Heritage Conservation and Tourism Development at Cham Sacred Sites in Vietnam

Front matter

Global Vietnam: Across Time, Space and Community —

Quang Dai Tuyen and Tourism Development at Cham Sacred Sites in Vietnam Living Heritage Has A Heart

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Contents

Jalan Nao: A Personal Journey—Reflecting on My Experience Exploring the Evolution of Issues in Living Heritage Conservation and Tourism Development: A Gateway sicisricisriirericserissskias Understanding Living Heritage: The Interplay Between Commis, Culture, add Place gos. saniaeaee nsd rridu RR RR RE Rs The Basis Behind: Rationale 12924 cine ood b RERO RP Or PER a PER The Role. of tie Researcher sii oeae d mac hd eh) Erdbeben re bx EN Organizing the Content: Navigating Through the Book's Framework .... ReGen oo ven Oo cece eee dene rk UPC Ne RI SEE E E PES Pd

2 The Cham Civilization and Its People—An Overview of Bhum CHAM bere ans-cvonacanee RA dd o ege qq ee pee tET PES

Clarifying the Terminology: Understanding the Concept The Comlization ot Champa. iesloonocsesbese rr RR RRRRE RESORT Preserving the Legacy: Ancient Monuments of the Champa CnabzaldH 4icsiesietedtelaetaihs tease thibstbnd edi dated bd

Chapter 1 A) Introduction— Jalan Nao ENTE

A culture survives when it has enough confidence in its past and enough say in its future to maintain its spirit and essence through all changes it will inevitably undergo. —Wade Davis, "The Way finders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World".

Jalan Nao: A Personal Journey—Reflecting on My Experience with My Cham Community and Temples

I still recall my first visit to the Po Rome temple during the Katé festival 32 years ago. Asa child, my grandfather, who was well-versed in history, folk stories, and oral traditions, often regaled me and my friends with tales of the Cham people, their kings, and temples. I remember seeing the temple on top of the hill from our village and feeling its sacredness, a sentiment shared by my parents and community. Although I was too young to fully appreciate it, my family did not take me to the temple for spiritual worship during any ceremonies or festivals.

In junior high school, I and some friends decided to attend the Katé festival at the Po Rome temple. I was filled with excitement and eagerness and couldn't sleep the night before. I wondered about the Cham people, the Champa kingdom, and how the Cham temples were built (my grandfather had said that the construction of Cham temples was still a mystery). In the early morning, some friends suggested that we walk instead of cycling, as it was supposed to be "near." But my understanding of the term "near" was as immature as I was at the time. In my later years, I came to realize that people always say that the temples are “near” us, referring to the gods who watch over us from the hills. The two-hour walk was tiring, but the temple was, and always will be, “near.” Upon arrival, we were exhausted and dehydrated, but people from nearby villages offered us water before we visited the sacred space. The temple was magnificent, and my awe and inspiration overcame any sense of fatigue. I saw Ahier priests and members of the Cham community preparing offerings for worship, and it was the first time I had witnessed the Katé festival at a Cham temple.

© The Author(s) 2023 1 Q. D. Tuyen, Heritage Conservation and Tourism Development at Cham Sacred Sites in

Vietnam, Global Vietnam: Across Time, Space and Community,

I walked around the temple and came across some collapsed remains close to the main tower. I touched the bricks and felt the ancients, with my grandfather's words and the stories of our ancestors present. I could sense the talent and ingenuity of generations that made these monuments possible. I watched as other people prayed for the safety and prosperity of their families and community. Despite my young age, it was a deeply moving experience that helped me understand the significance of the Po Rome temple as a living sacred site. I felt the heartbeat of heritage and the rhythm of the collective Cham communities visiting the temple for prayer and worship.

After the festival, we visited a Cham village about a kilometer away to see my uncle, who had married a woman from the village and, following our matriarchal traditions, had relocated there with his wife's family. I sat with my family and friends and realized that I had learned so much more about Cham culture that day. The temple brought the Cham people together, and I felt the presence of my ancestors in my senses. This experience inspired me to pursue my current path as a researcher of Cham culture and an advocate for my community and traditions.

I became one of the first students in a new generation of anthropologists in Vietnam, where ethnology had been the dominant field of study until the early 2000s. I studied in Ho Chi Minh City for my undergraduate degree and worked at the Cham Cultural Research Center in Ninh Thuan Province, combining my education with the inspiration of my grandfather's life. During my time at the Cham Center, I visited many Cham villages and traditional ceremonies throughout Vietnam and learned about the diversity and interconnectedness of Cham culture with everyday life. These experiences reinforced the importance of our temples as symbols of our people, connecting all Cham communities despite the loss of our civilization.

The survival of the Cham people after the fall of the Champa kingdom is a poignant tale of perseverance and determination. During a recent visit to Binh Thuan Province, I had the privilege of learning about the struggles and sacrifices of our ancestors as they sought to preserve their rich cultural heritage.

One particularly moving account came in the form of an Ariya, an ancient Cham poem, that tells the story of the Cham people being hunted down and killed by Vietnamese Minh Mang's King forces. Many were forced to flee their homes and take refuge in the wilderness, living in hiding during the day and using the light of the moon and the white sand along the coast to guide their way. Despite the dangers and difficulties they faced, the Cham people never gave up their traditions. Even as they journeyed to safety, they made sure to pass down their script, the Cham Akhar Thrah, by writing letters in the sand. Each night, before departing, they would erase the markings to avoid detection by their enemies.

This is a story of resilience, of a people who refused to let their heritage be erased by adversity. It is a reminder of the strength and courage of the Cham ancestors, and the importance of preserving our cultural heritage for future generations.

The Cham people have a rich and storied history, passed down through generations in the form of folk tales, hymns, and songs. One such story is the tale of how Cham history and traditions were transformed into sacred hymns, which today remain an integral part of Cham religious ceremonies and rituals.

Jalan Nao: A Personal Journey—Reflecting on My Experience with My ... 3

When I visited Binh Thuan, I had the opportunity to witness the power of these hymns firsthand, as I listened to the haunting melodies of the Kadhar and Maduen singing the anthems of the Champa kings. Through the music, the Cham people have ensured that their history and traditions are not lost to time. This connection to their heritage is felt deeply by the Cham community, who view their cultural heritage as sacred and protected. Encroachments on this sacredness, such as violations of the temple, are met with deep sadness and a physical manifestation of grief. It is this unbreakable bond to their heritage that drives the Cham people to preserve their traditions and culture, no matter what challenges they may face. This devotion to their heritage is what has kept the Cham community strong and vibrant for generations, and it is what will continue to keep it alive for generations to come.

My experience at the Po Dam temple was a turning point for me in my work to preserve Cham cultural heritage. Despite the fact that the temple was under the care of conservationists, the exclusion of the Cham community from the preservation efforts left me feeling frustrated and heartbroken. The Cham priests with whom I was traveling were equally upset, as they had not received any information or consultation from the heritage authorities about the conservation works being carried out at the temple. This experience highlighted a larger issue in the conservation of cultural heritage, particularly when it comes to sites that hold spiritual significance for marginalized communities. The Po Dam temple, like many other Champa temples in Vietnam, holds deep spiritual significance for the Cham people, who have been the custodians of these sites for generations. The exclusion of the Cham community from the conservation process raises questions about who the cultural heritage belongs to and who has the right to preserve and protect it.

I was concerned about the potential for the conservationists to make changes to the temple that would be inconsistent with Cham cultural heritage and spirituality. The Cham community's anger and frustration at being excluded from the preservation process were completely understandable. They felt that their heritage was being taken away from them, and they were left with no say in how it was being preserved.

In my work, I strive to ensure that ethnic communities like the Cham are included in the conservation and preservation of their cultural heritage. It is essential to involve these communities in the decision-making process and to ensure that their perspectives and cultural values are taken into account in any conservation efforts. Only through collaboration between the community, conservationists, and heritage authorities can we ensure that cultural heritage sites are preserved in a manner that is respectful and consistent with the cultural heritage and spirituality of the community. Such “approaches” have been used at the other Champa temples in Central Vietnam, as well as in Binh Thuan and Ninh Thuan provinces where the Cham communities still practice their spirituality. I felt that the conservationists looked upon us as a threat to their conservation efforts. The Cham priests were surprised about the conservation works at Po Dam temple, as they had not received any information from the heritage authorities. The priests told the archaeologists that we Cham needed to know what the “conservationists” were doing and why the Cham were excluded from the preservation of a temple they have been looking after for many generations. What would happen if the conservationists changed something and reconstructed the temple incorrectly and inappropriately to the Cham temple? Whose cultural heritage does the site belong to? The Cham custodians who follow a long tradition of caring for the temple through many generations were annoyed by the behavior of these "conservationists" and disapproved of these kinds of conservation approaches.

As aresearcher, I have come to understand that the preservation of cultural heritage is a complex process that involves not just the physical conservation of sites, but also the preservation of cultural traditions, rituals, and values that are associated with these sites. The exclusion of the Cham community from the conservation efforts at Po Dam temple highlights the larger issues surrounding the marginalization of Indigenous communities in the field of heritage management. These communities often possess valuable knowledge about their ancestral heritage and cultural practices, and their involvement in the conservation process can greatly enhance the authenticity and effectiveness of conservation efforts.

Through my work, I strive to promote the idea of community-led conservation, where the voices and perspectives of Indigenous communities are valued and integrated into the decision-making process. This approach can ensure that the heritage sites are conserved in a manner that is consistent with the cultural values and traditions of the community, and that the community remains connected to its ancestral heritage. It is my hope that by highlighting the experiences of the Cham community, I can contribute to the wider discourse on heritage conservation and help promote more inclusive and equitable practices in the field. By working together, we can create a world where the living heritage of all cultures is respected and valued, and where Indigenous communities have a prominent role in the preservation of their ancestral heritage.

Exploring the Evolution of Issues in Living Heritage Conservation and Tourism Development: A Gateway

For more than a decade, the concept of living heritage has been acknowledged as a central component in the definition of heritage. Smith (2006) defines heritage as a process of engagement, communication, and making meaning in the present and for the future, based on shared experiences and memories with one's community. This definition recognizes the interconnection between objects, places, and practices in the past and present across socio-cultural landscapes.

Smith (2006) argues that heritage cannot be defined solely by objects or "things". Instead, heritage is constructed through various cultural and social activities, which give value and meaning to the "things". Only after this value and meaning have been assigned, do the "things" become heritage. Similarly, Harrington (2004) views heritage as not just about the past, but as a connection between the present and a distant time and/or place, with intangible components at its core. UNESCO (2003) also recognizes the significance of intangible cultural heritage in maintaining cultural diversity.

Exploring the Evolution of Issues in Living Heritage Conservation ... 5

The importance of living heritage lies not only in its manifestation but also in its ability to pass knowledge and skills through generations. Scholars such as Bauer et al., (2017) emphasize that intangible cultural heritage represents the traditions, customs, practices, and knowledge recognized by communities, while the term "living heritage" conveys the connection between these intangible cultures, monuments, and sacred sites that have been continuously used for rituals and social interaction (Bauer et al., 2017, p. 96).

International organizations have recognized the importance of considering the full range of spiritual and social values embodied in heritage places since at least the 1990s. The Nara Document on Authenticity (ICOMOS, 1994) highlights the importance of respecting all values, both tangible and intangible, that shape a heritage place. The World Heritage Committee (ICOMOS, 1995) adopted three categories of cultural landscapes to list on the World Heritage List, including “clearly defined landscapes designed and created intentionally by humanity,” “organically evolved landscapes,” and "associative cultural landscapes," where natural landscapes are invested largely or entirely with intangible cultural values.

The associative cultural landscape is defined to include “the powerful religious, artistic, or cultural associations of natural elements rather than only material cultural features" (WHC, 2019). This category recognizes the significance of intangible dimensions of places and the heritage of local communities and Indigenous people (Brown et al., 2005; Buggey, 1999; Róssler, 2005). This shift in heritage management approaches from a focus on tangible aspects to one that includes intangible dimensions (UNESCO, 2013) highlights the importance of the intangible heritage values embedded in the cultural landscapes and physical geographies to which Indigenous peoples give meaning (Buggey, 1999).

The research highlights the need for intangible aspects of heritage to occupy more prominent spaces in legislative language and ruling. Although it is possible to bring intangible values under Criterion VI, they remain apart from this legislation and need to be more prominently recognized. In 1987, the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Central Australia received recognition as a World Heritage site for its outstanding natural heritage values. However, in 1994, its status was expanded to encompass both its natural and cultural values, reflecting the close connections between nature and humanity in the area. This cultural landscape holds a wealth of religious, artistic, and cultural meanings, shaped by the interactions between local communities and the natural environment, as well as by Indigenous ownership, knowledge, and traditional land management practices. The World Heritage Convention acknowledges both cultural and natural forms of heritage, but the protection of living heritage was not explicitly addressed until the adoption of the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (CSICH). The CSICH recognizes the need to preserve cultural heritage that is not tied to a specific place, including oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, knowledge about nature and the universe, and traditional craftsmanship. This intangible cultural heritage is constantly passed down and reinterpreted by communities and groups, and it provides a sense of identity and continuity while also promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity (UNESCO, 2003).

Living heritage is deeply rooted in the cultural traditions and beliefs of Indigenous and local communities. The 2003 Convention emphasizes the importance of these communities in the protection and management of intangible cultural heritage, and it supports cultural practitioners, who are the masters of local traditions, as the primary stewards of these practices. Indigenous leaders working to maintain their traditions are helped to develop a sense of socio-cultural identity, which depends on the sustained interaction between local people and the natural environment (Harrington, 2004, p. 56).

The recognition of the importance of the cultural dimensions of heritage sites is increasingly gaining attention. In 2005, the IUCN and UNESCO conference emphasized that the preservation of sacred sites, cultural landscapes, and traditional agricultural systems cannot be achieved without considering the cultures that have shaped and continue to shape them. Indigenous people, as custodians of sacred sites and holders of traditional knowledge, play a critical role in maintaining both biological and cultural diversity. In the same year, ICCROM defined heritage sites as living spaces where the community is engaged with the place and its significance. Cultural heritage management should not only focus on preserving the material elements of a site, but also consider the local community's values and social issues (ICCROM, 2005).

Kong (2008) conducted a study on the social impacts of conservation and tourism development in two traditional living communities in China and Japan. The results showed that conservation efforts have often been focused on physical elements of heritage sites and ignore their effects on the social well-being of local communities (Kong, 2008). Top-down and expert-based conservation approaches have largely neglected the perspectives of these communities, resulting in a lack of understanding of local cosmologies and cultural perspectives related to heritage preservation. This has led to economic instability and degradation of daily life among local communities (Kong, 2008). Hence, the conservation and management of living heritage sites should be inclusive of local perspectives and enriched by the communities who live and make meaning with such locations (Kong, 2008).

Southeast Asia was the first region where ICCROM launched its Heritage Site Programme in 2003. This program focused on conserving the living dimensions of cultural heritage and involved several countries in the region. The core aim of the program was to establish strong connections between local communities and heritage sites, and it has been successful in highlighting the essential role of the “living” aspects of heritage conservation. Local communities have been involved in the conservation process across Southeast Asia through this program, and critical issues and features of conservation have been explored (Tunprawat, 2009; Wijesuriya, 2008). The program has also presented the living heritage approach as the most practical and efficient solution to the challenges faced in heritage conservation (Tunprawat, 2009).

The undervaluation and marginalization of living heritage, particularly Indigenous living heritage, is a widespread issue in the field of cultural heritage management. Despite its significant social, cultural, and economic values, living heritage is often ignored or even demonized in both local and international systems of heritage

Exploring the Evolution of Issues in Living Heritage Conservation ... 7 management (Bwasiri, 2009; Byrne, 2012, 2014; Karlstróm, 2005; Kwanda, 2010; Miura, 2005). On the other hand, community involvement is considered to be an essential aspect of the preservation of living heritage (Renault & Collange, 2008; Smith, 2012; UNESCO, 2003).

Efforts like the Heritage Site Programme launched by ICCROM in Southeast Asia in 2003 have emphasized the importance of involving local communities in the conservation process and have proven to be effective in highlighting the critical significance of the "living" dimensions of heritage conservation (Tunprawat, 2009; Wijesuriya, 2008). By understanding the features of living heritage, it is possible to foster mutual respect for social, cultural, and human rights and promote the appreciation of cultural diversity (Huong, 2015; Lenzerini, 2011; Logan, 2012; Wijesuriya, 2008; Wijesuriya et al., 2006).

The recognition of the importance of intangible cultural heritage and the role it plays in national development and historical preservation in Vietnam has led to various initiatives aimed at safeguarding and promoting this type of heritage. One of the key initiatives has been the establishment of the National Intangible Cultural Heritage Centre (NICHC) in 2007. The NICHC is responsible for conducting research and collecting data on intangible cultural heritage, as well as organizing activities to promote and preserve this heritage. The Centre has also collaborated with various local and international organizations to raise awareness about the importance of intangible cultural heritage and to develop strategies for its preservation.

Another important initiative has been the establishment of the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage, which aims to document and recognize the significant contributions made by Vietnam's intangible cultural heritage to the country's rich cultural heritage. The List is updated regularly and contains a wide range of intangible cultural heritage items, such as traditional music, dance, oral traditions, and craftsmanship, among others.

In sum, the recognition of the importance of intangible cultural heritage and the role it plays in national development and historical preservation in Vietnam has led to various initiatives aimed at safeguarding and promoting this type of heritage. These initiatives have contributed to the recognition and preservation of the unique cultural heritage of Vietnam and will continue to play an important role in ensuring the survival of these traditions and cultural practices for future generations.

As specified by the Law on Cultural Heritage in Vietnam, all policies aimed at preserving cultural heritage must have a positive impact on the nation's economic and social development (Lask & Herold, 2004). However, the Law does not address the issue of cultural tourism and the strategies necessary to mitigate its negative impact on cultural heritage sites or provide guidelines for sustainable use and maintenance of heritage for future generations (Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, 1996, as cited in Lask & Herold, 2004). To address this, numerous projects have been initiated under the National Target Program to study, document, and collect Vietnamese cultural heritage (Binh, 2001; Van, 2001). In 2009, the 2001 Law was revised to effectively manage intangible cultural heritage in accordance with international standards and practices, and its definition was updated to match the 2003 UNESCO Convention. In this Law, intangible cultural heritage is considered a cultural practice carried on by individuals, groups, or communities known as “cultural carriers" (Salemink, 2012). Thus, the protection and preservation of cultural heritage should be primarily focused on these "cultural carriers" (Salemink, 2012).

In the Vietnamese Law on Cultural Heritage, the term “community” is not explicitly mentioned in the definition of intangible cultural heritage (Giang, 2015). Additionally, this law fails to acknowledge the rights of individuals and communities to participate in discussions and decisions concerning the cultural heritage that they own or preserve (Giang, 2015). Nevertheless, as heritage experts suggest, this type of legislation should not diminish the role of bearers or holders of intangible cultural heritage, as they are the rightful owners of that heritage (Hong, 2015, p. 617).

To effectively identify and classify living heritage that can be protected and maintained by local communities, several criteria need to be considered. These criteria include:

1. The heritage is an integral part of the local community's cultural fabric and daily life;

2. The cultural practices and functions of the heritage are passed down from generation to generation within the local community;

3. The local community plays a role in defining the heritage and it forms part of their ethnic identity;

4. The heritage reflects the cultural diversity and mutual respect between different communities and groups (Hong, 2015, p. 617).

In the field of tourism, sustainable development has been a widely discussed topic since the 1990s as a way to mitigate negative impacts and enhance positive outcomes from tourism activities on society, cultural heritage, and the environment (Bramwell & Lane, 1993, 2012; Buckley, 2012; Sharpley, 2000). Cultural heritage has been recognized as a significant source of economic growth in Vietnam, leading to increased interest from the state in preserving and promoting these resources (Thien, 2017). The concept of sustainable development has been explored from a range of perspectives, including economics, the environment, and local communities (Dat & Huu, 2015; Logan, 1998; Tran & Walter, 2014; Truong et al., 2014). Despite this focus on sustainability, scholars have noted a common issue with a lack of community involvement in the strategic planning process for sustainable development and heritage management (Gilbert et al., 1998; Jansen- Verbeke & Go, 1995; Logan, 1998, 2015; Haley & Haley, 1998). Heritage management experts in Vietnam argue that sustainable development is only achievable when there is a balance of rights and interests among stakeholders, including the local community, who should benefit from the economic and cultural value of their cultural heritage (Larsen, 2015; Logan, 2015). However, in practice, local communities are often not given the opportunity to participate in heritage management activities due to restrictions in heritage management legislation or the traditional customs of their community (Larsen, 2017).

Despite the recognition of the cultural heritage as a potential source of economic development in Vietnam, the impact of conservation policies and regulations on the local communities has been a matter of concern. The concept of “community” is often mentioned in heritage management, but the actual voices and participation of

Exploring the Evolution of Issues in Living Heritage Conservation ... 9 the community are often neglected in the planning and conservation process (Larsen, 2018). Indigenous groups, in particular, are frequently unaware of their rights, and their traditional livelihoods, beliefs, and customs are often disrupted by conservation measures.

Furthermore, government documents and plans for local heritage rarely consider the role of community participation in heritage management. This is exemplified by the forced displacement of local communities from protected heritage areas, where their livelihoods and practices, passed down through generations, were deemed a threat to the heritage values of the sites (Dung, 2015). This lack of consideration for community perspectives highlights the need for more inclusive and participatory approaches in heritage management, which take into account the needs and rights of local communities and their relationship with their cultural heritage.

It is crucial for the government to recognize the relationship between cultural heritage and the communities that practice and preserve it. The absence of community participation in the decision-making process has led to the marginalization of local people and the disregard for their cultural practices, livelihoods, and beliefs (Giang, 2015). The failure to incorporate community perspectives in heritage management has resulted in the loss of important cultural traditions and livelihoods, which is against the principles of sustainable heritage development (Larsen, 2018). Therefore, it is imperative for the government to revise its cultural heritage laws and policies to ensure that the community is adequately represented and has a voice in decisions concerning their cultural heritage. The legislation must be revised to reflect the rights andinterests of the communities and to ensure their active participation in the heritage management process. It is essential to establish a legal framework that upholds these rights and creates a balance between heritage conservation and the rights of local communities (Logan, 2015). The implementation of these policies can lead to the sustainable preservation and promotion of cultural heritage, which will benefit not only the communities but also the country as a whole.

These challenges highlight the need for a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to heritage conservation in Vietnam that considers the perspectives, needs, and rights of local communities. The involvement of communities in the decisionmaking process and the allocation of benefits from heritage tourism should be prioritized in order to ensure that heritage conservation not only protects cultural assets, but also contributes to sustainable development and the well-being of local communities. To achieve this, there is a need for a shift in the current approach to heritage conservation, from a top-down, state-centered approach to a participatory and community-led approach that recognizes the rights of local communities to their cultural heritage and the resources that it provides. The government and other stakeholders should work together to create a policy and legal framework that recognizes and protects the rights of local communities and ensures their participation in decision-making processes related to heritage conservation. This can be achieved through consultations with local communities, the development of participatory planning processes, and the establishment of clear mechanisms for the distribution of benefits from heritage tourism.

The community's participation in cultural practices associated with heritage sites in Vietnam has been facing a number of challenges, as evidenced by multiple studies (Giang, 2015; Kong, 2008; Larsen, 2015, 2017; Logan, 2015; Spenceley et al., 2017). Despite the recognition of human rights to livelihood in legal documents relating to heritage sites, there is a lack of protection for human rights to participate in planning and decision-making or to have access to justice and development (Larsen, 2017). The Cultural Heritage Law does not sufficiently link heritage to human beings, which exacerbates these issues.

Furthermore, scholars have pointed out that the economic benefits generated from tourism are not equitably shared with cultural owners of heritage, leading to unequal community rights related to their heritage (Hoa, 2005; Kong, 2008; Lask & Herold, 2004; Le, 2015; Logan, 2015; Spenceley et al., 2017; Tran & Walter, 2014). The authorities may claim that they are providing benefits for local communities, but the ways in which those benefits are shared are often unclear and not based on specific objectives or mechanisms for implementation. The Heritage Management Board has not established clear management mechanisms to ensure community representation in decision-making, and many cases in Vietnam, such as the Phong Nha World Heritage Site, have shown that the majority of the income generated from tourism is used for staff salaries and contributions to the federal and provincial budget, with only a small portion being invested in local communities (Larsen, 2015, 2017).