Recognizing Green Skills Through Non-formal Learning

Front matter

Education for Sustainability 5

Margarita Pavlova Madhu Singh Editors

Recognizing Green Skills Through Non-formal Learning

Contents

PartI Debate on the Need for Green Skills Inclusion in the Recognition, Validation and Accreditation (RVA) Framework

1 Introduction: Unpacking Greening and Skills Recognition Margarita Pavlova

2 Overview of the Regional Practices and Challenges Margarita Pavlova

Part II Case Studies from Asia: Environmentally Friendly Practices and RVA Applications

4 Case Study: Bangladesh. The Demand Side of Environmental Faruque A. Haolader and Shahadat H. Khan

5 Case Study: People’s Republic of China. Utilising Workers’ Skills for Improving Green Competitiveness to Address Zheng Gangqiang

6 Case Study: Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People’s Republic of China. Realities of MSME: What Green Margarita Pavlova xii Contents

7 Case Study: India. The Role of the Skill Council for Green Jobs (SCGJ) in Recognising Green Skills and Upskilling Tanmay Bishnoi and Deepak Kumar Rai

8 Case Study: Kazakhstan. Educational Challenges Zhanbol O. Zhilbaev, Lyailya S. Syrymbetova, Gaini K. Dlimbetova, and Aiman Y. Aliyeva

9 Case Study: Malaysia. Recognising Green Skills in Non-formal Learning Setngs osccisieodosierreiitor ine ritas eroe aediad 167 Sarimah Ismail, Nornazira Suhairom, Aede Hatib Musta’ mal, Muhammad Sukri Saud, Yusri Kamin, and Mohammad Khair Noordin

10 Case Study: Nepal. The Inclusion of Green Competences Ramhari Lamichhane and Manoj Sharma Neupane

11 Case Study: Philippines. Recognising Green Skills for Environmental and Sustainable Development in Four Selected INdushies 4.:2%o5-0¢ 40149 25ico4niredes aks NEENA ERAS 211 Elmer Talavera

Part III Identifying Patterns and Building Blocks in Green Skills Inclusion in RVA 12 Increasing Awareness: Good Practices to Promote Skills Madhu Singh

13 Recommendations for Supporting Green Skills Inclusion T a T TT N ET N TT 253 Margarita Pavlova and Madhu Singh

Part I

Debate on the Need for Green Skills Inclusion in the Recognition, Validation and Accreditation (RVA) Framework

Chapter 1 A) Introduction: Unpacking Greening get and Skills Recognition in Micro, Small

and Medium Enterprises

Margarita Pavlova

Abstract This first chapter presents the nature of the regional research study on recognising green skills through non-formal learning across seven countries and one territory in Asia and the Pacific Region (APR), the methodology and approach to data collection, and the analytical framework. Furthermore, this chapter establishes the rationale for the book by detailing the argument that implementation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including the key aspects of sustainable development and lifelong learning, is closely related to green skills development and recognition in enterprises. As such, the two starting points for this study are the invisibility of the decisive role of micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) (definition included in the glossary) in promoting green practices and green skills development, and the need for making visible the invisible outcomes of workers’ participation in learning activities through green skills recognition (definition included in the glossary). This chapter also introduces the analytical framework that is used in the study to develop a holistic understanding of the principles and approaches required for green skills recognition. To frame the analyses presented in Chap. 2 of the book and the model presented in Part II, macro, meso, and micro-levels are included in this framework: political decisions and policies that countries, and, in the context of this study, one territory, use to move towards green transition and greening of education and training; the role of standards, learning outcomes, and quality assurance mechanisms related to green skills and their inclusion in RVA; and actions at the level of enterprises.

Keywords Sustainable development goals (SDGs) - Lifelong learning - Green skills development - Green skills recognition + MSMEs

Foreword

This book is the result of a regional research study initiated by the Education University of Hong Kong (EduHK), a UNEVOC Centre, and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in Hamburg, Germany. The project, “The inclusion of green

M. Pavlova (EX) The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China e-mail: mpavlova@ eduhk.hk

© The Author(s) 2022 3 M. Pavlova and M. Singh (eds.), Recognizing Green Skills Through Non-formal Learning, Education for Sustainability 5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2072-1_1 skills in the recognition, validation, and accreditation (RVA) of outcomes of non-formal and informal learning: A comparative study in Asia and the Pacific Region” was implemented by selected technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions and some UNEVOC Network members between 2015 and 2017 in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, the Philippines, and one territory, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR), PRC, as well as by other organisations from Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, and Kazakhstan. The research team, led by Margarita Pavlova and Madhu Singh, comprised representatives from each participating country or territory and included university academics and representatives from government organisations. Their governments increasingly view research as an important foundation for evidence-based policy-making. Therefore, a productive research collaboration between seven countries and one territory through this study served as a regional platform for sharing current practices in greening industries and discussing the ways greening of skills required for this restructuring can be developed and recognised. Thus, this study can be viewed as an essential enabler for supporting green economic restructuring (definition included in the glossary) via the development of a model that can inform government policies in the region on green skills recognition through mechanisms such as RVA.

1.1 Rationale

The study reported in this book contributes to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly that have been crafted to replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) goals. The SDG targets and indicators measure countries’ success across 17 areas of development. The recently published Asia and the Pacific SDG Progress Report 2020 (ESCAP 2020) assessed the progress towards these Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets in the region and stated that “the region’s lack of progress on environmental sustainability is striking. To achieve its 2030 ambitions, the region needs to significantly accelerate its progress or reverse trends on most of the measurable environmental targets. Among the top priority targets are the ones related to climate action, including energy efficiency and the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, climaterelated hazards and natural disasters, air quality and waste management in cities, and the impact of human activities on marine and coastal ecosystems” (ESCAP 2020). Although many factors have contributed to these results, it is important to acknowledge the role of industry in terms of its impact on the environment. According to a 2016 UNESCO regional review of TVET progress in the APR titled “Enhancing Relevance in TVET. Review of Progress in the Asia—Pacific since 2012: Enhancing Relevance in TVET—Review of Progress in the Asia—Pacific since 2012” (UNESCO 2016), the main barriers to progress on environmental sustainability are the lack of knowledge and/or technical capacity on how to develop environmentally friendly practices, lack of funds, and lack of information about the knowledge, skills, and competencies required for green jobs (definition included in the glossary). In particular, the report states that “employers in many South-East Asia, South Asia, and Pacific countries assign a relatively low value to sustainability skills, such as resource efficiency and waste reduction” (UNESCO 2016). The cumulative impact of industries, as well as electricity and heat production, agriculture, transport, and buildings as measured by CO, generation, was equivalent to 49 gigatonnes in 2010 in the form of direct and indirect emissions (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2014). Therefore, the use of environmentally friendly practices by the companies plays a crucial role in improving environmental sustainability in the region.

Green skills development (or greening of skills in short) in the context of lifelong learning, which underpins many SDGs, goes hand-in-hand with environmental protection and climate change-related measures, as well as inclusive economic growth and decent work for all. Greening of skills is one of the focus areas for technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in UNESCO’s 2030 education agenda. More specifically, the development of green skills (definition included in the glossary) in the APR is particularly urgent given the general shortage of such skills in the region. The 2015 TVET progress review report highlights that “employers [in the APR] cite difficulties finding candidates with relevant technical skills and competencies, industry-specific certifications, and/or professional qualifications, and many consider TVET graduates’ problem solving/analytical skills and critical/creative thinking skills to fall below their job requirements” (UNESCO 2016, p. 23). There is, therefore, a clear need to align TVET training more closely with labour-market requirements, particularly in areas where there are critical skills shortages, such as “green skills and ICT skills area” (UNESCO 2016, p. 25). At the same time, the region’s vulnerabilities in the overall green skills development (definition included in the glossary) effort should be acknowledged. Most of the places lagging behind in terms of green skills training provision are low- and lower-middle-income countries in the Pacific and South Asia, the two sub-regions most vulnerable to climate change impacts. Therefore, if greening TVET (definition included in the glossary) has the potential to accelerate economic growth and productivity, reduce poverty and unemployment, and address environmental problems, while only some countries have the resources to green TVET, the economic, social, and environmental gaps between countries are likely to deepen (UNESCO 2016).

Green skills can be developed through formal, non-formal, and informal learning (definitions included in the glossary) in support of governments’ commitment to greening the economy. And they should be a part of lifelong learning (definition included in the glossary) that is designed to ensure that “all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development” (Hinzen and Schmitt 2016, p. 10).

As early as 2017, the UN Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth, Jayathma Wickramanayake, pointed out that “without skilled and employable young people, our chances of achieving the [Sustainable] Goals are greatly diminished”.! Thus, considering that the development of skills is essential for implementing all SDGs, this research is thereby crucial in moving the SDG agenda forward. Among the reasons for initiating this study were two key issues in particular.

The decisive role MSMEs play in green practices and green skills development

Solutions for diverse global problems can be often found in specific country contexts. MSMEs are the backbone of the economy for many countries, which is why the research study presented in this book takes up the issue of the decisive role that MSMEs of the formal and informal economies must play in contributing to environmentally sustainable development and promoting green skills. The ability of employees and employers to manage changing environmental requirements flexibly has become a decisive ethical, attitudinal, and valuable foundation on which sustainable development depends as well as the future sustainability of decent work. However, many of these skills, attitudes, and values are not acquired in formal settings such as schools or colleges, but by informal and non-formal means, on the job in the workplace, and through practice-based learning. Often these skills remain invisible or may lead to qualifications that are not formally recognised by authorities.

Making visible the invisible: Recognition of outcomes of workers’ learning in the context of green economic restructuring

One of the objectives of this research has been to raise awareness about what education beyond formal education might entail, and for people to give thought to the meanings of terms such as “lifelong learning” and “recognising learning in non-formal and informal settings”. In response to the call for green skills to be made more visible, the study presented in this book looks at how green skills can be included in RVA mechanisms in the public systems as well as in MSMEs and industries mainly employing TVET graduates. This research does not focus on the development of green skills.

The development of procedures for the recording, validating, and recognising skills; prior learning; and work experience obtained in non-formal and informal settings, together with the implementation of the UNESCO Guidelines for Recognition, Validation, and Accreditation of the Outcomes of Non-formal and Informal Learning (UIL 2012), have been defined at the global level by UNESCO as key strategies to make visible and give value to the hidden and unrecognised competences” that individuals have attained in various settings and to promote lifelong learning. This is the first study that looks at RVA in the context of promoting environmental sustainability.

' Statement by the UN Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth, Jayathma Wickramanayake, at the 3rd annual World Youth Skills Day under the theme: “Skills for the Future of Work” on July, 17 2017: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/07/with-relevant-skillsyouth-can-help-accelerate-progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals/.

? Skills in this research are interpreted in a broad sense and thus used interchangeably with competencies.

1.2 Aims

The research study aimed to explore environmentally friendly practices in MSMEs in four industries (automotive, catering, PVC manufacturing, and waste management), the extent to which green skills are embedded in these practices, and the ways RVA mechanisms are viewed and used by MSMEs. The outcomes of the research were intended to map environmentally friendly practices in the four industries, identify mechanisms used to recognise and assess existing skills, and identify factors and principles for effective green skills inclusion in RVA mechanisms to ensure that Asia and the Pacific Region (APR) is moving towards a sustainable future. In addition, the results of the study can be extended to benefit similar research in other geographical regions.

1.3 Terminology and Definitions Across the Cases Under Study

1.3.1 Green Skills and Greening

The “greening” of all industry sectors is important if we are to decrease environmental impacts and support progress towards the SDGs. The framework for this study links greening practices with the skills that are required to implement these practices. This section examines the interpretation of green skills and “greening” terminology that frame this study and highlights some insights from it.

The “greening” of business and industry or green economic restructuring refers to initiatives that promote economic growth but decrease environmental impacts by applying operational practices that reduce the use of materials, energy, and water and minimise waste and emissions. Therefore, greening refers to ways of moving away from traditional production processes, services, or organisational arrangements to production processes, services, or organisational arrangements that have a reduced environmental impact.

For this study, a broad interpretation of green skills is adopted: “Green skills are those skills needed to reduce environmental impacts and support economic restructuring with the purpose of attaining cleaner, more climate-resilient, and efficient economies that preserve environmental sustainability and provide decent work conditions”.* As argued elsewhere (e.g. Pavlova 2018), research into green skills emerged after 2009 when the need to understand the nature of skills that can support green restructuring was identified. The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) was among the first to suggest a differentiation between generic (similar across different occupations) and specific (relevant to a particular occupation) green skills (2010). In this study, the term skills is used in a broad sense

3 For full discussion on green skills, see Pavlova (2017a, b).

and refers to the ability to apply knowledge, use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems, and carry out the tasks that comprise a particular job (Cedefop); it is, therefore, very close to the concept of competencies and incorporates knowledge in its definition.*

The classification of generic green skills suggested by Pavlova (2014) is based on OECD (2013) categories of generic skills and a list of generic green skills proposed by Strietska-Ilina et al. (2011). It includes the following:

e cognitive competencies (e.g. environmental awareness and a willingness to learn about sustainable development; systems and risk analysis skills; innovation skills to identify opportunities and create new strategies to respond to green challenges);

e inter-personal skills (e.g. coordination, management, and business skills to facilitate holistic and interdisciplinary approaches that encompass economic, social, and ecological objectives; communication and negotiation skills for discussion of conflicting interests in complex contexts; marketing skills to promote greener products and services);

e jintra-personal competencies (e.g. adaptability and transferable skills to enable workers to learn and apply new technologies and processes required to green their jobs; entrepreneurial skills to seize opportunities presented by low-carbon technologies) (Pavlova 2014).

Generic green skills identified above align with the key competencies or “soft” skills employers already recognise as crucial for a modern workforce—but, importantly, they are also contextualised within the perspective of environmental awareness and an understanding of sustainable development (Pavlova 2017b).

The fourth component of the generic green skills classification, which is labelled technological skills, refers to environmentally friendly processes that are similar across different sectors:

Quantification and monitoring (waste, energy, and water). Management systems (waste, energy, and water).

Procurement and selection.

Material use and impact quantification.

Impact and use minimisation.

Impact assessment.

Risk management (Per Capita 2010).

This list of generic skills, in relation to “green processes”, is the result of an analysis of greening approaches used in Denmark, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Per Capita 2010).

4 However, in a narrow sense, skills are confined to “technical capacity”.

5 The term soft skills refers to inter-personal or “people” skills. Examples include behaving with respect (verbally and non-verbally) towards colleagues, being a good listener, and being helpful. Soft skills are complemented by hard skills, which are related to job content and are acquired by formal education, apprenticeships and internships, on-the-job training, etc.

Generic green skills described above under four categories are required for the workforce to understand issues of green economic restructuring, to interpret environmental legislation, to adopt processes that limit environmental impact, to be proactive in seizing opportunities that emerge due to the greening of economies, and to find solutions required for greening practices. Generic green skills include general knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, and they are necessary for contributing to sustainable social, economic, and environmental development in any job (level two in Fig. 1.1). The development of generic green skills is important for the greening of all industries, as they enable a person to develop a green mindset, apply generic (soft) skills within environmental context, and adopt generic green operational practices that minimise environmental impacts.

The proposed four-category analytical framework for the classification of generic green skills (for more details, see Pavlova 2018) forms part of the typology of green skills suggested by Pavlova (2017b) that is based on a positive attitude towards sustainability and the development of green mind-sets (Fig. 1.1). Pavlova (2016) indicates that attitudes and values should be viewed as an essential element of green skills.

In addition, green skills include topping-up skills for greening all occupations and specific green skills for new green occupations (in such green industries as waste and water management, renewable energy, eco-tourism, and environmental consulting services)—third and fourth levels in Fig. 1.1. This model also suggests that generic green skills and green skills top-up are required for the greening of all occupations—and for green occupations, additional specific green skills are needed. The need for topping-up skills is usually associated with the introduction of green technologies and processes in industries and service sectors.

Fig. 1.1 Typology of green Typology of Green Skills skills. Source Author y

Specilic green skills for new occupations (New Skills)

Topping up skills

\ for greening existing occupations bw | &

Generic skills within Generic technological environmental context processes for greening

Positive attitude towads sustainability; Green Mindsets

© Paviova 2017

The concept of a green economy was first introduced with Pearce et al.’s (1989) Blueprint for a green economy for the UK Department of the Environment (Georgeson et al. 2017, p. 3). In 2008, in the context of the financial crisis and fears of a global recession, the term was revived and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) championed the idea of “green stimulus packages” and identified specific areas where large-scale public investment could kick-start a “green economy” (Atkisson 2012). Although there is no internationally agreed definition of the green economy, the definition provided by UNEP in its 2011 Green Economy Report has been the most commonly used in recent publications (definition included in the glossary).

In this study, the notions of green skills and the green economy are closely related, and green skills are key factors in the development of green economies. Most of the case studies, including Kazakhstan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, India, and Nepal, adopt a similar understanding of green skills—skills that are not limited to professional or technical skills but are interpreted as a set of competencies that may include knowledge, values, and positive attitudes towards environmentally friendly practices. For example, Kazakhstan defines green skills from the concept of a green economy that places a strong value on welfare and social justice while emphasising a significant reduction in environmental risks and depletion.

Within this broad conceptualisation of green skills, different countries demonstrate specificities in their interpretation of the term green skills. Malaysia’s strong focus on green technology means that green skills are often understood as being directly related to that particular sector. Generally, and across countries, green skills are viewed as an ability of employees to perform activities that could lead to a reduction in pollution and a cleaner environment. In the People’s Republic of China, green skills are seen as a requirement for all jobs, including the development of technical skills for sustainable products and services as well as non-technical skills (i.e. communication, negotiation, and support of sustainable business practices) to carry out the appropriate organisational change. India defines green skills as a means of promoting green jobs, with a view that it is essential for green skills to be integrated into wider training and skills development policy rather than being an additional, standalone subject separate from other forms of skills development. In Kazakhstan, green skills are related to actions aimed at reducing energy consumption, protecting ecosystems and biodiversity, and minimising pollution emissions and waste; they simultaneously require a high level of environmental competency, together with environmental knowledge and social and professionally significant qualities of a person.

1.3.2 Different Nomenclature for Skills Recognition

UNESCO uses the acronym RVA to refer to recognition, validation, and accreditation of outcomes from non-formal and informal learning. According to the UNESCO Guidelines (2012), recognition is a process of granting official status to learning outcomes and/or competences, which can lead to the acknowledgement of their value in society. Validation is the confirmation by an official body that learning competences acquired by an individual have been assessed against reference points or standards through pre-defined assessment methodologies. Accreditation is a process by which an officially approved body, based on the assessment of learning outcomes and/or competences awards qualifications or grants equivalences, credits units or exemptions, or issues documents such as portfolios of competences. In some cases, the term accreditation applies to the evaluation of the quality of an institution or a programme as a whole.

A wide variety of other terms tend to be used for skills recognition across countries. In the USA, for example, RVA is referred to as prior learning assessment and recognition (PLAR). In the UK, the terms accreditation of prior learning (APL) and accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL) are used. In the seven countries and one territory surveyed for this study, the term recognition of prior learning (RPL) is used. According to the Australian quality-training framework, “Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) means recognition of competences currently held, regardless of how, when or where the learning occurred” (ANTA 2001, p. 9). Although the official term used in India is RPL, some recognition practitioners in industrial settings dispute this term, arguing that “competences” are more relevant in enterprises and industrial settings than “learning” (Saxena 2015).

1.4 Methodology

The study had three phases for each country or territory: Phase | consisted of identifying and analysing policies and legislations relevant to environmental protection and RVA, standards, regulatory processes, and quality assurance mechanisms in the selected seven countries and one territory; Phase 2 consisted of identifying participants, conducting interviews and observations with industry, and analysing data; and Phase 3 consisted of identifying existing patterns and developing recommendations for a model of inclusion of green skills into RVA.

The development of the research study was a collaborative and iterative process between two lead researchers, Margarita Pavlova and Madhu Singh, and research team leaders from each participating country or territory. They were the core of three focus groups that were integral to the study. In addition, research teams that hosted these meetings invited scholars and practitioners involved in green economic restructuring, green skills development, and RVA processes. During this study, three focus group discussions formed the basis for the development of building blocks and recommendations that aim to guide policy and practice on green skills inclusion in RVA. Each meeting lasted for 2 days that supported intensive interactions among teams and experts. The first focus group discussion was held in Hong Kong SAR, PRC, and was hosted by the Education University of Hong Kong in August 2015. This was followed by a second focus group discussion in August 2016 hosted by the UIL in Hamburg. The third meeting took place in Manila, in the Philippines, in

September 2017 and was hosted by the Colombo Plan Staff College (CPSC) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).

Focus group discussions promoted clarity and consensus on rationale, aims, and methodology. In addition, they allowed participants to share their case studies at different stages of the project and learn through presentation, exercises, and group work. The discussions not only highlighted the diverse ways in which government policies, industry practices, and educational approaches were working to achieve the greening of economies and lifelong learning through a variety of RVA models, but how the status of RVA varied across countries and enterprises. The results of the third focus group discussion are presented in Part II.2. It was aimed at developing recommendations for supporting green skills inclusion in RVA and was based on the results collected through the case studies.

Four industries were selected for this study: automotive, catering, PVC manufacturing, and waste management,° representing both the service and manufacturing sectors. They were selected as they have the potential to mitigate the negative effects of environmental degradation as well as play a role in the greening of industries and economies. To evaluate current practices in selected industries, this study applied a qualitative research methodology that aimed to understand aspects of MSME operations and their views on currently little-known issues of greening and RVA.

The research used a case study approach to investigate practices and perspectives in areal-life context, using multiple primary and secondary sources of evidence, such as interviews with MSMEs representatives, observations of environmentally friendly practices of MSMEs, and the analysis of relevant documents such as laws, policies, and industry regulations that enabled a detailed examination of issues related to the greening of economies, the required development of skills, and their recognition. Each case study was conducted using the instruments for data collection developed by EduHK and UIL, adapted within the setting. The researchers conducting case studies followed internal ethics procedures relevant to the study context. For all enterprises, participation was on a voluntary basis.

1.4.1 Selection of Enterprises

Each country or territory used the same approach for data collection, with some contextualisation. Researchers were asked to visit eight enterprises in each of the four industries: automotive, catering, PVC production, and waste management (32 in total). Of these enterprises, four had to be small- to medium-sized enterprises in a formal sector and the other four had to be micro-enterprises in the informal sector. Table 1.1 presents the actual number of enterprises visited and interviewed in

6 Although these four industries were targeted, some research teams were not able to reach out to some industries due to absence of such companies in particular locations or limited resources available to research teams. In case of India, renewable industry sector was added as a priority area for greening economy in this country.

Table 1.1 Number of enterprises interviewed in each industry sector

Country/territory | Total no. of | Automotive | Catering | PVC Waste enterprises manufacture | management

Bangladesh 30 13 15 0 2

People’s Republic | 32 8 8 8 8

of China

Hong Kong SAR, 16 4 8 0 4

PRC

Kazakhstan 12 4 4 0

Malaysia 5 2 2 1

Nepal 20 8 4 6 è India included 25 enterprises from the renewable energy sector Source Author each country or territory: although the cases are not identical in terms of size, they present rich contextualised data that are useful for addressing the aims of the study and increasing the understanding of micro-level realities. The intention was not to compare one country or territory to another but to develop a model that can help governments to ensure the role of MSMEs in greening economies and the role of RVA in these processes.

The following definitions were applied for the identification of companies:

e Formal enterprises are regulated by labour laws, whereas informal enterprises are unregulated.

e Micro-enterprises are composed of between two to ten workers, whereas small and medium enterprises (SMEs) consist of more than ten employees.

Hence, this methodology focused on data collection from MSMEs in both formal and informal settings to understand their greening practices and recognition of on-the-job learning. Further details on the companies are presented in Table 1.2.

1.4.2 Data Collection Methods

The use of interviews and observation as primary data collection approaches in this study was determined by its qualitative nature, which sought to understand the experiences, different perspectives, and attitudes of MSMEs. Thus, both the attitudes and understandings of employers and managers and practices in real-work environments were investigated. In exploring attitudes and knowledge of individuals, we used the interview method, which is recommended for evaluating attitudes in relation to

Table 1.2 Enterprise profile

Country/territory Total no. of enterprises | No. of employees across | Formal | Informal all enterprises

Bangladesh 30 974 13 17

People’s Republic of | 32 785 16 16

China

Hong Kong SAR, 16 327 12 4

PRC

Kazakhstan 12 26> 6

Malaysia 5 48 3 2 à The number interviewed > Only the formal enterprises Source Author particular issues (see Bird 2009). According to Patton (2005), interviews enable the observation of behaviours that may be hard to observe directly. For this study, a semi-structured approach was chosen to help identify context-specific practices or behaviours.

Although interviews are a widely used tool for qualitative research, they have limitations: answers may be restricted to what respondents can think of in a particular moment, and subjects might misinterpret questions or the same question might be understood differently depending on subjects’ backgrounds and experiences. Therefore, to minimise possible limitations, direct observation of practices was also used in the study. According to Raudenbush and Sampson (1999), observations enable a more objective examination of existing practices in a specific context, although they do not help in the understanding of people’s attitudes, knowledge, or mechanisms underlying practices. Thus, the two methods of primary data collection complemented each other to bring about an understanding of the practices and attitudes of employers, employees, and workers in MSMEs. The input from the questionnaires and the observation checklist were collated. Companies were not identified (unless otherwise agreed to by the company).