The Mohammedan System of Theology

Front matter

THE

MOHAMMEDAN SYSTEM

of

Dedication

TO

THE RIGHT REVEREND

GEORGE,

Preface

PREFACE.

At a period like the present, so distinguished by the improved state of knowledge and spirit of religious inquiry, it is hoped, that a succinct account of Mohammedanism, in a popular form, may prove a useful acquisition, and not undeserving the perusal of the friends of Revealed Religion.

Christianity and Mohammedanism constitute, at this day, the two great rival religions of the universe, when viewed in connection with their relative influence and extent in the Western and Eastern hemispheres; but the comparison only holds good in that particular point, for when the systems are placed by the side of each other, and fairly examined in their history, doctrines, and evidences, all ideas of competition must be relinquished, and the futility and inconclusiveness of the arguments, by which Mohammedanism is attempted to be upheld, become strikingly apparent. The works which have appeared on Oriental topics, though admirably adapted to their specific objects, are not more than equal to the reasonable expectations of the public, neither do they supersede or render further attempts at illustration superfluous. The same object may be viewed with advantage and effect, through a variety of medium: what is not found to engage attention, under one aspect or point of view, may by a change of scene, become attractive and awaken laudable curiosity: a compendium may prove a welcome companion where a formal treatise would be rejected. Since Prideaux's life of Mohammed, nothing has appeared among us in the shape of a manual. To obviate this inconvenience has given rise to the present attempt, which is an extension of his plan, entering into a wider field and more diversified details, than what comported with the design of his undertaking, Such a mode of survey has been adopted, as without fatiguing the attention, should comprise all essential information on the subject; such as the life of Mohammed, and the principal causes that contributed to his success, with suitable observations on the nature and character of that success; a comprehensive account or analysis of the Koran, with appropriate citations, including many of the most admired passages, designed to render the style, doctrines, and literary merits of that singular performance more familiar to the generality of readers: the defects both in external and internal evidence under which the system labours, are also noted, and the Scripture vindicated from the charge of corruption: several Mohammedan mis-statements and errors stated: the history of Jesus given in the words of the Koran, with notes, and contrasted with the accounts of the Evangelists; that the grossness of the delusion and its agreement with spurious and apocryphal pieces may at one view be detected, and how little of real Christianity entered into its original composition; the Christian scheme of redemption through a Mediator next follows, and the incidental blessings conferred by Christianity are considered as affording presumptive proof of its Divine origin; a brief notice is taken of the prophecies supposed to relate to the period of its dissolution; which topics, with the concluding observations, embrace intelligence sufficient for general purposes, and may be useful in aiding further researches.

In a compendium designed for the use of those who profess belief in revealed religion, it would be irrelevant to enlarge upon the necessity of a Revelation from heaven to guide and direct man in the right way, or the probability that God would vouchsafe such a boon to his erring creatures; these propositions, or arguments a priori, though fundamentally important, would be out of place here; because by admitting the claims of Judaism and Christianity to a divine original; and arrogating only superiority to itself, Mohammedanism recognises and concedes these as first principles, which are therefore taken for granted: the main contest consequently depends on a third proposition, viz., which of the systems, now under consideration, best supports the character and marks of a divine revelation. This involves various considerations respecting the genuineness and authenticity of what arc termed "the canonical Scriptures;" and whether they afford criteria by which the question may be tried. Respecting which, and similar topics, thus much may be premised, that as far as the subject partakes of a literary character, it must be dealt with accordingly, by reference to the testimony of cotemporancous writers, and this uniform consent or agreement transmitted from the earliest times to our days; while the sense of Scripture must be determined either from its positive declarations, or fair and legitimate inference. In enquiries of this nature, reason has a high and momentous duty to discharge, viz. to ponder well all the evidence of which the case is susceptible, and to decide impartially, No. intention exists of unduly exalting the intellectual faculties, or decrying the office of the Spirit in directing truth with saving power to the heart; all that is here contended for is, that reason should act in its proper sphere. Whatever is clearly revealed must be received on the authority of God himself, but the evidence by which it is accompanied, is open to fair discussion and enquiry. In this line the full exercise of all the powers of the mind is required, and its decisions must be regarded; because no system is worth contending for, the evidences of which will not abide this powerful and effective test!

The religion of Mohammed, has, like that of Jesus, its great and leading sects, which branch out into numerous subdivisions: the principal are the Turks, who are called Sonnites or Traditionists; and the Persians, who in consequence of rejecting the traditions, are termed Shiites or Sectaries; between these rival dissidents an implacable animosity pre- vails; but it would be incompatible with our plan to enter into mere differences of opinion, as involving a separate and distinct branch of argument, and withdrawing the attention too much from the main points on which the merits of the case depend. If the citadel be indefensible, the outworks must fall. The authorities here principally relied on are beyond fair exception, viz. Sale and Gibbon: the former of whom has been styled half a Musulman and the latter not half a Christian. Their references, it is well known, besides the best modern authors, include the names of Abul-feda and Abul-pharagius; to which maybe added, Beidawi, Elmacin, Jallaòddin, Jannabi, Zamacshari, and others of acknowledged celebrity in questions of this description; though, after all, it is remarkable, that they cannot appeal to any writers within the first century of the Hegira.

After the expiration of two hundred years, the sonna or oral law was fixed and consecrated by the labours of Al-Bochari. But further, our acknowledgments are due to Prideaux, White's Bampton Lectures, Jones' New and full Method of Settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament, Mills' History of Mohammedanism, Maltby's Illustrations, Collyer's Lectures on Scripture Comparison, and the Persian Controversies translated by Professor Lee; an invaluable acquisition, containing controversial tracts on Christianity and Mohammedanism, by the late Rev. Henry Martyn, and some of the most eminent writers in Persia, together with an original tract, and an extended account of a former controversy on the same subject. From these and other sources, assistance has been derived, but no facts are advanced which may not be confirmed by the autho- rity of one or the other of the two first-mentioned authors,

After this expression of obligation, a few remarks may not be inapplicable respecting the conduct of the work. A strict regard has been paid to accuracy; the mistakes of former writers are carefully avoided, no exaggeration, or attempts at merely exciting ridicule or prejudice are here employed. Nothing therefore has been set down for the purpose of cavil or dispute only, or with other than feelings of sympathy, for those whose lot has not been (like our own) cast in a lightsome Goshen, but in a land of darkness and gross obscurity, where error and prejudice have grown with their growth, and increased with their strength, while the only means of counteracting their deleterious effects, have been limited in operation, and to the generality totally inaccessible. At the same time no doctrines are compromised, because such a mode of procedure would be derogatory to Christianity. The Musulmans entertain erroneous notions on many points, particularly the doctrine of the Trinity: the inferences they draw are such as are not warranted by the premises, and have been repeatedly disproved and disavowed. Here then we are at issue on a question which can be fairly decided by reason and argument; the doctrine itself rests on other grounds, and will maintain its title to veneration and respect, until something more than mere assertion or calumny shall be brought to bear against its credibility.

This compendious survey will satisfy the reader of the futility of the pretensions of Islamism, and excite to closer and more elaborate investigation of that matchless chain of evidence (to say nothing at present of the doctrines) by which Christianity is pre-eminently distinguished! As to minor matters, the orthography of Sale's Koran has been followed, except in quotations; and in regard to a few terms of frequent occurrence, the words Scriptures and Scripture, denote the books received by the Jews and Christians as the rule of faith: the Pentateuch means the five books of Moses, viz. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, from πεντε five and τεχος volume; though they stand as separate books in the private copies now in use, yet they were written by their author, Moses, as one continued work, and still remain in that form in the public copies read in the Jewish synagogues. The Koran is from an Arabic root signifying the book fit to be read. Islam or Islamism implies resignation both of body and soul to God, and is used in the same sense with Mohammedanism. Moslem or Musulman is a derivative of the same root, and signifies a follower of Islam or Islamism. In conformity with the practice now generally prevalent, Moslem or Musulman is considered as of the singular number, and Moslems or Musulmans as plural.

The work is submitted to the public with the hope that it may excite attention, and afford a few hours' rational entertainment on an interesting and important subject. It will be a source of heartfelt satisfaction, should the object in some degree be attained, of developing error and elucidating that faith which is most worthy of God, best suited to the nature and condition of man, and the only safe guide to happiness here and hereafter.

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Chapter I: Summary of the Life of Mohammed

CHAPTER I.

SUMMARY OF THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED: COMPRISING THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE GREAT EASTERN APOSTASY, WITH THE CAUSES THAT CONTRIBUTED TO ITS SUCCESS; THE STATE OF ISLAMISM ON THE DEATH OF ITS AUTHOR, AND UNDER HIS SUCCESSORS THE CALIPHS.

The Eastern world is fraught with recollections interesting to the scholar, the antiquarian, and the statesman, as being the earliest seat of empire, the cradle of the arts and sciences, which are conducive to the embellishment and comfort of society; the seat from whence colonies emigrated to people and form new states: its magnitude and population, natural advantages both of climate and soil, and political importance invite and repay the most diligent research into its history; but the religious aspect, which it wears, particularly fixes the attention, and awakens the sympathy of the Christian, whilst contrasting its present degeneracy with its former splendid condition: it was in this quarter where the grand scene of Revelation was gradually unfolded, where Patriarchs and Prophets lived, and in the fulness of time Jesus promulgated that religion, the sum and substance of former revelations, whose benign influence has meliorated the condition of mankind, and to whose sublime discoveries we are indebted for the clearest and most consolatory views of eternity.

The spectacle now exhibited by the Eastern world, is that of an affecting apostasy from the true faith, which has existed for more than twelve centuries, with a very injurious effect, and a marked and striking contrast to the beneficial operation of the Christian dispensation, The revolutions of empire read us an instructive lesson on the instability of human affairs; and it is with religious the same as civil privileges: if not suitably improved, they may be judicially withdrawn. Where are the once flourishing Churches of Africa, rendered famous by the labours of Origen? and what is now the state of the Eastern hemisphere, once so highly celebrated? These considerations may well excite us to watchfulness and diligent scrutiny of our principles and practices: we should note the causes which contributed to the downfall of others, that we may be better prepared to encounter and happily overcome the difficulties to which, under some form or other, all are alike exposed.

Mohammed, who was the principal actor in effecting this stupendous mental and political revolution, was born at Mecca, in Arabia Petræa, A.D. 569, his father's name was Abdallah, and his mother was Amena, respectably connected, and allied to the tribe of Koreish, and the family of Hashem, the hereditary guardians of the Caaba, or temple at Mecca; whither devotees repaired, from high antiquity, to worship their Pagan deities. Early deprived of his father, whilst only in his second year, the care of himself and mother devolved upon his grand-father Abdal-Motalleb: the hand of death again severed the natural tie and rendered him an orphan: his grand-father also sunk under the weight of years, and transferred him to the care of his uncle Abu-Taleb, so that no very flattering prognostications could have been formed of his future celebrity. Abu-Taleb seems to have discharged his duty well, and designed him for commerce, a mode of lite held in high estimation among the Arabs, because that part of Arabia enjoyed no agricultural advantages, and the inter- course between states and the various necessities of life were supported and relieved by caravans or companies of trading merchants, to which allusion is made in the writings of Moses. A world of controversy has been elicited concerning his early education: his followers, to enhance the reputation of their Prophet, maintain that he could neither read nor write, while the opponents of Islamism as strongly insist that such ignorance was more affected than real. Among the moderns, Gibbon strongly contends for the illiterateness of the Prophet, and White advocates the contrary side of the question.

At this distance of time at is impossible to ascertain satisfactorily the nature of his attainments, most likely they were similar to what those enjoyed in the same sphere with himself, his equals in society, though probably destitute of those advantages attainable by all ranks in our days; because the necessary arts of reading and writing were confined chiefly to the Christians and Jews, who are called People of the Book, and were rare qualifications amongst the independent tribes. Though Job, who was an Arabian, and prior to Mohammed by several centuries, understood letters, yet the discovery had been subsequently lost; and the rude Cufic character was introduced only a few years anterior to the birth of Mohammed. Still, on whichever side of the question the balance may incline is not very material, because Mohammed had it in his power to procure any assistance that might be requisite.

But whatever educatory advantages or defects attended his infancy, the subject of this memoir was highly gifted by nature, inheriting a graceful person and commanding genius, superior to the age in which he lived, a com- bination of rare qualities joined with an enthusiasm of character which, when circumtances demanded, developed mental resources fully equal to all the occasions of his diversified career.

The incidents of his early life are soon related and much to his credit. First, in the service of his uncle; and afterwards as factor to Khadijah, widow of one of the chief inhabitants of his native town, he negotiated in various places with such zeal, ability, and success as to secure the respect and attachment of his employers: his uncle, though never his convert, ever stood forward as his protector and shielded him from many dangers with which he was threatened by the Koreish; and he afterwards obtained the person and fortune of Khadijah, which rendered him equal in opulence with any in Mecca, and fully restored him to the station of his ancestors.

During the whole of this union, notwithstanding a disparity of years on the side of his wife, the conduct of Mohammed appears not only to have been correct, but amiable and exemplary, and when subsequent events. placed unlimited power and indulgence within his reach, ingratitude to Khadijah cannot be reckoned amongst his vices. It is recorded that when Ayesha, in all the insolence of beauty, said, "Was not Khadijah old, and has not God given you a better in her place?" "No!" cried the grateful Mohammed, "there never was a kinder or a better woman. She trusted in me when men mocked at and despised me: she relieved my wants when I was poor and persecuted by the world: she was all devotion to my cause." Not only his observations at Mecca, the seat of ancient superstition, but extensive information derived from his transactions with the leading sects of the day, under their different modifications, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian, convinced him of the powerful influence of religion on the sentiments and practice of mankind: he observed also hostile feelings in sects differing from each other, and endless divisions of sentiment among those professing the same creed. The Unity of the Godhead also which forms the distinguishing feature of the Koran, seemed in his estimation almost obliterated or in danger of being lost, as well by the idolatry of his countrymen in joining mediators with God as by certain ob- noxious tenets, subversive of that grand truth imputed both to Jews and Christians.

Arabia, at this time, harboured a singular variety of sects, and offered a fine field for a religious or political experimentalist. Here Paganism flourished under various forms, the Jews had also flocked and established themselves here as in a place of security after their expulsion from Rome by the Emperor Adrian, and various sects of Christians, as they were successively crushed at Constantinople, fled hither for protection, carrying with them and broaching their respective tenets without molestation. Grievous as it may be, it is still important to note the unhappy heresies which have agitated at different times, the Church of Christ.

From a very early period, even during the life of the immediate disciples of our Lord, the Enemy was not backward in sowing tares: in the days of St. John, whose writings close the Canon of the New Testament, heresies had advanced to a considerable height, particularly those of Ebion and Cerinthus, and the several sects of Gnostics, which commenced with Simon Magus, and were continued and carried on by Valentinus and Basilides, Carpocrates and Menander. The Divinity of Jesus was denied by Ebion, according to Eusebius and Epiphanius, who asserted him to be a mere man, and to have had no existence before he was born of the Virgin Mary. The Gnostics had debased Christianity by intermixing with its pure doctrines the reveries of Jewish Cabbalists, the conceits of Pythagoras and Plato, and the Chaldæan philosophy, the genealogy of divine emanations and distinctions respecting the Person of Christ. Thus errors had been lamentably accumulating, The symptoms indicated a general decay and dereliction of first principles. The adoration of relics, the worship of images, saints and angels, transubstantiation, the deification of the Virgin Mary, amongst the Collyridian heretics, and purgatory, were the hateful offspring of this and the preceding centuries. Gregory the Great compares the Church to a rotten and leaky ship, hourly threatened with wreck. Ichabod, thy glory is departed, may be considered as a suitable emblem.

"I saw thy glory as a shooting star Fall to the base earth from the firmament."

Various writings were current amongst the different sects, and interpolated to answer particular purposes, such as the Gospel of Cerinthus, or the Nazarenes, the Preaching and Revelation of Peter; the Gospel of Barnabas; the Prot-Evangelion of James, or the Gospel of the Birth of Mary, the Gospel of the Infancy of Christ, and many others, which were never generally acknowledged, and have now. sunk into merited obscurity and almost oblivion; but at that time they possessed a certain degree of weight and circulation.

Such a posture of affairs might suggest to the contemplative and ardent mind of Mohammed the desirableness of winning over the contending factions to some common principle of essential truth, such as the Unity of the God-head, which, according to his views, seemed dreadfully obscured, if not in danger of total extinction. What were his original motives we cannot say, perhaps, however, at first, the idea of subjugating so vast a portion of the globe might not have entered his mind: he could not, with certainty, calculate on a successful issue, with whatever purity of intention; and must have anticipated various impediments in his attempt to stem the torrent of conflicting opinions and interests. Whether enthusiasm or hypocrisy predominated in the commencement of his career is a question that admits of no easy solution, and must be left to that unerring Judge, to whom all hearts are open, and from whom no secrets are hid; thus much may be observed, that the diligence, zeal, and address, with which he prosecuted his enterprise, and pursued it through all its details, at Mecca, would have done credit to a better cause.

As John, the Baptist, prepared for his important office as Precursor of the Messiah, in the solitude of a desert, so Mohammed affected an almost total seclusion from the world, in a cave at Mount Hara, near Mecca, where he boasted of celestial revelations through the medium of the Angel Gabriel. The outlines of his plan were here formed, or varied according to circumstances: this event occurred somewhere about the period when the grant of the Emperor Phocas had been obtained, conferring the title of Universal Pastor on the haughty Prelate of Rome. Phocas usurped the sceptre with enormous crimes; his state required support, and he laboured to gain Pope Gregory's interest, and in return the Pope, desirous of the Primacy, made application to Phocas to confirm his pretensions; but Gregory dying before the completion, Boniface, his successor, obtained the sanction, and assumed the style of Universal Bishop,

Without attempting minutely to fix the æra of these two remarkable occurrences, viz. Mohammed's retirement to the cave at Hara, and the assumption of such a title by the Roman Pontiff, they followed so closely together as justly to be considered a singular coincidence. The epocha was particularly turbulent in the annals of history, marked with the formation of new kingdoms out of the mighty wreck of the Roman empire, jealousy and divisions in the neighbouring states, comparative tranquillity with no preponderating interest amongst the independent Arabian tribes, who were rising into importance, and required only a principle of union to become truly formidable. At this period, two mighty influences were at work in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, against civil and religious establishments, destined hereafter to acquire such extensive domination, each characterised by singular properties, unlimited pretensions, and enormous attempts. The one was avowedly Anti-Christ, the opponent pf the person and glory of Messiah; the other was the same, not by the open profession of infidelity, but by secret and no less destructive arts, strengthening and upholding a system of usurpation, corruption and fraud, which, while it tended to the aggrandizement of the popedom, virtually dethroned the Saviour, and converted the best gift of God, the religion of Jesus Christ, into the very reverse of all the ends for which it was designed. With regard to Mohammed, had he pretended no particular call, and restricted himself to the inculcation of the unity of the divine nature, he might have been transmitted to posterity as the head of a sect, but not as the founder or compiler of the code which now hears his name. Asserting a particular call exposes him to reprehension: there is no God but God, is an acknowledged truth, but that Mohammed is his prophet is a fiction. The natural and penal consequence of error is to produce itself in endless variety This accounts for his tampering with Christianity and Judaism, it being necessary to the success of his projects to recognise those ancient and widely prevailing modes of faith, and to mix up or counteract what might not suit his purposes. The basis, or ground-work of the attempt at religious comprehension, is sufficiently ample: the curious admixture in the Koran of pagan superstition, reveries of the Talmud, detached passages of Scripture, and portions of spurious and Apocryphal writings, is dealt out with a studious accommodation to the pre-conceived notions and views of different sects, and at the same time, not to appear a servile imitator, some trifling alterations are introduced, On opening his commission, with all that sagacity and tact which distinguishes this extraordinary character throughout the whole of his progress, he makes powerful appeals to the national prepossessions or prejudices of his countrymen: he professes himself a delegate from Heaven to them, saying, as mankind were not saved by the writings of Moses, the Psalter, or New Testament, that he was de- puted fully to instruct the favoured Arabians by the Koran, to supply the deficiencies of former revelations, and to close the book of prophecy. The Arabians prided themselves in their descent from Ishmael, and the antiquity of the temple at Mecca: in accordance with these feelings he states, that it was built by angels for the Patriarch Abraham, after the pattern of that in which Adam had worshipped God in Paradise, and that it is placed under its arche-type in heaven (consequently they consider Paradise in heaven,) and that Abraham and Ishmael worshipped there; that in process of time idolatry prevailed, from which he was commissioned to rescue them: he further designates his faith as a republication of that of Abraham, who, he says, was neither Jew nor Christian, but a Musulman; he allows the missions of former Prophets to an extent almost bordering on licence, reserving however to himself the superiority. Various accounts are adapted, partly from the Scriptures, and partly from other sources, to shew the vengeance of God upon such as slighted former messengers. He gave them to understand that the old world was destroyed by a deluge, for disobedience to Noah, that Sodom was consumed by fire and brimstone for its treatment of Lot, and the Egyptians were drowned in the Red Sea for rejecting the mission of Moses, and also that Ad and Thamud, two ancient Arabian tribes, were swept away from the face of the earth for neglecting the warning of Saleh; he proclaimed also the joys of heaven and the torments of hell, to all who should receive or reject his mission.