The Theory and Practice of Handwriting

Front matter

THE

THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF

Preface

The distinguished professor of Anatomy in the University of Vienna, Dr. Toldt, has declared that “The question of Instruction in Writing should occupy the first place, as the teaching of that subject is attended with so great danger to Spinal curvature, Breathing and digestive Disturbances, Myopia, or Shortsight.” And the no less distinguished oculist, Professor Dr. Hermann Cohn, has publicly stated that “Vertical writing is the writing of the future.”

Realising the force of these official statements the Author has the more confidence in submitting to the Profession and Public a manual the chief object of which is to afford information on all the vital and important questions that modern research in the Art and Science of Handwriting has brought to the front. Hitherto Caligraphy has been considered exclusively as an art (witness the works and specimens of plain and ornamental penmanship extant up to a most recent date) but the latest investigations (both Medical and Educational) exhibit it to us as a Science.

Writing is undoubtedly one of the principal and most essential subjects taught in our Schools, but there is no text-book on the question which professes to be a work of reference and certainly none that deals “in extenso” with the topics which for some years past have so deeply agitated Medical (and to a smaller extent Educational) circles both at home and abroad. A glance at the list in Chapter XIII. will show how popularly and superficially the subject of Handwriting has been generally approached and the necessity for a production which shall give side by side the several arguments which have been adduced in favour of and in opposition to the theories propounded. Such vital matters as the relation of writing to Hygiene; the substitution of Upright Pen for sloping writing; the universal adoption of Headline Copy Books; the position of the Copy Book with reference to the writer:–these and other topics of a like nature have received lengthy treatment, as on the decision in each case serious issues depend. The first object has been to find out we ought to teach and the second . It is a very common delusion that can write” and the notion is most prevalent amongst Secondary School teachers many of whom give the subject hardly a place in their Routine or Curriculum. It is an equally deplorable fact that hardly anybody write either as he might or as he should, and yet the efficient and successful teaching of writing in a school is frequently the most potent factor in its success. With parents (who constitute the public so far as schools are concerned) beautifully written Copy books and carefully written Home Exercises are not only evidence of satisfactory progress but they are regarded as an index to the discipline of the school, the thoroughness of the teaching, the neatness and precision of the general work and to the Education imparted. Very few teachers appear to apprehend or rightly value both the extern and intern influence which writing exerts on a School. Its virtue is immense. Good writing in the classes cultivates the eye, hand, and judgment, promotes habits of accuracy, observation, neatness and good taste, conduces to good order discipline and method, and by contagion infuses a salutary stimulus into every other branch of study taken up. Some one has said that it is better to lose a delusion than to find a truth, therefore if the following pages help to enlighten teachers on these matters, assist them to lose a delusion, and to convince them that the Science and Art of Writing cannot safely be ignored or neglected any longer the hopes of the writer will in a great measure be realised.

The author’s thanks are specially due, and are herewith cordially tendered, to Dr. Emmanuel Bayr, Dr. Paul Schubert, and Mr. Noble Smith, F. R. C. S. Ed., L. R. C. P. Lond., &c., for their unvarying courtesy, and for their kindness in placing both works and services so generously at his disposal. Contributions from many other friends, both in England and on the Continent, are also gratefully acknowledged.

Revised for the United States. New York, May, 1894.

Contents

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Writing as it now is

CHAPTER I

WRITING AS IT NOW IS

There are more writers, or shall we say scribblers, in the world at the present moment than at any previous period of its history. But it would appear from all accounts that as the exponents of caligraphy have multiplied, the quality of the writing has deteriorated.

To fully describe and depict writing as it is the wide world over in our civilised age, would require a volume of itself. Suffice it in this chapter to furnish an amount of description, testimony or evidence and illustration, as shall adequately exhibit the existing condition of things in the writing world.

At the beginning of this century the art of penmanship was comparatively little practised. Education being in a sadly neglected condition, there were few facilities for teaching it. Schools—i.e. good schools—were few and far between, trained teachers were unknown, headline copy books had not been dreamt of—copy slips were scarce and difficult to get, and teachers for the most part had to rely solely on their own caligraphic ability, whilst as a natural sequence good writers remained in a mournfully small minority and the numbers of bad writers yearly increased. Gradually however as people woke up to a realisation of the state of affairs specially with reference to the masses and their ignorance of "Reading, Writing and Counting," more attention was directed to these subjects and the headline copy book was one of the innovations which merged into life. These copy-books have grown and increased to an alarming extent during the past forty years. We say alarming, for the wisdom of having such a variety of antagonistic styles is much to be questioned. One has merely to look through the vast number of (headline) copy books in existence to be struck with the anomalies with which they abound. Every compiler or writer–and there is a material difference between the two–of a series of copy books naturally thinks and advertises his own peculiar production to be the best. But that each should be superior to all the others is impossible, and which amongst them is entitled to lay claim to superiority it is hopeless to attempt to determine.

We present for inspection (Figs. 3 to 6) specimens of eight large hand copies and eleven small-hand headlines taken from some of the popular series of copy books now in the market. Glancing at the selection made (p. 4) who would not be bewildered at the contrasts presented? And this is only a selection; yet it is seen that in no one respect do they all agree save in the most objectionable respect of all (as we shall show further on) viz. Slope. They are without exception off the vertical or perpendicular, but the degrees of divergence from the Upright, or the angles of Slope, are only limited by the number of specimens and hardly that. With regard to their several characteristics it will be noted that generally they nearly all differ in the fundamental principles of construction, angle of slope, and style: some are heavy, stumpy and round, others light, flowing and almost angular: some very large others minutely small: some nearly upright others nearly horizontal: some open and wide almost square in their curves others close compact and oval: some with plain simple capitals others with elaborate and ornate capitals: some commencing with an extremely large and heavy hand as in the word “Permutation” others commencing with a smaller but still heavier hand as in the word “Whitsuntide.”

In the books lying before us, and from certain of which these illustrations are severally taken, it is observed that some grade the letters according to system others according to caprice or not at all: many advance by small steps others by wide and long gradations and so on, no two series possessing any features in common.

Now if Handwriting can be reduced to a rational or scientific system this infinite diversity is not only undesirable it is pernicious and unsound. For granted that one style can be formulated and projected which is absolutely superior to all others in construction, angle, &c., then unless that style be universally inculcated, an unfortunate section of the community is being taught to write a style which, according as it deviates from the acknowledged standard, is to that extent objectionable and inferior.

And this hypothesis—viz. of a standard system of penmanship—is not chimerical, it is logical and practical. Whilst however the present custom obtains, and in our schools every teacher exercises his own independent and uninstructed mind, teaching from any one of the multifarious headline Copy books that may strike his fancy or what is far worse from his own peculiar style and the black-board, what wonder if the caligraphy of the age is the laughing-stock of the age! What wonder that our abound in their countless hosts and that our "writers" exist only in their isolated units by contrast! In the absence of any harmony or uniformity in the essential elements and principles of the so-called systems of writing now in vogue who can expect the grand result to be anything but a "mixed medley," a promiscuous jumble of caligraphic contradictions and contortions?

And passing from the schoolroom where such an anomalous and chaotic state of things prevails into the world outside, this is exactly what meets us. We can only describe the penmanship of the present age as a dreary waste of slightly variegated illegibility relieved here and there at long intervals by welcome exceptions of readable writing. In view of what reaches one continually by the post we may denounce the writing that obtains now-a-days as miserably poor and painfully illegible. The mistakes that are made, the money that is lost, the time that is wasted, the peace of mind that is disturbed, the annoyance and delays that are caused by undecipherable sprawls might make the angels weep, and not

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

, except a few inarticulate and individual grumblings, little in the way of protest is made against what every one admits to be a public and national disgrace. Our prevailing handwriting may claim the ambiguous and questionable merit that but it is no less accurately described as Scribble of every conceivable Size, Shape and Slope.

The Press, the Commercial World, and Official Circles are happily beginning to realise the position, as evidence the following extract from the City Press (25th Nov. 1891).

“How is it that of late years the art of caligraphy has declined amongst us to an almost alarming extent? Not so long since everyone–save geniuses, who were allowed a free hand–could write clearly and legibly, the reading of correspondence being as a consequence a far more agreeable occupation than it unfortunately is at the present moment. Now it is quite an exception to come across a letter that even with a certain amount of leniency can be said to be written at all legibly or distinctly. Indeed, by far the greater part of a busy man’s correspondence consists of hurried scrawls which have to be actually spelled out word by word. Commercial houses are already beginning to experience a difficulty in finding, as clerks, young fellows who can write a decent hand. Mr. Tritton, who may be taken as a typical man of commerce, told a Mansion House meeting the other day that fully 90 per cent. of the young men who applied to him for situations wrote with a slovenliness that was altogether inexcusable. The public, it seems to me, have the remedy in their own hands to a certain extent. If they follow the advice of Sir James Whitehead, and put on one side for future consideration all letters which cannot be deciphered except with difficulty, their correspondents, without a doubt, will soon realise that in writing illegibly they only injure themselves. The result will naturally be that they will cease to pen the wretched scrawls that in the past they have dignified with the name of correspondence. The present carelessness in the matter of handwriting is in a great measure the fault of our schoolmasters, who, I have reason to believe, no longer consider caligraphy as one of the subjects that their pupils should be taught. Perhaps they will alter their minds now that, on the authority of Mr. Tritton, they learn that young fellows otherwise eligible often lose situations because of their wretched penmanship.”

Other City merchants gave similar evidence and state that very often they have to throw nineteen out of every twenty applications into the waste paper basket.

But Great Britain is not alone in this sad dilemma. The “Detroit Free Press” declared a short time ago that not one person in a hundred wrote a legible signature and the same authority informed its readers that Prince Bismark was so impressed with the necessity for a reform that he fulminated an order that all persons should write their names legibly. The demand for a sweeping reformation in regard to our handwriting can no longer be disregarded. Of course the cry has ever been “What is the cause of this deterioration”? “Where is the root of the malady”? This question will occupy our attention in a subsequent chapter. Meanwhile our ears are assailed on every side with the one trumpet-call coming alike from every class and department of the community “Give us Good Writers for we cannot get them, and cannot do without them.”

It may be accepted then as a demonstrated fact that the writing of the age is unsatisfactory, illegible and essentially bad.

That there is abundant need for reform amongst our teachers as to the teaching of writing no one can deny. I would refer the reader to Appendix I. (fig. 61), page 141. The three books there illustrated are typical of hundreds of cases where children in the school are allowed to write of such pitiful scrawl without a solitary mark of direction, correction or disapproval. Can such teachers have the slightest apprehension or conception of what writing really is or ought to be? Did they ever see the writing at all or look at a single line of the work from the first page to the last?

In charity we must answer for them in the negative.

Writing in Relation to Hygiene

CHAPTER II

WRITING IN RELATION TO HYGIENE

This is a subject that has seldom if ever been referred to, much less treated and discussed in Works on Education or in Manuals of Handwriting.

The idea itself is only in its infancy and with one exception has been confined to medical essays and excerpts. Nevertheless wonderful progress has been made during the past two or three years; and as medical men and teachers are the sole authorities on this subject, it will be sufficient to confine the arguments within the limits of their united evidence.

On the general question a paper was read by the author of these pages at the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, London, August 1891, followed by a resolution, the substance and text of which are reproduced here as fairly covering the ground to be explored. On the particular aspects of the question as relating to Spinal Curvature and Shortsight a report by a Commission of Specialists was presented to the Imperial and Royal Supreme Council of Health Vienna February 1891. The substance of this Report will afford abundant proof of the relation of writing to health and will conclusively demonstrate the positions taken up.

Writing is almost as important as speaking, there being no occupation or rank in life into which as a potent factor and as an energising influence writing does not enter. In the diary of the private individual, the correspondence of everyday life, the records of business transactions, the literature of the author, the briefs of the barrister or the manuscripts of the Theologian and Ecclesiastic writing is equally essential and universal. Not only is it thus all pervasive throughout civilised society it rises to even greater prominence and significance in the case of the hundreds of thousands who as secretaries, copyists or clerks follow writing as their profession or business, and derive from it their sole means of subsistence.

Such persons are occupied the year round, for from 8 to 16 hours daily, exclusively in clerical work. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of an art which is pre-eminently the vital principle in the machinery of the Law, the Civil Service, Commerce, Science and individual as well as international communication. If we look into the origin and development of handwriting we find it had its birth in an age of semi barbarism; that at first it consisted of the most imperfect pictorial representations, which gradually merged into a still crude hieroglyphic as the basis of an incipient alphabet. Subsequently this alphabet was improved and modified, and at last developed into what may be termed a phonetic one, although very defective, the characters having little scientific meaning or relationship. From the ornate and laboured style of the mediæval period the present Italian style has been evolved, and if we carefully trace this evolution through its manifold stages and variations, we discover that it and they have all been purely responsive to exclusively caligraphic or so-called artistic demands. Pursuing the investigation a step further, the fact is revealed that these caligraphic and artistic demands have been dictated and controlled, not by logical or scientific principles, but by capricious and often conflicting theories.

The writing, and not the writer, has always been the supreme consideration in the growth of the art of penmanship. A certain style of writing was deemed or decreed to be essential, the idea of protest was never entertained, and our ancestors had to bend cringe and twist under the system of bondage thus established. As to Hygienic principles these have never been associated even in a remote degree with the history of slanting writing that for some two hundred years has flourished amongst us.

Indeed physiological requirements have not been recognised much less urged until within the past few years, and even at the present day but few teachers would be found to spontaneously admit any possible connection between Hygiene and Handwriting. That these Hygienic principles should be an integral part of any system of penmanship whatever, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt, but it may be emphatically stated that the existing style of oblique or slant writing has been elaborated not only independently, but in spite of every physiological demand. Awkward and painful postures have always accompanied the practice of sloping writing. It is more than surprising that such injurious distortions should ever have been for one moment tolerated, but the power or dominance of over our minds is incredibly imperious and overwhelming. It is not the less remarkable that when the subject of school postures first engaged the attention of the medical faculty the real root of the malady was never for one moment suspected and that it remained for so long a time undiscovered. Possibly this was after all not unnatural as the idea of a flaw or defect in the writing itself would be the last to strike the mind of the enquirer.

Hence the various and contradictory charges that have been made. First, the Instruction was at fault. Teachers were indifferent or not sufficiently careful to inculcate correct position. It only needed strict attention efficient and constant supervision to remedy the evil. Time and experience however proved the contrary, for unhealthy postures were found co-existent with the most sedulous care and perfect instruction. A crusade was then inaugurated against Desks and Seats—and not before time. The former were too sloping or otherwise, too high or too low, and furthermore they were not adjustable, so we got adjustable desks and broader seats, both being brought to a state of almost perfect Hygienic and mechanical excellence. Nevertheless the Bad Postures survived still.

The question of Light was next considered, but when that was set right the positions were still wrong and the matter remained in abeyance for a brief space. Last of all attention was directed to the Writing (the Sloping Writing) itself, and it is cause for congratulation that this attack was made; for the unanimous opinion of the numerous experts engaged in the investigation is that the or of our writing is the undoubted cause of the abnormal and injurious postures so grievously complained of. As will appear in the Sequel there is no room for doubt, question or challenge. Teachers, Oculists and Surgeons combine in one united body and give an unqualified verdict. For thirty years we have had abundant opportunity for observation and experiment and we give an emphatic, unreserved confirmation to the testimony just alluded to. No matter what pattern desks and seats are in use, what the light may be and what the nature and thoroughness of the instruction; whenever children are required to write in the sloping style their postures will present every variety of abnormity and distortion.

The concurrent evidence of a body of medical experts and specialists supported by the experience of thousands of teachers goes to show that in sloping writing the side position of the body is inevitable; that twisting of the head or neck, and distortion of the spine must accompany this side position; that displacement of the right shoulder, deflection of the wrist, a disturbance of the common action of the two eyes with a consequent delusive and oblique view of the book, and an unhealthy compression of the chest walls involving pneumonic and gastric disturbances, are the inseparable accompaniments of the postures required in and necessary to oblique writing.

The directions generally prescribed to a writing class where sloping penmanship is taught run as follow:–

1. Left sides to the desk.

2. Left arms close in to side.

3. Left hands on Copy Books.

4. Right elbows in to side.

5. Pens pointing to right ear (or chin).

6. Faces turned towards Books.

7. Grasp pens firmly and Go on!!!

What be expected from a system of writing that inflicts such conditions as these? As to the writing an answer is supplied in Chapter I,–it is a miserable failure; and with reference to the writers themselves we get such a number of debilitated and deformed victims so seriously affected in lungs, spine or eyes as to create a feeling of alarm in medical and educational circles and even in Departments and Councils.

Eminent Medical Gentlemen have pursued their investigations into the question of postures in schools with great ability patience and success. Such experts as Barnard, Cohn, Carpenter, Carter, Coindet Reuss, Lorenz, Smith have been indefatigably working, with the outcome of a unanimous pronouncement that all the ills which initiated the inquiry are traceable to the postures assumed in and required by the Slanting writing.

One writer says "The postures of young people assumed in the sloping writing are one of the chief factors in the production of spinal curvature."

Another declares these postures to be "without doubt recognisable as one of the most frequent causes of crooked growth." Were this the only effect it would be more than enough to justify an official inquiry into the whole question; but when equally dismal testimony is borne to the injury of other organs (notably the eyes) and the interference with other functions, the urgency of the case becomes irresistible.

Vertical Writing is the only specific for these abnormal postures and their train of disastrous consequences. The elaboration of the argument in support of this statement will be found in the able analysis detailed in Appendix II at the end of this volume. The material difference between this Upright or Perpendicular Style and Slanting Writing is in the Direction of the Downstrokes of the letters; in the former being definitely and absolutely Vertical in the latter indefinitely and variously Sloped or Oblique. It is incredible what a difference this slight and seemingly insignificant alteration in the down strokes makes, and what an effect it exerts upon the writer. When found in conjunction with the minor characteristics of the system, viz. short loops, minimum thickness and continuity the results are almost magical.

Before detailing the several Hygienic merits of Upright

See also Report of French Commission, by Dr. Javal (Physiology of Writing, Pocket Pedagogical Library, No. 2).

reference may be made to some of the statements of Medical Men in regard to its claims. The opinions are dogmatic and incontestable.

"Vertical Writing is the only system consistent with all Hygienic principles."

"It is impossible for writers to avoid twisting the Spine unless they adopt an upright style of caligraphy."

"The absolute superiority of this method of writing over other methods must be recognised."

"Upright Writing is very much to be preferred to oblique Writing."

Now what is the posture necessary to the Vertical Writing? In one word it is the position, indeed it is the posture that a pupil will instinctively assume in the effort to write vertically. Granted that the book lies evenly on the desk in the straight middle position (as described further on) and that the Scholar has been duly instructed how to hold his pen, the writer's position is actually dictated by the style of writing adopted, and he sits square before his desk both arms evenly placed thereon, the whole posture being the simplest and easiest that could be prescribed for the work to be done. The eyes look straight down upon the page, the hand wrist and arm are in the best condition and relation for a running handwriting, the body is not distressed by artificial posing, the spine rests in a normal condition, the chest remains free from all external pressure, and the writing is thus produced with the least expenditure of energy and therefore with the minimum amount of weariness.

By referring to the diagrams (figs. 7 & 8) it will be observed that instead of the oblique or side position we have the square or front posture; instead of the head all awry we have a straight pose securing an identity or parallelism of the facial and chest planes with the edge of the desk; instead of the elbows close in to the side we have them both unrestricted and free; instead of the oblique and hence delusive view of the book we secure an even and perfect command of the page; and in place of the awkward sprawl over the desk we have the nearly upright position, free from even the tendency towards an unhealthy or painful attitude. It may be safely asserted that since all unnatural positions are

precluded from the System, Vertical Writing strictly fulfils every Hygienic requirement.

When we turn to the actual achievements of Vertical Writing, as exhibited in the evidence of numerous teachers in schools of all grades where it has been adopted and tested what do we see? In passing let it be remembered that this test of experience is the crucial test, which has once for all determined the correctness

and soundness of medical theories and deductions, as well as of our own frequently repeated categorical assertions.

It is found that the , undisturbed by a single conflicting dissentient. Scores and hundreds of these contributions have been received (from all parts of Great Britain and the Continent) yielding a variety of testimony covering every point in the controversy. Whilst teachers unanimously declare that vertical writing disposes finally and satisfactorily of the painful postures that have in the Sloping writing worked such havoc amongst school children for so many years, they also unite in testifying that the Upright Penmanship enkindles a greater interest in the art specially with pupils, that it entails much less labour in teaching, that it wonderfully accelerates the rate of progress and improvement, that it secures a much higher standard of excellence and that it materially increases the speed of the writer. These points however will be considered later on.

Fig. 9.

During the discussion which followed the reading of his paper the author formulated the following resolution, which, being proposed by Dr. Noble Smith (and by Dr. Kotelmann in German) and seconded by Professor Gladstone (then) Vice Chairman of the School Board for London, was put and carried.

"That, as the Hygienic advantages of Vertical Writing have been clearly demonstrated and established both by Medical investigation and practical experiment and that as by its adoption the injurious postures so productive of spinal curvature and short sight are to a very great extent avoided, it is hereby recommended that Upright Penmanship he introduced and generally taught in our elementary and secondary schools."

Every member of the congress that addressed the section spoke in unqualified terms of the claims of Upright Penmanship to every Hygienic Superiority, and nothing could have been more unanimous than the feeling which pervaded the entire meeting on the subject.

To proceed to the aspects of this Hygienic Relation in a particular sense, we would direct attention to the opinions and report of the Specialists appointed by the Vienna Supreme Council to investigate the effect of Vertical Writing upon the attitude of the body and the checking of defects of sight—Professor A. R. v. Reuss (University Vienna) in Ophthalmology and Professor A. Lorenz (University Vienna) in Orthopædics. Report of French Commission—Dr. Javal, Physiologie de l'Ecriture (Pocket Pedagogical Library, No. 2).

A. Professor Reuss' (Ophthalmologist) opinion in respect of Ophthalmology

For years the School Desk question occupied medical men and teachers. Short sight and spinal curvature continually increasing in number and degree called for preventive measures. The question of School Desks was considered as solved by a correct proportioning to the size of the writer, by the introduction of the minimum distance and the application of back-rests. The question proved unsolved. Children sat upon the new benches approved by the faculty . To the oculist and to the surgeon it was always evident that the position of the head in writing exercises a powerful influence on the attitude of the whole body, and that an abnormity in the pose of the head which is at first apparently unimportant soon brings in its train a very erroneous position of the entire body. It was also found that in reading we always turn the head so that the base-line of the eyes (that is the line connecting the axes of the two eyes) if prolonged to meet the surface of the page corresponds to the direction of the lines of print. Moreover in writing it will usually be seen that the ground strokes of the letters stand perpendicular to this prolongation of the base-line of the eyes. The direction of the lines of writing and the angle which the downstrokes make with those lines influence considerably therefore the attitude of the head and body of the writer. But even here there soon appeared a difference between theory and practice. People thought that if only the ground strokes came to be vertical to the edge of the desk the base line of the eyes must needs remain parallel to this edge and so the whole body exhibits an upright posture. But this was not so. In the so-called oblique middle position (see Chap. VII. for explanation) of the Copy Book the above postulate was fulfilled and the children sat awry. It became manifest that the direction of the lines exercised a great influence on the attitude of the body and that the school children placed the base-line of their eyes parallel to the edge of the desk when the lines also ran parallel to it provided that a turning of the head was not necessitated by the obliquity of the letters, i.e., provided the ground strokes stand upright on the lines or in other words that vertical writing is used.