ingredient of glass.

6. Pseudomorphous Quartz.--On the shores of Lake Pepin, occasionally. These masses appear to have taken their crystalline impress from rhomboidal crystals of carbonate of lime.

7. Amethystine Quartz.--In the trap-rock of Lake Superior.

Subs. 2.--Amethyst.

This mineral occurs most frequently in the condition of amethystine quartz, in hexahedral prisms, lining the interior of geodes, in the bed of the River Desmoines, and on the Rock Rapids, in the channel of the Mississippi. The crystals which I have examined are generally limpid, with a high lustre, and of a pale violet color. Sometimes the tinge of color approaches to a full red, or is only apparent in the summit of the crystal. These geodes are sometimes eight or ten inches in diameter, with a rough and dark-colored exterior, often so nearly spherical as to resemble cannon balls. Some of the finest specimens I have observed from this locality are preserved in the museum of Gov. Clarke, at St. Louis, Missouri.

Subs. 3.--Ferruginous Quartz.

In amorphous masses, of a deep-red, brown, or yellowish-red color, along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Likewise, crystallized, in very minute hexagonal prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids, of a reddish color, on the summit and declivities of the Grange de Terre.

Subs. 4.--Prase.

In the drift of Lake Superior. Its color is a light green and not fully translucent. It possesses a hardness and a lustre intermediate between waxy and resinous.

Subs. 5.--Chalcedony.

1. Common Chalcedony.--In globular or reniform masses imbedded in trap-rock, on the Peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior. It is found sometimes in association with other quartz minerals. Its color is white or gray, sometimes veined or spotted with red. Also, constituting the interior lining of geodes at the rapids of Rock Island and the River Desmoines. These geodes, on breaking, often present a mammillary surface. In the form of translucent fragments, with a highly conchoidal fracture, among the debris of the shores of Lake Pepin. These fragments possess an extremely delicate texture, color, and lustre.

2. Cacholong.--Some loose fragments of this mineral exist along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Green Bay and Chicago. These fragments possess small cavities studded over with very minute and perfect crystals of quartz.

3. Carnelian.--This mineral occurs in fragments in the debris of Lake Superior; also, in the amygdaloid; also, around the shores of the Upper Mississippi. Its color is various shades of red, or yellowish red, sometimes spotted or clouded, fully translucent, and occasionally presenting a considerable richness and beauty. Most commonly, the fragments are too small to be applied to the purposes of jewelry. Sometimes it is seen in very regular spheroidal masses, which contain a nucleus of radiated quartz. Some of the specimens would be considered as sardonyx.

4. Agate.--Is found with the preceding. It is more frequently found in larger masses, in the rock, which are sometimes spheroidal, reniform, or globular. These agates are chiefly arranged in concentric layers, which are white, red, yellow, &c., according to the colors of the different varieties of chalcedonies, carnelians, &c., of which they are composed. A close inspection would also separate them into several varieties--as onyx, agate, dotted agate, &c.

Subs. 6.--Hornstone.

In nodular or angular masses, imbedded in the secondary limestone of the west shores of Green Bay; and in the beds of argillaceous white clay strata of Cape Girardeau, of Missouri. Also, on the hills of White River, Arkansas.

Subs. 7.--Jasper.

1. Common Jasper.--In detached fragments, yellow, in the drift of Lake Superior.

2. Striped Jasper.--With the preceding. Most commonly, these specimens consist of alternate bands of red and black, or brown.

3. Red Jasper.--In quartz rock, Sugar Island, River St. Mary's, Michigan. Masses of this mineral have been met in situ.

Subs. 8.--Heliotrope.

A fine specimen of this mineral, now before me, was procured at the mouth of the Columbia River, Oregon. It is in the form of an Indian dart. Its color is a deep uniform green, variegated with small spots of red; those parts which are green being fully translucent, the others less so, or nearly opaque. This beautiful mineral is represented to have been in common use by the Indian tribes of the Northwest Coast, for pointing their arrows, previous to the introduction of iron among them. It differs chiefly from the dotted jaspers of Lake Michigan, in its translucence and green color.

Subs. 9.--Opal.

Common opal occurs as a constituent of agate, along with chalcedony rarely, in the drift on the south shore of Lake Superior.

2. SILICIOUS SLATE.

1. Common.--In subordinate beds, in the argillite of the River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior.

2. Basanite (Touchstone).--In detached fragments in the drift on Lake Superior, and along the banks of the Upper Mississippi generally.

3. PETROSILEX.

In large isolated masses in the bed of the Illinois River, on the shallow rapids between the junction of the Fox and Vermilion Rivers. It is mostly arranged in stripes or circles of white, gray, yellow, &c., resembling certain jaspers, or approaching sometimes to hornstone. The bed of the Illinois River, at this place, is a species of gray sandstone. Also, in detached fragments, on the south shore of Lake Superior, intimately mixed with prehnite. In regard to the latter, Professor Dewey, of Williamstown College, writes me: "I have received from Dr. Torrey, a curious mixture of petrosilex and prehnite, in imperfect radiating crystals, which was sent him by you and collected at the West. He did not tell me the name, but examination showed what it was. The association is singularly curious." The locality of this mineral is Keweena Point, Lake Superior.

4. MICA.

Occurs rarely in the granite of Lake Superior. It is found in place on the Huron Islands. Also, in minute folia, in the alluvial soil of the Upper Mississippi. A beautiful aggregate, consisting of plates of gold-yellow mica, connected with very black and shining crystals of schorl, has been dug up from the alluvial soil of the Island of Michilimackinac.

5. SCHORL.

1. Common Schorl.--In crystals, in boulders of granite, at Green Bay.

2. Tourmaline.--With the preceding.

6. FELDSPAR.

As an ingredient in the granite of Huron Islands, Lake Superior. Also, in detached masses of granite along the west shores of Lake Michigan. Also, in the form of prismatic crystals of a light-green color, in the rolled masses of hornblende, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic boulders of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior.

7. PREHNITE.

This mineral occurs at Keweena Point, on Lake Superior. It is found in connection with isolated blocks of amygdaloid, of primitive greenstone, and of petrosilex. Sometimes native copper, and carbonate of copper, are also present in the same specimen. In some instances, a partial decomposition has taken place, converting its green color into greenish-white, or perfect white, and rendering it so soft as to be cut with a knife. Sometimes the grains or masses of native copper are interspersed among the prehnite, and slender threads of this metal occasionally pass through the aggregated mass of greenstone, prehnite, &c., so that, on breaking it, the fragments are still held together by these metallic fibres.

8. HORNBLENDE.

1. Common Hornblende.--Occurs as a constituent of the hornblende rocks near Point Chegoimegon, Lake Superior. Also, at the Peace Rock, on the Upper Mississippi, and in certain granite aggregates, and rolled masses of porphyries, &c., around the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior.

2. Actynolite.--In slender, translucent, greenish crystals, pervading rolled masses of serpentine, on the west shores of Lake Michigan.

9. WOODSTONE.

1. Mineralized Wood.--In bed of the River Des Plaines, Illinois.

2. Agatized Wood.--This variety of fossil wood is found along the alluvial shores of the Mississippi and of the Missouri.

c. Calcareous Minerals.

1. CARBONATE OF LIME.

Of a substance so universally distributed throughout the western country, it will not be necessary to give many localities, and these will be principally confined to its crystalline forms.

Subs. 1.--Calcareous Spar.

Crystallized Calcareous Spar.--This mineral occurs, in minute rhomboidal crystals, in the calcareous rock of the Island of Michilimackinac. Sometimes these crystals fill cavities or seams of the rock, or are studded over the angular surfaces of masses of vesicular limestone of that island. I also found this mineral at Dubuque's mines, and in small crystals in the metalliferous limestone bordering the Fox River, between the post of Green Bay and Winnebago Lake, where it is associated with iron pyrites and blende.

Subs. 2.--Compact Limestone.

In proceeding northwest of Detroit, this mineral is first observed, in situ, on an island in Lake Huron. It is afterwards found to be the prevailing rock along the south and southwest shores of Lake Huron. In many places, it incloses fossil remains. Sometimes it is earthy, as at Bay De Noquet, a part of Green Bay, on Lake Michigan, where it contains very perfect remains of the terrebratula. (Parkinson.) In other places, no remains whatever are visible, and the structure is firm and compact; or even passes, by a further graduation, into transition-granular, of which, it is believed, the west shores of Lake Michigan afford an instance. It is most commonly based upon sandstone, which also contains, in many places, the fossil organized remains of various species of crustaceous animals, and of vegetables, sometimes, coal, &c.

Subs. 3.--Agaric Mineral.

This mineral substance occurs in crevices and cavities in the calcareous rock of the Island of Michilimackinac, Michigan.

Subs. 4.--Concrete Carbonate of Lime.

1. Calcareous Sinter.--In the form of stalactites and stalagmites, in a cave situated near Prairie du Chien, on the Upper Mississippi.

2. Calcareous Tufa.--A remarkable formation of tufa is seen on the east banks of the Wabash River, near Wynemac's Village, about ten miles above the junction of the Tippecanoe. It extends for several miles, and is deposited to the thickness of thirty or forty feet above the water, forming cliffs which are covered with alluvial soil and sustain a growth of forest trees. The precise points of its commencement and disappearance were not observed. The structure is cellular or vesicular, and resembles, in some places, a coarse dried mortar. It is very light, and possesses a white color in inferior situations, but the surface is somewhat colored by fallen leaves and other decaying vegetation. It imbeds fluvatile shells and some vegetable remains, the species of which have not been ascertained. The opposite, or west side of the river consists of a kind of puddingstone, or caschalo, made up of pebbles of quartz, &c., cemented by carbonate of lime, of a yellow color and translucent. This beautiful aggregate is overlayed by a stratum, of fifteen or twenty feet in thickness, of diluvial soil. These localities fall within the limits of the State of Indiana; but on territories still occupied, if not owned, by the aborigines.

3. Pseudomorphous Carbonate of Lime.--This form of carbonate of lime occurs in Pope County, Illinois, a district celebrated for its fluorspar, lead, crystallized quartz, &c., and bearing the unequivocal marks of a secondary formation. Scattered in large masses over the soil, we observe compact limestone, with very perfect cubical, octahedral, or other regular cavities, which have manifestly originated from crystals of fluorspar. The most common impress of this kind appears to have resulted from two cubes variously joined--a form of appearance very common to the Illinois fluates. Some of these cubical cavities exceed three inches square; but in no case is any remaining portion of the spar in these cavities, or anywise connected with the fragments of limestone thus impressed, although, at the same time, the spar is very abundant in the alluvial soil where these curious limestones are found.

2. SULPHATE OF LIME.

Subs. Gypsum.

1. Fibrous Gypsum.--In the alluvial soil of the St. Martin's Islands, Lake Huron. The fibres are sometimes five or six inches in length, of a white color and delicate crystalline lustre. Sometimes these fibrous masses are partially colored yellow or brown, apparently from the clay, or mixed alluvion, in which they are imbedded.

2. Granular Gypsum. } 3. Granularly-Foliated Gypsum. } With the preceding. 4. Earthy Gypsum. }

3. FLUATE OF LIME.

Fluor-Spar.--On the United States Mineral Reserve, Pope County, Illinois. This locality is abundant, and the mineral readily and constantly to be obtained. I first obtained specimens in June, 1818, and afterwards visited it in July, 1821. It is disseminated in loose masses throughout the soil, and in veins in the calcareous rocks. The spot most noted and resorted to, and where the original discovery was made, is four miles west of Barker's Ferry, at Cave-in-Rock, on the banks of the Ohio, and about twenty-six miles, by the course of the river, below Shawneetown. It is situated in the midst of a hilly, broken region, called the Knobs, a tract of highlands intervening between the banks of the Ohio and the Saline. The distance of this range from north to south, or parallel with the course of the Ohio, cannot be stated. It probably extends from near the banks of the Wabash River to the Little Chain of Rocks. Its breadth--from Barker's Ferry, west, to Ensminger's, at the Saline, is about twenty miles. It thus separates, by a rocky border, the prairies of the Illinois from the current of the Ohio River. These knobs, wherever observed, bear the indubitable marks of secondary formation, and may be stated to consist, essentially, of compact limestone resting on sandstone. The sandstone is sometimes so much colored by iron, and by globular or irregular masses of iron stone, as to give that rock a very singular aspect. This may be particularly instanced in the mural front of the Battery rocks on the banks of the Ohio. Every part of this formation has more or less the appearance of a mineral country; and it is already known as the locality of ores of lead, iron, and zinc, of crystallized quartz, of opal, heavy spar, crystallized pyrites, and of very perfect fossil madrepores. In one place (near the head of Hurricane Island) this spar forms a very large and compact vein, dipping under the bed of the Ohio. Where the rock has been explored, it is found in connection with sulphuret of lead, but it has been mostly procured, because most easy of access, in the alluvial soil. I went out about half a mile west of the Ohio, where a new locality has been opened, and, in removing about five or six solid feet of earth, procured as many specimens as filled a box of fourteen inches square. None of these were more than two feet below the surface. One of these specimens is an irregular octahedral crystal, eight inches in diameter. The color of these masses is various shades of blue, violet, or red, sometimes perfectly white or yellow; and the form most commonly assumed is a cube, sometimes truncated at two or more angles, or variously clustered. The external lustre of the crystals, raised from alluvial soil, is feeble, but quite brilliant when taken from veins and cavities in the rock. These spars from the alluvion do not appear to exist as rock debris, or fragments worn off from other formations, but as original deposits. There are no marks of attrition. They appear as much in place as the limestone rocks below. It should also be recollected that this mineral tract is terminated by one of the greatest and most valuable salt formations in the western country--that of the Illinois Saline.

Septaria: Ludus Helmontii.--This variety of calcareous marl is found, in orbicular or flattened masses, along the eastern shores of Lake Michigan, between the rivers St. Joseph's and Kalemazo. Its original situation appears to be the beds of marly clay which form the banks of Lake Michigan at these places, from which these masses have been disengaged by the waves, and left promiscuously among the washed and eroded debris of the shore. These masses are penetrated by numerous seams and lines of calcareous spar, sometimes radiating star-like, or intersecting each other irregularly. Occasionally, these seams are filled with sulphuret of zinc, and in these cases the spar, if any be present, is rose-colored.

d. Aluminous Minerals.

1. ARGILLACEOUS SLATE.

1. Argillite, or Common Argillaceous Slate.--Along the banks of the River St. Louis, at the Grand Portage, &c. It occurs in a vertical position, embracing veins, or subordinate beds, of grauwakke, milky quartz, chlorite slate, and silicious slate, &c. It is bounded on one side by red sandstone, and on the other by an extensive tract of diluvial soil.

2. Bituminous Shale.--In detached masses, along the shores of Lake Huron, between Fort Gratiot and Thunder Bay. It contains amorphous masses of iron pyrites, of a yellow color and metallic brilliancy, which soon tarnishes on exposure to the air.

2. CHLORITE.

Chlorite Slate.--In subordinate strata in the argillite of the River St. Louis.

3. STAUROTIDE.

In garnet-colored crystals, in detached blocks of mica-slate, in the drift of Lake Huron. These crystals consist of two intersecting six-sided prisms, truncated at both ends, forming the cross. They are nearly opaque, or feebly translucent on the fractured edge.

4. CLAY.

1. Plastic Clay.--Very extensive beds of this clay are seen along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Sturgeon Bay Portage and Chicago. Its color is generally a light blue, verging sometimes into deep blue or grayish-white. It is plastic in water, adheres strongly to the tongue, takes a polish from the nail, and emits an argillaceous odor when moistened or breathed upon. These beds of clay frequently contain iron pyrites, both in the crystallized and amorphous state.

2. Pipe Clay.--In the flats of the St. Clair and Lake George, Michigan. A bed of clay, apparently answering to this description, exists at White River, Lake Michigan. Its color is a grayish-white, verging to blue. It is very unctuous and adhesive when first raised, but acquires more or less of a meagre feel as it parts with its moisture, drying in firm and compact masses.

3. Variegated Clay.--On the banks of the River St. Peter's, Upper Mississippi. Neither the quantity in which it exists, nor the precise locality is known. Its color is white, variegated with stripes, spots, or clouds of red or yellow.

4. Azure Blue Clay of St. Peter's.--The locality of this substance, as communicated by the Indians, is the declivity of a hill, in the rear of the village of Sessitongs, one mile above the confluence of the Terre Blue River with the St. Peter's. It is found near the foot of this hill, between two layers of sandstone rock, in a vein about fifteen inches in thickness. This vein is elevated about twenty feet above the waters of the Terre Bleu, and does not extend far in the direction of the river. Having been resorted to by the Sioux Indians a long time, a considerable excavation has been made, but the supply is constant. The color of this mineral substance (its distinguishing character) is an azure copper blue of more or less intensity. It is ductile and moderately adhesive, when first taken up, or when moistened with water, but acquires an almost stony solidity on drying. It is considerably adulterated with sand or particles of quartz. It parts with its moisture rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, and dries without much apparent diminution of volume.

5. Green Clay of St. Peter's.--This differs little from the preceding, except in its color, which is a deep or verdigris green, admitting some diversity of shades. Its composition appears to be, essentially, alumina, silica, carbonate of copper, water, and iron.

6. Opwagunite; Calamet Stone; Pipe Stone.--The last of these terms is a translation of the first, which is Algonquin. Under these names, a peculiar kind of stone, which is much employed by the Indians for pipes, has been alluded to by travellers and geographers from the earliest times. It appears to be a variety of argillaceous wacke. Its color is most commonly a uniform dull red, resembling that of red chalk. Sometimes it is spotted with brown or yellow, but these spots are very minute, and the colors usually faint. It is perfectly opaque, very compact in its structure, and possessing that degree of hardness which admits its being cut or scraped with a knife, or sawed without injury to a common hand-saw, when first raised from the quarry; but it acquires hardness by exposure, and even takes a polish. But it is not capable of receiving a polish by the usual process of rubbing with grit-stone and pumice, these substances being too harsh for it. The Indian process is to scrape or file it smooth, and give it a polish by rubbing with the scouring rush. Its powder is a light red, and emits an argillaceous odor when wetted. This substance is procured at the Coteau des Prairie, intermediate between the sources of the St. Peter's and the Great Sioux Rivers. Some other places have been mentioned as affording this mineral, particularly a locality on the waters of Chippewa River; but the mineral procured here is chocolate-colored.

e. Magnesian Minerals.

1. SERPENTINE.

At Presque Isle Point, Lake Superior, common and precious, in isolated masses; also, in connection with, and imbedding native copper, along the southern shore of Lake Superior, at Ontonagon River, &c.

2. STEATITE.

At Presque Isle, near River au Mort, Lake Superior, in connection with the serpentine formation. Also, at the Lake of the Woods, of a black or very dark color, where it is employed by the Indians in carving pipes.

3. ASBESTOS.

Common Asbestos.--In serpentine and steatite, at Presque Isle Point, Lake Superior. Also, in minute veins, in detached masses of diallage and serpentine rocks, on the west shore of Lake Michigan. These veins are no more than a fourth of an inch in width; and the fibres of asbestos occur transversely. They are very flexible, and easily reducible into a flocculent mass.

f. Barytic Minerals.

SULPHATE OF BARYTES.

Lamellar Sulphate of Barytes.--In detached masses, imbedded in diluvial soil, at the mines of Peosta, or Dubuque, on the Upper Mississippi, where it is accompanied by sulphuret of lead, calcareous spar, &c. Also, at the Mine au Fevre (now Galena), and at the mouth of the Sissinaway River, on the east banks of the Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Fort Armstrong. Its colors are white or yellow, and it is frequently incrusted with a thin coat of yellow oxide of iron. It is most commonly opaque. The only translucent specimen seen was procured at Dubuque's mines.

g. Strontian Minerals.

SULPHATE OF STRONTIAN.

Foliated Sulphate of Strontian.--At Presque Isle (Wayne's Battle Ground), on the Maumee River, Wood County, Ohio. It occurs in veins and cavities, in compact limestone, most commonly in the form of flattened prisms. Its color is blue, frequently a very light or sky-blue, and the crystals are fully translucent, or even transparent. In some instances, they appear to have suffered a partial decomposition, and fall into fragments in the act of raising, or are covered with a white powdery crust, frequently visible only on the summits or terminating points of the prisms. The same limestone yields crystallized calcareous spar. Both these substances are abundant in the rocky banks and in the bed of the Maumee. Also, on Grosse Isle, Detroit River, Michigan.

h. Bituminous Minerals.

1. BITUMEN.

Petroleum.--Occurs in cavities, in loose fragments of limestone rock, along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. These masses of rock lie promiscuously among fragments of quartz, granite, sandstone, fossil madrepores, &c., along the alluvial shore of the lake, and appear to have been washed up from its bed. The petroleum is in a free and liquid state; but, where it has suffered an exposure to the atmosphere, it has acquired a stiff and tar-like consistence passing into maltha. Not unfrequently, fragments of mineral coal are also found scattered along these shores, and there is reason to conclude that a bituminous formation exists in the contiguous inferior strata forming the basin of the lake.

2. GRAPHITE.

Granular Graphite.--In a small vein, in the clay-slate of the River St. Louis, at the head of the nine-mile portage. It is coarse-grained and gritty.

3. COAL.

Slaty Coal.--The only spot where this mineral has been observed, in situ, is at La Charbonniére, on the west banks of the Illinois River, at the computed distance of one hundred and twenty miles south of the post of Chicago. It is here seen in horizontal strata, not exceeding two or three inches in thickness, interposed between layers of sandstone and shale. Breaking out on the declivity of the bank of the river, where the overlaying strata are constantly crumbling down, and thus obscuring the seams, no very satisfactory examination could be made in a hasty visit; but the nature and position of the rock strata and soils, and the general aspect of the country, do not justify the conclusion that the bed is of much thickness or extent. Valuable beds may be discovered, however, by exploring this formation. This coal has a shining black color, a slaty structure, inflames readily, burning with a bright flame. It is very fragile where exposed to the weather, falling into fine fragments. Hence, a very black color has been communicated to the contiguous and overlaying soil, which is manifestly more or less the result of disintegrated coal.

Detached fragments of coal, corresponding in mineral characters with the above, are occasionally found around the southern shores of Lake Michigan. The inference, as to the existence of coal around the shores of this lake, is obvious. And we are led to inquire: Does the La Charbonniére formation of coal exist in the sandstone and limestone strata forming the table-land between the Illinois River and Lake Michigan, and reappearing around the basin of the latter, but at such a depression below its surface as to elude observation? And, if so, does not this coal formation extend quite across the southern portion of the peninsula of Michigan? The secondary character of the region alluded to, so far as observed, the horizontal and relative position of the strata, and the general uniformity which is generally observed in the species and order of the coal measures, favor this suggestion.

i. Soda.

1. MURIATE OF SODA.

No traces of salt are known to have been discovered in those parts of the territory of the United States situated north of latitude 46° 31´ (which is that of the Sault Ste. Marie) and east of the Mississippi River. The great secondary formations which pervade the western country cease south of this general limit, and with them terminate the salt springs, the gypsum beds, the coal measures, and other connected minerals which are generally found in association. It is one of the most important facts which the science of geology has contributed to the stock of useful information, that, in the natural order of the rocky and earthy deposits, muriate of soda always occupies a position contiguous to that of gypsum. This intimate connection between the sulphate of lime and the muriate of soda, enables us, by the discovery of the one, to predict, with considerable but not unerring certainty, the presence of the other. It adds weight to an observation first made among the salt formations of Europe, to find its general correctness corroborated by the relative position of these substances in the United States. These remarks will apply particularly to the salt formations of New York, and to some portions of the muriatiferous region of Virginia and the Arkansas.

There appears to be a salt formation extending from the northwest angle of the Ohio through Michigan, for a distance of two hundred to three hundred miles. It commences in the Seweekly country, passing around the Sandusky River of Lake Erie, where an extensive bed of granular gypsum has recently been discovered, and continues, probably, northwest, so as to embrace the Saganaw basin, and reach quite to the end of the peninsula, and embracing, perhaps, the Gypsum Islands of Lake Huron, ten miles northeast of Michilimackinac. All the brine springs and gypsum beds noticed in the region are situated in the line of this formation.

During the fall of 1821, a number of gentlemen at the Island of Michilimackinac united in the expenses of a tour for exploring the Skeboigon River, a stream which originates in the peninsula of Michigan, and flows into Lake Huron opposite the Island of Bois Blanc. The particular object of this party was to ascertain the precise locality of certain salt springs reported to exist upon that stream. They proceeded to the places indicated, and examined several springs more or less impregnated with salt, but reported that, owing to the jealousy and hostility of those bands of Indians who were found upon that stream, they were not enabled fully to accomplish the object in view.

There are several salt springs reported to exist near the Indian village of Wendagon, on the Sciawassa River, and others on the Titabawassa River, the principal tributaries of the Sagana. Little is, however, known respecting these springs, but the water is represented to be so strongly impregnated, that the Indians manufacture from it all the salt necessary for their villages.

Grand River Valley has also been mentioned among the localities of salt water and gypsum rocks.

Hints may thus be derived of value to the future commerce of the country. Scarcely any of the new states are without indications of the existence of salt. Every day is adding to the number of localities.

In the region west of the Mississippi, I was informed that salt occurs, in the crystallized form, in the territories of the Yanktons, who inhabit the flat country at the sources of the River St. Peter's. In certain parts of these plains, the salt exists on the surface. It is mixed with earth, in specimens brought to me, but crystallized in cubes, very imperfect, of a gray or grayish-white color. The Indians scrape it up from certain parts of the prairies or plains, where the salt water is prevented from draining off.

2. ALKALINE SULPHATE OF ALUMINA.

This salt exists, in the form of efflorescences, in the cavities and fissures of rocks along the southeast parts of the shores of Sagana Bay, Lake Huron, and in the argillaceous formations at Erie, on Lake Erie, Pennsylvania.

* * * * *

These positions embrace the principal localities of minerals noticed. In travelling rapidly through a remote wilderness, there was but little opportunity to explore off the track; and the whole observation was confined to the mere surface of the country, which is much obscured by diluvial and alluvial formations.

It will be seen that the region of Lake Superior has been a fruitful field for mineralogical inquiry, and it is one which invites further exploration. Its mineralogy affords a variety of interesting substances which are objects of scientific research, and it may be anticipated to be the future theatre of extensive mining operations. The country northwest of Lake Superior, and the Upper Mississippi north of the Falls of St. Anthony--consisting mostly of upheaved primitive rocks and the pebble-drift, or diluvial, formations--has furnished but few subjects of mineralogical remark.

The district of country between the Falls of St. Anthony and Prairie du Chien, in common with the more southern portions of the Mississippi Valley, partakes of all the interest which the mineral kingdom presents in a calcareous and metalliferous country of secondary formation. It has added considerably to my collection. It is probable the Rivers St. Peter's, St. Croix, and Chippeway would well reward exploration; but the mines of Dubuque particularly invite a mineralogical survey. Their future importance cannot fail to be duly appreciated.

If the country has put on an aspect unfavorable to mineralogy, its geological features have been observed to sustain its interest.

Much of the interest growing out of the examination, for the first time, of the mineralogy and natural history of the country, is such as to commend itself, in an especial manner, to the consideration of men of science, and of associations devoted to scientific details, rather than the department of a government. To these former, nature is a storehouse of facts, and a perpetual anxiety is felt by this class of observers to know the range, not only of our rock formations, but of our plants, shells, fossils, and other classes of objects in our physical geography. Such desires I have endeavored, as far as my means permitted, to gratify. The fresh-water conchology of the lakes and rivers visited was often attractive, when other objects excited little interest. The species collected in this department have been referred to the New York Lyceum of Natural History.

With these remarks, the result of an arduous and interesting journey through a part of the continent hitherto unexplored, I have the honor to conclude my report, and to terminate the trust confided to me.

I am, sir, with respect, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Geologist, &c. of the Ex. Exp.

VIII.

(A.)

A Report to the Senate of the United States, in Answer to a Resolution passed by this Body, respecting the Value and Extent of the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior.[235] By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

[235] To the Senate of the United States:--

In compliance with a resolution of the Senate of the 8th May last, requesting "information relative to the copper mines on the southern shore of Lake Superior, their number, value, and position, the names of the Indian tribes who claim them, the practicability of extinguishing their titles, and the probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working these mines," I herewith transmit a report from the Secretary of War, which comprises the information desired in the resolution referred to.

JAMES MONROE.

WASHINGTON, 7th December, 1822.

DEPARTMENT OF WAR, 3d December, 1822.

The Secretary of War, to whom was referred the resolution of the Senate of the 8th May last, requesting the President of the United States "to communicate to the Senate, at the commencement of the next session of Congress, any information which may be in the possession of the Government, derived from special agents or otherwise, showing the number, value, and position of the copper mines on the south shore of Lake Superior, the names of the Indian tribes who claim them, the practicability of extinguishing their title, and the probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working these mines," has the honor to transmit a report of Henry R. Schoolcraft, Indian agent at the Sault of Ste. Marie, on the copper mines in the region of Lake Superior, which contains all the information in relation to the subject in this department.

All which is respectfully submitted.

J. C. CALHOUN.

To the PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.

SAULT STE. MARIE, October 1, 1822.

SIR: In reply to the inquiries, contained in a resolution of the Senate of the United States, respecting the existence of copper mines in the region of Lake Superior, inclosed to me in a note from the War Department, dated 8th May, 1822, I have the honor to submit to you the following facts and remarks:--

1. In relation to "the number, value, and position of the copper mines on the south shore of Lake Superior." The remote position of the country alluded to, the infrequency of communication, and the little reliance to be placed on information derived through the medium of the aborigines or of traders, who are wholly engrossed with other objects, presents an embarrassment at the threshold of this inquiry, which must be felt by every person who turns his attention to the subject. The information sought for demands a minute acquaintance with the natural features and mineral structure of the country, which can only be acquired by personal examination; and it is a species of research requiring more leisure, better opportunities, and a freer participation in personal fatigue, than usually falls to the share of tourists and travellers. Not only are those difficulties to be encountered which are inseparable from the collection of isolated facts in a new and unsettled country, but those, also, which are peculiar to the subject, connected as it is, at every stage of the inquiry, with the prejudices and superstitions of the Indian tribes. [B.] It can, therefore, excite little surprise that, after having been the theme of speculation for more than a century, and obtained the notice of several works of merit in Europe,[236] both the position and value of these mineral beds have continued to the present times to be but partially known. To ascertain more clearly their value and importance to the Republic were objects more particularly confided to me as a member of the expedition sent by the Indian Department, in the year 1820, to traverse and explore those regions. My report of the 6th of November of that year--a copy of which, marked A, is herewith transmitted--gives the result of that inquiry. After a lapse of two years, little can be added. Reflection and subsequent inquiry convince me that the facts advanced in that report will be corroborated by future observation. No circumstance has transpired which is calculated to prove that my suggestions with regard to the fertility and future importance of those mines are fallacious; on the contrary, all information tends to strengthen and confirm those suggestions. Specimens of pure and malleable copper continue to be brought in to me by the aborigines from that region, but it is not deemed necessary to particularize in this place the additional localities. It will be sufficient to observe, that the number of these new discoveries justifies the expectations that have been created respecting the metalliferous character of the region of the Ontonagon, and the south shore of Lake Superior. [C.]

[236] Vide Jameson's Mineralogy, Parkes's Chemical Catechism, Phillips's Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy.

I shall here add the result of an accurate analysis made upon a specimen of this copper at the mint of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, at the request of Mr. Eustis, minister plenipotentiary from the United States, who carried samples of the American copper to that country. The report of the inspector of the mint, which communicates the result of this analysis, has the following remarks upon the natural properties of this species of copper, and the mode of its production: "From every appearance, the piece of copper seems to have been taken from a mass that has undergone fusion. The melting was, however, not an operation of art, but a natural effect caused by a volcanic eruption. The stream of lava probably carried along in its course the aforesaid body of copper, that had formed into one collection, as fast as it was heated enough to run, from all parts of the mine. The united mass was probably borne in this manner to the place where it now rests in the soil. The crystallized form, observable everywhere on the original surface of the metal that has been left untouched or undisturbed, leads me to presume that the fusion it has sustained was by a process of nature; since this crystallized surface can only be supposed to have been produced by a slow and gradual cooling, whereby the copper assumed regular figures as its heat passed into other substances, and the metal itself lay exposed to the air.

"As to the properties of the copper itself, it may be observed that its color is a clear red; that it is peculiarly qualified for rolling and forging; and that its excellence is indicated by its resemblance to the copper usually employed by the English for plating. The dealers in copper call this sort Peruvian copper to distinguish it from that of Sweden, which is much less malleable. The specimen under consideration is incomparably better than Swedish copper, as well on account of its brilliant color as for the fineness of its pores and its extreme ductility. Notwithstanding, before it is used in manufactures, or for the coining of money, it ought to be melted anew, for the purpose of purifying it from such earthy particles as it may contain. The examination of the North American copper, in the sample received from his excellency the minister, by the operation of the cupel and test by fire, has proved that it does not contain the smallest particle of silver, gold, or any other metal." It is a coincidence worthy of remark, that the suggestions offered by the assayer respecting the volcanic origin of these masses of copper, are justified by the leading features of the Porcupine Mountains, and by the melted granites found upon the heights called Grande Sables and Ishpotonga.

2. The second and third inquiries of the resolution relate to "the names of the Indian tribes who claim the mines, and the practicability of extinguishing their title." By the treaty concluded at this post on the 16th of June, 1820, the Ojibwai[237] Indians cede to the United States four miles square of territory, bounded by the River St. Mary's, and including the portage around the falls.[238] This is the most northerly point to which the Indian title has been extinguished in the United States. The different bands of Ojibwais possess all the country northwest of this post, extending through Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi, where they are bounded by the Assennaboins, the Crees, and the Chippewyans of the Hudson Bay colony. Their lands extend down the Mississippi to the Sioux boundary, an unsettled line between the junction of the River De Corbeau and the Falls of St. Anthony. South of Lake Superior, they claim to the possessions of the Winnebagoes, on the Ouisconsin and Fox Rivers, and to those of the Pottawatamies and Ottoways, on Lake Michigan. The Wild Rice, or Monomonee Indians, are an integral part of the Ojibwai nation, deriving their name from the great reliance they place on the zizania aquatica as an article of food. They live in small, dispersed bands between the Ojibwais of the lake, and the Winnebagoes of Fox River. Those residing among the Ojibwais speak the same language, but with many peculiarities and corruptions on the waters of Green Bay. They claim the respective tracts upon which they are located. These are, principally, the valleys of the Fox and Monomonee Rivers, and the rice lands contiguous to the Fol. Avoine, Clam Lake, and Lac de Flambeau, which lie on the table-lands between Lake Superior and the Mississippi.

[237] For the different names applied to this tribe of Indians, see Appendix H.

[238] Vide acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress of the United States, page 88.

The right of soil to all that part of the Peninsula of Michigan not purchased by the United States is divided between the Ojibwais and the Ottoways. The former claim all the shores and islands of Lake Huron situated north of the Saganaw purchase, except those in the vicinity of Michilimackinac and the St. Martin, or Gypsum Islands, which were ceded by treaty on the 6th of July, 1820.[239] Their territories continue north, through the River St. Mary's, embracing the country on both banks, and the islands in the river, saving Drummond's Island, which is garrisoned by the British, and the Four Mile concession at the Sault or Falls, now occupied by a detachment of the United States' army. It is not deemed necessary to point out the limits of their territories with more precision, or to pursue them into the Canadas, where they are also very extensive. It will sufficiently appear, from this outline, that the discoveries of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior are upon their lands. That some of these discoveries have been made upon, or will be traced to, the possessions of the North Monomonees, is also probable.

[239] Vide acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress, p. 91.

With respect to the practicability of extinguishing the Indian title, no difficulty is to be apprehended. Living in small villages, or tribes of the same mark, scattered over an immense territory, and often reduced to great poverty by the failure of game and fish, it is presumed there would be a disposition among their chiefs and head men to dispose of portions of it. Those districts which most abound in minerals, presenting a rough and rocky surface, are the least valuable to them as hunting-grounds; and the goods and annuities which they would receive in exchange must be vastly more important to them than any game which these mineral lands now afford.

3. "The probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working of these mines." How far metallic mines, situated upon the public domain, may be considered as a source of national wealth, and what system of management is best calculated to produce the greatest advantages to the public revenue, are inquiries which are not conceived to be presented for consideration in this place; nor should I presume to offer any speculations upon topics which have been so often discussed, and so fully settled. In applying axioms, however, to a species of productive industry, the results of which are so very various under various situations, great caution is undoubtedly necessary; and it must appear manifest, on the slightest reflection, how much the comparative value of metallic mines, equally fertile and productive, ever depends upon situation and local advantages. Dismissing, therefore, all questions of abstract policy, I shall here adduce a few facts in relation to the fertility of these mineral beds, and their position with respect to a market--points upon which their value to the nation must ultimately turn.

That copper is abundantly found on the south shore of Lake Superior has been shown. It is unnecessary here to add to, or repeat the instances of its occurrence, or to urge, from an inspection of the surface, the fertility of subterranean beds. All the facts which I possess in relation to this subject are before you, and you will assign to them such importance as they merit. It is a subject upon which I have bestowed some reflection and much inquiry, superadded to limited opportunities of personal observation, and the result has led me to form a favorable estimate of their value and importance. It is not only certain that a prodigious number of masses of metallic copper are found along the borders of the lake, but every appearance authorizes a conclusion that they are only the indications of near and continuous veins. Some of these masses are of unexampled size, and all present metallic copper in a state of great purity and fineness. Of its ductile and excellent qualities for the purposes of coinage and sheathing, the analysis of Utrecht leaves no doubt. It is true that a mistaken idea has prevailed among travellers and geographers respecting the weight of the great mass of copper on the Ontonagon River; but it is, nevertheless, of extraordinary dimensions, and I have endeavored to show, from their works, how these errors have originated, and that the metal is disseminated throughout a much greater extent of country, and in masses of every possible form and size. Until my facts and data can, therefore, be proved to be fallacious, I must be permitted to consider these mines not only fertile in native copper and its congenerous species, but unparalleled in extent, and to recommend them as such to the notice of the Government.

But, whatever degree of incertitude may exist respecting the riches of these mines, their situation with respect to a market can admit of no dispute. As little can there be concerning the advantages which this situation presents for the purposes of mining and commerce. Let us compare it with that of other mines, and appeal to acknowledged facts for the decision. The value of a coal mine, a stone quarry, or a gypsum bed, often arises as much from its situation as its fertility. But the proposition may be reversed with respect to a metallic mine, the value of which to the proprietor arises more from its fertility and less from its situation. Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, &c., when separated from the matrix of the mine, are so valuable that they can bear to be transported a long journey over land, and the most distant voyage by water. Their worth in coined money, produce, or manufactures, is not fixed in the particular circles of country where they are dug up, but depends upon the seaboard market, and embraces all countries. The silver of Mexico and Peru circulates throughout Europe, and is carried to China. It is no objection to those mines that they are situated in the Cordilleras, or upon the high table-lands of the American continent, and must be carried a thousand miles upon the backs of mules to the seaside. The very discovery of those mines has rendered many poor silver mines of Europe of no value, although possibly situated in the environs of the best silver markets in the world. It is the fertility, and not the situation of such mines, that constitutes their chief value; and it is so with many of the coarser metals.

The tin of the Island of Banka, and the Peninsula of Siam in Asia, and the copper of Japan, find their way to Europe, and are articles of commerce in the United States. The cobalt of Saxony is sent to Pekin, and the platina of Choco, to all parts of the world. In all these instances, the fertility of the mines compensates for every disadvantage of situation. But this principle is not alone confined to mines of tin, copper, &c.; it even holds true of the heavy and bulky articles of iron, lead, and salt. The lead of Missouri finds a market at New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, and will be carried to Europe. It is no objection that it must be conveyed in wagons forty miles from the interior, and sent a voyage of 3,000 miles in steamboats and merchant ships. The great fertility of the mines counterbalances the disadvantages of its remote position from the market, and it is the price of the metal in the market which always regulates its price at the mines. The malleable iron of Sweden is consumed on the summits of the Alleghany, although its strata are replete with iron ore, which is worked at numerous forges along the rivers which proceed from each side of it. It is believed that the salt springs of Onondaga, from their copiousness alone, would supply a vast portion of the interior and seaboard of the United States with salt, even if the facilities of water carriage had not been presented by the Erie Canal. The value of such mines and minerals ever depends as much upon the abundance as upon the favorable position of them. It is far otherwise with quarries of stone, gypsum, marl, fossil coal, &c., whose contiguity to a good market establishes their value. No abundance of these articles would justify a land carriage of one hundred miles. They constitute a species of mining, the profits and value of which increases in the ratio of the surrounding population, and as the country advances in improvements. But this advantage is far less sensibly felt, and cannot be considered essential to the successful working of mines of silver, copper, &c. Neither the remote position, therefore, of the Lake Superior copper mines, nor the want of a surrounding population, present objections of that force which would at first seem to exist; and it is confidently believed that, if their fertility is such as facts indicate, they may be opened and wrought with eminent advantage to the Republic. But let us examine their situation with respect to a market, and compare it with that of other mines of the same metal, and of some of the coarser metals, which bear a considerable land, and the most distant water carriage. To favor the inquiry, let it be granted for the moment that proximity of situation to a market, or free water carriage, are indispensable to the success and value of the most fertile mines.

Assuming the confluence of the Ontonagon River with Lake Superior (which is apparently the centre of the mine district) as the place where the metal is first to be embarked for market, it must be carried down the lake 300 miles to the Sault or rapids of St. Mary's. Here, if it is in barges, it may descend the rapids in perfect safety, as is the invariable practice of the traders on arriving with their annual returns of furs and skins from the north. If in vessels, it must be transferred either into boats or carts, and carried half a mile to the foot of the rapids, where it will again be embarked in vessels, and transported through the Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, and their connecting straits, to Buffalo, a distance of 650 miles. The progress made in the construction of the great canal which is to connect the lakes and Atlantic, is such as to leave no doubt upon any reasonable mind of the full completion of that work with the close of the year 1824. Through this channel, the transportation is to be continued in boats or barges, by a voyage of 353 miles, to the Hudson at Albany; thence a sloop navigation of 144 miles, which, for speed and freedom from risk, is perhaps unequalled in all America, takes it into the harbor of New York, making the entire distance, from the mouth of the Ontonagon, 1,447 miles. From New York it is distributed to our naval depots, and to the markets of Europe. It is exchanged for the lead of Missouri, the iron of Sweden, or the silver of Mexico; and the same ready communication transports the return cargo to Buffalo, from whence the commerce is extended, by means of the lakes, throughout western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and the interminable regions of the north. Thus it is seen that, when the Erie Canal is completed, a free and direct water communication, from the mines to one of the best markets in America, will exist, in which the rapids of St. Mary's are the only interruption, and this is only an interruption to large vessels. Not only so, but the Ontonagon River may be ascended many miles with vessels of light burden, and thus the copper of Lake Superior, wafted from the heart of the interior, and from the base of the Porcupine Mountains, into the harbors of New York, Philadelphia, &c. Of this whole distance, 1,047 miles are now navigated by the largest class of river craft and lake schooners; the balance of the distance is the length of the Erie Canal. (See Note D.)

Let it be recollected that there are no mines of copper situated upon the margin of the sea, and that every quintal of sheet copper, bolts, nails, &c., which we receive from Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, or Japan, is transported a greater or less distance on turnpikes or canals, before it reaches the place of shipment. The richest copper mines of the Russian empire are seated on the summits of the Uralian Mountains; those of Fahlun, in Sweden, and Cornwall, in England, are scarcely more favored as to position; and, owing to a want of coal, all the ores raised at the latter are transported into Wales to be smelted.[240] But we need not resort to Europe for instances. All the lead raised at the fertile mines in Missouri is transported an average distance of forty miles in carts and wagons before it reaches the banks of the Mississippi. Steamboats take it to New Orleans, a distance, by the shortest computation, of 1,000 miles. But it must still pass through the Gulf of Mexico, and encounter the perils of the Capes of Florida, and a voyage of 2,000 miles along the coast of the United States, before it reaches its principal marts. The average cost of transporting a hundredweight of lead from Mine au Breton and Potosi to the banks of the Mississippi, during the year 1818, was seventy-five cents. The distance is thirty-six miles. The price of conveying the same quantity from the storehouses at Herculaneum and St. Genevieve to New Orleans, by steamboats, was seventy cents. The distance exceeds 1,000 miles. Hence, it costs more to transport a given quantity thirty-six miles by land than to convey it 1,000 by water. These rates have probably varied since, but the proportionate expense of land carriage, compared to that of water, will remain the same. A quintal of copper may, therefore, be transported from the mines of Superior to Buffalo or Lockport, in New York, for the same sum required to convey an equal quantity of lead from Potosi to St. Genevieve. If we consider the city of New York as the market of both, no hesitancy or doubt can be experienced as to the decided and palpable advantages possessed by the northern mines. It is only necessary to adduce these facts; the conclusions are inevitable. In every point of view, the distance of these mines from the market presents no solid objection to their being explored with profit to the nation.

[240] Silliman.

Pig copper, which is the least valuable form in which this metal is carried to market, is now quoted in the Atlantic cities at 19 cents per pound; sheathing, at 27; brazier's, at 32. I have no data at hand to show the amount of these articles consumed in the United States, and for which we are annually transmitting immense sums to enrich foreign States. But those who best appreciate the advantages of commerce will readily supply the estimate. It would be an interesting inquiry to ascertain how much of the sums yearly paid for sheathing copper, bolts, nails, engravers' plates, &c., is contributed to the wealth of the respective foreign States who possess mines of this metal. We can look back to a period in the history of Great Britain, when that power did not contribute one pound of copper to the commerce of Europe. During a period of nine years, closing with the memorable year (in American history) of 1775, the produce of the copper mines of Cornwall was 2,650 tons of fine copper. (See Note E.) Since that time, the yearly returns of those mines exhibit a constant increase; and the copper mines of Great Britain are now the most valuable in the world. The amount produced by the mines of Cornwall and Devon, after deducting the charges of smelting, for the single year of 1810, was 969,376 pounds sterling. (See Note F.) The clear profits of the Dolgoath mine, one of the richest in Cornwall, for a period of five months, during the year 1805, was £18,000, which is at the rate of £43,200, or $192,000, per annum. Next to Great Britain, the most considerable mines of Europe are those of Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Westphalia, as it was in 1808. Of less importance are those of Denmark, France, Saxony, Prussia, and Spain. The proportion in which the British mines exceed those of the most favored European nation is as 200,000 x 67,000. (See Note G.)

There is another consideration connected with this subject which is worthy of remark. Should it be inquired what would be the effects of the purchase of these mines upon the condition of the Indian tribes, the reply is obvious. It would have the most beneficial tendency. They would not only profit by an exchange of their waste lands for goods, implements of husbandry, the stipulated services of blacksmiths, teachers, &c., but the intercourse would have a happy tendency to allay those bitter feelings which, through the instigation of the British authorities in the Canadas, they have manifested, and still continue to feel, in degree, towards the United States. The measures which the President has recently directed to be pursued to assuage these feelings of hostility, and to induce them to cherish proper sentiments of friendship and respect, are already in a train of execution that bids fair for success. Continued exertions, and the necessary and proper means, are all that seem necessary to confirm and complete the effect; and whatever measures have a tendency to increase the intercourse of American citizens with these "remote tribes," and to give them a true conception of the power and justice, and the pacific and benevolent policy of our Government, must favor and hasten such a result.

I have the honor to be, sir, With the highest respect, Your most obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, U. S. Indian Agent at the Sault Ste. Marie.

Hon JOHN C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War, Washington.

Notes.

(B.)

Among the numerous superstitions which the Indian tribes entertain, that respecting mines is not the least remarkable. They are firmly impressed with a belief that any information communicated to the whites, disclosing the position of mines or metallic treasures situated upon their grounds, is displeasing to their manitos, and even to the Great Spirit himself, from whom they profess to derive every good and valuable gift; and that this offence never fails to be visited upon them in the loss of property, in the want of success in their customary pursuits or pastimes, in untimely death, or some other singular disaster or untoward event. This opinion, although certainly not a strange one to be cherished by a barbarous people, is, nevertheless, believed to have had its origin in the transactions of an era which is not only very well defined, but must ever remain conspicuous in the history of the discovery and settlement of America. It is very well known that the precious metals were the principal objects which led the Spanish invaders to penetrate into the interior of Mexico and Peru, and ultimately to devastate and conquer the country, to plunder and destroy its temples, and to tax and enslave its ill-fated inhabitants. It is equally certain that, to escape these scenes of cruelty and oppression, many tribes and fragments of tribes, when further resistance became hopeless, fled towards the north, preferring the enjoyment of liberty and tranquillity upon the chilly borders of the northern lakes, to the pains of servitude in the mild and delightful valleys of Mexico, and the golden plains of the Incas. In this way, many tribes who originally migrated from the north, along the Pacific Ocean, to the Gulf of California, and thence over all New Spain, were returned towards the north over the plains of Texas and the valley of the Mississippi; those tribes nearest the scenes of the greatest atrocities always pressing upon the remoter and less civilized, who, in turn, pressed upon the nations less enlightened than themselves, and finally drove them into the unfrequented forests of the north. Among these terrified tribes, the traditions of the Ojibwais affirm that their ancestors came, and that they originally dwelt in a country destitute of snows. Many tribes who now speak idioms of their language were left upon the way, and have since taken distinctive names. Among these, are the Pottawatamies, the Ottoways, &c. The latter formerly were, as they still remain, the agriculturists. The Miamis and Shawnees, whose languages bear some affinity, preceded them in their flight. The Winnebagoes, speaking a separate and original tongue, came later, and preserve more distinct traditions of their migration. All these tribes carried with them the strong prejudices and fixed hatred excited by the cruelty, rapacity, and cupidity of their European conquerors; and, above all, of that insatiable thirst for gold and silver which led the Spaniards to sack their towns, burn their temples, and torture their people. Cruelty and injustice of so glaring a character must have made upon their minds too deep an impression ever to be forgotten, or completely erased from their traditions. To that memorable epoch we must, therefore, look for the origin of that cautious and distrustful disposition which these tribes have since manifested with regard to the mines and minerals situated upon their lands; and the circumstance seems to offer an abundant excuse, if not a justification, for those prevarications and evasions which present a continual series of embarrassment to every person who seeks through their aid to develop the mineral resources, or describe the natural productions, of their territories. Hence, too, the cause why they are prone to imagine that all mineral or metallic substances obtained or sought upon their lands, are susceptible of being converted or transmuted into the precious metals.

(C.)

The following additional localities of native copper, derived from sources entitled to respect, and accompanied, in some instances, by specimens of the metal, may here be given:--

1. Grand Menou, or Isle Royal, Lake Superior. Captain----, of the schooner----, in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company, on Lake Superior, describes this island as affording frequent masses of copper. While becalmed off its shores in the spring of 1822, and, afterwards, in coasting along the island for a distance of one hundred miles, his men frequently went ashore, and never failed to bring back with them lumps of metallic copper, which they found promiscuously scattered among the fragments of rock. These were more abundant in approaching its southwestern extremity, where they unite in representing it to exist in a solid vein. Specimens of limpid quartz, chalcedony, and striped agate, were also brought to me from this island. [J. S. J. J.]

2. On the extremity of the great peninsula, called by the natives Meenaiewong, or Keweena Point, which forms so prominent a feature in the physiognomy of Lake Superior. It occurs in the detached form. [J. H. J. J.]

3. At Point aux Beignes, which is the east cape of the entrance into L'Ance Quewiwenon. A mass from this place was raised from the sandstone rock, which predominates there. [J. Y. B.]

4. At Caug Wudjieu, or the Porcupine Mountains, Lake Superior; in masses, enveloped with a green crust, along the banks of the Carp, or Neemaibee River, which originates in these mountains. [W. M. G. Y. J. J.]

5. On the banks of Lac Courterroile. This lake lies near the source of the River Broule, or Cawesacotai, which enters Lake Superior near La Pointe. It occurs in the alluvial soil, which is a kind of loamy earth, with pebbles intermixed, but of a rich quality, and timbered with beech and maple. It is found mostly in small, flat masses, more or less oxidated. [B. G. J. G. Y.]

6. In a vein on the shore of Lake Superior, between La Riviere de Mort and St. John's, a little to the west of Presque Isle. [J. J.]

7. On the northeast branch of the Ontonagon River. [J. H.]

8. In the precipitous bluffs called Le Portail, and the Pictured Rocks. A green matter oozes from the seams in these rocks, and forms a kind of stalactites, which is apparently a carbonate of copper. [G. Y.]

These localities embrace a range of more than two hundred miles along the south shore of Lake Superior, which proves how intimately this metal and its ores are identified with the rocks and the soil of that region.

(D.)

In all our calculations respecting the position and advantages of these mines, too much stress cannot be laid upon the facilities of the lake navigation. It is believed that a ton of merchandise, or a barrel bulk, can be transported through the lakes at the same rates that are paid in the coasting trade of the United States. Nor is the risk greater. The best data which I can command, induce me to conclude that a quintal of copper can be conveyed from the place of shipment on Lake Superior, to the city of New York, for one dollar. The present price of transportation, for a barrel bulk, from Buffalo to Mackina, may be stated, on the average of freights, at 8_s._, New York. The mean weight of a barrel bulk, taking flour as the standard, may be safely put down at 200 lbs. gross, being 50 cents per cwt. But it must be recollected that there is no return freight; and, consequently, that this sum covers the expenses not only of the outward and return voyage, but still leaves a profit to the owner. Messrs. Gray and Griswold, sutlers of the 2d regiment, paid 9_s._ 6_d._, New York, per barrel bulk, from Buffalo to the Sault. This gives a result of 59 cents per cwt. But, if a return cargo could be obtained, one-half of this sum would afford an equal profit on the voyage; and it is believed that the article of bar copper could at all times be conveyed from the Sault to Buffalo for 20 cents per cwt. Being a very convenient species of ballast, it would oftentimes be taken in lieu of stone, and, consequently, cost no greater sum than the price of carrying it on board. But the facilities and cheapness of the lake navigation cannot, perhaps, be better illustrated than by stating the price of provisions at the post of St. Mary's, every article of which is carried from 300 to 700 miles through the lakes. The following statement of the assistant commissary has been politely furnished at my request:--

SAULT STE. MARIE, October, 1822.

DEAR SIR: Agreeably to your request, I send you a statement of the actual cost of subsistence stores furnished at this post for the use of troops at present making the military establishment, ordered by the Government to this place.

The prices of the several articles below enumerated are at a small advance on the stores of the settlers outside of the cantonment.

The expenses of subsisting, or rather of maintaining, a garrison at this place will be as small, if not less, per annum, than at any other frontier post in our country. The provisions for the soldier cost as little, I believe, as at any other post, and next year we shall be able to raise all the forage for the use of our beef cattle, and the horses and oxen of the quartermaster's department.

I am, dear sir, yours, &c., W. BICKER, A. C. S. U. S. A.

Statement of the Cost of United States Subsistence Stores at the Sault de Ste. Marie, 1822.

Cents. Pork, per pound 4-1/4 Flour, per pound 1-9/10 Whiskey, per gallon 29 Fresh beef, per pound 6-1/2 Vinegar, per gallon 22 Salt, per bushel 90 Soap, per pound 10 Candles, per pound 20-1/2 Beans, per quart 4-7/10

The total cost of a soldier's ration is 9 cents and 1 mill per diem.

WALTER BICKER, A. C. S. U. S. A.

H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Esq., U. S. I. Agent.

(E.)

Statement of the Returns of Copper Ores Smelted at the Mines of Cornwall (Eng.) from 1726 to 1775.--[Rees's Cyclopedia.]

-------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- Periods. |Tons of ore.|Average price| Amount. |Annual quantity | | per ton. | |of fine copper. -------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- 1726 to 1735 | 64,800 | £7 15 10 | £473,500| 700 tons 1736 to 1745 | 75,520 | 7 8 6 | 560,106| 830 " 1746 to 1755 | 98,790 | 7 8 0 | 731,457| 1,080 " 1756 to 1765 | 169,699 | 7 6 6 |1,243,045| 1,800 " 1766 to 1775 | 264,273 | 6 14 6 |1,778,337| 2,650 " -------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------

(F.)

Statement of the Produce of the Mines of Cornwall and Devon (Eng.) for a period of four years, ending with 1811.

------------------+-------------+------------+----------+--------- | 1808 | 1809 | 1810 | 1811 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- |Corn- |Devon|Corn- |Devon| Cornwall | Cornwall |wall | |wall | |and Devon |and Devon ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Tons of ore. | | | | | | Tons. |73,434 |3,725|72,038|3,210| 80,238 |73,579 cwt. | 2 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 14 | 0 qrs. | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Fine copper. | | | | | | Tons. |7,118 | 369 |6,972 | 365 | 7,006 | 6,272 cwt. | 5 | 10 | 17 | 1 | 13 | 0 qrs. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 lbs. | 17 | 0 | 17 | 3 | 5 | 2 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Average | | | | standard £ | 107 | 122 | 141 | 125 per ton. | | | | ------------------+-------+------------+----------------+--------- Annual amount £|781,348| 875,784 | 969,376 | 769,379 after deducting | | | | charges of s.| 16 | 2 | 19 | 4 smelting. | | | | ------------------+-------+------------+----------------+---------

(G.)

Table of the Annual Quantity of Copper raised from the Earth in Different Countries, in Quintals--the Quintal valued at 100 lbs.

1. England 200,000 2. Russia 67,000 3. Austria, including Bohemia, Gallicia, Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Salzburg, and Moravia 60,000 4. Sweden 22,000 5. Westphalia, in 1808 17,229 6. States of Denmark 8,500 7. Bavaria, including the Tyrol 3,000 8. France 2,500 9. Saxony, in 1808 1,320 10. Prussia, as left by the treaty of Tilsit 337 11. Spanish European mines 309 -------- Total, 382,186

(H.)

I shall here give the synonoma for this tribe of Indians, which appears to have been first recognized by the United States as an independent tribe by Wayne's treaty of 1795,[241] under the name of Chipewa. This name has been retained in all subsequent treaties with them, not, however, without some discrepance in the orthography. These variations are chiefly marked by the introduction of the letter p at the beginning of the second syllable, or the vowel y annexed to the third; producing Chip-pe-wa, Chip-pe-wa_y_, and Chip-e-way. The French missionaries and traders, whose policy it was to discard the names of the aboriginal tribes from their conversations, bestowed upon this tribe, at a very early period, the nom de guerre of Saulteurs, or Sauteurs, from the Sault or Falls of St. Mary's, which was the ancient seat of this tribe--a name which is still retained by the Canadians, and by many of the American traders. Among the early French writers, they were also sometimes denominated Outchipouas. There is as little uniformity among travellers and geographers. Pinkerton, Darby, Morse, Carver, Mackenzie, and Herriot, either employ the word according to the orthography of Wayne's treaty, or with the modifications above noticed. The name of Chippewyans, employed by Mackenzie, relates to a tribe residing north and west of the sources of the Mississippi, who speak a language having no affinity, and are a distinct people. Henry, who was well versed in the Chippewa language, also conforms to the popular usage, but observes that the true name, as pronounced by themselves, is Ojibwa.

[241] This fact is not stated in full confidence. I cannot refer to any authorities to prove that they were formally recognized by the United States before this very recent period. By the French and British governments they were known soon after the first settlements at Quebec and Albany (A. D. 1608, 1614), and subsequently treated with. A band of warriors from Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior, under the command of Waub Ojeag, or the White Fisher, was present at the taking of Fort Niagara by Sir W. Johnston in 1759.

Having taken pains to ascertain and fix the pronunciation of this word, I have not hesitated to introduce it into my correspondence and official accounts; but I am aware of my great temerity in so doing. Popular prejudices, and several of the authorities above cited, stand opposed to the proposed innovation. The continued use of the word "Chippewa" is also sanctioned by a name entitled to conclusive respect. "I write the word in this way," observes the Executive of Michigan, "because I am apprehensive the orthography is inveterately fixed, and not because I suppose it is correct." Still, there are reasons for changing it. Justice to this unfortunate race requires it. Since the popular apathy to their condition is such that every remembrance of their actual customs, manners, and traditions will probably perish with them, and their name, ere long, be all that is left, it is at least incumbent upon us to transmit that to posterity in its true sound--as the fathers and sachems pronounced it. If, then, there is an acknowledged error in this respect, shall we hesitate to correct it?

IX.

Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, west of the Rome Summit, in 1820.[242]

[242] At the time these sketches were written, no geological observations had been made on this field, which has, at subsequent periods, been so elaborately described; nor had the topic itself attracted much attention. I landed at New York, in the ship Arethusa, from New Orleans, in the summer of 1819, and published, in that city, in the fall of that year, an account of the lead-bearing rocks of Missouri, and their supporting white sandstones, which rest, in horizontal deposits, on the primitive formation of the St. Francis; bringing, at the same time, a rich collection of the mineralogy of that region, which soon became known in private cabinets. This became the cause of my employment, by the United States Government, to visit the alleged copper mines on Lake Superior, as a member of the expedition to the sources of the Mississippi. I left Oneida County, in the district remarked on, on the 10th of April of that year, and reached the banks of the Niagara River on the 29th of that month. On returning from the sources of the Mississippi, I entered the same region on the 17th of October, and reached Oneida on the 21st of the same month. Prior to my visit to the Great West, I had dwelt some three years--namely, 1809, '10, '11, '12--in Oneida and Ontario counties. These were the opportunities enjoyed, up to the period, for acquiring a knowledge of the geography and geology of the country. Mr. A. Eaton's Index to Geology, published early in 1820, embraces nothing extending to western New York.

ROCK FORMATIONS.--1. Assuming the area of the most eastwardly head of the Onondaga Valley, the Wood Creek, and the Rome Summit, and the valley of the Niagara, with an indefinite extent laterally, to form the limits of this inquiry; it is in coincidence with all known facts to say that it is a secondary region, consisting of the sedimentary and semi-crystalline strata, the lines of which are perfectly horizontal. Colored sandstone, generally red, forms the lowest observed stratum.

Wherever streams have worn deep channels, they either disclose this rock or its adjuncts, the grits, or silicious sinter. It is apparent in the chasm at Niagara Falls, about half a mile below the cataract. It is often seen on the surface of the country, or buried slightly beneath the soil. In color, hardness, and other characters, there is a manifest variety. But, considered as a "formation," no doubt can exist of its unity. Its thickness can only be conjectured, as no labor has, so far as we know, penetrated through it.

Judging from observations made in Cattaraugus County, in 1818, the coal measures have been completely swept from this area.

2. Next in point of altitude, is the series of dark, carbonaceous, shelly slate rock. The thickness of this formation, as indicated at Niagara, cannot be less than ninety feet. It is also often a surface-rock in the district, forming portions of the banks of lakes, streams, &c. It is characterized by organic remains of nascent species. Portions of it also disclose rounded masses of pre-existing rocks.

3. Last in the order of superposition, is the secondary limestone formation. It is, most commonly, of a dark, sedimentary aspect. It is not invariably so, but portions of it have a shining, semi-crystalline fracture. Shades of color also vary considerably, but it never, in the scale of colors, exceeds a whitish-gray. Viewed at different localities, the mass is either compact, fetid, shelly, or silicious. Much of it produces good quicklime. It is often rendered "bastard," as the phrase is, by argillaceous and earthy impurities. Organic impressions, and remains of sea shells and coarse corals are frequent. Encrinites give some portions of it the appearance of eyed or dotted secondary marble. The occurrence of a hard variety of hornstone, which is not flint, is apparently confined to the compact, fetid variety. This formation, like the two preceding, may be found to consist of separate strata. Localities, joining, overlaying, substrata, mineral contents, organic species, &c., require observation. The following notices are added.

GEOLOGICAL CHANGES.--The evidences which are furnished of ancient submersion, which has "changed and overturned" vast portions of the solid land, are neither few nor equivocal. They are seen as well in the rock strata as the alluvial soils. The most elevated hills and the lowest valleys are equally productive of the evidences of extensive changes. The whole aspect of the country seems to attest to the ancient dominion of water. But the most striking proof of its agency is, perhaps, found in the sea-shells, polypi, and crustacea, which are preserved, in their outlines, in solid strata. Some of these are most vivid in their shapes and ray-like markings, particularly the univalve shells.

A subsequent change, in the surface of the country, is indicated by the marks of attrition and watery action upon the faces of these rocks, in situations greatly elevated above the present water-levels. This action must, consequently, be referred to a period when extensive submersions, in the nature of lakes or semi-seas, existed; for there is no power in present lakes and streams, however swelled and reinforced by rains or melting snows, to reach even a moiety of the elevation of these ancient water-marks. It is to the era of these last submersions that we are encouraged, by evidences, to look, as the disturbing cause which has buried trees, leaves, and bones in alluvial soils.

Action of Water.--In examining some portions of the flat lands of Ontario County, such as the township of Phelps, there are strata of a fine sedimentary soil, such as might be expected to result from the settlings of water not greatly agitated. The bottoms of mill-ponds afford an analogous species of soil. In these level districts, there are also not unfrequently observed fields of bare flat rock, of the limestone species, which is checkered in its surface, conveying the idea of their having formed a flooring to some former lake. An appearance of this kind may be seen a few hundred yards from the meeting-house in Phelps. The rock, in this instance, is a carbonate of lime, and affords organic remains.

The Oak Openings, in Erie County, are a kind of natural meadows or prairies. Many suppose them to have been ancient clearings; but of this the Indians have no tradition, and the evidences of such a settlement are by no means satisfactory. In many places, on these extensive openings, there are naked and barren layers of calcareous rock, whose surface exhibits appearances analogous to those in Ontario. The limestone is, however, of a darker color, and contains numerous imbedded nodules of hornstone, and it emits a fetid odor on breaking.

In crossing the elevated calcareous highlands, between Danville and Arkport, in Steuben County, we perceive in the bluff rocks which bound the valley of the Conestoga River, at an elevation of perhaps two hundred feet above its bed, horizontal water-marks, deeply impressed upon the face of the rocks, as if the waters had formerly stood at that level; and it is impossible to resist the conviction, in travelling over this rugged district of country, that it has not been totally submerged by waters, which have been suddenly drawn off, but by gradual or periodical exhaustions, standing for many ages at different levels.

SLATE ROCKS.--These were, not inaptly, denominated "brittle slate," by Dr. Mitchell, in 1809. Brittleness is their pervading character; and it is owing to this quality, in a formation of great thickness, that the action of the water at Niagara Falls is of so very striking a character. There is no portion of the Niagara slate solid enough to be used for building stone. It is uniformly shelly, and exhibits, even in hand specimens, its reproduced character.[243] Those portions of the general formation which are solid constitute silicious slate. A locality of this variety may be seen at the Halfway House, eight miles east of Canandaigua.

[243] Appropriately pronounced a "secondary graywacke slate," by Mr. Eaton.

SENECA LAKE.--This clear and picturesque lake has its bed in the secondary formations, and may be referred to as exhibiting localities of them. Its upper parts afford the compact limestone in quadrangular blocks. Large portions of its margin consist of the brittle carbonaceous slate. The shores, from the vicinity of Rose's Farm to Appletown, are little else but a continuous bank of the slate. On the opposite coast, it is also visible at various localities below the Crooked Lake inlet. Cashong Creek may be particularly referred to. A short ascent of its valley brings the spectator into a scene where the walled masses of slaty rock assume a character of grandeur. Among the recent portions which have been thrown into the valley, may be seen masses having large species of the stem-like organic remains, which indicate its newness as a formation. Here are also disclosed orbicular masses, and pebbles of other rocks, imbedded in the slate. These prove it to be--what its texture would, in other places, indicate--a secondary slate.

The order of position on the banks of this lake is the same as at Niagara; but the sandstone is not apparent above the water line. Its existence, in the bed of the lake, may be satisfactorily inferred, from the masses of yellow coarse sand which are driven up at the foot of the lake, and particularly around its outlet. When the winds prevail, the water is driven violently against this part of the shore. As it is an alluvial flat, they soon surmount the stated margin, and produce a partial inundation. On their recession, wreathes of sand remain.

DILUVIAL ELEVATIONS.--Bounding the alluvial plain of the Seneca outlet westward, there is a series of remarkable wave-like ridges, whose direction is parallel to that of the lake. On the declivity-stop of the first of these ridges, stands the village of Geneva, the buildings of which are thus displayed in an amphitheatric manner above the clear expanse of the lake. The substratum of these ridges is an argillaceous, compact soil of the eldest formation. Some parts of it are a stiff clay, and yield septaria; but there is no considerable portion of it, which has been examined, wholly destitute of primitive boulders and pebbles. Little doubt can remain but that it is the result of the broken-down slaty rock mixed with the extraneous and far-fetched primitive masses. They are conclusive of its diluvial character. I have attentively examined this formation, in the section of it exposed on the shores of the lake between the village of Geneva and Two-mile Point. All its solid, stony contents are piled along the margin of the lake, the soil being completely washed away. Granite, quartz, and trap pebble-stones and boulders, are here promiscuously strewn with recent debris. Over the argillaceous deposit is spread a mantle of newer soil, of unequal depth and character, which forms, exclusively, the theatre of farming and horticultural labors.

WHITE SPRINGS.--On the declivity of one of these parallel ridges, at the distance of two miles from the lake, is found an extensive bed of white marl. This deposit, which is on the estate of the late Judge Nicholas, covers many acres, and yields so copious a spring of pure water that it is sufficient, at the distance of about three hundred yards from its issue, to turn a gristmill. There are to be found in this bed of marl several species of helix and voluta. The marl is generally covered with an alluvial deposit of two feet in depth. The depth of the marl itself is unexplored. Is not this marl the result of decomposed sea shells?

BEDS OF QUARTZOSE SAND.--In certain parts of the Seneca Valley are found limited deposits of a white quartzose sand, in a state of comparative purity. This substance is capable of being readily vitrified by the addition of alkaline fluxes, and is thus converted into glass. Its existence, as a local deposit, beneath separate strata of alluvial soil, supporting a growth of trees and shrubs, is such as to render it probable that the present stream, in its exhausted state, could have had no agency in producing these deposits. If we are compelled to look to a former condition of the waters passing off through this valley, as affording the requisite power of deposit, we are then carried back to an era in the geology of the country which we must refer to, to account for by far the greater number of changes in all its recent soils. Indeed, wherever we examine these soils, out of the range comprehended between high- and low-water mark, on any existing lake or stream, there will be found occasion to resort to the agency of more general and anterior submersions. A few localities may be appealed to.

FOSSIL WOOD.--In digging a well in the Genesee Valley, one mile east of the river (at Hosmer's), part of the trunk of a tree, of mature growth, was found at the depth of forty-one feet below the surface. The soil was a loose sand mixed with gravel. The position is more elevated than the flats, so called.

ANTLERS.--A large pair of elk's horns were discovered in an excavation made for the foundation of a mill at Clyde, in Seneca County. They were imbedded in alluvial soil, ten feet below the surface. This surface had been cleared of elm and other forest trees of mature growth. Near the same place, logs of wood were found at the depth of fourteen feet. These discoveries were made in the valley of Clyde River, which is formed by the junction of the Canandaigua Outlet with Mud Creek.

FROGS ENCLOSED IN THE GEOLOGICAL COLUMN.--At Carthage, on the Genesee, twelve or fifteen frogs were found in excavating a layer of compact clay marl, about nine feet below the surface. The position is several hundred feet above the bed of the Genesee River, to which elevation no one, after viewing the spot, will deem it probable its waters could have reached, this side of the diluvian era.

A frog was dug out of the solid rock, at Lockport, Niagara County, by the workmen engaged in excavating the canal. It was enveloped by the limestone which abounds in cavities filled with crystals of strontian and dog-tooth spar. It came to life for a few moments, and then expired. There was no aperture by which it could possibly communicate with the atmospheric air. The cavity was only large enough to retain it, without allowing room for motion.

The inclosure of animals of the inferior classes in the sedimentary strata, and even in the most solid substance of rock, is a fact which has been frequently noticed, without, however, any very satisfactory theory having been given of the process, at least to common apprehension. Vide Addenda, for some further notices of this kind.

FOSSIL VEGETATION.--A well was dug in the lower part of the village of Geneva, in 1820, which disclosed, at the depth of thirteen feet, the branches and buds of a cedar-tree. They were found lying across the excavation, and in the sides of it; and were in excellent preservation. No one could conjecture in what age they had been buried. But this discovery would seem to establish the position that the catastrophe occurred in the spring.

MADREPORE.--A madrepore, measuring eight inches in diameter, was found in the upland soil of Caledonia, Genesee County. Smaller specimens of the same species occur in that township. Madrepores of a large size have also been found imbedded in the soil, or lying on the surface, in various places in Cattaraugus and Alleghany counties. They are locally denominated petrified wasps' nests. The lands containing these loose fossil remains are contiguous to, or based on, secondary rocks at considerable elevations.

BOULDERS AND PRIMITIVE GRAVEL.--But the most abundant evidences of diluvial action are furnished by the masses of foreign crystalline rocks which are scattered, in blocks of various sizes, on the surface of the soil, or imbedded at all depths within it. Primitive rocks are foreign to the district, and these masses could not, therefore, have resulted from local disintegration. They must have been transported from a distance. They required not only an adequate cause for their removal, but one commensurate with the effects. Such a cause Cuvier supposes, in discussing the general question, may have existed in eruptions, or in the action of oceanic masses of water, operating at an ancient period.

The latter opinion appears to be generally adopted. Dr. Mitchell, in reference to northwestern boulders, attributes their distribution over secondary regions to the draining of interior seas or lakes. Mr. Hayden, in his Geological Essays, refers them to the action of oceanic currents setting "from north and east to south and west."

SUBORDINATE AND EQUIVALENT STRATA.--These constitute the most intricate subjects of reference. They are either adjuncts or residuary deposits of leading formations. But their order, as accompanying series, must sometimes be sought for by a previous determination of the formations themselves. Could we certainly know, for instance, that the sandstone of Western New York is or is not the true coal-sandstone, or the limestone is or is not the carboniferous limestone, it would at once direct to positive eras, and serve to impart confidence in the prediction of unknown deposits of an important character. But, in order to fix the formations, it is often the safest mode of procedure to employ the subordinate and local deposits as evidences of the character of the formations embracing them.

GYPSUM.--A stratum of gypsum of the plaster of Paris kind--that is, consisting of an admixture of the carbonate with the sulphate of lime--occurs on the banks of the Canandaigua outlet. It has been chiefly explored in the township of Phelps, Ontario. In visiting the principal bed (1820), I found the following order of deposits composing the banks of the outlet:--

1. Alluvial soil of a dark, arenaceous, and mellow character, having small stones of the primitive kind sparingly interspersed, two and a half to three feet. Cultivated in improved farms.

2. Shelly limestone, of an earthy, dull-gray color and loose texture, in layers, three feet.

3. Limestone of a more firm character, but still shelly, or rather slaty, fissile, and easily quarried, six feet. This stratum contains iron pyrites in a decomposed state. Also, nodular or kidney-shaped masses of what the quarrymen call plaster-eggs--apparently snowy gypsum.

4. Plaster of Paris, ten feet. This stratum yields granular, earthy, fibrous, and foliated gypsum. It is the first two varieties which are quarried. In some places, the mass is firm enough to admit of blasting. In others, it is loose and veiny, and is readily broken up with iron bars and sledges. Portions of it appear to consist of a shelly limestone identical with No. 2. They are rejected in quarrying.

5. Limestone similar to No. 3, four feet.

At this depth it is covered by the waters of the outlet. How deep it extends is uncertain. The rapids at the village of Vienna are caused by shelving strata of this limestone.

There is a suite character in these strata which appears to constitute them a single deposit. The plaster-bed at Canasaraga exists in a ledge more elevated in reference to the local stream, and presents a broader section of the limestone. The shades of difference which are observable in its color and texture, do not appear to indicate a difference of geological era. Nor do appearances denote, for the calcareous formation which embraces these beds, much antiquity in the scale of secondary rocks.

SALIFEROUS RED CLAY-MARL.--Examinations, at various points, render it a probable supposition that the red clay-marl of western New York is the equivalent for the new red sandstone, in positions where the latter is--as it often is--wanting. It is extensively deposited in the upland soils, in the range of the salt rock and gypsum counties, from the summit grounds of Oneida County west. It may be seen in various stages of the decomposition. I have more attentively examined it on the upper parts of the Scanado[244] and Oneida creeks. Large areas of it exist in Westmoreland, Verona, and Vernon townships, and bordering the valley grounds of the Oneida reservation, and the northerly portions of Sullivan County. The existence of salt water might, apparently, be searched for with as much probability of success, in the district thus indicated, as at more westerly points.

[244] Usually written Skenanodoah, but pronounced as above.

COAL-FORMATION.--With a strong predisposition to regard our leading sandstone and limestone surface-formations as members of the "independent" or true coal-formation, inquiry has led me to relinquish the impression that they will, to any great degree, be found to yield this mineral. If the sandstone is--as facts indicate it to be--the new red or saliferous sandstone, it may be expected to yield thin seams of coal, in distant places, but no deposit of this mineral which will reward exploration in this or its super-incumbent series of rocks, the slates, limestones, &c. It will result, that the coal-measures, properly so denominated, are a prior deposit in the order of series; and, should they hereafter be found, such a discovery must take place above the range of the sandstone, which is the basis rock at Niagara and Genesee Falls.

Having premised the character of the sandstone, all the series occupying a position above it must derive their character, as secondary deposits, from this. The limestone cannot, therefore, be a part of the carboniferous or "medial." The slates, as shown at Cashong, are fragmentary, and rather nearer slaty grauwacks. The arenaceous and calcareous upper deposits assume nearly the position of the oolitic series, and, in fact, ought, in some localities, to be regarded as equivalents.

WESTERN COAL-MINES.--Much of the data employed in these inquiries is the result of previous examinations of the great coal deposits in the Ohio Valley, and other parts of the western country. Here we have the coal-sandstone and the slate clay, with slate, &c., alternating with the coal-measures. Such is the order of deposits at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela, where the formation is well developed, and where there exists, too, in the elevated valley hills, several repetitions of the series. The zechstone, or compact limestone, which is a pervading rock in the Mississippi Valley, occupies a position next above the great Mississippi sandstone.[245] It may always be distinguished from the shelly, entrochal limestone of the Genesee,[246] by the absence of gypsum and of the fetid odor emitted on fracture.

[245] This formation cannot be called "red sandstone," from its being generally white or gray, but appears to occupy the position of the "horizontal red sandstone" among European rocks.

[246] The cornutiferous lime-rock of Mr. Eaton.

ALLEGHANY VALLEY.--A question of interest, in connection with the extent of the Ohio Valley coal-formation, arises from the attempt to fix the point to which this formation ascends the Alleghany Valley--being the direct avenue into Western New York. I have examined this valley in its entire length between Pittsburg and Olean, in Cattaraugus County, and have not been able to observe that there are any evidences of its termination below the latter point. The general order and parallelism of strata remain the same. The coal stratum is apparently present. The qualities of the coal at Armstrong, and at various points below French Creek--the first primary fork of the river--are not distinguishable from the products of the Pittsburg galleries. Less search has been made above that point, but wherever the hills have been penetrated, they have--as at Brokenstraw--produced the bituminous coal. Above the Conawango Valley, which brings in the redundant waters of Chatauque Lake, the Alleghany discloses frequent rapids. The effect of parallelism upon the strata is to sink the coal-measures deeper as they ascend the Alleghany; and this cause may, in connection with the unexplored character of the country, be referred to in accounting for the absence of coal along this part of the line. The reappearance of traces of this mineral at Potato Creek, forty miles above Olean, is a proof, however, that the coal-formation extends to that point. This locality is a few miles within the limits of Pennsylvania. It occurs in a valley.

COAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK.--The coal-bed above Olean is south of the summit of the Genesee, and not remote from its primary source. The expectation may be indulged that the western coal-formation embraces portions of Cattaraugus and Alleghany or Steuben counties. The noted spring of naphtha, called Seneca Oil, is on Oil Creek in this county. As this substance, in the class of bitumens, is nearly allied to the coal series, it may be deemed favorable to the existence of the formation in the substrata.[247] Fragments of carbonized wood are frequently found in the large tracts of marine sand,[248] as well as in some of the mixed alluvions of these counties; and it needs but an examination, as cursory as it has fallen to my lot to make, of this portion of the country, to render it one of high geological interest, and to denote that the coal-measures probably extend into some portions of Western New York.[249]

[247] These tracts bear a valuable growth of pines, which constitute the source of a profitable lumber trade with the Ohio Valley.

[248] This mineral oil also occurs in several of the lower tributaries of the Alleghany River, within the coal district.

[249] A discovery of coal has been announced in Alleghany County, New York, as these sheets are going through the press, more than thirty years after these lines were penned.

ADDENDA.

Animals inclosed in Rock, &c.

TOADS.--In 1770, a toad was brought to Mr. Grignon inclosed in two hollow shells of stone; but, on examining it nicely, Mr. G. discovered that the cavity bore the impression of a shell-fish, and, of consequence, he concluded it to be apocryphal.

In 1771, another instance occurred, and was the subject of a curious memoir read by Mr. Guettard to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. It was thus related by that famous naturalist:--

In pulling down a wall, which was known to have existed upwards of a hundred years, a toad was found without the smallest aperture being discoverable by which it could have entered. Upon inspecting the animal, it was apparent that it had been dead but a very little time; and in this state it was presented to the Academy, which induced Mr. Guettard to make repeated inquiries into the subject, the particulars of which will be read with pleasure in the excellent memoir we have just cited.

WORMS.--Two living worms were found, in Spain, in the middle of a block of marble which a sculptor was carving into a lion, of the natural color, for the royal family. These worms occupied two small cavities to which there was no inlet that could possibly admit the air. They subsisted, probably, on the substance of the marble, as they were the same color. This fact is verified by Captain Ulloa, a famous Spaniard, who accompanied the French academicians in their voyage to Peru to ascertain the figure of the earth. He asserts that he saw these two worms.

ADDER.--We read in the Affiches de Provence, 17 June, 1772, that an adder was found alive in the centre of a block of marble thirty feet in diameter. It was folded nine times round, in a spiral line. It was incapable of supporting the air, and died a few minutes after. Upon examining the stone, not the smallest trace was to be found by which it could have glided in or received air.

CRAWFISH.--Misson, in his Travels through Italy, mentions a crawfish that was found alive in the middle of a marble in the environs of Tivoli.

FROGS.--M. Peyssonel, king's physician at Guadaloupe, having ordered a pit to be dug in the back part of his house, live frogs were found by the workmen in beds of petrifaction. M. P., suspecting some deceit, descended into the pit, dug the bed of the rock and petrifactions, and drew out himself green frogs, which were alive, and perfectly similar to what we see every day.

We are informed by the European Magazine, February 21, 1771, that M. Herissan inclosed three live toads in so many cases of plaster, and shut them up in a deal box, which he also covered with thick plaster. On the 6th of April, 1774, having taken away the plaster, he opened the box, and found the cases whole and two of the toads alive. The one that died was larger than the others, and had been more compressed in its case. A careful examination of this experiment convinced those who had witnessed it, that the animals were so inclosed that they could have no possible communication with the external air, and that they must have existed during this lapse of time without the smallest nourishment.

The Academy prevailed upon M. Herissan to repeat the experiment. He inclosed again the two surviving toads, and placed the box in the hands of the Secretary, that the Society might open it whenever they should think proper. But this celebrated naturalist was too strongly interested in the subject to rest satisfied with a single experiment; he made, therefore, the two following:--

1. He placed, 15 April, 1771, two live toads in a basin of plaster, which he covered with a glass case that he might observe them frequently. On the 9th of the following month, he presented the apparatus to the Academy. One of the toads was still living; the other had died the preceding night.

2. The same day, April 15, he inclosed another toad in a glass bottle, which he buried in sand, that it might have no communication with the external air. This animal, which he presented to the Academy at the same time, was perfectly well, and even croaked whenever the bottle was shook in which he was confined. It is to be lamented that the death of M. Herissan put a stop to these experiments.

We beg leave to observe upon this subject, that the power which these animals appear to possess of supporting abstinence for so long a time, may depend upon a very slow digestion, and, perhaps, from the singular nourishment which they derive from themselves. M. Grignon observes that this animal sheds its skin several times in the course of a year, and that it always swallows it. He has known, he says, a large toad shed its skin six times in one winter. In short, those which, from the facts we have related, may be supposed to have existed many centuries without nourishment, have been in a total inaction, in a suspension of life, or a temperature that has admitted of no dissolution; so that it was not necessary to repair any loss, the humidity of the surrounding matter preserving that of the animal, who wanted only the component parts not to be dried up, to preserve it from destruction.

The results of modern chemistry and philosophy have proved the number of elementary substances to be far greater than was admitted in the preceding century. And this discovery is progressive, and will probably go on a long time; after which, it is not improbable a new race of chemical and philosophical observers will spring up, who will be able to decompose many substances we now consider elementary, and thus again reduce the number of elements of which all external matter is composed. It would not be wonderful if posterity should reduce the number of elements even as low as the ancients had them. Such a result would throw new light on the mysterious and intricate connection which seems to exist between animal, vegetable, and mineral matter. We should then, perhaps, have less cause to wonder that toads, &c., are capable of supporting life in stone, that birds should exist in solid blocks of wood, &c.

But toads are not the only animals which are capable of living for a considerable length of time without nourishment and communication with the external air. The instances of the oysters and dactyles, mentioned at the beginning of this article, may be advanced as a proof of it. But there are other examples.--European Magazine, March, 1791.

A beetle, of the species called capricorn, was found in a piece of wood in the hold of a ship at Plymouth. The wood had no external mark of any aperture.--European Magazine.

A bug eat itself out of a cherry table at Williamstown, Mass. See an account of this phenomenon, by Professor Dewey, in the Lit. and Philos. Repertory.

These phenomena remind us of others of a similar nature and equally certain.

In a trunk of an elm, about the size of a man's body, three or four feet above the root, and precisely in the centre, was found, in 1719, a live toad, of a moderate size, thin, and which occupied but a very small space. As soon as the wood was cut, it came out and slipped away very alertly. No tree could be more sound. No place could be discovered through which it was possible for the animal to have penetrated, which led the recorder of the fact to suppose that the spawn from which it originated must, from some unaccountable accident, have been in the tree from the very moment of its first vegetation. The toad had lived in the tree without air, and, what is still more surprising, had subsisted on the substance of the wood, and had grown in proportion as the tree had grown. This fact was attested by M. Hebert, Ancient Professor of Philosophy at Caen.

In 1731, M. Leigne wrote to the Academy of Sciences at Paris an account of a phenomenon exactly similar to the preceding one, except that the tree was larger, and was an oak instead of an elm, which makes the instance the more surprising. From the size of the oak, M. Leigne judged that the toad must have existed in it without air or any external nourishment, for the space of eighty or a hundred years.

We shall cite a third instance, related in a letter the 5th Feb. 1780, written from the neighborhood of Saint Mexent, of which the following is a copy.

"A few days ago, I ordered an oak tree of a tolerable size to be cut down, and converted into a beam that was wanting for a building I was then constructing. Having separated the head from the trunk, three men were employed in squaring it to the proper size. About four inches were to be cut away on each side. I was present during the transaction. Conceive what was their astonishment when I saw them throw aside their tools, start back from the tree, and fix their eyes on the same point with a kind of amazement and terror. I instantly approached, and looked at that part of the tree which had fixed their attention. My surprise equalled theirs, on seeing a toad, about the size of a large pullet's egg, incrusted, in a manner, in the tree, at the distance of four inches from the diameter and fifteen from the root. It was cut and mangled by the axe, but still moved. I drew it with difficulty from its abode, or rather prison, which it filled so completely that it seemed to have been compressed. I placed it on the grass; it appeared old, thin, languishing, decrepit. We afterwards examined the tree with the nicest care, to discover how it had glided in; but the tree was perfectly whole and sound."--European Magazine.

BAT.--A woodman engaged in splitting timber for rail-posts in the woods close by the lake in Haming (a seat of Mr. Pringle's in Selkirkshire), lately discovered, in the centre of a large wild cherry tree, a living bat, of a bright scarlet color, which he foolishly suffered to escape, from fear, being fully persuaded it was (with the characteristic superstition of the inhabitants of that part of the country) a "being not of this world." The tree presented a small cavity in the centre, where the bat was inclosed, but is perfectly sound and solid on each side.--N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository, taken from the London Semi-Monthly Magazine.

SKULL IN WOOD.--A tenant of the Rev. J. Cattle, of Warwick, lately presented to him a part of the solid butt of an oak tree, containing within it the skull of some animal (unknown). It was in the part of the tree nine feet above the ground, and was perfectly inclosed in solid timber.--N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository, from European Magazine.

X.

A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil-Tree in the Series of the Secondary Rocks of the Illinois.

The spirit of inquiry which has been excited in this country in regard to objects of natural history, while it has enlarged the boundaries of our knowledge of existing species, has directed some of its more valuable researches to those organized forms which have perished and become embalmed in the shape of petrifactions, in the body of solid rocks. A petrified tree of this kind has recently been discovered in the secondary[250] rocks at the source of the Illinois River. Having recently visited this evidence of former changes in the flora of the West, I embrace the occasion, while my recollections are fresh, to give an account of it.

[250] This term is superseded, in geological discussions of the present day, by the term silurian, which embraces all strata of the era between the palæozoic and tertiary formations.

The tract of country separating the southern shores of Lake Michigan from the Illinois River, is a plat of table-land composed of compact limestone, based on floetz or horizontal sandstone. This formation embraces the contiguous parts of Illinois, and spreads through Indiana, Ohio, and the Peninsula of Michigan. It is overspread with a deposit of the drift era, covered with a stratum of alluvial soil, presenting a pleasing surface of prairies, forests, and streams. These features may be considered as peculiarly characteristic of the junction of the Rivers Kankakee and Des Plaines, which constitute the Illinois River. This junction is effected about forty miles south of Chicago.

The fossil in question occurs about forty rods above the junction of the Kankakee. The sandstone embracing it is deposited in perfectly horizontal layers, of a gray color and close grain. It lies in the bed of the Des Plaines. The action of this stream has laid bare the trunk of the tree to the extent of fifty-one feet six inches. The part at the point where it is overlaid in the western bank is two feet six inches in diameter. Its mineralization is complete. The trunk is simple, straight, scabrous, without branches, and has the usual taper observed in the living specimen. It lies nearly at right angles to the course of the river, pointing towards the southeast, and extends about half the width of the stream. Notwithstanding the continual abrasion to which it is exposed by the volume of passing water, it has suffered little apparent diminution, and is still firmly imbedded in the rock, with the exception of two or three places where portions of it have been disengaged and carried away; but no portion of what remains is elevated more than a few inches above the surface of the rock. It is owing, however, to those partial disturbances that we are enabled to perceive the columnar form of the trunk, its cortical layers, the bark by which it is enveloped, and the peculiar cross fracture, which unite to render the evidence of its ligneous origin so striking and complete. From these characters and appearances, little doubt can remain that it is referable to the species juglans nigra, a tree very common to the forest of the Illinois, as well as to most other parts of the immense region drained by the waters of the Mississippi. The woody structure is most obvious in the outer rind of the trunk, extending to a depth of two or three inches, and these appearances become less evident as we approximate the heart. Indeed, the traces of organic structure in its interior, particularly when viewed in the hand specimen, are almost totally obliterated and exchanged, the vegetable matter being replaced by a mixed substance, analogous, in its external character, to some of the silicated and impure calcareous carbonates of the region. Like those carbonates, it is of a brownish-gray color and compact texture, effervesces slightly in the nitric and muriatic acids, yields a white streak under the knife, and presents solitary points, or facets, of crystals resembling calc spar. All parts of the tree are penetrated by pyrites of iron of a brass yellow color, disseminated through the most solid and stony parts of the interior, filling interstices in the outer rind, or investing its capillary pores. There are also the appearances of rents or seams between the fibres of the wood, caused by its own shrinkage, which are now filled with a carbonate of lime, of a white color and crystallized.

From an effect analogous to carbonization, the exterior rind and bark of the tree have acquired a blackish-hue, while the inclosing rock is of a light-gray color, characters which are calculated to arrest attention.

There is reason to conclude that the subject under consideration is the joint result, partly of the infiltration of mineral matter into its pores and crevices, prior to inclosure in the rock, and partly to the chemical action educed by the great catastrophe by which it was translated from its parent forest, and suddenly enveloped in a bed of solidifying sand.

At the time of my visit (August 13, 1821), the depth of water upon the floetz rocks forming the bed of the River Des Plaines, would vary from one to two feet; but it was at a season when these higher tributaries, and the Illinois itself, are generally at their lowest stage. Like most of the confluent rivers of the Mississippi and their tributaries, the Des Plaines is subject to great fluctuations, and during its periodical floods may be estimated to carry a depth of eight or ten feet of water to the junction of the Kankakee. At those periods, the water is also rendered turbid by the quantity of alluvial matter it carries down, and a search for this organic fossil must prove unsuccessful. But during the prevalence of the summer droughts, in an atmosphere of little humidity, when the waters are drained to the lowest point of depression, and acquire the greatest degree of transparency, it forms a very conspicuous trait in the geology of the stream, and no person, seeking the spot, can fail to be directed to it.

The sand-rock containing this petrifaction is found in a horizontal position, differing only with respect to hardness and color. The remains of fossil organized bodies in this stratum are not abundant, or have not been successfully sought. It is probable that future observations will prove that its organic conservata are chiefly referable to the vegetable kingdom. It is certain, that this inference is justified by the facts which are before me, and particularly by the characteristic appearances of the strata in the bed of the River Des Plaines, where the imbedded walnut is the representative of the ancient flora. At a short distance above, where the bed of the Des Plaines approaches nearer the summit level, limestone ensues, and continues from that point northward to the shores of Lake Michigan. In the vicinity of Chicago, where this limestone is quarried for economical purposes, it is characterized by the fossil remains of molluscous species.

Lake Erie lies at an elevation of five hundred and sixty-five feet above the Atlantic.[251]

[251] Public Documents relating to the New York Canals, with an Introduction, &c., by Colonel Haines.

There exists a water communication between the head of Lake Michigan, at Chicago, and the River Des Plaines, during the periodical rises of the latter, but its summer level is about seven feet lower, at the termination of the Chicago portage, than the surface of the lake. From this point to its junction with the Kankakee, a computed distance of fifty miles, the bed of the Des Plaines may be considered as having a mean southern depression of ten inches per mile, so that the floetz rocks at its mouth, lying on a level of forty-eight feet eight inches below the surface of Lake Michigan, have an altitude which cannot vary far from five hundred and fifty feet above the Atlantic. There are no mountains for a vast distance either east or west of this stream. It is a country of plains, in which are occasionally to be seen alluvial hills of moderate elevation; but the most striking inequalities of surface proceed from the streams which have worn their deep-seated channels through it; and an oceanic overflow capable of covering the country, and producing these strata by deposition, would also submerge all the immense tracts of secondary and alluvial country between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, converting into an arm of the sea the great valley of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico north to the Canadian Lakes. We find in the alluvial soil along the Illinois and Des Plaines blocks of granite, hornblende, and gneiss, of the drift stratum, exhibiting the same appearances of attrition, and of having been transported from their parent beds, which characterize the secondary tablelands along the margin of the great American lakes, the prairies of Illinois, and the western parts of New York.

There is nothing, perhaps, in the progress of modern science, which has tended to facilitate geological research so much as the study and investigation of fossil organic remains. They teach, with unerring lights, how extensively the ancient flora and fauna of this continent have been prostrated, leaving their exact impressions, in all their minuteness, in the newly-formed stratifications. That these impressions, fresh and vivid as we find them, should mark the eras of depositions and crystallization of rocks from the suspension of their elements in water, is the observation of Werner, and it is to him we owe the elements of the Neptunian hypothesis. His general recognition of the epochs of the primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, appears too probable not to commend itself to adoption with regard to all strata which can be conceived to be the products of watery menstrua.

But it remained for Werner, who was the first to perceive an order in strata, also to point out the important application of fossil organic bodies in elucidating their eras, and the natural order of their superposition.

To adopt the words of Dr. Thomas Cooper:--

"There appears to be a series of strata, or, as Werner calls them, formations, that may be considered as surrounding the nucleus of the earth. The first formed, or lowest series, always preserve the same situation to each other, except where occasional eruptions, or circumstances not of a general nature, make a variety in their situations. These strata are not only the deepest, but they are also the highest that are observable in the crust of the earth; forming the tops of the highest mountains. They are characterized by an appearance of crystallization, and by containing no remains of organic matter, animal or vegetable. The strata or formations that in general constitute this first, deepest, highest, and crystallized series, are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, primitive greenstone, granular limestone, serpentine, porphyry, and sienite. These formations are so generally found, and in the same situations as incumbent upon or subtending each other relatively, that they may be considered as universal. Their crystallized appearance shows that their particles have either been dissolved or very finely suspended in water, so that the attraction of crystallization has been free to operate; that this water has been deep, so that the lowermost parts of it have not been much agitated during the crystallization, which would otherwise have been more confused than it is; and, indeed, the oldest formations are the best crystallized. A part of the water covering the nucleus must have been taken up, as water of crystallization, in the primitive formations. When these were deposited, there were no vegetables formed; of course, no animals; nay, even the sea was unpeopled, for there is no trace of any organic remains in these strata. Even the belemnites, the asteriæ, the echini, the entrochi, the most simple forms of oceanic animal life, do not occur until the transition strata appear. Hence the propriety of denominating these formations primitive.

"By processes of nature, besides the consumption of water by the new crystallized masses, to us unknown, the waters appear to have diminished. The highest parts of the primitive formations became the shores to the water superincumbent on their bases and middle regions; the simplest forms of oceanic animals came into existence; the mosses and lichens of high latitude would generally occupy the surface of the primitive strata, gradually decomposed by the alternate action of air and water after many ages. During this period, while the strata were in a state of transition from the chaotic to the habitable state, other deposits would gradually be made from the waters, now decreased in quantity, and take their place below the summits of the primitive range. Those summits being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, of rains, of frost probably, and to the action also of the waters with their contents still incumbent on the earliest strata, would furnish masses and particles washed away, which would mingle with the deposits of the transition series. This series, therefore, will exhibit appearances of mechanical and chemical intermixture of earths and stones, such as are found in the silicious porphyries, the graywackes, the silicious and argillaceous hornblende rocks, the elder red sandstone, &c. During the period when these transition formations were deposited, there would be no land animals, for there would be no vegetables for them to feed upon. There would be no vegetables unless some few lichens, mosses, or ericas, that would find foothold upon the slight decomposition that, after the lapse of some ages, would take place on the surface of the primitive rocks. The sea only would be peopled, and that but sparingly; for, in that mass of muddy water, none but the lowest and most inferior grades of animal life, and such as do not inhabit deep water, could exist. Hence, we find the transition formations contain in their substances some belemnites, asteriæ, entrochi, echini, &c., but no organized vegetable substance except, very rarely, in the latest rocks of this series, and no remains whatever of terrestrial animals. Indeed, in the high latitudes of the outgoings or summits of the primitive strata, very few vegetables, even at the present day, can live. No vegetation fit for animal life could take place until the transition, and most of the next series of secondary or floetz formations had subsided. These would occupy lower and lower situations, till a rich soil, from every kind of intermixture of earth mechanically deposited, would afford a proper temperature of region, and an easily decomposed soil, wherein vegetables could grow.

"Next to the transition series, come the secondary, or, as the German mineralogists call them, the floetz rocks; so called, because they appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata consist principally of sandstone, limestone--sometimes fetid from bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly--secondary greenstone, graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food. The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition range; the low and kindly climates occupied by the secondary series. The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence, particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal substance."

It is to the latter class of depositions--to the secondary series--that we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic matter--positions which have been so severely attacked and so often denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery which appears so conclusive on the subject.

Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced.

In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I made the following observations on the subject under review:--

"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the natural history of the country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the progress of geology."

I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:--

"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the collision with steel.

"When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidently in situ, and which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone, whose characteristic features must be well known to you.

"There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters of the Des Plaines."

ADDENDA.

The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as introduce new data, either of fact or opinion.

GEOLOGICAL THEORIES.--Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which the secondary rocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is referred to as authority in Rees's Cyclopædia, says, p. 131: 'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of in a similar manner by both."

Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently, Professor Dewey writes:--

"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and, as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing it on my account, or from what I wrote.

"Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is from the very paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been effected by heat and fusion, extending it to secondary as well as primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell limestone, oolite, and chalk.

"This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified by chalk, which is to be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk. This is his precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions that we have many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion, in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter.

"Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the circumstances were different.

"If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions must have taken place--a point well illustrated in Hayden's Geological Essays--seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this point, or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some one would attempt it."

TRAP-ROCKS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.--"I suspect the greenstone of our country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis."

SANDSTONE OF VIRGINIA.--"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it lay, and was, like it, silex."

SANDSTONE OF OHIO.--C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author, observes:--

"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis are the best spots to find these fossils.

"There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them."

MOSAICAL HISTORY OF THE CREATION.--B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:--

"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the wonders of physics--and I had almost said, the slow miracles of creation; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is pretty evident that millions of years, instead of six days, were necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire."

The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day," employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is emphatically used in Gen. ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the present views on this subject, see the American Journal of Science, vol. XXV. No. 1.

4. BOTANY.

XI.

A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of the American Journal of Science. References to this standard work may be conveniently made by botanists.

5. ZOOLOGY.

No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in the Systema Naturæ of Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American species of the reindeer (C. sylvestris) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons who had engaged in their capture.

In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties. The collections in this department were referred to members of the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. The results of their examinations have been published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix, together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics; but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought, inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given.

XII.

A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest.

By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VERNON, N.Y., October 27, 1820.

DEAR SIR: I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback.

The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December, 1805.

From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river, and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´.

The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the great limestone formation by the cataract of St. Anthony's Falls, in latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two hundred miles. Such a country--for its scenery, its magnificence, and resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country--the sun does not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country.

Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once, during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These, the winds and waves have scattered far and wide.

But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds, reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length of the mastodon--"the great bull"--who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson resisted the thunderbolts, and leaped over the great lakes?[252] Truly, I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no professed zoologist.

[252] Notes on Virginia.

I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds, we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo. The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance.

Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added to the list of species.[253]

[253] The only addition to ornithology which it fell to my lot to make, was in the grosbeck family, and this occurred after I came to return to St. Mary's. Mr. Wm. Cooper has called the new species fringilia vespertina, from the supposition that it sings during the evening. The Chippewas call this species paushkundame, from its thick and penetrating bill.

The geological character of the country has been found highly interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically. Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite.

There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled up in huge boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama. In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°, the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the boundaries of the great lake basins.

In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as I brought from Potosi in 1819--but, nevertheless, one of value--the country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda, graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be prepared and elaborately reported to the Department.

I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive theme of observation in places

"Where the tiger steals along, And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"

where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention; and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard question indeed which he cannot solve.

Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir, as the representative of the corps editorial, take your place. For, if it is the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion.

I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the expedition, to serve at least--if I may say so--as a stay to popular expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at Albany.

I am, sir, With sincere respect, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

To NATHANIEL H. CARTER, Esq., Albany.

List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed.

The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name, is herein fixed.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) SCIENTIFIC NAME. NAME. Buffalo, Pe-zhík-i,[254] Bos Americanus. Gm. Elk, Mush-kos, Cervus Canadensis. L. Deer (common), Wa-wash-ká-shi, Cervus Virginianus. Gm. Moose, Möz, Cervus alces. L. Black Bear, Muk-wah, Ursus Americanus. Gm. Wolf (gray), My-een-gan, Canis vulpes. L. Wolverine, Gwin-gwe-au-ga,[255] Ursus luscus. L. Fox (red), Waú-goosh Canis vulpes. L. Badger, Ak-kuk-o-jeesh, Meles labradoria. C. Fox (black), Muk-wau-goosh, Canis argenteus. C. Muskrat, Wau-zhusk, Fiber vulgaris. C. Martin, Wau-be-zha-si, Mustela mortes. L. & B. Fisher, O-jeeg, Mustela Pennanti. C. Am. ed., app. v. Beaver, Am-ik, Castor fiber. B. Otter, Ne-gik, Lutra vulgaris. L. Porcupine, Kaug, Hystrix cristata. C.

[254] This animal was found grazing the prairies on the east bank of the Mississippi, about latitude 45° 30´.

[255] Means under-ground drummer.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME.

Raccoon, Ais-e-bun (from ais, a shell, and bun, past tense), Procyon lotor. C. Hare, Wau-bose, Lepus Americanus. Gm. Polecat, She-kaug, Mephites putorius. Cu. Squirrel (red), Ad-je-dah-mo, Sciurus vulgaris. C. Squirrel (ground or striped), Ah-gwing-woos, Sciurus striatus. C. Squirrel (an apparently new species). Pouched Rat or Hamster, No-naw-pau-je-ne-ka-si, Mus busarius. Shaw. Weasel, Shin-gwoos, Mustela vulgaris. L. Mink, Shong-waish-ke, Mustela lutreola. C. Jerboa, called the Jumping Mouse,[256] Dipus. C. Eagle (bald), Mik-a-zi,[257] F. lucocephulus. L. Fork-tailed Hawk, Ca-niew, F. furcatus. L. Chicken Hawk, Cha-mees, F. communis. C. Pigeon Hawk, Pe-pe-ge-wa-zains, F. columbarius. Wilson. Raven, Kaw-gaw-ge, Corvus corax. L. Crow, On-daig, C. corone. L. Magpie, Wau-bish-kau-gau-gi (White Raven),[258] C. pica. L. Cormorant, Kau-kau-ge-sheeb (Raven-duck), P. carbe. Brin. Pelican, Shay-ta, P. onocrotalus. Illig. Goose, Wa-wa, An. anser. L. Brant, Ne-kuh, An. bernicla. Wilson. Duck (d. and m.), Shee-sheeb (a generic term), Anas. Duck (saw-bill), On-zig, A. tadorna. C. Duck (Red-head or Misquon-dib, A. rufus. Gm. Fall), Duck (alewives), Ah-ah-wa. Swan, Wau-bis-si, A. cygnus. C. Heron, Moosh-kow-e-si, Ardea. C. Plover, Tchwi-tchwish-ke-wa, Charadriûs. C. Turkey, Mis-is-sa, Meleagris. C. Blackbird, Os-sig-in-ok, The red-winged species. Rail, Muk-ud-a-pe-nais, Jay (blue), Dain-da-si,[259] Garrulus. C. Whippoorwill, Paish-kwa, Caprimulgas. L. Robin, O-pee-chi, T. migratorius. L.

[256] Found at Lapointe, Lake Superior.

[257] This is a generic term for the eagle family. It is believed the kanieu, or black eagle, is regarded by them as the head of the family. The feathers of the falco furcatus are highly valued by warriors.

[258] The meaning is white raven.

[259] The term is from dain-da, a bullfrog.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. Kingfisher, Me-je-ge-gwun-a, Alcedo. C. Pigeon, O-mee-mi, Columba emigratoria. Partridge, Pe-na,[260] Tetrao. C. Crane, Ad-je-jawk, Crane family. Gull, Ky-aushk, Gull family. Woodpecker, Ma-ma, Picus. C. Snipe, Pah-dus-kau-unzh-i, Scolipax. C. Owl, Ko-ko-ko-o,[261] } Generic terms for the Loon, Mong, } species. Mocking-bird (seen as far north as Michilimackinac), T. polyglotis. Wilson. Sturgeon, Na-ma, Acipenser. L. Sturgeon (paddle-nose), Ab-we-on-na-ma, Acipenser spatularia. C. White-fish, Ad-ik-um-aig[262] (means deer of the water). Salmon trout, Na-ma-gwoos, } Salmo. L. Trout (speckled), Na-zhe-ma-gwoos, } Carp, Nam-a-bin, Denotes the red fin. Catfish, Miz-zi, Silurus. C. Bass, O-gau. The striped species. Tulibee, O-dön-a-bee (wet-mouth). Eel, Pe-miz-zi (a specific term). A specific term. Snake, Ke-ná-bik (a generic), } Snake, A species supposed } Ophidia. C. peculiar, Turtle (lake), Mik-e-nok, } Turtle (small } Chelonia. C. land), Mis-qua-dais, }

[260] This is the prairie grouse of the West.

[261] The name is generic for the owl family.

[262] This term arises from adik, a reindeer, and gumaig, waters.

PHILOLOGICAL NOTE.--Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter are compounds, as in muk-wah (black animal), and wau-bose (white little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is from ais, a shell, and the term past tense of verbs in bun.

XIII.

Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, in 1820. By D. H. BARNES.

This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found in the pages of Silliman's American Journal of Science, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259.

XIV.

Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin, in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft. By ISAAC LEA, Member American Philosophical Society.

A description of these shells, in which several new species are established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of Philadelphia, in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c.

XV.

Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a species not heretofore described, and has been named sciurus tredecem striatus, or the federation squirrel. (A.)

The pouched rat, or mus busarius, has been seen but once in Europe. This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev. Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published in the 21st vol. of the Medical Repository, of New York, pp. 248, 249. The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the country. [B.]

The paddle-fish is the spatularia of Shaw, and polydon of Lacepede. It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete, is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully preserved in my collection.

The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious; but it is supposed to be opthiosaureus of Dandrige, corresponding to the anguis ventralis of Linnæus, figured by Catesby.

The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before, and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained in Mr. Say's Memoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of North America. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and finally be printed in Mr. Silliman's New Haven Journal. The species by which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten. (C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors.

S. L. MITCHELL. For GOV. CASS.

Notes.

(A.)

An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a sciurus, or arctomys.

(B.)

The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extended outwardly in drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to him, corrected this mistaken notion.

(C.)

By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate.

XVI.

Mus Busarius. Vide Medical Repository, vol. xxi. p. 248.

XVII.

Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. Medical Repository, vol. xxi.

XVIII.

Proteus. American Journal of Science, vol. iv.

6. METEOROLOGY.

XIX.

Memoranda of Climatic Phenomena and the Distribution of Solar Heat in 1820. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher view that these selections are made.

Observations made at Geneva, N. Y.

1820. 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. REMARKS.

April 20 64° 73° 60° Clear. " 21 62 74 61 Clear. " 22 65 78 66 Clear. " 23 60 69 59 Clear. " 24 59 70 61 Clear. " 25 54 64 55 Clear. " 26 55 67 54 Cloudy, with rain. " 27 50 60 51 Rainy. " 28 64 ... ... Clear.

Observations made at Buffalo, N. Y.

1820. 8 A.M. 2 P.M. REMARKS.

April 30 43° 60° Clear. May 1 49 64 Clear. " 2 45 63 Clear. " 3 44 65 Clear. " 4 46 79 Cloudy. " 5 40 68 Cloudy, with rain. " 6 44 ... Cloudy.

These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same.

Observations made at Detroit.

1820. 8 A.M. 12 M. 6 P.M. REMARKS. WIND.

May 15, 50° 61° 51° Fair. N. E. " 16, 49 62 50 Fair. N. E. " 17, 50 64 51 Fair. N. E. " 18, 52 64 60 Fair. N. E. " 19, 60 68 60 Fair. N. E. " 20, 64 68 63 Fair. N. E. " 21, 67 82 66 Fair. S. W. " 22, 64 88 82 Fair. S. W. " 23, 72 84 76 Cloudy, some rain W. N. W. " 24, 53 64 ... Cloudy. N. W.

The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees.

The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making eighty-nine days, it appears that

57 were fair, 12 cloudy, and 20 showery and rainy.

By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th of Feb. 1819, making 105 days,

40 of them are marked "clear," 40 "cloudy," 13 "clear and cloudy," and 12 "cloudy, with rain or snow."

By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was agreeable to the following statement:--

7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. Average. Lowest deg. Highest deg. Nov. 13 to 30, 41° 47° 41° 43° 31° 58° December, 22 29 25 25 2 50 January, 30 31 30 30 10 58 February, 29 39 31 33 8 58 Prevailing winds, S. W. and N. W.

Observations on Lake and River St. Clair, Michigan.

1820. 6 A.M. 8 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 6 P.M. 8 P.M. REMARKS. May 24, ... ... ... ... ... 51° " 25, 47° 56° 56° ... 46° ... Clear. Wind N. W. " 26, ... 52 53 56° 45 ... Clear. Wind N. W. " 27, ... 54 55 ... ... 44 Clear. Wind N. W.

Temperature of the Water of Lake and River St. Clair.

May 25, at 6 A. M., 49° at 12 M., 54° " 26, at 8 A. M., 55 at 2 P. M., 55 " 27, at 8 A. M., 54 at 12 M., 55 at 8 P. M., 50°

Observations on Lake Huron.

--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- May| 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |June 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 5 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 6 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 50°| 52 | 48 | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 8 A.M. |54° | 44 | 46 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 9 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| 57 | .. | .. | 51 | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 11 A.M.| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 12 M. |53° | .. | 53 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | 57 | 57 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 1 P.M. | .. | .. | .. |55° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 2 P.M. | .. | 70°| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 3 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 5 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49°| .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 6 P.M. | .. | 53°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 44| 46 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 7 P.M. | .. | .. | 48°| 48 | 54 | 50 | 47 | 45 | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 8 P.M. | 41°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- Average | 51°| 55 | 49 | 53 | 54 |52-½|52-½| 49 |49-½| 50-½ |51 6-10 temp. | | | | | | | | | | | --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- REMARKS.|[A] |[B] |[C] | | | | |[D] |[E] | [F] | [G] --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+--------

[Note A: Clear. Wind N. W.] [Note B: Clear in the morning; in the afternoon high wind from N. W. with thunder and lightening.] [Note C: Clear. Wind high; N. W.] [Note D: Cloudy, with rain. Winds strong; N. W.] [Note E: Flying clouds. Wind strong; N. W.] [Note F: Clear. Wind Strong; N. W.] [Note G: Average temperature]

Water at Lake Huron.

Average. May 28, at 5 A.M., 55° at 12 A.M., 58° at 7 P.M., 56° 56° " 29, at 7 A.M., 54 at 12 A.M., 60 at 7 P.M., 63 59 June 1, at 5 A.M., 42 at 11 A.M., 52 at 7 P.M., 44 40 " 3, at 6 A.M., 46 at 2 P.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 46 47 " 6, at 8 A.M., 50 at 12 A.M., 52 at 6 P.M., 49 50-½

Observations at Michilimackinac and on the Straits of St. Mary's.

------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- 1820.| 6 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 9 | | |A.M.|A.M.|A.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|Average.| WEATHER. ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- June 7|... |... | 59°|61° |... |... |59° |59-½° |Clear. " 8 |... |... | 59 |... |64° |... |59 |60 |Clear. " 9 |... |... | 53 |... |... |53° |... |52-½ |Cloudy with rain. " 10 |... |55° | ...|... |60 |... |54 |56 |Cloudy with rain. " 11 |... |52 | ...|... |54 |... |51 |52 |Clear. " 12 |... |54 | ...|55 |... |... |52 |53 |Clear. " 13 |53° |... | ...|63 |... |... |58 |58 |Fair. " 14 |55 |... | ...|73 |... |... |57 |61 |Cloudy. " 15 |... |66 | ...|... |68 |62 |... |65 |Clear. " 16 |... |52 | 70 |82 |... |66 |... |69 |Clear. " 17 |... |58 | ...|... |82 |... |78 |74 |Clear. " 18 |56 |... | ...|76 |... |... |68 |66 |Cloudy; rain. ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+-----------------

------+--------------- 1820. | WIND. ------+--------------- June 7| W. N. W. " 8 | W. N. W. " 9 | " 10 | W. " 11 | S. E. " 12 | S. E. " 13 | S. W. " 14 | S. W. " 15 | S. W. } " 16 | S. W. } St. " 17 | S. W. } Mary's " 18 | N. W. ------+---------------

The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes.

Observations on Lake Superior.

--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ 1820. | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ June 19 | .. | .. | 64 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 20 | .. | 72 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | | | | | | | | | " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | .. " 22 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 23 | .. | 65 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 58 | .. | .. | .. | 74 " 25 | .. | .. | .. | 60 | .. | .. | .. | 62 | .. " 26 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. | .. " 27 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 28 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 29 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 79 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 76 | .. | .. | 84 July 1 | 54 | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 2 | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | .. | .. " 3 | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | | | | | " 4 | .. | .. | .. | 57 | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------

--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ 1820. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ June 19 | 78 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | .. | .. " 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | 71 | .. | .. | | | | | | | | " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. " 22 | .. | .. | 63 | .. | .. | .. | 49 | .. " 23 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 | 63 | .. " 25 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 26 | .. | 83 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 " 27 | .. | 71 | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. " 28 | 91 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. " 29 | 94 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 86 | .. " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 July 1 | .. | 75 | .. | 80 | .. | 68 | .. | .. " 2 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | 65 " 3 | .. | .. | 66 | .. | .. | 52 | .. | 61 | | | | | | | | " 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------

--------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ 1820. | 9 | 10 | Average | REMARKS. | P.M. | P.M. | temp. | --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ June 19 | .. | .. | 70-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. " 20 | .. | .. | 71-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. | | | | Hurricane at night. " 21 | 50 | .. | 62 | Calm. " 22 | .. | .. | 55-½ | Clear. Wind light from N. W. " 23 | .. | 70 | 67-½ | Clear. Wind S. E. " 24 | .. | .. | 63 | Clear. High wind, N. W. " 25 | 53 | .. | 62-½ | Clear. Wind N. W. " 26 | .. | .. | 73 | Rainy. Wind W. N. W. " 27 | .. | .. | 69 | Clear. Wind E. N. E. (Fair!) " 28 | .. | .. | 79-½ | Sky clear. Wind N. W. " 29 | .. | .. | 88 | Clear. Wind N. W. " 30 | .. | .. | 73 | Clear. Wind N. W. July 1 | .. | .. | 67-½ | Misty. Wind light at N. N. W. " 2 | .. | .. | 70 | Clear. Wind W. S. W. " 3 | .. | .. | 65 | Cloudy, mist, and rain. Wind | | | | S. S. W. " 4 | .. | .. | | Wind S. S. W. --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------

Temperature of Lake Superior.

Lake average. June 20, at 6 P.M., 55° 55° " 21, at 10 A.M., 60 at 6 P.M., 56° at 9 P.M., 56° 57 " 22, at 6 A.M., 56 at 3 P.M., 54 55 " 23, at 5 A.M., 52 at 12 A.M., 56 at 10 P.M., 64 57 " 24, at 6 P.M., 54 at 7 P.M., 51 53 " 25, at 7 A.M., 67 at 11 A.M., 66 at 9 P.M., 68 60 " 26, at 9 A.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 57 56 " 27, at 8 A.M., 57 at 6 P.M., 62 60 " 28, at 8 A.M., Superior 62° at 6 P.M., Lake 72 } 67 Ontonagon 54 River 71 } " 29, at 8 A.M., Lake 64 61 River 68 at 1 P.M., River 76 at 7 P.M., 75° " 30, at 8 P.M., River 74 July 1, at 8 A.M., 61 at 2 P.M., 65 at 6 P.M., 66 64 " 2, at 4 A.M., 63 at 11 A.M., 64 at 2 P.M., 68 at 9 P.M., 62 64 " 3, at 6 A.M., 62 at 3 P.M., 60 at 9 P.M., 58 60 " 4, at 7 A.M., 58

It will be observed that the fluctuations of temperature noticed at lower points on the lake chain, about the latitude of Michilimackinac, have also characterized the entire length of Lake Superior. The atmosphere observed at three separate times, during twenty-four days, by Fahrenheit's thermometer, during the months of June and July, has varied from an average temperature of 62° to 88°, agreeable to masses of clouds interposed to the rays of the sun, and to shifting currents of wind, which have often suddenly intervened. Its waters, spreading for a length of five hundred miles from E. to W., observed during the same time by as many immersions of the instrument, has not varied more than two degrees below or above the average temperature of 55° in mere surface observations.

Observations on the Sources of the Mississippi River.

--------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- | 5 | 7 | 8 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 9 | A. M. | A. M. | A. M. | M. | P. M. | P. M. | P. M. --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- July 17 | ... | ... | ... | 76° | 80° | 79° | 78° " 18 | ... | ... | 51° | 64 | 66 | 53 | 50 " 19 | ... | ... | 46 | 63 | 70 | 55 | ... " 20 | ... | ... | 60 | 80 | 84 | 75 | ... " 21 | ... | ... | 68 | 86 | 88 | 85 | 74 " 22 | ... | ... | 73 | 88 | 90 | 77 | ... " 23 | ... | ... | 70 | 82 | 88 | 78 | ... " 24 | ... | ... | 74 | 87 | 80 | 78 | ... " 25 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 85 | 74 | ... " 26 | 61° | ... | ... | ... | 81 | 61 | ... " 27 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 80 | 75 | ... " 28 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 76 | 61 | ... " 29 | 50 | ... | ... | ... | 74 | 52 | ... " 30 | ... | 60° | ... | ... | 76 | ... | 63 " 31 | ... | 65 | ... | ... | 81 | ... | 69 Aug. 1 | ... | 67 | ... | ... | 83 | 70 | ... " 2 | ... | 72 | ... | ... | [263]| ... | ... --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+-------

--------+--------------------------------- | REMARKS. | --------+--------------------------------- July 17 | Morning rainy, then fair. " 18 | Fair. " 19 | Night rainy, morning cloudy, | then fair. " 20 | " 21 | " 22 | Cloudy, some thunder. " 23 | Night and morning rain, | afternoon thunder. " 24 | Fair. " 25 | Fair. " 26 | Morning fair, evening cloudy | and rain, clear. " 27 | Morning fair, evening fair. " 28 | Morning fair, rain in afternoon. " 29 | Clear. " 30 | Wind N. W., weather clear. " 31 | Wind W., weather clear. Aug. 1 | Fair. " 2 | Fair. --------+---------------------------------

[263] Broke instrument.

Observations at St. Peter's (now Minnesota).

1820. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9. A.M. WINDS. WEATHER. July 15, 61° 79° 64° S. Clear; fair. " 16, 62 82 76 S. Clear; rain towards morning. " 17, 70 88 61 W. Cloudy; rain, thunder and lightning. " 18, 58 78 56 E. Clear. " 19, 59 80 64 S. Cloudy; rain P.M. " 20, 68 80 65 S. Clear. " 21, 69 84 72 S. Clear. " 22, 75 88 72 W. Clear; cloudy P.M., rain, thunder and lightning during the night. " 23, 73 86 70 W. Clear, cloudy; rain and fair weather alternately. " 24, 70 89 72 W. Clear; calms. " 25, 70 80 66 W. Clear; high winds at night. " 26, 68 82 64 W. Clear; calm. " 27, 72 78 62 W. Clear. " 28, 67 75 58 S. E. Clear; fresh winds. " 29, 60 71 54 N. E. Clear. " 30, 60 76 63 N. W. Clear. " 31, 65 81 69 W. Clear.

Meteorological Journal kept at Chicago by Dr. A. Wolcott.

1820. Daylight. 9 A. M. 2 P. M. 9 P. M. WIND. WEATHER. Jan. 1, 4° 11° 10° 0° W. N. W. Cloudy; light snow; first ice in the river, 14 inches thick; none in the lake. " 2, 10 14 25 12 W. N. W. Clear. " 3, 4 9 13 14 W. S. W. Clear. " 4, 9 14 19 9 W. Clear. " 5, 9 5 4 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 6, 11 4 15 28 S. S. W. Clear. " 7, 36 36 39 36 S. W. Cloudy. " 8, 32 32 34 33 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 9, 32 33 36 34 N. E. Cloudy. " 10, 32 31 31 25 N. E. Snow-storm. " 11, 14 14 16 2 N. Clear. " 12, 17 15 2 12 S. S. W. Clear. " 13, 20 24 25 12 W. S. W. Clear. " 14, 14 15 15 15 N. Snow-squalls. " 15, 12 14 15 10 N. N. W. Clear; lake covered with moving ice, as far as the eye can see. " 16, 20 20 21 21 E. N. E. Snow-storm. " 17, 14 14 25 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 18, 14 18 15 6 W. Cloudy. " 19, 10 0 10 2 W. N. W. Clear. " 20, 6 12 25 13 W. Clear. " 21, 20 22 26 28 E. N. E. Snow-storm. " 22, 7 11 12 5 N. W. Clear. " 23, 20 4 0 3 W. Clear. " 24, 2 6 18 16 W. Clear. " 25, 4 3 9 7 W. Clear. " 26, 16 19 26 28 E. S. E. Snow-storm. " 27, 18 21 25 8 S. W. Cloudy. " 28, 8 1 11 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 29, 12 20 31 18 W. Cloudy; ice 18 inches on river. " 30, 6 6 4 5 W. Clear. " 31, 6 5 3 17 W. N. W. Clear; snow 22 inches deep. Feb. 1, 12 0 14 16 S. E. Cloudy. " 2, 22 25 29 20 E. N. E. Snow-storm; ice 18-¾ inches on river. " 3, 10 7 9 7 W. Clear. " 4, 0 5 25 24 E. S. E. Clear. " 5, 30 36 40 40 S. W. Clear. " 6, 11 12 32 24 S. Clear. " 7, 28 33 42 30 W. S. W. Clear. " 8, 30 34 40 32 E. Cloudy and mist; snow during the night fell six inches. " 9, 30 34 34 31 E. Clear. Feb. 10, 31 32 39 32 E. Cloudy. " 11, 28 32 38 34 S. Clear. " 12, 32 39 34 20 N. E. Cloudy. " 13, 12 22 39 32 W. S. W. Clear. " 14, 34 39 37 36 E. Cloudy; some rain with thunder. " 15, 36 38 39 36 E. Cloudy; some rain with thunder. " 16, 38 42 47 33 S. W. Clear. " 17, 27 27 28 22 W. Light clouds. " 18, 10 22 28 30 E. Cloudy. " 19, 32 36 46 24 W. Clear. " 20, 15 22 24 16 W. Clear. " 21, 8 20 37 38 S. W. Clear. " 22, 34 40 45 32 W. Clear. " 23, 28 37 46 36 S. W. Cloudy; rain and hail with thunder. " 24, 30 33 40 39 E. Clear. " 25, 44 50 59 54 S. W. Clear. " 26, 50 49 38 36 S. W. Cloudy; tempest of wind with flurries of rain and hail. " 27, 30 31 34 28 W. N. W. Clear. " 28, 20 28 30 39 S. E. Clear. " 29, 28 36 50 37 S. W. Clear. Mar. 1, 32 35 36 18 N. N. W. Clear. " 2, 8 15 25 20 N. N. W. Clear. " 3, 26 30 36 22 W. N. W. Cloudy. " 4, 19 28 42 36 S. W. Clear. " 5, 30 32 36 23 N. E. Cloudy. " 6, 13 19 25 14 N. N. W. Clear. " 7, 16 17 24 18 E. N. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 8, 17 24 23 21 N. E. Cloudy. " 9, 22 24 26 23 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 10, 24 26 31 24 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 11, 22 24 29 31 E. N. E. Cloudy. " 12, 28 32 33 32 E. S. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 13, 32 37 39 34 E. N. E. Cloudy. " 14, 32 36 36 33 E. N. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 15, 26 32 ... ...

Agreeable to a register kept at Council Bluffs during the month of January, 1820, the highest and lowest temperature at that place were, respectively, 36° and 22°, the month giving a mean of 17.89. Compared with the observed temperature, for the same month, at the following positions in the United States, both east and west of the Alleghanies, the Missouri Valley reveals the fact of its being adapted to the purposes of a profitable agriculture.[264]

[264] In Europe, the mean annual temperature necessary for the production of certain plants is--

For the sugar-cane 67° " coffee 64 " orange 63 " olive 54 " vine (vitis vinifera) 51

Mean temperature Highest. Lowest. of the month. Council Bluffs 17.89° 36° 22° Wooster 16.69 36 zero Zanesville 25.34 42 zero Marietta 28.42 45 zero Chillicothe 32.48 48 10 Cincinnati 28.76 46 11 Jeffersonville 23.05 50 6 Shawneetown 32.91 52 8 Huntsville 36.43 62 12 Tuscaloosa 46.63 74 17 Cahaba 65.87 73 54 Ouachita 34.16 68 10 New Orleans 52.16 78 25 Portsmouth, N. H. 19.31 40 4[265] Washington City 29.19 45 4

Council Bluffs, lat. 41° 45´, long. 19° 50´ W. of the capitol. New Orleans, " 29 57 " 12 53 W. " Portsmouth, " 43 05 " 6 10 E. " Difference of lat. 13° 48´. Difference of long. 26°.

[265] Below zero.

Nor does it appear that the same quantity of snow falls in the Missouri Valley which is common east of the Alleghany Mountains. At the Council Bluffs, on the last of January, snow was but twelve inches deep; at the same period, it was three feet or more throughout the Eastern States.

A snow-storm fell over the middle and eastern latitudes of the United States, for the first time, during the autumn of the year (1820), in the first half of November. As a precursor to this, slight drifts and gusts of snow had showed themselves at Albany on the 25th, 26th, and 28th of October.[266]

[266] Meteorological journal kept at the Albany Academy for October, 1820.

"MONTREAL, CANADA, October 28, 1820.--On Wednesday last we had the first fall of snow this season. It commenced in the forenoon, and continued slightly during the remainder of the day. Although expected to disappear, the frosts in the nights have been pretty severe, and a considerable quantity still remains (Saturday) at the moment we are writing."

"SALEM, N. Y. October 31.--On Saturday last (27th), we had our first snow for the season. It fell during most of the forenoon, and for an hour or two the atmosphere was quite filled with it. Some cool and shaded spots still remain whitened, though yesterday was one of our pleasant autumnal days, with a mild west wind."

Early Sleighing.--The Burlington (Vt.) Sentinel of the 27th ult. says: "On Tuesday night and Wednesday, the snow fell in this place about eight inches deep on the level. It is said to be twelve inches deep in some of the adjoining towns."--October, 1820.

At Philadelphia, it began on Saturday, 11th (morning), snow-storm from the east, and continued all day. At night a hurricane, accompanied by torrents of rain and snow, which did not subside until the 12th in the morning. Weather unsettled on the 13th.

At Worcester, a severe snow-storm, from northeast, on the 11th and 12th. On the 13th, snow was ten inches deep, the weather cold, and sleighing good.

Snow in Poughkeepsie fell twelve inches deep, and produced excellent sleighing.

At New Haven (Conn.), it began with snow, hail, and rain, on Saturday evening, 11th. The day before was wintery cold. The storm continued, without intermission, till Monday, 13th.

At Boston, it also began on Saturday, 11th, from the northeast, and fell six inches. On Sunday, rain and snow. Monday cold, and indifferent sleighing in the streets.--Boston paper, Nov. 14th.

In Vernon, Oneida County, it began on the 11th, in the evening, and continued, in all, till Monday, 13th, giving us snow, rain, hail, and wind, alternately. On the 15th, the snow, which lay six inches deep, began to thaw, and this was the beginning of our Indian summer.

The Buffalo papers, of November 14th, say that several vessels were lost in the gale and snow-storm, or driven ashore. The storm closed up on the 13th, at New York City; the wind at northwest, and very cold. The rain, snow, and hail which had fallen gave good sleighing a part of that day. These notices cover an area of about five hundred miles square, proving, the universality of our autumnal phenomena.

Indian Summer.

This season appears to be produced by the settling of a thin azure vapor. It is supposed to arise from the partial decomposition of the foliage of the forest after the autumnal rains are past. "What is called the Indian summer," says an observer at Albany, "usually gives us fifteen or twenty days of uncommonly pleasant fall weather, commencing in the early part of October. The present season it set in as usual, and we had a week or ten days of very fine weather, when a northeast storm commenced, and continued for part of two days; within which time more rain is supposed to have fallen than during the whole of the preceding summer and fall. Most of the streams and springs were filled, and the Hudson River, in many places, overflowed its banks. It however again cleared off pleasant, and remained so till Tuesday evening, when another storm of rain commenced, which continued the whole night. In the morning, there was some fall of hail accompanying the rain, and about 8 o'clock a slight flurry of snow, and another on Thursday evening; since which the weather has set in cold, and has the appearance of the closing in of fall or the setting in of winter. We however expect to put off winter and cold weather for some time yet, and anticipate many pleasant days in November."

Indian summer, in Oneida, commenced on the 15th November. The weather had previously been cold, with snow and rain and a murky atmosphere.

Wednesday, Nov. 15. The snow, which lay six inches deep, began to thaw, and the sky was clear and sunny. Thursday, " 16. Was a clear and pleasant day throughout; snow continued to melt. Friday, " 17. The same, and smoky; warm sunshine; not a cloud to be seen; snow melts. Saturday, " 18. The same. Sunday, " 19. The same; full moon; cloudy, with wind in the evening; snow gone. Monday, " 20. The same; sky clear and warm. Tuesday, " 21. Weather cloudy; wind S. E.; prepares for a change; a little snow during the previous night, but melts from the roofs this morning; no sun appears. Wednesday, " 22. Cloudy, dull morning; rain afternoon; sun appeared a few moments about 4 P. M. Thursday, " 23. Cloudy, with alternate sunshine and rain. Friday, " 24. Clear and pleasant. Saturday, " 25. Clear and pleasant.

Dr. Freeman, of Boston, in one of his occasional sermons, employs the following poetic language in relation to this American phenomenon:--

"The southwest is the pleasantest wind which blows in New England. In the month of October, in particular, after the frosts which commonly take place at the end of September, it frequently produces two or three weeks of fair weather, in which the air is perfectly transparent, and clouds, which float in a sky of the purest azure, are adorned with brilliant colors. If at this season a man of an affectionate heart and ardent imagination should visit the tombs of his friends, the southwestern breezes, as they breathe through the glowing trees, would seem to him almost articulate. Though he might not be so wrapped in enthusiasm as to fancy that the spirits of his ancestors were whispering in his ear, yet he would at least imagine that he heard 'the still small voice' of God. This charming season is called the Indian Summer, a name which is derived from the natives, who believe that it is caused by a wind which comes immediately from the court of their great and benevolent God Cantantowan, or the Southwestern God; the God who is superior to all other beings, who sends them every blessing which they enjoy, and to whom the souls of their fathers go after their decease."

7. INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, OR PICTURE WRITING, LANGUAGES, AND HISTORY.

XX.

Pictographic Mode of Communicating Ideas among the Northwestern Indians, observed during the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820, in a Letter to the Secretary of War. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

DETROIT, February 2, 1821.

SIR: An incident occurred upon my recent tour to the Northwest, so rare in itself, and which so clearly shows the facility with which communications may be opened between savage nations, without the intervention of letters, that I have thought it not improper to communicate it to you.

The Chippewas and Sioux are hereditary enemies, and Charlevoix says they were at war when the French first reached the Mississippi. I endeavored, when among them, to learn the cause which first excited them to war, and the time when it commenced. But they can give no rational account. An intelligent Chippewa chief informed me that the disputed boundary between them was a subject of little importance, and that the question respecting it could be easily adjusted. He appeared to think that they fought because their fathers fought before them. This war has been waged with various success, and, in its prosecution, instances of courage and self-devotion have occurred, within a few years, which would not have disgraced the pages of Grecian or of Roman history. Some years since, mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of both nations met and agreed upon a truce. But the Sioux, disregarding the solemn compact which they had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulse, attacked the Chippewas, and murdered a number of them. The old Chippewa chief who descended the Mississippi with us was present upon this occasion, and his life was saved by the intrepidity and generous self-devotion of a Sioux chief. This man entreated, remonstrated, and threatened. He urged his countrymen, by every motive, to abstain from any violation of their faith, and, when he found his remonstrances useless, he attached himself to this Chippewa chief, and avowed his determination of saving or perishing with him. Awed by his intrepidity, the Sioux finally agreed that he should ransom the Chippewa, and he accordingly applied to this object all the property he owned. He then accompanied the Chippewa on his journey until he considered him safe from any parties of the Sioux who might be disposed to follow him.

I subjoin an extract from the journal of Mr. Doty, an intelligent young gentleman who was with the expedition. This extract has already been published, but it may have escaped your observation, and the incident which it describes is so heroic in itself, and so illustrative of the Indian character, that I cannot resist the temptation of transmitting it to you.

EXTRACT FROM MR. DOTY'S JOURNAL.--"The Indians of the upper country consider those of the Fond du Lac as very stupid and dull, being but little given to war. They count the Sioux their enemies, but have heretofore made few war excursions.

"Having been frequently reprimanded by some of the more vigilant Indians of the north, and charged with cowardice, and an utter disregard for the event of the war, thirteen men of this tribe, last season, determined to retrieve the character of their nation by making an excursion against the Sioux. Accordingly, without consulting the other Indians, they secretly departed, and penetrated far into the Sioux country. Unexpectedly, at night, they came upon a party of the Sioux, amounting to near one hundred men, and immediately began to prepare for battle. They encamped a short distance from the Sioux, and, during the night, dug holes in the ground into which they might retreat and fight to the last extremity. They appointed one of their number (the youngest) to take a station at a distance and witness the struggle, and instructed him, when they were all slain, to make his escape to their own land, and state the circumstances under which they had fallen.

"Early in the morning, they attacked the Sioux in their camp, who, immediately sallying out upon them, forced them back to the last place of retreat they had resolved upon. They fought desperately. More than twice their own number were killed before they lost their lives. Eight of them were tomahawked in the holes to which they had retreated; the other four fell on the field! The THIRTEENTH returned home, according to the directions be had received, and related the foregoing circumstances to his tribe. They mourned their death; but, delighted with the bravery of their friends, unexampled in modern times, they were happy in their grief.

"This account I received of the very Indian who was of the party and had escaped."

The Sioux are much more numerous than the Chippewas, and would have overpowered them long since had the operations of the former been consentaneous. But they are divided into so many different bands, and are scattered over such an extensive country, that their efforts have no regular combination.

Believing it equally consistent with humanity and sound policy that these border contests should not be suffered to continue; satisfied that you would approve of any plan of pacification which might be adopted, and feeling that the Indians have a full portion of moral and physical evils, without adding to them the calamities of a war which had no definite object, and no probable termination; on our arrival at Sandy Lake, I proposed to the Chippewa chiefs that a deputation should accompany us to the mouth of the St. Peter's, with a view to establish a permanent peace between them and the Sioux. The Chippewas readily acceded to this proposition, and ten of their principal men descended the Mississippi with us.

The computed distance from Sandy Lake to the St. Peter's is six hundred miles, and, as I have already had the honor to inform you, a considerable proportion of the country has been the theatre of hostile enterprises. The Mississippi here traverses the immense plains which extend to the Missouri, and which present to the eye a spectacle at once interesting and fatiguing. Scarcely the slightest variation in the surface occurs, and they are entirely destitute of timber. In this debatable land, the game is very abundant; buffaloes, elks, and deer range unharmed, and unconscious of harm. The mutual hostilities of the Chippewas and Sioux render it dangerous for either, unless in strong parties, to visit this portion of the country. The consequence has been a great increase of all the animals whose flesh is used for food, or whose fur is valuable for market. We found herds of buffaloes quietly feeding upon the plains. There is little difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to kill them. With an eagerness which is natural to all hunters, and with an improvidence which always attends these excursions, the animal is frequently killed without any necessity, and no other part of them is preserved but the tongue.

There is something extremely novel and interesting in this pursuit. The immense plains, extending as far as the eye can reach, are spotted here and there with droves of buffaloes. The distance and the absence of known objects render it difficult to estimate the size or the number of these animals. The hunters approach cautiously, keeping to the leeward, lest the buffaloes, whose scent is very acute, should observe them. The moment a gun is fired, the buffaloes scatter and scour the field in every direction. Unwieldy as they appear, they move with considerable celerity. It is difficult to divert them from their course, and the attempt is always hazardous. One of our party barely escaped with his life from this act of temerity. The hunters, who are stationed upon different parts of the plain, fire as the animals pass them. The repeated discharge of guns in every direction, the shouts of those who are engaged in the pursuit, and the sight of the buffaloes at full speed on every side, give an animation to the scene which is rarely equalled.

The droves which we saw were comparatively small. Some of the party whom we found at St. Peter's, and who arrived at that place by land from the Council Bluffs, estimated one of the droves which they saw to contain two thousand buffaloes.

As we approached this part of the country, our Chippewa friends became cautious and observing. The flag of the United States was flying upon all our canoes, and, thanks to the character which our country acquired by the events of the last war, I found in our progress through the whole Indian country, after we had once left the great line of communication, that this flag was a passport which rendered our journey safe. We consequently felt assured that no wandering party of the Sioux would attack even their enemies, while under our protection. But the Chippewas could not appreciate the influence which the American flag would have upon other nations, nor is it probable that they estimated with much accuracy the motives which induced us to assume the character of an umpire.

The Chippewas landed occasionally to examine whether any of the Sioux had recently visited that quarter. In one of these excursions, a Chippewa found in a conspicuous place, a piece of birch bark, made flat by being fastened between two sticks at each end, and about eighteen inches long by fifteen broad. This bark contained the answer of the Sioux nation to the proposition which had been made by the Chippewas for the termination of hostilities. So sanguinary has been the contest between these tribes, that no personal communication could take place. Neither the sanctity of the office, nor the importance of the message, could protect the ambassadors of either party from the vengeance of each other. Some time preceding, the Chippewas, anxious for the restoration of peace, had sent a number of their young men into these plains with a similar piece of bark, upon which they had represented their desire. The bark had been left hanging to a tree in an exposed situation, and had been found and taken away by a party of the Sioux.

The propositions had been examined and discussed in the Sioux villages, and the bark which we found contained their answer. The Chippewa who had prepared the bark for his tribe was with us, and on our arrival at St. Peter's, finding it was lost, I requested him to make another. He did so, and produced what I have no doubt was a perfect fac-simile. We brought with us both of these projets, and they are now in the hands of Capt. Douglass. He will be able to give a more intelligible description of them than I can from recollection, and they could not be in the possession of one more competent to the task.

The Chippewas explained to us with great facility the intention of the Sioux, and apparently with as much readiness as if some common character had been established between them.

The junction of the St. Peter's with the Mississippi, where a principal part of the Sioux reside, was represented, and also the American fort, with a sentinel on duty, and the flag flying. The principal Sioux chief is named the Six, alluding, I believe, to the bands or villages under his influence. To show that he was not present at the deliberations upon the subject of peace, he was represented upon a smaller piece of bark, which was attached to the other. To identify him, he was drawn with six heads and a large medal. Another Sioux chief stood in the foreground, holding the pipe of peace in his right hand, and his weapons in his left. Even we could not misunderstand that. Like our own eagle with the olive-branch and arrows, he was desirous of peace, but prepared for war.

The Sioux party contained fifty-nine warriors, and this number was indicated by fifty-nine guns, which were drawn upon one corner of the bark. The only subject which occasioned any difficulty in the interpretation of the Chippewas, was owing to an incident, of which they were ignorant. The encampment of our troops had been removed from the low grounds upon the St. Peter's, to a high hill upon the Mississippi; two forts were therefore drawn upon the bark, and the solution of this enigma could not be discovered till our arrival at St. Peter's.

The effect of the discovery of this bark upon the minds of the Chippewas was visible and immediate. Their doubts and apprehensions appeared to be removed, and during the residue of the journey, their conduct and feelings were completely changed.

The Chippewa bark was drawn in the same general manner, and Sandy Lake, the principal place of their residence, was represented with much accuracy. To remove any doubt respecting it, a view was given of the old northwest establishment, situated upon its shore, and now in the possession of the American Fur Company. No proportion was preserved in their attempt at delineation. One mile of the Mississippi, including the mouth of the St. Peter's, occupied as much space as the whole distance to Sandy Lake; nor was there anything to show that one part was nearer to the spectator than another; yet the object of each party was completely obtained. Speaking languages radically different from each, for the Sioux constitute one of three grand divisions into which the early French writers have arranged the aborigines of our country, while the Chippewas are a branch of what they call Algonquins, and without any conventional character established between them, these tribes thus opened a communication upon the most important subject which could occupy their attention. Propositions leading to a peace were made and accepted, and the simplicity of the mode could only be equalled by the distinctness of the representations, and by the ease with which they were understood.

An incident like this, of rare occurrence at this day, and throwing some light upon the mode of communication before the invention of letters, I thought it not improper to communicate to you. It is only necessary to add, that on our arrival at St. Peter's, we found Col. Leavenworth had been as attentive and indefatigable upon this subject, as upon every other which fell within the sphere of his command.

During the preceding winter, he had visited a tribe of the Chippewas upon this pacific mission, and had, with the aid of the agent, Mr. Talliafero, prepared the minds of both tribes for a permanent peace. The Sioux and Chippewas met in council, at which we all attended, and smoked the pipe of peace together. They then, as they say in their figurative language, buried the tomahawk so deep that it could never be dug up again, and our Chippeway friends departed well satisfied with the result of their mission.

I trust that Mr. Bolvin, the agent at Prairie du Chien, has been able before this to communicate to you a successful account of the negotiation which I instructed him to open between the Sacs and Foxes, forming one party, and the Sioux. Hostilities were carried on between these tribes, which, I presume, he has been able to terminate.

We discovered a remarkable coincidence, as well in the sound as in the application, between a word in the Sioux language and one in our own. The circumstance is so singular that I deem it worthy of notice. The Sioux call the Falls of St. Anthony HA HA, and the pronunciation is in every respect similar to the same words in the English language. I could not learn that this word was used for any other purpose, and I believe it is confined in its application to that place alone.[267] The traveller in ascending the Mississippi turns a projecting point, and these falls suddenly appear before him at a short distance. Every man, savage or civilized, must be struck with the magnificent spectacle which opens to his view. There is an assemblage of objects which, added to the solitary grandeur of the scene, to the height of the cataract, and to the eternal roar of its waters, inspire the spectator with awe and admiration.

[267] Iha ha [iha-ikiha] are words given as equivalent to laugh, v. in Riggs's Dictionary of the Dakota language, published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1852. Ihapi, n., is laughter. The letter h, with a dot, represents a strong guttural, resembling the Arabic Kha. Iha, by the same authority, is the lips or cover to anything; it is also an adverb of doubt. The vowel i has the sound of i in marine, or e in me.

In his Anecdotes of Painting, it is stated by Horace Walpole, that "on the invention of fosses for boundaries, the common people called them Ha Ha's! to express their surprise on finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk." I believe the word is yet used in this manner in England. It is certainly not a little remarkable that the same word should be thus applied by one of the most civilized and by one of the most barbarous people, to objects which, although not the same, were yet calculated to excite the admiration of the observer.

Nothing can show more clearly how fallacious are those deductions of comparative etymology, which are founded upon a few words carefully gleaned here and there from languages having no common origin, and which are used by people who have neither connection nor intercourse. The common descent of two nations can never be traced by the accidental consonance of a few syllables or words, and the attempt must lead us into the regions of fancy.

The Sioux language is probably one of the most barren which is spoken by any of our aboriginal tribes. Colonel Leavenworth, who made considerable proficiency in it, calculated, I believe, that the number of words did not exceed one thousand. They use more gestures in their conversation than any Indians I have seen, and this is a necessary result of the poverty of their language.

I am well aware, that the subject of this letter is not within the ordinary sphere of official communications. But I rely for your indulgence upon the interest which you have shown to procure and disseminate a full knowledge of every subject connected with the internal condition of our country.

I am preparing a memoir upon the present state of the Indians, agreeably to the intimation in my letter of September last. I shall finish and transmit it to you as soon as my other duties will permit.

Very respectfully, sir, I have, &c., LEWIS CASS.

Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, Secretary of War.

XXI.

Inquiries respecting the History of the Indians of the United States.

By LEWIS CASS.

These queries were published at Detroit in separate pamphlets, about the era of 1822, and communicated to persons in the Indian country supposed to be capable of furnishing the desired information. The results became the topic of several critical disquisitions, which appeared in the pages of the North American Review in 1825 and 1826; disquisitions the spirit and tone of which created, as the reader who is posted up on the topic will remember, a sensation among philological and philosophical readers.

Whether we are most to admire the bold tone of inquiry assumed by Gen. Cass, the acumen displayed in the discussions, the eloquence of the language, or the general soundness of the positions taken, is the only question left for decision. Certainly, nobody can arise from the perusal of these papers without becoming wiser or better informed on the subjects discussed. The mere luxury of high-toned and eloquent language is a gratification to the inquirer. But he cannot close these investigations into a subject of deep historical and philological interest without feeling established in the principles of historic truth, or warmed in his literary ardor.

Prominent among the topics of the initial discussion, was the work of John Dunn Hunter, a singular adventurer in the Indian country, or, perhaps, an early captive, who, after wandering to the Atlantic cities, where his harmless inefficiency of character gained no favorable attention, found his way to London, where the booksellers concocted a book of travels from him, in which the United States is unscrupulously traduced for its treatment of the Indians. The scathing which this person and his book received arises from its having fallen in the way of the business journeys of the critic to visit some of the principal scenes referred to; and among others, the residence of John Dunn, of Missouri, after whom he professed to be named, who utterly denied all knowledge of the man or of his purported adventures.

The question of the authenticity of the Indian traditions of Mr. Heckewelder, derived from a single tribe, and that tribe telling stories to salve up its own disastrous history, and the mere literary capacities of the man to put his materials in order, is propounded and examined in connection with the contemporary traditions and languages of other tribes. These traditions had been communicated to the Pennsylvania Historical Society, in 1816, and were published under the special auspices of Mr. Duponceau, in 1819. From the internal evidence of the letters themselves, the critic pronounces them to be reproductions of Mr. Duponceau himself; and it is an evidence of the aptness of this deduction to be told that Mr. Gallatin admitted (vide my Personal Memoirs, p. 623), that the letters of Mr. Heckewelder had all been rewritten previous to publication. It could no longer be a subject of admiration to philologists, that from such imperfect sources of information, that distinguished scholar should have pronounced the opinion that the Delaware language rather exceeds than falls short of the Greek and Latin in the affluence of syntactical forms and capacities of expression. Trans. Hist. and Lit. Com., Am. Philo. Soc., vol. i. p. 415.

XXII.

A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Race of America, and the Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas; addressed to John Johnston, Esq., late of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan. By Dr. J. MCDONNELL, of Belfast, Ireland.

BELFAST, April 16, 1817.

MY DEAR J.: I feel always as if I am guilty of some great crime, in not writing to you.

An account came to Sir Joseph Banks, of very curious rocks, with odd stripes and colors, having been seen, this last war, by sailors on the lakes, I think on Lake Superior.[268] Pray keep up your thoughts to the geography of rocks. I got some lately from Bombay, exactly ditto with our Causeway.[269]

[268] Most probably this idea arose from the very marked precipices of the coast denominated Pictured Rocks.

H. R. S.

[269] The Giant's Causeway, on the Coast of Antrim.

I shall ever regret the not having seen your daughter. I think it likely that mingling the European blood and character with the Indian might bring out some superior traits of character. Lest my letter should altogether fail of presenting any useful point, I must put some questions to you that would be worth something if answered.

A man has published, in 1816, an octavo volume in Trenton (United States), the author's name Boudinot, to explain some things about the Indian nations, and, among other things, he fancies some resemblance between their languages and Hebrew. Baron Von Humboldt, a Prussian, was in Spanish America lately, and he found the natives had Hebrew opinions and usages, evidently things borrowed from Jewish doctrines. I don't want you to inquire much about their being of this extraction, but observe, for me, whether their languages have no pronouns, as one author, Colden, stated fifty years ago; and whether they are defective in the prepositions, as this Boudinot states; and whether those near you have any words, idioms, or traditions that are expressive of their early origin, or their connection with European nations.

In fact, I think you are better circumstanced, in most respects, than any other man that I ever heard of, to do something worth notice in that way; for, although you have not books, nor knowledge of many tongues, yet you could collect lists of great and radical words, expressed with proper letters, so that others could compare those words with Asiatic, and African, and European tongues, so as to enable mankind to judge of similitudes or dissimilitudes.

The words most apt to pervade different nations, and to pass from one people to another, are articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions; next to these, numerals; next to these, whatever terms are expressive of striking, useful, hurtful, or very clear and definite objects and ideas; for, if the conceptions we have of things be not very definite, clear, and distinct, the idea and the word are not likely to float down the stream of time together, they will be jostled and separated. Be very careful in spelling the Indian words; spell them in different ways, where our letters don't square exactly with their sounds. Take notice of their musical tones, and whether these tones get in, as essential parts, into their speech; and, above all, remember that a word is a thing, and that it may be examined as a record, or considered like a coin or medal, as well as if it had the stamp of a king or mint upon it.

I will write more if this vessel does not sail to-day. God bless you and yours, and believe me, in haste, your affectionate cousin.

J. McDONNELL.

XXIII.

Difficulties of Studying the Indian Tongues of the United States. By Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr.

Dr. Wolcott will be remembered by the early inhabitants of Chicago, when that place was still a military post and the site of an Indian agency, the latter of which trusts he filled. In 1820, the Pottowattomie tribe of Indians and their confederates--the Illinois--Chippewas, and Ottowas--possessed the whole surrounding regions, roving as lords of the prairies. These numerous and fierce hunter-tribes, who traded their peltries for fineries, had many horses, loved rum and fine clothes, and despised all restraints, came in to him, at his agency, as the mouthpiece of the President, to transact their affairs, and they often lingered for days and weeks around the place, which gave him a good opportunity of becoming familiar with their manners, customs, and history.

Dr. Wolcott was a man of education, of high morals, dignified manners, and noble sentiments, with decidedly saturnine feelings, and a keen perception of the ridiculous. Constitutionally averse to much or labored personal effort, his leisure hours, in this seclusion from society, were hours devoted to reading and social converse, and his attention was appropriately called by Gen. Cass to the "Inquiries," No. 21, above referred to. The reply which he at length communicated was written in so happy a vein, that I obtained permission to publish the substance of it, in 1824, in my Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley, p. 381. It declares an important truth, which all must concur in, who have attempted the study of the Indian languages, for they are required to perform the prior labor of ascertaining and generalizing the principles of their accidence and concord. When I first came to St. Mary's, in 1822, and began the study of the Chippewa, I asked in vain the simple question how the plural was formed. It was formed, in truth, in twelve different ways, agreeably to the vowels of terminal syllables; but this could not be declared until quires of paper had been written over, the whole vocabulary explored, and days and nights devoted to it. My first interpreter could not tell a verb from a noun, and was incapable of translating the simplest sentence literally. Besides his ignorance, he was so great a liar that I never knew when to believe him. He sometimes told the Indians the reverse of what I said, and often told me the reverse of what they said.

XXIV.

Examination of the Elementary Structure of the Algonquin Language as it appears in the Chippewa Tongue. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

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