Biomedical Signal and Image Processing

Front matter

Piomedical

Signal and Image Processing

Second Edition

Chapter 1 Signals and Biomedical Signal Processing... nenea 3

1.1 Introduction and OvervVieW....ccccoococncconooonnnnnonnnonnnanonnanannnnnccnnnnnos 3

1.2. Whatlsia “Signal Micol iii 3

1.3.1 Analog Signals cca once eee ca i na a tat 4

1:3:2- Discrete Signals 4

1.3.3 Digital Signals. seniesiems 6

1.4 Processing and Transformation of Signals... eee 1

1.5 Signal Processing for Feature Extraction ....ooooconnnocnnocnnnnnancnnnnn 8

1.6 Some Characteristics of Digital Images... eee eneeeaeeea 9

1.6.1 Image Capturing.. cena cnn nono cnn ncnncnnos 9

1.6.3 Image Histogram... nenea nenea nana 11

L7- SUI ALY sense ăn aa iapa dai dpi eta ia pia a i aa ua a at 13

Prod ds 13

Chapter 2 Fourier Transform ..oooonccncnnonicnnnnonncnnonnononnnncnncnn emana nana nana ne ana 15

2.1 Introduction and Overview... eee 15

2.2.1 Properties of One-Dimensional Fourier Transform....22

2.2.1.1 Signal Shift. 23

2.2.1.3 Linear Systems Analysis „ceea 24

2.2.1.5 Scaling Property... nenea nenea 26

2.3 Sampling and Nyquist Rate... nenea eee emana nana 26

2.4.1 Properties Of DFT oo... nenea nana emana 28 vii viii

Chapter 4

26 Filtër Design: taci ae ceace aa oi ta da a dia wlehenes 33

E A aa apt oo vana asta aaa pia îi aie 36

Problems v3.25: ace ea atita d tat ad 36

3.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nene enma enaee 39

3.2) AAA ca d cama aia nat a 40

3.2.1 Contrast Enhancement 0.0.0... nenea nenea 41

3.2.2 Bit-Level SliciM8....ooooonnnicnnnnnnnnnnnnonnnnnnncnnnnrnnnnrncnncnnnon 43

3.2.3 Histogram Equalization eee nenea 44

3.3.1. Low-Pass Filters ...oonooncnnnnoconccconnonnconononcnncnonona nc ncnn cnn 48

3.3.2. Median Filters isis ainia 50

3.3.3 Sharpening Spatial Filters... eee cerca 53

3.3.3.1 High-Pass Filters... eee rece 53

3.3.3.2 High-Boost Filters ores 54

3.4 Frequency-Domain Filtering 00.0... eee eeeeeneeneeeeeeees 58

3.4.1.1 Ideal Low-Pass Filter... eee 59

3.4.2.1 Ideal High-Pass Filters... eee 60

3.5 SUNIMATV sees atom aia apa ai anal it aia Bai ae da ea 61

Problems: cacao og stii ala atata d ana ia n d pa ii al a e că 61

SA A ON 62

Edge Detection and Segmentation of Images ...coccnncnnccnonnnonconannncanonos 63

4.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea emana 63

IN AI ag ma Daia aaa a at 63

4.2.3 Canny Edge Detection... eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeetees 67

4.3 Image Segmentation eee emana nana 69

4.3.1 Point IDGtectlons...sssccsscssscqestegesdesssateatacoasacsetansdesasesess 70

4.3.2; Line Detection „ses ceea concasata coca oaia antena 71

4.3.3 Region and Object Segmentation... eee 72 4.3.3.1 Region Segmentation Using

4.3.3.2 Region GroWing... mean nenea eee ne 75

A A De Di ina i aa aa ial 77

Problem Şapte A A 77

Contents ix Chapter 5 Wavelet Transform ...oooconcnncnnnnnnnnnnenncnnennncnncnncnn nana ene eee naenaee 79 5.1 Introduction and Overview... neam nana ana 79 A ai aa oa eee 79

5.6 Main Applications of DWT.... nenea emana emana 96

5.0.2. Compression cae aia ada 98

5:8. SUMMATY esisi eaves; 00 ea oaia aa otto a ti aaa 99 Problems ati 99 Chapter 6 Other Signal and Image Processing Methods... eee 101 6.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nana nenea 101 6.2 Complexity Analysis „mean nenea nana nana 101

6.2.2 Fractal Dimension 0.0... nenea nana 102

624 Ent narn das 104

6.3: A oda nea aia aan asa 104

6.5 Introduction to Information Theory... nenea 114 O e sata ceea iai ae caca ana pacea e aceata da 114

6.5.2 Data Representation and Coding... eee 116

6.5.3. Hoffman Coding caimanes 117

6.6 Registration of Images... nenea emana en 118 A se iaca eta ea tă ren d dai pa Să cala aaa cp ae da aa 121 Problems is 122 Chapter 7 Clustering and Classification... eee nenea ene nenea ae 125 7.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea mean na 125 7.2 Clustering versus Classification... ee 125 FS. Featüre EXtractioNM sisrate nireki daia ca aaa aaa aaa 127 7.3.1 Biomedical and Biological Features... 128

7.3.2.2 Wavelet Measures ..oocooooccnnccconncnocnnonnconnnnnno 129

7.3.2.3 Complexity Measures «0.0... eee 129

7.3.2.4 Geometric Measures ....ccccccccccnnncnininnnanannnos 129

PART II Chapter 8

Chapter 9

7.4 K-Means: A Simple Clustering Method... eee 131 TS, Bayesian ClassiMer osito i da a alai oa Că 134 7.5.1] LOSS FUNCION scene cae nai a dn anda se inalte aaa 136

7.6 Maximum Likelihood Method... nenea nea eneee 138 TA Ne@uital N@t AA da a a cil 140 Thl. A EN 140

7.1.2 Sigmoid Neural Networks... nenea 145 7.7.2.1 Activation Function 2.0.0... eee nenea ana 146

IMPAR 148

7.7.3 MATLAB? for Neural Networks ...ooooococncnoncocnonncoo: 149 IA aa aa ai pă ea og E i tonă a aaa sata 150 O ceai coat ocna ca o Dat sii 8 it suta pia 150 RETENC aida A 152

Processing of Biomedical Signals

Electric Activities of the Cell... eee eee nenea 155 8.1 Introduction and OVervieW....cocoocnccnnoooonnncnononnnnnnnonononnnonononnnns 155 8.3.1 Membrane Resistance cecene neo 160 8.3.2 Membrane Capacitance... eee eeeeseeeeeeeeeeees 160 8.3.4 Action Potential.. ceea eee 161 8.4 Hodgkin-Huxley Model... nenea 164 8.5 Electric Data Acquisition „nenea emana en enae 166 8.6 Some Practical Considerations on Biomedical Electrodes.... 168 8.7 UMMM ALY wis coana a el nat Sted screen a ta EiS 169 POW IS TIS PPC OMPI ăi boa eee 169 A dna oa aaa aa apa oale na băga d 171 9.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea eee 171 9.2 Function and Structure of the Heart... nenea 171 92,1 Cardiac Muscle: issa catea ea cc aaa oaia sua aaa 173 93.1: “Origin. of ECG usina sapa 0 Doe oaia 176 9.3.3 Modeling and Representation of ECG... 180

Chapter 10 xi

9.4 Cardiovascular Diseases and ECG... ee nenea enaeea 182

9.4.2 Ventricular Arrhythmias caen emana 183

9.4.3 Ventricular Tachycardia ceeace 184

9.4.4 Ventricular Fibrillation... cena en enaene 184

9.4.5 Myocardial Infarction... eee eee nana enaenaeene 184

9.4.7. Cardiac Reentry usii aaesa ara area aaa ao ace aaa apă 185

9.4.8 Atrioventricular Block... nenea emana eee 186 9.4.8.1 Main Types of AV Block... ee 186

94:10. Extrasystolei sinea cae acea one ae daia ti a atit 189

9.5 Processing and Feature Extraction of ECG... ee 190 9.5.1 Time-Domain Analysis ..ccoonconnnnnnnnonononconononcnnnnancnnnnns 191

9.5.2 Frequency-Domain Analysis... anna 191

9.5.3 Wavelet-Domain Analysis. nenea eeneena eee 193

E A ea e ai E e Oa aa 193 A eu dna tea La tea pda oaia ea aa 194 10.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea enae 197 10.2 Brain and Its Functions.. men nenea nana emana na 197 10.3 Electroencephalogram: Signal of the Brain... 199 10.3.1 EEG Frequency Spectrum... eee 201

10.3.2 Significance Of EEG... nenea neene nana enee 202

10.4. Evoked Potentials ni ceccar ana va ec aci ace ea 203 10.4.1 Auditory-Evoked Potentials ....oooconnnnnnocinnnnocnnanccncnss 203

10.4.4 Event-Related Potentials... nenea 205

10.5 Diseases of Central Nervous System and EEG... 206 105.1 EPO PSY. scie iza seaca e da vea ceea teapa at na aaa da sa 206

A sinaia tan eta ac o ga a aa 209

10.5:4 Other Diseases....us ce sisceaeo taca ceea sta uta ae tai an 209

10.6 EEG for Assessment of Anesthesia... eee ee eeseeeeeeeeeees 209 10.7 Processing and Feature Extraction of EEG... 210 10.7.1 Sources of Noise on EEG... eee 210

10.7.2 Frequency-Domain Analysis... eee 211

10.7.3.1 Coherence Analysis... nenea 213

10.8: SUNATI ec că ta cadavers wets a a i dala sli 214

Problems. cid 215 xii Contents Chapter 11 Electromyogram ceea nana enaenaena nana en eee nene ae 217 11.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nana 217 11:2. Muscle; nan ce coate TT 217 112.1 “Motor Unit ceia soarece oo neaa aaa aiva apasa posee dnde 218 11.2.2 Muscle Contraction ice nenea nea aa 220 11.2.3 Muscle Force... nenea nana 221 11.3 EMG: Signal of Muscles... enma enaeenaenaeenaee 223 11.3.1 Significance Of EMG... nenea en nee 225 11.4.2 Pathological Motor Units ....oononcninnnocnnonconnnnncnnnnnnonos 227

11.4.3 Abnormal Neuromuscular Transmission in Motor Units: iscsi cai ae aaa aesa aa 228 11.4.4 Defects in Muscle Cell Membrane ....oconnccnnnoninccnnnno. 229 11.5 Other Applications of EMG... nene emana 229 11.6 Processing and Feature Extraction of EMG... 230 11.6.1 Sources of Noise on EMG... nenea 230 11.6.2 Time-Domain Analysis... nenea 231 VST SUNAT did ta des ve n sound că ana a dedica 233 Problems anita date 233 Chapter 12 Other Biomedical SignalS....ooononnnnnnncncnnmonnononccernnrenrrnrennannncnnnn 237 12.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nana 237 12,3. Blectrooculo Stam șes ate ao să caca coala iv diia 238 12.4 Magnetoencephalogram ..oooonoccnononoccconnnnnnnconcnonnnconccnnnccanecónnnos 241 12.5 Respiratory Signal... enma enma 242 12.6 More Biomedical Signals... enma enaeenaee 244 EDT SUNDAY ito dt teta 245 Problerns scie ozon eee ca sacs pătat bit 008 ăia ae eaei das 245 Referencial in ate 245

PART III Processing of Biomedical Images

Chapter 13 Principles of Computed Tomography....ococcocnnnncnnnnnnennenneanennicnncanon 249 13.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea neam na 249 13.1.1 Attenuation Tomography 0.0... nene nenea 250 13.1.2 Time-of-Flight Tomography... nenea ne 251 13.1.3 Reflection Tomography .... eee eee eee 251

Chapter 14

Chapter 15 xiii 13.2.1 Attenuation Tomography ....oconccnonnnonnoninnnnonnnancnncnnnnnos 255 13.3 Fourier Slice Theorem scai ceeace ăneă anti naos tata ata 258 134 SUNATI esto aaa 0 ta a Ea Dada diet 9 a tit 260 Problems: saraci esa oa e tă ana dă dea legi ia 260 14.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nana nana 261 14.2. Physics OL. X-Ray. scsissessssvssscssshvausdacctcsesctpastes da ant pasca 261 14.2.1 Imaging with X-Ray mean nenea en 264 14.2.2. Radiation Dose pininana 265 14.3 Attenuation-Based X-Ray Imaging «0.0... nenea 266 144 -X-Ray Detecilon ies sis asia escu due apa ta ci săpa dal atata 267 14.5 Image Quality eco seca cecen sa oi ies ae 271 14.6 Computed Tomography ...ccoconocnocnnonconononcnncnnncnnononona conc emana nono 272 14.7 Biomedical CT Scanners ..oocononnncnnononnnonncnnonancnnnnnncnnnnnncnncnnnono 274 14.9 CT Images for Stereotactic Surgeries... eee nenea 277 14.11 Complications of X-Ray Imaging... nenea 279 14.12 Summary saca atare unea aa aa deal a ae aaa Spa n did poa 279 Problems cin raci e ceai St a lt a a d tă di tă 279 Magnetic Resonance Imaging... nenea ne na enaenaenaee 283 15.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nenea neo 283 15.2 Physical and Physiological Principles of MRI... 285 15.2; Resan b uiiicocodoein ascet ta aaa 288 15.3. -MR imagine: scoica atatia na hades a natia tai a e 291 15.4 Formulation of MRI Reconstruction 0... nenea nana 295 15.5 Functional MRI... seca seca cea canada paote aa n en 297 15:31 JBOLD'MRI.-e ci ten pe aaa isa dă ai 0 a a a a a cae 299 15.6 Applications of MRI and fMRI oe ee nene eee nana 301

15.6.2 fMRI for Monitoring Motoneuron Activities Of A osia sole a aaa a 302 15.7 Processing and Feature Extraction of MRI... eee 303 15.7.2 Feature: Extraction «s.a nea eat ag el ea acas 305 15.9 Registration with MR ImMagéS...ooconnonocinnnnocnnoncononencnncnnncnncnnnos 306 A A 0 i pa la a 307

POD MS tronos ea aaa i lat ate atu 307 xiv

Chapter 16

Chapter 17

Ultrasound Imaging. nisa pacea a eo oa acne ia dana o a 309 16.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea nenea eee 309 16.2 Why Ultrasound Imaging? enma nenea 309 16.4.1 Fundamental Ultrasound Concepts... 311

16.4.2 Wave Equation... caen enma emana enae 313

164.4. «Reflector issis 316

16.5 Resolution of Ultrasound Imaging Systems... nenea 318 16.6.1 Attenuation Tomography ...ccconconinnicnnonncnnnnnconncnncnnnnnos 320

16.6.3 Reflection Tomography ...cooconconccncnocnoncnnnnncanonnnannnnnos 325

16.8 Ultrasound Image Artifacts... nenea nene emana 330 16.10 Applications of Ultrasound Imaging... nenea 332 16.12 Image Registration... eee nenea enma emana ne 333 16.15 SUMMARY ts coria rc că a ca 335 Problems. iii osa 336 Positron Emission ToMoOgraphY....occoncnnonnncnnoncnannoncnnonn cano nene nana 339 17.1 Introduction and Overview... nenea enma nana 339 17.2 Physical and Physiological Principles of PET... 339 17.2.1 Production of Radionucleotides 0.0.0... eee 340

17.2.2 Degeneration Process... nenea nana 341

17.3 PET Signal Acquisition cena emana nenea en 342 17.3.1 Radioactive Detection in PET... eee 343

17.4 PET Image Formation... nenea nenea ena nana 346 17:5 -Significance Of PEL iii vad evens’ 347 17.6 Applications Of PET oo... nenea nana emana en 347

17.6.2 Functional Brain Mapping... nenea ne 348

17.6.3 Functional Heart Imaging... eee 349

17.6.4 Anatomical Imaging... nenea nenea eee 350

17.7.1 Sources of Noise and Blurring in PET... 351

17.7.2 Image Registration with PET... eee 351

Chapter 18 xv 17.9 SUMMA A ai a ăn ada mata 353 NI R E EE 353 Other Biomedical Imaging Techniques... nenea nana 355 18.1 Introduction and Overview... nene nenea emana emana 355 18.2 Optical Microscopy „scie scai noagia catia ana a pag 355 18.3 Fluorescent Microscopy caen nenea emana nana 357 18.4 Confocal Microscopy ceea nenea nana nana nana 360 18.5 Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy ceea nenea 362 18.6 Electrical Impedance Imaging... nene nenea 364 18.7 Electron Microscopy cena nenea nana ana 366 18.7.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy ..occocccccconncanonnnnnos 367 18.7.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy coccocccoccncnonnnannnanonanonos 367 18.8 Infrared Imaging... nenea nenea nana ne 369 18.9 BlOMEt TICS ceea tine leidas 370 18.9.2 Biometrics Using Fingerprints 0.0.0... eee 372 18.9.3 Biometrics Using Retina Scans «00... eects 373 18.9.4 Biometrics Using Iris Scans... ceea 374 18:10 SUM AA poa aaa ala la eaesaeees 374 Problems: sm creeate căra ta ta ta o oa ia a 300 ci a 375

Preface

The first edition of the book Biomedical Signal and Image Processing was published by CRC Press in 2005. It was used by many universities and educational institutions as a textbook for upper undergraduate level and first-year graduate level courses in signal and image processing. It was also used by a number of companies and research institutions as a reference book for their research projects. This highly encouraging impact of the first edition motivated me to look into ways to improve the book and create a second edition.

The following improvements have been made to the second edition:

+ A number of editorial corrections have been made to address the typos, grammatical errors, and ambiguities in some mathematical equations.

+ Many examples have been added to almost all chapters, of which the majority are MATLAB® examples, further illustrating the concepts described in the text.

+ Further explanations and justifications have been provided for some signal and image processing concepts that may have needed more illustration.

Finally, I would like to thank all the people who contacted me and my coauthor, Dr. Robert Splinter, and shared with us their thoughts and ideas regarding this book. T hope that you find the second edition even more useful than the first one!

For MATLAB® and Simulink® product information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive

E-mail: info@mathworks.com Web: www.mathworks.com xvii xviii Preface

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Under the menu Electronic Products (located on the left side of the screen), click on Downloads & Updates. A list of books in alphabetical order with web downloads will appear. Locate this book by a search, or scroll down to it. After clicking on the book title, a brief summary of the book will appear. Go to the bottom of this screen and click on the hyperlinked “Download” that is in a zip file.

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Acknowledgments

Dr. Najarian thanks Dr. Joo Heon Shin for his invaluable and detailed feedback, which contained a long list of corrections addressed in this edition of the book. Above all, Dr. Najarian would like to thank Dr. Abed Al Raoof Bsoul, his former PhD student, who not only provided him with invaluable feedback on all chapters of the book, but also helped him with forming some of the additional examples included in the second edition. Raoof’s diligence and deep insight into signal and image processing were instrumental in forming this edition, and Dr. Najarian cannot thank him enough for his help. Dr. Najarian also thanks Paul Junor at the Department of Electronic Engineering, La Trobe University, Australia, whose editorial corrections helped improve the presentation of this textbook.

We thank Dr. Sharam Shirani from McMaster University for sharing some of his image processing teaching ideas and slides with us and for providing us his feedback on Chapters 3 and 4. We would also like to thank Alireza Darvish and Jerry James Zacharias for providing us with their invaluable feedback on several chapters of this book. The detailed feedback from these individuals helped us improve the signal and image processing chapters of this book.

Moreover, we would like to thank all hospitals, clinics, industrial units, and individuals who shared with us their biomedical and nonbiomedical images and signals. In each chapter, the sources of all contributed images and signals are mentioned, and the contribution of the people or agencies that provided the data is acknowledged.

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