Analyzing meaning

Front matter

Analyzing meaning

An introduction to semantics and pragmatics

Third edition

Preface

Abbreviations

I Foundational concepts

1 The meaning of meaning 1.1 Semantics and pragmatics zuweisen oO eS 1.2 Three “levels” of meaning... . o.o aaa aaa 1.4 What does mean mean? ... ae 1.6 “More lies ahead” (a roadmap) . .. o.oo

2 Referring, denoting, and expressing 2.1 Talking about the world... . 22 eda ee beg te ee eS

2.5, Types of referring expressions 4-2 .. w era Kuna Sarah 2.4 Sense vs. denotation . . .. 22% Sy Hae ar 2232 AMPIU ar Gok Beets eet Seng) een Sat Be Bee BAe

Independence .. EL ee oe eo ea eS Nondisplaceability =... was 2. os ass ae Sy PUES, eds Sates eae at en ae Descriptive ineffability . 4.0.54 22 028.4 2.00%

2:7. < Conclusion #-.% was ae ed ee wee ae a eg

3 Truth and inference 3.2 Analytic sentences, synthetic sentences, and contradictions. . .

Xi

II ii

3.3. Meaning relations between propositions 3.4 Presupposition

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3

4.1 What logic can do for you yasni Se SR 4.2 Valid patterns of inference .. .. aoaaa 4.3 Propositional logic . . . ai af aan

4.3.1 4.3.2

Propositional operators . .. ooa a

419. 1: Predicate logiC 3 s toes irs u Sd el ee QOH BOR ERY

4.4.1 4.4.2

Scope ambiguities. . . . 413-402 sr a ne

4:5. “COnclusiOn: 42:9 3.4.13 da ee ee es ae a

Word meanings

5.3.1 5.3.2

5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5

Distinguishing ambiguity from vagueness and

indeterminacy . . . en rh Te ah cg RS en COME SENSE Ara time oia Achy) preci wna kt Ge ae, Godoy. i

5.4.1 5.4.2

Figurative senses . 6 ose Bs nase a

5:5 “Facets” of meanidg sesa Pk athe De Beng awe ae Ge BiG © WONG GION rs 4) 9gs.2 css cake gk a ne OS Ge ngs Bie ee oes ed

Pragmatic vs. semantic aspects of presupposition ... . 3.5 Conclusion

62.1. . SOV MOUVINS 2 2.2.0.2 ne ee ae Beal Gal Sb la tn 106 6:2:2 Antonyms 5.5. 2 Gos ae es er 107 O24 -IMePONVIMNys: o,f. 4s wa on wa oes Gop hod yg 113 6:4 -Conclusion 2.3.4 2024.42 2 5 a os ee Er EG oe AS 115 7 Components of lexical meaning 117 71. "Mntrodneblon Ya eos Six oak aa a op eat te Go Bs a es 117 7.2 Lexical entailments „ar we AN a ace bok Ne a 118 7:3: Selectional restrictions 2 Su. aoa Poe te es SN SG 119 7.4 Componential analysis: .. .. 3 24. Bodo wo Be eS 122 23 Vet meanings; zes ee Ge SOR MLS Ge ee 124 TO COMCIUSION:: Ae eeg 4.528 2 Bi oO eS Ele Bs a ie 129 II Implicature 133 8 Grice’s theory of implicature 135 8:7. CONCIISION ra Begs. ae othe ius wien 150 9 Pragmatic inference after Grice 155 9.1 Introduction ... Be da, age deer ee Ao hoy Se Ge dere AR 155 9.2.2 ‘Op the ambiguity of or uns xf tua Se Se ee eG 159 9.3 Explicatures: Bridging the gap between what is said vs. what is imnpheated.. Du. olay pene: eet ade ate ee HD Re 161 98: -Conclusion Sy 2... ee Pe) HE i ee ye A 169 iii

Introduction „er Ca? yk eles ee Oy lets Deh wie ont a? Pérformatives, See A ecw ld Be ee ed Indirect speech. acts se ar eA ele ee ale Se ee ee EA CONTI iit: ee bos hte ey Se ie Be OS a

11.1 11.2

Introduction .. aaa hat, Fe Ge eae ess 11.2.1 Diagnostic properties of use-conditional meaning... . Japanėse honorifics ops G a, 2er Conclusio is sets NENNEN Es

IV Compositional semantics

Introduction + Sp ee SR a ee whe vas Two simple examples 4 wur eis 8 east Propositional attitudes 3.554482 2a es a oe ew ee Ss De dicto vs. de re ambiguity . . . Vase Be OO a Conclüsio ns seat ren A ee ES iv

13.1 13.2 13.3

13.4 13.5 13.6

Introduction .. aaa Benched a pe ee ST eh Sc Basic concepts in set theory 4. ee Truth relative to a model ... oaaae Rules of interpretation .. .. u er ma er ae Conclusio Ne a2 2 Hea et e Se ee els

Introduchon, ze 2.550 Pah ar te ae WE a eth gece oh Sy Wh el poe Onantitiers in logical form = 4.2 ewe Des aa Two types of quantifiers: „au..4 fon Ser Scope ambiguities gros. ay Mr ae Sout Se Bos Soe See & CONCIMSION! fs. See er nd Ben

Intródüction: s 3. pak ae a al eh oe ein E as cn Other intensional contexts „a3 ak Bx 24 2 en CGonélüsiðn seisot eo ee ae Ba

V Modals, conditionals, and causation

16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4

16.5 16.6

16.7

The range of modal meanings: Strength vs. type of modality . . Are modals polysemous? „+4 »4.: 2322 Sexe 2er a 16.4.2 Kratzer’s analysis 2.0 Des our st Bele ay Gew Cross-linguistic variation . . 4.2... 0 aoe So ee a BK Conclusión sh ence Se WS we ae Gate, we Se ba

Markers that indicate the speaker’s source of information. . . . Distinguishing evidentiality from tense and modality .... Two types of evidentials un... 2: are

17.6

CONCESSION: A of entry “es Sey we Gee TE oe

VI

Introduction “4500 x ate SY ea is weds A ES

Subordinate vs. paratactic because in English .. . . COnClUSIOW ese e ee ee to Gee po ae Eee

TICE USES OL: 224 3.3 way are Bu Bee If as a restrictor aan segue ae Stele an Conelusons 4. reden

Tense & aspect

20.1 Introduction 2:4 ar See ee We Ge: Ae ee 20.3 Time of speaking, time of situation, and “topic time” 20.4.2 Imperfective aspect in Mandarin Chinese . 20.5 Interactions between situation type (Aktionsart) and grammatical aspect .. =. wo Pe ee ta 20:7 Conelusion:» 44.4% 0:22: oo eR Ow fen 21 Tense 21:1. »mtroduchon. zu, Ans sen eee ele Se A vi

21:4 Relative tense: secor d a Sana wach Se Ses Be ee aS 407

21,6: Conclusiones s rss Se pa GA ok Sek ER BS A 419

22 Varieties of the perfect 423 22.1 Introduction: PERFECT VS. PERFECTIVE . . 2... 222200. 423 22.2 Uses of the perfect I nu a esse re aa 424 22.3.1 The present perfect puzzle . .. ose oye 8 426

22.4 Arguments for polysemous aspectual senses of the English perfect 430 22.7 Conëlysiðn a en Riad Bag denen esto Hon Bede Be ee RAR 443 References 449 Index 471 N arte Inder tvs: Sf oe eG A ge eee e's Be ew S 471 TU ABE TIGER Ds Sr ce’ Soca pS fon Gove, Ser Sale he eat ae ob lat gs Bese Sale ae 477 vil

Preface

This book provides an introduction to the study of meaning in human language, from a linguistic perspective. It covers a fairly broad range of topics, including lexical semantics, compositional semantics, and pragmatics. The approach is largely descriptive and non-formal, although some basic logical notation is introduced.

The book is written at level which should be appropriate for advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate students. It presupposes some previous coursework in linguistics, including at least a full semester of morpho-syntax and some familiarity with phonological concepts and terminology. It does not presuppose any previous background in formal logic or set theory.

Semantics and pragmatics are both enormous fields, and an introduction to either can easily fill an entire semester (and typically does); so it is no easy matter to give a reasonable introduction to both fields in a single course. However, I believe there are good reasons to teach them together.

In order to cover such a broad range of topics in relatively little space, I have not been able to provide as much depth as I would have liked in any of them. As the title indicates, this book is truly an INTRODUCTION: it attempts to provide students with a solid foundation which will prepare them to take more advanced and specialized courses in semantics and/or pragmatics. It is also intended as a reference for fieldworkers doing primary research on under-documented languages, to help them write grammatical descriptions that deal carefully and clearly with semantic issues. (This has been a weak point in many descriptive grammars.) At several points I have also pointed out the relevance of the material being discussed to practical applications such as translation and lexicography, but due to limitations of space this is not a major focus of attention.

The book is organized into six Units: (I) Foundational concepts; (II) Word meanings; (III) Implicature (including indirect speech acts); (IV) Compositional semantics; (V) Modals, conditionals, and causation; (VI) Tense & aspect. The sequence of chapters is important; in general, each chapter draws fairly heavily on preceding chapters. The book is intended to be teachable in a typical one-semester course module. However, if the instructor needs to reduce the amount of material to be covered, it would be possible to skip Chapters 6 (Lexical sense relations), 15 (Intensional contexts), 17 (Evidentiality), and/or 22 (Varieties of the perfect)

without seriously affecting the students’ comprehension of the other chapters. Alternatively, one might skip the entire last section, on tense & aspect.

Most of the chapters (after the first) include exercises which are labeled as being for “Discussion” or “Homework”, depending on how I have used them in my own teaching. (Of course other instructors are free to use them in any way that seems best to them.) A few chapters have only “Discussion exercises”, and two (Chapters 15 and 17) have no exercises at all in the current version of the book. Additional exercises for many of the topics covered here can be found in Saeed (2009) and Kearns (2000).