A Concise Grammar of the Malagasy Language

Front matter

The Malagasy Language

G. W. Parker

A

The Alphabet

MALAGASY GRAMMAR.

Letters.—The Malagasy Alphabet contains the same letters as the English Alphabet, with the exception of c, q, u, w, and x.

Vowels and Diphthongs.—These are pronounced as follows:—

|a | |as | |a | |in | |psalm; | |example, | |tàna, (a) chamæleon.

e | ... | a | ... | date; | |... | èny, yes.

i | ... | ee | ... | weep; | |... | hìdy, (a) lock.

o | ... | oo | ... | too; | |... | òny, (a) river.

These are the usual sounds of the four vowels.

ai, ay | pronounced | like | i | in | might.

ei, ey

ao | |... | |... | |ow | |... | |now.

These two sounds are the only true diphthongs.

Y represents the same sound as i, but is used at the ends of words, has a lighter sound, and becomes mute in certain cases; while, in the translation of the New Testament, y is used in the body of words taken from the Greek to represent the letter upsīlon: thus, sỳnagògy, synagogue.

O, when used as the sign of a vocative case, or in names introduced from another language (as Rajòna, John), has the sound of o in 'no.'

In writing, all Malagasy words are written in full, except when the first of two words is a noun followed by its possessive case, or a verb in the passive or relative voice followed by its agent.

In speaking, each vowel must be clearly pronounced, because often a single vowel is the only means of distinction between two words dissimilar in meaning. Examples:—

òlona, a person. | mànana, to possess. | manènina, to regret.

òlana, twisting. | mànina, to long after. | manènona, to weave.

An elision occurs in speaking usually when a final a, not accented, precedes a word beginning with any other vowel; also when final o precedes a word beginning with o.

Euphonic Letters.—These are h and i. Euphonic h is generally inserted (both in speaking and writing) in a derivative, when two vowels would otherwise come together, of which one would be the first letter of the root, and the other the last letter of the prefix; thus, ìhavìany (instead of ìavìany), from root àvy. Euphonic i is pronounced (but neither written nor printed) when i or y precedes g, h, k, ng, or nk; thus, mikàsa, 'to intend,' is pronounced mikiasa.

Apparent Diphthongs.—The double vowels eo, io, found often, are not true diphthongs, because the sound of each vowel can be distinguished, unless they are pronounced too quickly: moreover, in forming passive verbs, the accent passes on to the second vowel. Thus, lèo makes passive imperative àleòvy; dìo makes passive imperative diòvy.

Sometimes, too, the diphthongs ai and ao are resolved into their component vowel-sounds; thus, aìdina, 'poured out;' aòrina, 'built.' In these cases the a is a prefix, the rest of the word being a root.

The following combinations of vowels are less often found: ia, oa, oi (or oy), oe, aoe, and oai.

Final a is changed into y when a word ending in -na, -ka, or -tra, is followed either by the article ny or by certain proper nouns which do not admit of the article: this change softens and shortens the sound of the final syllable, and also serves to mark the genitive and ablative cases.

Ex. | Nỳ satroky nỳ lèhilàhy, the hat of the man. | Nouns.

Andrìamànitry Jakòba, the God of Jacob.

Fàntatry nỳ òlona, known by the people.—Verb.

The third example shows that verbs in -za, -ka, or -tra, also follow this rule.

Final a is left unchanged, in order that the sense may not be doubtful, when a word ending in -na, -ka, or -tra, is not followed by another word in the genitive or in the ablative case.

Ex. Fàntatra nỳ òlona, known (are) the people, i.e. the people are known.

Consonants.—The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:—

g is always hard, as in 'gold.'

j as dz, in 'adze.'

s before e and i is pronounced as a soft sh (ex. mìsy pronounced mìsh); otherwise it is always pronounced as s in 'sun' (ex. ìsa, one).

z as z, in 'zone.'

The s and the z are never confounded in Malagasy as in the English word surprise.

Double Consonants.—The following are commonly used:— dent|6em|-2em|3=dr, dz (or j), tr, and ts. These have the force of single letters, and may begin a syllable or a word.

ng, mb, mp, also used often to begin words, seem to have arisen out of the fuller forms ang, amb, and amp, which still survive among other dialects than that of the Hovas: ex. Sihànaka, ambàmy = Hova, mbamy ('together with, including').

n and m are often used to close syllables:—

n |is so |used |before d, t, dr, dz (or j), tr, ts, g, and k.

m |... |... |... b or p.

Hence the rule: when n or m in the body of a word (not a compound) is followed by another consonant, the n or m is the closing letter of the preceding syllable. With this one exception all syllables end in a vowel.

As n will combine only with d, g, h, and t, and m only with b or p, the only combinations of consonants allowable in the Malagasy language are the following:—

dr, dz (or j).

tr, ts.

mb, mp.

nd, ndr, ndz (or nj) ng, nk, nt, ntr, nts.

Hence the following euphonic changes among consonants become necessary:

f | is replaced by | |p. | |r | is strengthened by | d, | becoming | dr.

h | |.. | |.. | |k or g. | |s | |.. | |.. | t, | |.. | ts.

l | |.. | |.. | |d. | |z | |.. | |.. | d, | |.. | dz

v | |.. | |.. | |b. | | | (or j).

These euphonic changes among consonants are required:—

(1) In forming derivatives that take a prefix ending in n or m.

(2) When n or m is inserted between two words as the sign of an indefinite possessive or ablative case.

(3) In contracting words ending in -na by throwing away the final a, so shortening the word by one syllable. But no euphonic change is needed (1) when the whole syllable -na is rejected before a word beginning with m or n; thus, manàmpina-màso becomes mànampi-màso: or (2) when the n of possession (short for -ny) is similarly rejected before a noun beginning with m or n; thus, ràno-màso, "eye-water" (i.e. tears).

The final syllables -na, -ka, and -tra are contracted sometimes by rejection of the final syllable. When one of the changeable consonants follows a word so contracted, it is changed according to rule (see p. 8), as if the letter m or n closed the preceding syllable. These final syllables (if not contracted) are always sounded lightly, although they become almost mute when the accent falls on the antepenult. When followed by a consonant, the sound of final a is always kept.

When a word ending in -na, -ka, or -tra, is joined with another word beginning with a vowel, the final a is replaced by an apostrophe; thus, sàtrok'òlona, 'some-one's hat.'

From the fondness of the Malagasy for contractions, the relationship of the second of two contracted words to the preceding word may be any one of these ten things:— (1) It may be a possessive case; as, akànim-bòrona (akàny, vòrona), 'a bird's nest.'

(2) ... ... the agent of a passive or relative verb; as, tìam-hady (tìana, vàdy), 'loved by one's wife.'

(3) ... ... the object of a verb; as, manòso-dòko (manòsotra, lòko), 'to smear with paint.'

(4) ... ... a limiting accusative; as, tsàra-fanàhy (tsàra, fanàhy), 'good as regards disposition.'

(5) ... ... a noun in apposition; as, andrìan-drày àman-drèny (andrìana, rày, àmana, rèny), 'the nobles (who are as) father and mother.'

(6) ... ... a subject; as, ìtatàram-poza (tàtatra, fòza), 'crabs are the things for which people cut channels.'

(7) ... ... a predicate; as, nỳ fonòsin-dò (fonòsina, lò), 'the thing that is wrapped up is putrid.'

(8) ... ... an adjective; as, zòva-tsòa (zàvatra, sòa), 'good things.'

(9) ... ... a verb in the infinitive mood; as, nasài-nanaò (nasaìna, nanaò), 'bidden to do.'

(10) ... ... an adverb; as, mipètra-pòana (mipètraka, fòana), 'to sit about idly.'

Roots

In any language the study of the roots of the words is important, but this is more especially the case with the Malagasy language, because the derivatives, though regular, are very varied. These roots are chiefly verbs (active and passive), nouns, and adjectives; but some of the pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections may also be considered as roots, as they have not yet been traced to simpler forms.

The two classes of Malagasy roots are as follows:—

Primary roots; consisting of one, two, or three syllables; with the accent on the first syllable. The few apparent exceptions to this rule about accentuation (as lalàna, from the French la loi; mizàna, from the Arabic mizân, &c.) are explainable by a foreign derivation, or by assuming that the syllable preceding that which is accented was originally a monosyllabic primary root: ex. lalaò (i.e. lao reduplicated, 'play, playthings').

Secondary roots; formed from primary roots by the addition of a class of special monosyllabic prefixes, which differ from all the prefixes and aflixes used in the formation of other words. These secondary roots are treated exactly like the primary roots in making verbs, &c. from them; and their accent is always on the second syllable.

Of these prefixes, kan-, san-, and tan- are treated like the active prefix man-; q.v. Besides these, we find an infixed syllable om inserted into a root of either kind immediately after the first consonant, apparently only the transposed form of a prefix mo (=ma); thus, tàny, tomàny.

Table of the chief varieties of these Prefixes.

prefix. | primary root. | secondary root.

A. | An | .. | .. | zàra | .. | .. | anjàra.

B. | Bo | .. | .. | sèsika | .. | .. | bosèsika.

D. | Da | .. | .. | bòboka | .. | .. | dabòboka.

Do | .. | .. | nèndrina | .. | .. | donèndrina.

F. | Fa | .. | .. | rìtsoka | .. | .. | farìtsoka.

Fo | .. | .. | rèhitra | .. | .. | forèhitra.

G. | Go | .. | .. | ròbaka | .. | .. | goròbaka.

K. | Ka | .. | .. | ràzana | .. | .. | karàzana.

Kan | .. | .. | tòvo | .. | .. | kantòvo.

Ki | .. | .. | fàfa | .. | .. | kifàfa.

Ko | .. | .. | fèhy | .. | .. | kofèhy.

L. | Lah | .. | .. | àsa | .. | .. | lahàsa.

M. | Mo | .. | .. | kòko | .. | .. | mokòko.

N. | Ngo | .. | .. | ròdana | .. | .. | ngoròdana.

P. | Po | .. | .. | ròtsaka | .. | .. | poròtsaka.

R. | Re | .. | .. | hètra | .. | .. | rehètra (?).

Ro | .. | .. | àhana | .. | .. | roàhana.

S. | Sa | .. | .. | fìdy | .. | .. | safìdy.

San | .. | .. | làva | .. | .. | sandàva (-ny).

T. | Ta | .. | .. | fòtsy | .. | .. | tafòtsi (-ny).

Tan | .. | .. | làpa | .. | .. | tandàpa.

Ton | .. | .. | hìlana | .. | .. | tongìlana.

Tsi | .. | .. | laìnga | .. | .. | tsilaìnga.

Tsin | .. | .. | gàla | .. | .. | tsingàla.

V. | Va | .. | .. | hìhy | .. | .. | vahìhy.

Z. | Za | .. | .. | tòvo | .. | .. | zatòvo.

Reduplication of a root, whether primary or secondary, expresses the repetition, or the diminution, or the increased force, of the idea which the root in its single form expresses: hence, many roots may appear in a fourfold form. It is only the primary root which is thus doubled, for the prefixes and aflixes remain unaltered.

Some roots occur only in the reduplicate form; as, làolào (or lalào), 'play;' sàlasàla, 'doubtful.' With regard to roots which end in syllables other than -ka, -na, -tra, no contraction occurs, but the root is simply reduplicated, with sometimes an n inserted, especially when the root begins with a vowel.

Ex. | Fòtsy, white; fòtsyfòtsy, whitish.

Tòro, crushed; tòrotòro, crushed into pieces.

Ampy, sufficient; manàmpinámpy, to keep on adding. | With insertion of n.

Mandà, to deny; mandàndà, to deny repeatedly.

Zòky, elder; zòkinjòky, still older.

Dissyllabic roots ending in -ka, -na, or -tra, may be either simply repeated or contracted; thus, in mitànatàna, 'to be open' (as the mouth), the root is repeated, while in mitàntàna, 'to hold,' the root is contracted.

Trisyllabie roots ending in -ka, -na, or -tra, accented on the antepenult, are contracted according to the rules for forming euphonic changes.

N.B.—As trisyllabic roots seem all to end in -ka, -na, or -tra, it is probable that these terminations are only affixes to primary roots of one or two syllables, as the following facts seem to show:—

(1) They are sometimes disused, especially in dialects other than the Hova; as, irày and iraìka, and ìsa and ìsaka, for 'one.'

(2) They are interchangeable in certain words; as, pòtsika and pòtsitra.

(3) Dissyllabic roots, used in a sense allied to that of the longer forms, are not rare. Thus, dissyllabic root rìa; trisyllabic words, marìa, rìaka, rìana; tetrasyllabic words, tsorìaka, korìana.

Rule.—In reduplicating a word, remember (1) that the prefix is never altered; (2) that the primary root alone is reduplicated; and (2) that when the accent advances one syllable, owing to the addition of an affix, the first part of the word (i.e. prefix and primary root) is never altered, all changes occurring in the last part of the word. Thus:—

dìo, | fòtotra.

madìo, | afòtotra.

madìodìo, | afòtopòtotra.

madìodìovy, | afòtopotòrana.

Contracted adjectives and some verbs with active prefixes keep the m or n of the present or past tenses, when reduplicated, either instead of, or in addition to, the first letter of the root. Thus:—

Màrina, adj. | root | àrina, | becomes | màrimàrina.

Manao, verb | ... | tao, | ... | manàonào.

Or an n is inserted, especially when the root to be reduplicated begins with a vowel.

Thus:—Manèso, root èso, becomes manèsonèso.

Derivatives in Malagasy, which are very numerous, are formed regularly from any kind of root (single, reduplicated, primary, or secondary) by appending to the root (1) a prefix, or (2) an affix, or (3) both prefix and affix. Thus:—

zàra.

mizàra.

zaràina.

ìzaràna.

Sometimes it is difficult to find out the root, owing (1), to the loss of its first consonant; or (2), to a change in its vowel; or (3), to a change in the consonant of its final syllable.

Brief Rules for Accentuation.

I. Roots, both primary and secondary, seem always to have the accent on the first syllable of the primary root, whether the root be two-syllabic or three-syllabic.

N.B.—A secondary root may be regarded as a primary root plus a monosyllabic prefix, which does not alter the place of the accent.

Reduplicated roots.—As only the primary root (and not a prefix) is reduplicated, the above rule still holds good in these cases, whether there be, or be not, any contraction of the reduplicated word.

N.B.—Only tri-syllabic roots ending in -ka, -na, or -tra, are contracted when reduplicated, although they may sometimes be reduplicated without contraction. No change of letters in the reduplicated word alters the place of the accent.

II. Derivatives.—No prefix alters the place of an accent; but affixes always cause the accent to advance one syllable nearer to the end of the word (generally bringing the accent on to the antepenult).

N.B.—A few roots (chiefly monosyllabic) do not allow the accent to shift at all; and in a few cases the accent (apparently contrary to the above rule) goes off the root on to the first syllable of the affix (as in the word ànka-toàvina, from root to).

But even in these cases the accent still rests on the antepenult, in accordance with the apparently invariable rule for all pure Malagasy words, that the accent must never be further from the end of a word than the antepenult.

Verbs

The Malagasy Verb has three voices, the active, the passive, and the relative; each voice has only two moods, the indicative and the imperative; and each mood has the three simple tenses, present, past and future. No changes are made for gender, number, or person.

Of these two moods, the indicative serves for every mood, except these three, viz. the imperative, the subjunctive, and the optative, for which three the imperative itself serves.

Active Voice.

Table of Active Verbs.

name. | examples. | meaning.

(1) | Root, | | | to eat.

|.. | to laugh.

(2) | |.. | with tafa-.

|.. | fallen down.

|.. | overturned.

(3) | |.. | |

| | to fall down.

|

to become better.

to taunt.

to be able to protect.

|(4) | |to cause to fall down.

|(5) | |to taunt one another.

|(6) | |to ask permission of one another.

|(7) | |to cause (people) to taunt one another.

Table of the chief Active Prefixes.

For the signs of causality and reciprocity look up and down the Table: for the simple forms, look across it.

|simple. | |causative. | |reciprocal. | |causative reciprocal. | |reciprocal causative.

|Mi- | |m-amp-i- | |... ... | |... ... | |m-ifamp-i-.

|Miha- (progressive verbs.) | |m-amp-iha- | |... ... | |... ... | |m-ifamp-iha-.

|Maha- (potential verbs.) | |m-amp-aha- | |... ... | |... ... | |m-ifamp-aha-.

|Ma- | |m-amp-a- | |m-if-a | |... ... | |m-ifamp-a-.

|Man- | |m-amp-an- | |m-if-an | |m-ampif-an- | |m-ifamp-an-.

|Mana- | |m-amp-ana- | |m-if-ana | |m-ampif-ana- | |m-ifamp-ana-.

|Manka | |m-amp-anka- | |m-if-anka- | |m-ampif-anka- | |m-ifamp-anka-.

Notice (1) that amp is the sign of causality, and if of reciprocity; and (2) that the causative-reciprocal sign ampif, and the reciprocal-causative sign ifamp, are only combinations of these two.

Tafa-, prefixed to a root, gives the idea of completeness, but differs slightly from our perfect tense, in that it may be used of something altogether past; in this respect it resembles rather the pluperfect of some languages. Père Webber says, (1) that tàfa gives the right answer to an intransitive imperative (as, Mìpetràka hianaò, sit down; tàfapètraka àho, I am seated); and (2) that while the prefix vòa implies the operation of an external agent, tàfa usually implies internal agency. Sometimes, however, these two prefixes seem interchangeable.

Mi-, Man-, and Màha-, are the three most common active prefixes.

Mi- (contracted into M- before i) forms chiefly intransitive verbs, but forms also a few transitive verbs when prefixed to a primary root.

Man- forms verbs of either kind, but chiefly transitive verbs. Man- and Mana- (a longer form) both seem contracted forms of the verb manaò, 'to do, or make,' used as a prefix.

Màha- (contracted into Mah- before a vowel) is a contracted form of the verb Mahày, 'to be able.' This is the most widely used prefix in the Malagasy language, as it may be added to almost any word or phrase.

Màha- is used to express (1) power to perform an action, (2) that which makes a thing what it is.

N.B.—Mana- and Maha- are often confounded; but their difierence is well shown by the following example, where the same root (tsàra, 'good') produces a verb with each of the prefixes:—

Mànatsàra, to do some action for the improvement of a thing; to render good; to make good.

Màhatsàra, possessing the power to make a thing good; possessing some quality showing or proving its intrinsic goodness.

Rules for the formation of the Verbs with the prefix 'man-'.

a. If the root begins with a vowel or with the consonants d, g, j; simply apply the prefix, and make no change.

b. If the root begins with any consonant except one of these three:—

The first consonant of the root is rejected:—k, s, t, tr, ts, and sometimes h, are rejected.

or, The first consonant of the root is changed:—h sometimes becomes g; l becomes d; r becomes dr; z becomes j (dz).

or, The first consonant of the root is rejected and the prefix changed (from man- to mam-) before b, v, f, or p.

But sometimes v is changed into b, or b itself is kept.

Before m or n, the prefix is contracted into ma-.

Ma- (or M- before vowels) is a shorter form of Man-, which forms a few transitive verbs, but a large number of adjectives usable as verbs.

Rules for the formation of the Imperative Mood of Active Verbs.

(1) Affix -a, unless the word already ends in a.

(2) Shift the accent one syllable forward, unless the root is a monosyllabic diphthong; or, unless the root is two-syllabic, but with the accent on the last syllable; or, unless the root is two-syllabic, but ending in -ka, -na, or tra-.

(3) Sometimes also one or other of the following changes are necessary:—

Change of a consonant preceding the final a: this occurs only in roots ending in -ka, -na, or -tra, where k becomes h or f, tr becomes t, r, or f, and n becomes m.

Insertion of a consonant (s, v, or z) before the final a: there are a few exceptions to this.

Vowel-changes, usually taking place among the vowels of the accented syllable, viz. i (or y) into a or e.

Vowel-changes, usually taking place among the vowels of the accented syllable, viz. ai into e.

The government of cases by Malagasy verbs is often puzzling, because, while many verbs govern direct accusatives, others require the preposition àmy to be inserted between them and the cases they govern; while others, again, have both constructions. Thus, mitèny àminy, 'to speak to him;' mitèny àzy, 'to reprove him' (i.e. to speak at him).

Again, many Malagasy verbs take two accusatives, which may refer to person and thing, instrument and object, or limiting accusative and object.

Passive Voice.

Table of the various forms of the Passive Voice.

name. | examples. | meaning.

1. | cut off.

2. | Passive | in | washed.

3. | .. | .. | -ina.

divided.

.. | divided into lots.

.. | made good.

.. | expected.

| | | | |fetched (of water from a well).

| | | | |moved northwards.

.. | | | | | |hated.

Passive | retaining | | | |caused to tell or to be told.

.. | .. | | | caused to plead against one another.

4. | Passive | in | whitened.

5. | .. | .. | saved, helped.

6. | .. | .. | shown.

7. | cut off.

Root-passive means a root-word containing a passive idea and usable as a passive verb.

The difference (usually existing) between a root-passive and a passive in a-, -ana, or -ina is that the former usually calls attention to the idea contained, leaving the agent almost out of consideration, while the latter calls attention to the agent as well as to the act.

The imperative mood of a root-passive (like the imperative mood of an adjective) has usually an optative meaning: as sitràna, 'may (he) be healed.' But sitràno, the imperative passive of the verb mànasìtrana (from sìtrana) has an imperative, not an optative, meaning.

Vòa (literally struck) is a root-passive used as a prefix. Often vòa- and tàfa- are equally suitable as prefixes, but generally tàfa- implies self-agency, vòa- the agency of another; but both give almost a "pluperfect" idea.

-ina is the usual ending of most passive verbs. Of these varieties of passives the only kind at all troublesome to distinguish is the passive in -ina formed from an abstract noun; with regard to this, remember that the abstract noun ends in ana, while the passive verb ends in ina. Example:—hàtsaràna (abstract noun), goodness; hàtsaraìna (passive verb), made to possess goodness, made good.

As regards causative verbs, the i of the affix is the only visible distinction between their passive and their relative voices. Example:—passive, àmpanolòina; relative, àmpanolòana, root sòlo.

The passive in a- (which is very common) calls attention principally to the position or state of the object.

Rule for distinguishing the use of the passive in a, from the use of the passive in -ana:—When a verb governs two accusatives, the one of the object acted on, the other of the instrument or means with which the action is effected, the latter is made the nominative of a passive in a-, the former of a passive in -ana.

Example:—manòso-tsòlika àzy, 'to anoint it with oil;' ahòsotra àzy nỳ sòlika (the oil is here the nominative of the verb ahòsotra); hosòrana sòlika ìzy (the thing anointed is here the nominative of the verb hosòrana.)

N.B.—"The non-observance of this rule may lead the foreigner into gross absurdities," says the Rev. W. E. Cousins.

Passives in a change their accent only in their imperative mood; thus, root hàro, ahàro (indicative), àharòy (imperative). Transposed passives are formed by prefixing ni- or no- to a root, and then transposing the n and the first letter of the root, as, tàpaka, nitàpaka, tinàpaka.

Rule.—in forming the passives in a-, -ana, and -ina, the relatives, and the imperative mood in verbs of all voices and classes, one or all of the following five changes are necessary:—

1. Append the characteristic termination— -ina, -ana, or -ena, for the indicative mood passive voice; -ana, and -ena, for the indicative mood relative voice.

-o (or -y, if o is already contained in the root) for the imperative mood of all relative verbs and of passives in a-, -ina, and -ana.

-a (in a few cases -e) for the imperative of a root, and for all active imperatives.

2. Move the accent one syllable forward. Exceptions:—when the root has one syllable only; when the root has two syllables, the second being accented; when the root has two syllables, the second ending in -na, -ka, or -tra.

3. For roots in -na, -ka, and -tra, a change occurs in the consonant preceding the characteristic termination: k becomes h or f; tr becomes r, t, or f; n (often) becomes m.

4. Insert s, v, or z, before the characteristic termination.

5. Alter a vowel, usually of the accented syllable; as, i (or y) into a or e, and ai into e.

ia (that is, i of the root and a of the affix) are sometimes contracted into e; as, root vonjy, passive vonjìana contracted into vonjèna.

Rule for choosing which voice (active or passive) is to be used:—When "the agent and his act" are most in your thoughts, choose the active voice; when "the result of the act" is most in your thoughts, choose the passive voice. The Malagasy usually prefer the passive voice.

Rule for the use of the passive voice of verbs which govern two accusatives:—Either accusative may be made the nominative of a passive verb.

N.B.—When two passives exist from the same root (viz. in a- and -ina) take care to choose the right one.

Relative Voice.

The relative voice is one which is peculiar to the Malagasy language; and, although somewhat puzzling at first, its use is very convenient. It is a blending of the two other voices, both in form and in construction; and expresses some relationship between the agent of a verb and the object.

Rule for forming the relative voice (from the active voice):—1. Omit the m of the active prefix. 2. Affix -ana, or -ena, for the indicative mood; and -o, or -y, for the imperative mood; then treat the word (as regards changes) as if it were a passive in -ana. The government still remains that of the active verb, but the agent is expressed by the suffix pronoun, as if the verb were really passive.

Some relative verbs are also used for the passive voice, and their meaning must be found from the context. Also, what has been said of the twofold meaning of active verbs in maha- is equally true of relative verbs formed from them.

Table of the chief characters of the subject of a Relative Verb.

1. (As in English) the nominative case of an active verb is its agent, and that of a passive verb its direct object.

2. The Nominative may have any of the following degrees of relation:—

(a) Direct object considered partitively.

(b) Indirect object (i.e. one which would be preceded by the preposition amy if it followed a verb, whether active or passive).

(c) | |An adjunct of | |time (point, duration, or repetition).

|... ... | |place (in, towards, or from).

|... ... | |mode (manner, or measure).

|... ... | |cause (cause, or occasion; reason; means, or instrument; price).

Tenses of Verbs.

The indicative mood alone has any tenses; these tenses are the three simple tenses—present, past, and future. As with Malagasy adjectives, so with the tenses of Malagasy verbs, n is the sign of the past, and h of the future.

TABLE SHOWING HOW TO FORM THE TENSES OF VERBS.

NAME. | CHANGE REQUIRED. | EXAMPLE.

1. | |PAST. | |PRESENT. | |FUTURE.