The Psychology of Dementia Præcox

Front matter

THE PSYCHOLOGY

OF

DEMENTIA PRAECOX

Translators' Introduction

TRANSLATORS' INTRODUCTION.

To Kraepelin belongs the credit of having introduced new life into psychiatry by his indefatigable study of his patients for long years, his keen clinical insight, and especially by an independence of thought which led him to fearlessly shatter the traditions of centuries as regards the classification of mental diseases. As a pupil of Wundt he was able to apply new methods of clinical investigation drawn from psychology. As is well known he has brought together mania and melancholia as a single disorder under the title manic-depressive insanity. This conception, vigorously attacked at first, has probably come to stay. It is otherwise with his creation of dementia præcox, which is still strongly objected to in many quarters, chiefly because it seems to be a kind of waste basket into which are thrown all forms of mental disease that cannot be tagged with another name. This disorder appears in so many guises that it is already divided into hebephrenic, catatonic and paranoid groups, and Kraepelin himself has intimated that in time it will be broken up into still further groups or types. It is his merit, however, to have placed before us this psychological species even if the outlines are gross and the details more or less obscure.

In following Kraepelin we find that he only offers us a general and superficial view of the disease. From his description we learn that the patients are peculiar in speech and actions, that they utter numerous senseless remarks, repeat meaningless words or syllables, and that now and then they commit foolish and impulsive acts, but no attempt is made to examine the nature and origin of these peculiar utterances and actions. When we review the cases described in Kraepelin's works we find that whereas most of them show hallucinations and delusions, these are not at all of the same content or nature; the verbigerations and mannerisms, too, differ in different cases. The same similarities and divergences are to be noticed in every hospital. We recall a patient whose auditory hallucinations were attributed to a child, and another who heard the voice of God. The mannerisms of one were characterized by a continuous rubbing on the top of his head, while another for hours described certain figures in the air. Are these diversities accidental or have they a reason? Is there any difference between Kraepelin's patient who saw a blue heart up above, and behind it quivering sunshine and another blue heart, "a little woman's heart," and the patient who lived by the word of God, a raven was at the window who wished to eat his flesh; or between the patient who repeated numerous times the same unintelligible sentences "one for all and all for one, and two for all and three for all," etc., and the patient who speaks about "a poinard with a nuptial note"? The same questions could be asked about the manifold so-called senseless actions of patients. Kraepelin makes no attempt to explain these senseless utterances and actions. In other words, whereas he gives us an accurate, almost photographic account of the patient's general behavior, he does not enter into his psychological productions. He contents himself with noting that the patient entertains such and such hallucinations and delusions, and such and such mannerisms, without examining the causal relations. Those who work among the insane know that no two cases of dementia pæecox are alike; there is always a difference in the grouping and relationship of the symptoms, every case having its own individuality. Kraepelin, like his predecessors, totally ignores individual psychology, a thing absolutely essential for the understanding of the psychosis, just as the microscope is for pathology. The present difficulties in classification are mainly due to a lack of knowledge of the influence of individuality without which no real classification is possible.

Bleuler and Jung inaugurated a new epoch in psychiatry by attempting to penetrate into the mysteries of the individual influence of the symptoms. They show conclusively why we have here this combination and there that combination of symptoms. In the cases described by them we see that the senseless expres and actions have their reasons. But both Bleuler and Jung are only pioneers in a new field; they are not the discoverers of this terra incognita. The honor of this belongs to Breuer and Freud.

In 1895 Breuer and Freud published the "Studien über Hysterie," in which they showed that hysterical symptoms were symbolic representations of individual experiences which were incompatible with the personality and hence repressed from consciousness. This will be best illustrated by an abstract of a case described by Freud in the aforesaid work.

Miss Lucy R., thirty years old, had been treated by a specialist for purulent rhinitis. Some time after she again applied for treatment; this time, however, she suffered from complete anosmia and was almost constantly annoyed by two subjective sensations of smell. She was also depressed and anergic, complained of a heavy head, loss of appetite and inability to work. As no local affection could then be found to account for these symptoms she was recommended to Freud.

Besides the symptoms enumerated above Freud found distinct hysterical symptoms. She showed a general analgesia without any disturbances of tactile sensation. The nasal mucous membrane was totally analgesic and its reflexes absent. Freud then thought that the subjective sensations of smell and the depression were equivalents for hysterical attacks, that those odors were once objective and due to some trauma, and that they returned to memory in the form of symbols of subjective sensation. But in order to assume this theory it was absolutely necessary that the subjective sensations of smell should show such a specialization as to correspond with the real object of their origin. When the patient was asked to describe the odor which annoyed her most, she stated that it was like "burned pastry." It was therefore assumed that the odor of burned pastry was probably some actual traumatic experience. Her history was uneventful; she was a governess, having the care of two children whose mother died a few years ago, the father being a manufacturer in the suburbs of Vienna. The odor of burned pastry was taken as the starting point for the analysis. Employing the method of continuous associations the patient was asked to concentrate her mind on the odor of burned pastry and then tell under what circumstances it originated. After long and persevering labor she finally recalled that it occurred about two months before. It was just two days before her birthday. She was with the two children (girls) in the school room teaching them to cook when a letter was brought to her from her mother in Glasgow. The children grasped the letter, remarking that it was probably a birthday congratulation and they would keep it until her birthday. While the children were thus bickering they forgot the pastry which they were cooking and it was burned. Since that time she had perceived that odor almost constantly and it was generally enhanced on excitement. When asked why she was then excited she answered that "the children were so attached to her." They were always attached to her, but just then she received a letter from her mother. When asked to explain the contrast produced by the attachment of the children and her mother's letter, she stated that at that time she had intended to go home to her mother and had a heavy heart at the thought of leaving the children. To the question why she wished to leave her position, she stated that things were unbearable. She no longer lived in harmony with the other servants because they imagined that she considered herself too proud for her position. They said many things to her employers about her and when she complained she was not upheld. She then decided to resign and spoke about it to her employer. He was quite friendly and advised her to reconsider it. It was while she was in that state of indecision that the incident with the letter took place. Besides that she was a distant relative to the mother of the children who on her death bed asked her to care for the children and "take the place of their mother." When she was to resign she entertained many scruples about breaking this promise.

This apparently analyzes the subjective sensation of smell. It was really once an objective sensation and intimately associated with an experience in which there was a play of contrary affects, the sorrow at leaving the children and the mortification urging her to that decision. The letter naturally recalled the motive of this decision, because she thought of returning to her mother. The conflict of affects raised this moment to a trauma and the sensation of smell which was connected with it remained as a symbol of it. The sense of smell is rarely made use of as a symbol, but in this case we know that she suffered from a chronic nasal affection and just then she suffered from severe coryza and could hardly smell anything; in her excitement, however, she perceived the odor of burned pastry.

As plausible as this sounded there was still something lacking. Freud asked himself why this conflict of affects should have led to hysteria, why did it not remain on a normal psychological basis; in other words, what justified this conversion? Previous experience showed that in all newly acquired hysterias one psychological determination is invariable, namely, that some presentation must intentionally be repressed from consciousness and excluded from psychical collaboration.

"In this intentional repression I also noticed the reason for the conversion of the sum of excitement, be it partial or total. The sum of excitation which cannot enter the psychic association thus finds the way to bodily innervation. The reason for the repression can only be a painful feeling. The repressed idea was incompatible with the ego. The repressed presentation avenges itself by becoming pathogenic."

From this he concluded that in the moment of hysterical conversion there must have been one trauma which she intentionally left in darkness. There was only one interpretation. He then told her that he believed that besides her attachment for the children she also loved her employer. Hesitatingly she answered, "Yes, I believe it is true." Asked why she did not mention this before she said, "Why, I didn't know it, or rather I did not wish to know it; I wanted to crowd it out of my head, never to think of it, and of late I was successful." After this admission all resistance was broken. She then related that during the first few years of her service she entertained no such wishes until one day when her master, a rather reserved and very busy man, talked confidentially with her concerning the rearing of the children. He was then more cordial than usual. He said that he counted on her to bring up his orphaned children and looked at her rather peculiarly. It was at this moment that she began to love him and entertain pleasant hopes. But, as this was not followed by anything else, and in spite of her long wait, he never gave her another confidential heart to heart talk, she tried "to push it out of her mind."

After this analysis there was some improvement, the subjective sensation became weaker, though it had not entirely disappeared, manifesting itself whenever she became excited. The persistence of this symbol was due to the fact that besides the main trauma it also represented many side traumas, so that it was necessary to analyze all episodes connected with the main scene. It finally disappeared, only to be replaced by another subjective odor "like the smoke of a cigar." As ungratifying as this was an immediate attempt was made to analyze it. When asked to recall the circumstances of the origin of this sensation she was at first unable to do so, remarking that the odor could be constantly perceived in the house, but finally under concentration she saw a picture of a table scene. It was in the dining room at dinner, where besides the usual company there was a guest, the chief accountant of the firm, an old gentleman who was a frequent visitor and who loved the children as though they were his grand-children. While taking leave the visitor attempted to kiss the children when the host cried out, "Please don't kiss the children." "I then experienced a stitch in the heart, and as they were smoking this odor remained in my memory."

This therefore was the second scene causing the trauma and leaving the memory symbol. But why was this scene so affective? On analysis it was found that it preceded the burned pastry by about two months. It was not, however, obvious why she should have been so affected when the old gentleman was prevented from kissing the children. She stated that the father objected to strangers kissing the children, and that a few months before this episode a lady visited the house and on leaving kissed the children. At that time the father said nothing to the lady, but afterwards upbraided her for permitting it, saying that if it ever happened again he would entrust the bringing up of his children to some one else. This happened while she believed herself loved and soon expected a second confidential talk. This episode shattered all her hopes because if he could reproach her for a thing of which she was perfectly innocent he could not entertain any feeling for her. This painful incident was mani recalled when the bookkeeper attempted to kiss the children.

This ended the analysis and the patient was cured. A few days later the anosmia disappeared and the reflex returned.

This abstract shows very nicely how the symptoms were nothing other than painful psychical experiences symbolically converted into physical ones. The traumatic moment causing this conversion is that in which the contradiction thrusts itself on the ego and is therefore banished by it. The banishment does not annihilate the opposing presentation, but crowds it into the unconscious. This process occurring for the first time forms the nucleus and crystallization point for the formation of a psychic group separated from the ego, around which collects everything in accord with the contradictory presentation. The splitting of consciousness in such cases is intentional; it is often initiated by at least one arbitrary act. However something else happens than the individual intends; he wishes to eliminate a presentation as though it never came to pass, but only succeeds in isolating it psychically.

The traumatic moment in our patient corresponds to the time when she was upbraided by her master for allowing the children to be kissed. For the time being this episode remained without any apparent effects, perhaps it caused the depression and sensitiveness. The hysterical symptoms commenced later in moments which can be designated as "auxiliary" and which are characterized by a simultaneous flowing together of both psychical groups. The first moment in which the conversion took place in Miss Lucy was the scene at the table when the chief accountant attempted to kiss the children. This evoked the traumatic memory and she behaved as though she had not entirely banished her attachment for her master.

The second auxiliary moment almost followed the mechanism of the first. It is interesting to note how the symptom coming second covered the first so that it was not clearly distinguished until the former was eliminated, a thing quite usually observed in psychanalysis.

The therapy consisted in forcing the union of the split-off psychic groups with the ego-consciousness.

Similar conclusions were reached by Jung on the basis of experimental psychology.

Jung and Riklin collected a great number of associations from normal persons with the intention of finding out first whether there exists any regularity in the reactions, and second whether there are definite reaction types. It was soon found that the process of association is an extraordinarily flighty and variable psychic process, and is under the influence of numberless psychical events which are beyond the limits of objective control. It was also found that attention exerts the greatest influence on the association process. It directs and modifies the associative process and at the same time can be most readily controlled by experiments. It is the delicate affective apparatus which is the first to react in abnormal physical and psychic conditions, thus modifying the associative accomplishments. It was therefore decided to investigate experimentally the following questions:

1. The laws of fluctuation in association within normal limits.

2. The direct effects of attention on the process of association, especially whether the validity of association relatively diminishes with the distance from the fixation point of consciousness.

A number of educated and uneducated persons were examined. A hundred stimulus words were given and the reactions noted. The reaction time was measured with a one fifth second stop watch. The second series consisted of one hundred associations plus internal distraction by means of the "A-phenomenon" (Cordes), and the third series of one hundred associations was taken by external distraction by means of a metronome. Altogether 12,400 associations were taken and were classified as follows:

|I. | Inner associations.

1. Coördination; e. g., cherry—apple, murder—gallows, sea—depth, father—God.

2. Predicative relation; e. g., snake—poisonous, war—bloody, mountain—beautiful, water—refreshing.

3. Causal dependence; e. g., cut—pain, pain—tears, appetite—fat, frost—cold.

|II. | Outer associations.

1. Coexistence; e. g., ink—pen, pupil—teacher, Sunday—rest, table—chair.

2. Identity; e. g., beautiful—handsome, quarrel—fight.

3. Speech—motor forms; e. g., to suffer—hunger, to bow—head, to do—right, white—black.

|III. | Sound reactions.

1. Word completion; e, g., wonder—ful, friend—friendly.

2. Sound ; e. g., blanket—blank, haircut—cut, longing—long, biting—fight.

3. Rhyme; e. g., nice—rice, ship—trip, never—clever, bone—stone.

|IV. | Remnant group.

1. Mediate reactions; e.g.,

|grass | wheel

|

|hay—green, water | |Cleveland—round Miss X is a

muddy—shallow, | |false—blond

-2em

-2em

On examining many associations it was found that the numerical relations in single individuals were quite fluctuating. The main reason for this, besides the individual ones, is the intensity of attention. The fact that certain individuals react by inner associations and others preferentially by outer associations is in the first place a phenomenon of attention. Every person endowed with speech has manifold qualities of associations at his disposal, the association quality uttered depending on the degree of attention evoked by the stimulus word. Whenever the distraction phenomena succeeded, the result was always the same, the outer associations and sound associations gained at the expense of the inner; that is, there was a deviation to the direction of the customary and smooth, hence to the automatically obvious, or habitual speech combination.

"Attention is a state characterized by muscular tension manifested in an association complex and furnishes the accentuated complex with the psycho-physical subsoil. The aim of the physical reflection seems to be the establishing of the toned presentation into consciousness. By the somatic connection the accentuated presentation is probably held on the height of distinctness in the stream of presentations. It becomes the 'directing' presentation (respectively the 'directing feeling') of the others. It causes two kinds of effects:

"1. Promoting effects to all associated presentations and especially to all associated in the sense of direction.

"2. Inhibiting effects to all presentations not associated, especially not associated in the sense of direction.

"If a non-associated presentation gains in attention, the directing presentation becomes correspondingly crowded from the fixation point, i. e., it loses in tone. The effects emanating from it likewise correspondingly lose in intensity and therefore the difference in the liminal value of all the others is diminished. The choice in the sense of direction becomes more difficult and is more and more subjected to the law of frequency, i. e., all those associations which through habit and practice form the most frequent content of consciousness push themselves forward. The law of frequency takes the place of the directing presentation. It means that the endeavor to conceive and elaborate the sense of the stimulus word is hindered by the interposition of presentations which are already blended and automatic in speech." Whenever there is a disturbance of attention we have to expect shallow reaction types or sound associations, and, conversely, whenever we get sound associations we have to presuppose a disturbance of attention.

Complex-Phenomena and their Constellations.

By complex we mean the sum total of presentations connected with an emotionally accentuated event.

On examining the following associations, taken from an intelligent man of thirty-two, we note a number of peculiarities.

|Stimulus. | |Reaction. | |Time. | Reproduction.

|1. | |head | |hair | 1.6″ | |+

|2. | |smooth | |not | 4.2″ | |love

|3. | |to name | |James | 3.4″ | |no reaction

|4. | |seeing | |recently | 3.2″ | |+

|5. | |friendly | |very | 2.6″ | |+

|6. | |wedding | |never | 4.0″ | |bells

|7. | |to work | |hard | 2.8″ | |+

|8. | |song | |love | 4.0″ | |+

|9. | |green | |hope | 4.4″ | |grass

|10. | |definite | |certain | 2.6″ | |+

The average reaction time in a person of his type is 2.4″; here we find quite a number above the average. We also note that some reactions are falsely reproduced, and in association 3 a failure of reproduction. Whenever such phenomena occur they are taken as complex-indicators. The stimulus word has either consciously or unconsciously touched a complex with strong affects. Here the reason for all this emotivity is readily explained by the fact that the test person was involved in an unfortunate love affair, and although the associations were taken years later the stimuli readily awakened the dormant complex. The associations were analyzed as follows: Association 2, smooth—not—love. Association 3, to name—James, means Jane, the name of his former fiancée. The test person was totally unconscious of this during the experiment, but on freely associating with the word James we got Jame—Jane. The subsequent associations were perseverations of the same complex. Association 4, seeing—recently, recalls the fact that the test person has recently seen his former fiancée. Association 5, friendly—very, is a description of their present mutual feelings. Association 6, wedding—never—bells, shows his definite decision. Associations 8 and 9, song—love and green—hope, belong to this same episode and are quite obvious without any further analysis.

We have here associations which are determined by definite constellations, inasmuch as they refer to an emotionally accen experience. These phenomena can be readily observed whenever associations are taken. Past experiences or complexes of strong feeling remain in the subconscious in a dormant state until they are disturbed by associations. These associations may be purely adventitious or intentional as in the experiment. As soon as stimulated they continue to manifest themselves in different automatisms. In the experiment we have definite responses which refer to the complex. In our everyday life we sometimes begin to hum a certain melody which we have not heard for years; for a time we become, as it were, possessed by it, and on analysis we find its definite meaning. It refers to some past episode evoked by some accidental association or by a definite state of mind.

"The preponderant part of all our thoughts and actions is really composed of small fragments which are infinitely and delicately determined by numberless moments lying entirely external to consciousness. To our ego-consciousness the association process seems to be its work, in its estimation the association process is dominated by the free will and attention, in reality, however, as is so nicely shown in the experiments, the ego-consciousness is only a marionette dancing on the stage by means of concealed automatic springs."

Many assert that they can react of their free will and accord, but analysis shows that the reactions generally refer to their intimate experiences revealing just what they were endeavoring to conceal. The emotionally accentuated complex exerts a constant influence which successfully vies with the intentions of the ego-consciousness, and despite the repressing influences of the ego-complex it sends out associations about which the ego-complex has no notion.

The complexes as developed by Jung are identical with the dissociated psychic groups described by Freud. Just as the complexes dominate our thoughts and actions, so do the repressed psychic groups assert themselves symbolically not only in pathological but also in normal individuals. In his excellent work, the Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens, Freud shows that everyday forgetfulness, lapses in writing, talking, adventitious acts and mistakes are nothing but the assertion of the split-off groups which, though repressed by the ego-consciousness, continue to manifest themselves on every possible occasion in the form of symbolic actions. The same is true of our dreams where our repressed wishes are realized. It is impossible to give examples here, as they would be too long for the subject in hand.

These brief illustrations from the works of Freud and Jung give an intimation of the ideas expanded in this book. The author shows that just as in normal individuals and in hysteria the complex continues to play its part in dementia præcox, and as it does in dreams, the psychosis tends to actualize the repressed wishes from normal life. The otherwise known absurdities and incomprehensibilities become quite clear; every case has its special interests and its own individuality.

New York, Jan., 1909.

Author's Preface

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

This work is the fruit of three years' experimental labor and clinical observation. In view of the difficulty and magnitude of the material, my work cannot and will not lay any claims either to perfection of treatment or to perfect certainty of conclusions and statements; on the contrary, it unites in itself all the disadvantages of eclecticism, which perhaps to many a reader will seem so peculiar that he will call my work rather a confession of faith than a scientific book.—Peu importe! What is of chief concern is that I may succeed in showing my readers how, by certain psychological investigations, I reached certain views, which I deem fit for the stimulation of the problems of the individual psychological basis of dementia præcox in a new and fruitful direction.

My views are no contrivances of a roving fancy, but thoughts which matured in almost daily intercourse with my venerable chief, Professor Bleuler. I owe special thanks to my friend, Dr. Riklin, of Rheinau, for considerably enriching my empirical material. Even a superficial glance at my work will show how indebted I am to the excellent conceptions of Freud. As Freud has not yet attained fair recognition and appreciation, but is opposed in the most authoritative circles, I hope to be allowed to define my position towards him. My attention was attracted to Freud by reading some of his articles, and indeed, at first accidentally by his "Traumdeutung," after which I studied also his other works. To be sure in the beginning I naturally entertained all the objections which are advanced in literature against Freud. However, I thought that Freud could only be refuted by one who himself had thoroughly tried the psychoanalytic method, and who should really investigate like Freud, that is, by studying out patiently and for a long time the daily life, hysteria and dreams from Freud's point of view. He who does not or cannot do this ought not to judge Freud, else he acts like those famous men of science who disdained to look through the telescope of Galileo. Fairness to Freud does not signify, as many fear, a conditionless submission to a dogma; indeed independent judgment can very well be retained beside it. If I, for instance, recognize the complex mechanisms of dreams and hysteria, it does not at all mean that I ascribe to sexual trauma in youth an exclusive significance, as Freud apparently does; still less does it mean that I place sexuality so preponderantly in the foreground, or that I even ascribe to it the psychological universality which Freud postulates under the impression of the very powerful rôle which sexuality plays in the psyche. As for Freud's therapy, it is at best a possible one, and perhaps does not always come up to expectations. Nevertheless, all these are only side issues which completely disappear beside the psychological principles, the discovery of which is Freud's greatest reward, and to which the critic does not pay enough attention. He who wishes to be fair to Freud should act in accordance with the words of Erasmus: Unumquemque move lapidem, omnia experire nihil intentatum relinque.

As my work is often based on experimental examinations, I hope that the reader will pardon me if he finds many references to the "Diagnostischen Associations-Studien."

C. G. Jung.

Zurich, July, 1906.

Chapter I

CHAPTER I.

Critical Presentation of Theoretical Views on the Psychology of Dementia Præcox.

The interpretation of the psychological disturbances of dementia præcox are found in literature only in the form of fragmentary attempts which although they at times go quite far, yet nowhere have they any clear coordination. The statements of the older authors have only a limited value as they refer now to this now to that form of mental disease which can only be indefinitely classified as dementia præcox. Hence one must not attribute to them any general validity. The first general view concerning the nature of the psychological disturbance in catatonia was that of Tschisch, who, in 1886, thought that it was essentially due to inability of attention. A similar but somewhat differently conceived view was given by Freusberg. He stated that the automatic actions of the catatonic are associated with a condition of reduction of consciousness which causes a loss of control over his psychical processes. The motor disturbances are only symptomatic expressions for the degree of psychic tension.

According to Freusberg the motor catatonic symptoms are dependent upon corresponding psychological manifestations. The "weakening of consciousness" points to the quite modern view of Pierre Janet. Also Kraepelin, Aschaffenburg, Ziehen and others affirm that there is a disturbance of attention. In 1894 we meet for the first time with an experimental psychological work on the subject of catatonia. It is the investigation of Sommer, "On the Study of 'Inhibition' of Mental Processes."