Hand-book for Sunday-school teachers

Front matter

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Contents

Chapter Page XX. Christ's Example 131

XXI. The Great Question 137

XXII. The Great Question — Continued 145

Chapter I. True Idea Of Education

HE object of the Sunday-school teacher is to restore to the soul the lost image of God. Milton regarded this as the end of education. The truths revealed in the Gospel make the attainment of this end possible. The design of the Gospel is to make perfect men in Christ Jesus, — men prepared for every good work.

In order that one may become a perfect man, all his powers must be developed and disciplined and directed aright. This requires that his intellectual as well as his moral or religious powers should be developed, disciplined, and directed aright.

The Sunday-school teachers work is, therefore, not confined to the communication and inculcation of certain religious truths. He is to endeavor to make his pupils perfect men in Christ Jesus — he is to aid them in forming a perfect character. Hence he is to have regard, so far as may be, to their physical and intellectual as well as to their religious culture.

There is, in truth, no ground for the distinction commonly made between religious and secular education. Religious duties comprehend all the duties of man. All our voluntary actions have a moral character — have relation to duty. What are termed duties to ourselves and to our fellow-men, are also duties to God. It is God's will that we should take care of our bodies, and hence it is his will that we should acquire the knowledge necessary for that purpose. It is God's will that we should use our intellectual powers in the perception of truth, and in the performance of duty — hence the duty of cultivating those powers.

The development and discipline of his intellectual powers is a prominent part of man's so-called secular education. From what has been said, it appears that it is a part of his religious education. It is embraced in his religious education as the less is included in the greater.

While the main object of the Sunday-school teacher is the formation of a religious character, and while his main instrument is religious truth, he is to have reference, in his work, to the formation of all the habits, physical, intellectual, social, as well as religious, which go to make a perfect man. Hence all the knowledge and skill required by the secular teacher, will be of advantage to him.

His labors are not confined to the hour spent with his class on the Sabbath. He is a laborer together with God in the work of education. He will endeavor to influence minds in the circle to which he belongs, and in the family io Hand-Book on Teaching.

of which he is a member. It is the design of this volume to call his attention to some truths which will aid him in his work as an educator.

As the mind is the material on which he is to act, he needs to know something about it, just as the farmer needs to know something about the soil he cultivates.

The plant is wisely cultivated when the gardener has regard to its natural laws of growth, — when he endeavors to make it such a plant as it was designed to be.

Man is wisely cultivated when those means are used, which are adapted to make him such a being as he was designed to be.

The educator needs to know what the mind was made to do, and how it was made to do it. This can be learned by the study of his own mind, and of the minds of others as revealed by action.

Every one, by observation, learns something about the body and how to deal with it ; and

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every one can, by observation, learn something about the mind and how to deal with it.

The teacher is to aid the mind of his pupil to do what God made it to do, and thus to aid him to become such a being as God designed him to be.

It is of the utmost importance that he should have a clear idea of the end to which his efforts should be directed. Unless he have a clear idea of the end, there can be no wise adaptation of means for the attainment of the end.

The teacher cannot too soon dismiss the idea that the end of education is the attainment of knowledge, and that the work of the teacher is to communicate knowledge.

The acquisition of knowledge sustains to education the relation of means to an end. By acquiring knowledge, the mind is exercised, and thus its growth is promoted. Exercise is the law of bodily and of mental growth. Much depends upon the kind of exercise.

If knowledge could be poured into the mind as water is poured into a vessel, it would not educate the mind. When the mind puts forth vigorous and well-directed efforts for acquiring knowledge, its powers are developed and disciplined, and the knowledge acquired serves to direct its subsequent activity.

When it is said that knowledge expands the mind, the meaning is that the mind is improved by the exercise of acquiring knowledge, and by the exercise which that knowledge prompts and directs.

The mind is educated when it is in a condition to do what God made it to do.

There is an analogy between the education of the body and the education of the mind. The members of the body are educated when they are in a condition to do what they were made to do. The hands are educated when they have acquired the strength and flexibility requisite for performing their appropriate offices. The legs are educated when the muscles and tendons are developed and brought under the control of the mind, so that voluntary locomotion is feasible.

We have all observed the process by which this condition of the hands and the legs is secured. The educational process was difficult and long continued. Success was the result of many efforts accompanied by many failures.

These efforts must be put forth by the subject whose limbs are to be educated. No amount of lecturing on the anatomy of the hands and legs, and no amount of exercise of the hands and legs of the teacher, will accomplish the desired end. No amount of riding will enable one to walk. One learns to walk by walking, and in no other way.

The mind is educated when its powers are developed and disciplined, so that it can perform its appropriate work. The condition of growth with respect to mind as well as with respect to body, is voluntary exercise. The acquisition of knowledge furnishes a portion of the requisite exercise.

Effort on the part of the teacher will not supply the place of effort on the part of the pupil. The teacher may tell the pupil what to do and how to do it, but he cannot do his work for him. The work of education must be done by the pupil. All true education is selfeducation.

The pupil's efforts for the acquisition of knowledge should be so directed, that they may constitute appropriate exercises for the development and discipline of his mind. Skill in thus directing the operations of the mind, is the skill of the mind-former. The true teacher is a mind-former. He gives to the mind its form and pressure.

Chapter II. Mental Development And Discipline

T T 7E have seen that the mind is to be developed and disciplined, so that it can do what God made it to do. What is meant by development and discipline ?

The body is born with a capacity for walking. When one has acquired sufficient strength for walking, and the requisite skill, the capacity for walking is said to be developed. Observe, mention is made of strength and skill. A man may have strong legs, but if they are not subject to his control, they will not be of much use as instruments of walking. When the muscles are completely obedient to the will, the power of walking may be said to be developed and disciplined.

So our mental powers are developed and disciplined when they are strong and under control.

The object of the teacher is not to make a geographer, or a mathematician, or a linguist, but a man thoroughly furnished for every good work.

Useful knowledge is that which gives due exercise to the mind while acquiring it, and gives right direction to the subsequent activities of the mind. Knowledge is power so far as it prompts the mind to action, and gives a right direction to that action.

In order to right mental culture, the first thing to be known is what the mind was made to do. The mind is self-active ; it cannot be in a state of inaction except when the body is in a swoon, and, perhaps, in a sound sleep. It is not proposed to consider all the acts the mind is capable of performing, but only some of the more important ones. We shall consider these, that we may see what conditions are necessary, in order that they may be performed in the best way.

We may ask, What can the mind do ? or what faculties does the mind possess ? The two questions amount to the same thing. To saythat the mind can do certain things, and to say that it has a faculty for doing them, is saying the same thing. In the one case, the attention is mainly fixed on the mental acts, and in the other, on the power by which those acts are performed. If the mind can do certain things, it, of course, has power to do those things.

Some use language that would imply that the faculties of the mind are something distinct from the mind — that the mind is composed of faculties. It is important that the teacher have clear ideas on this subject.

The mind has the faculty of perception, the

faculty of memory, the faculty of reasoning, and

many other faculties ; that is, it can perceive

material objects, it can remember past events,

and can infer a truth from other known truths.

When the mind is perceiving external objects,

it is said to be exercising the faculty of perception. When it is recalling past events, it is said to be exercising the faculty of memory. When it is inferring a truth or truths from other truths, it is said to be exercising the faculty of reasoning. When we say we are cultivating a certain faculty, we mean that we are exercising the mind in performing a certain class of acts. Our attention should be given to the operations of the mind, which are realities, and not to the faculties, which are merely names.

We will now consider some of the things which the mind was made to do, and what are the conditions necessary in order that it may do them most effectively. We can thus learn how to use our minds to the best advantage. It is desirable that the owner of a sewing machine know how to use it to the best advantage : much more is it desirable that the owner of a mind should know how to use it to the best advantage.

The mind was made to know. Some persons will think that a definition of knowing ought to be given. Some have been led to think that the first thing in every study and in every department of study, is to commit a definition to memory.

The object of a definition is to tell what a thing is ; and if it does not tell what a thing is, it is of no use. You can never tell what a thing is before you know what it is ; hence, knowledge must go before definitions.

There are some things which we know, but which we cannot define. We all know what knowing is, but no one can give a formal definition of knowing. He may say that "knowing is being certain that something is." What is " being certain that something is ? " Is it any clearer than the term knowing ? Does any one know what knowing is any better, in consequence of being told that it is being certain that something is ? I think not.

In chemistry there are certain simple substances which are incapable of analysis ; and so in mind, there are simple operations that cannot be defined ; and attempts to define them are only words without knowledge. The act of knowing is one of those operations. It can be known only in consciousness, that is, by having experience of the operation.

The mind can know material objects. It knows that they exist, and that many things are true respecting them. Existence cannot be defined.

The mind acquires a knowledge of material things by means of the senses. The senses are the instruments of the mind. The eye is an instrument by which the mind sees. The eye is an instrument as truly as the telescope is an instrument. Separate the eye from the mind, and it cannot see, any more than the telescope can see. A similar remark may be made respecting the other senses.

We often meet with the phrase, " the education of the senses." What is meant by it ? It is plain that the senses, that is, the material organs of sense, cannot be educated apart from

Handbook W-Tfr A«ff T NG. TT the mind. They may be kept in a healthful state ; but a healthful state of the eye or the ear is not a condition or state of the mind. It is a condition or state of certain portions of the body. What is called the education of the senses, is really the education of the mind. The senses are said to be educated when the mind has been trained to use them aright — when the mind has acquired the power and the habit of accurate perception by means of the senses.

The power of accurately perceiving objects is acquired by exercise — by trying to perceive accurately. What do we do when we try to perceive accurately ? What do we do when we wish to acquire an accurate knowledge of the appearance of a visible object ? We look at it, fix our attention upon it, and continue to look at it till we see it clearly.

The education of the senses, then, consists in forming habits of attending to the objects of the senses — in other words, in forming habits of accurate observation.

. The first habit that the young should be led to form, is the habit of attending to objects around them, and to what is going on around them. To repress the natural curiosity of a child is to do it a great injury. Habits of observation and of investigation should be encouraged, even at the expense of broken playthings and household quiet. No knowledge is so thoroughly one's own as that which is spontaneously acquired. In early childhood, nature would fain be the child's instructor. She does not meet him with formal and, to him, incomprehensible definitions, and systematized knowledge. She meets him with individual facts in great variety.

The majority of persons grow up without habits of accurate observation. Hence they are ignorant of many things, a knowledge of which could have been acquired without effort. No opportunity of leading the young to form habits of accurate observation, should be lost.

What is commonly called object teaching consists in calling the attention of the pupil to material things. Its chief utility consists in forming a habit of attention to material objects. The knowledge gained is of small importance compared with the formation of the habit of attention.

In order to form a habit of attention, the objects set before the pupil must be such as will add to his knowledge. If objects with which he is familiar are placed before him, and the questions asked point to nothing unknown to him, he may answer those questions ; but the lesson will simply be an exercise in vocal utterance. The pupil will soon grow weary of the exercise. It will not tend to increase his power of attention.

It is not contended that every question relating to an object presented to a pupil, should direct his mind to a fact previously unperceived. Attention may be called to known truths as the basis of inferring other truths, or for the purpose of leading to the perception of analogous truths. It is only when such questions are asked without any ulterior object that they are exceptionable.

The proverb, "Physician, heal thyself," is applicable to the teacher in every department of his work. The teacher must possess habits of observation himself, if he would be successful in his efforts to lead others to form them.

Chapter III. Perception Of Spiritual Truth

1 T have seen that the mind can perceive external material objects, and that the extent and accuracy of its perceptions depend, in a great measure, upon its habits of attention. Material objects are not the only objects it can perceive. Sense-perceptions do not constitute the whole of our knowledge.

The mind can perceive a great many truths which do not pertain directly or indirectly to material objects. There are subjects of knowledge, realities, which are not material. The mind and its operations, the truths of mathematical science, the existence and character of God, form subjects of knowledge entirely independent of matter. Truths pertaining to these and to similar subjects may be termed spiritual truths, as truths pertaining to matter may be termed material truths.

How does the mind proceed in perceiving these truths ? What can be done to cause it to perceive them to the best advantage ?

Some of these truths are seen directly — intuitively — as soon as the mind looks at them, that is, as soon as the attention is directed to them.

You know that you, that is, your mind, exists. How do you know it ? You never saw your mind by the eye, nor felt it by the sense of touch, and yet you know that it exists. You do not believe that it exists ; you knozv that it exists. You know it by a direct and necessary knowledge. If asked how you know that you exist, you can only say, " I know that I exist."

All our first knowledges of spiritual truth are thus direct, intuitive perceptions.

Truths thus directly seen are called intuitive truths. The term intuitive is not used with reference to the nature of the truths perceived, but with reference to the mode in which the mind perceives them.

There are intuitive truths in every department of knowledge. The first facts in relation to every science are perceived intuitively. If we could not perceive facts intuitively, we should have no facts to draw inferences from. All our first knowledges are intuitions.

It is not meant that such truths are native to the mind ; but that the mind perceives them as soon as they are set before it.

Such truths are also called self-evident truths, because they do not require proof. They cannot be proved, because nothing plainer or more evident can be set before the mind.

Intuitive truths — those that are really self-evident — are admitted by all men to be true. No one has a right to regard a truth as self-evident unless it is received as such by all those to whose minds it has been presented.

Attempts have sometimes been made to prove self-evident truths. The effect has always been to produce confusion in the mind.

When we wish to present truths to other minds, we must see whether those truths are self-evident or not. If they are clearly self-evident, then we have nothing to do to secure their reception by any sane mind, except to set them before that mind.

The statement that we ought to do right is a self-evident truth. The attempt to prove this proposition has led to many errors. When a right action is set before the mind, and the question is asked, Why should I do that act ? the sufficient answer is, Because it is right. It is quite as reasonable to say we should do an action because it is right, as to say we should believe a proposition because it is true. No one thinks of asking for a reason for believing a true proposition, and no one should think of asking for a reason for doing right. There are evil consequences which may follow a failure to believe what is true, and to do what is right, but those consequences have nothing to do with the grounds of believing and of well-doing.

When a truth is really self-evident, we need not fear to present it to young minds. If it is clearly stated, they will receive it. Whenever we are about to state a truth to our pupils, we should consider whether it is a self-evident truth or not. If it is, all that is needed is simplicity of statement. Care must be taken not to state as self-evident, truths that require proof.

It has been affirmed that the proposition, " There is a God," is the expression of a self-evident truth. There are those who deny that there is a God. Hence we are not authorised to regard the proposition as self-evident. We are authorised to treat as self-evident only those truths which are admitted by all to be true — admitted either by word or deed. Some, by words, deny intuitive truths which, by deeds, they admit. It is a self-evident truth that we are free moral agents, and that we are to blame when we do wrong. There are those who contend that all our acts are the result of a fatal necessity, and hence, that we are not to blame for them. Let any one steal the pocket-book of one of these men who deny man's free agency, and he will show by his actions that he believes the thief is guilty, and deserves to be punished.

What shall we do that we may have a clear perception of intuitive truths ? We must fix our attention upon them. That is all that we can do. We have only to look at such truths to see them. The more sharply we look, the more clear and numerous will be our perceptions.

Clearness of perception is of the utmost importance. The perceptions of many resemble those of the half-healed blind man who saw men as trees walking.

We learn to see clearly, by trying to see clearly — by fixing our attention steadily on the truths seen. We shall be aided in our attempts at clear seeing, if we attempt to give verbal expression to our perceptions. We often find it difficult to express a truth which we seem to see clearly. The difficulty is owing to the fact that we do not see the truth clearly. The attempt to express it revealed the fact of imperfect perception.

Whenever you have truths which you wish to communicate to your class, give formal verbal if not vocal expression to them before you go before the class. Clearness of perception leads to clearness of expression, and clearness of expression leads to clearness of perception on the part of those addressed.

Chapter IV. Indirect Perception

E have seen that the mind perceives truth directly — intuitively. All its first perceptions are intuitive. If we had no intuitions, we could have no inferences.

The mind can draw inferences. Having seen some self-evident truths, it is thereby enabled to see other truths that are not self-evident. For example : Snow has fallen in the night to the depth of six inches. You look out in the morning, and see the ground white with snow. This is a direct or intuitive perception. You see the snow by looking at it.

You also see that the snow in the street has been disturbed since it fell. This is also a direct perception. You say, " A horse and sleigh have passed since the snow fell." How do you

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know that ? you did not see the horse and sleigh pass. You saw the marks in the snow, and inferred that they were made by a horse and sleigh. The proposition^ " A horse and sleigh have passed," is not a direct perception, but an inference. You have seen similar marks in the snow, which you knew were made by a horse and sleigh, and you infer that these marks were made by a horse and sleigh.

The steps in this process were as follows : First, a perception of the marks in the snow ; second, a recollection of former marks caused by a horse and sleigh ; third, an inference from analogy grounded on the principle that like causes produce like effects. The three steps thus taken in this case are, a direct perception, recollected knowledge, and an inference from analogy.

This process is very frequently performed by the mind. We are constantly drawing inferences — seeing things to be true in consequence

of having seen certain other things to be true.

You hear an organ in the street. The truth expressed by the proposition, " There is an organ in the street/' is not a direct perception, but an inference. You hear a certain sound. That is a direct perception. You have heard similar sounds which you knew were caused by an organ. That is a recollection. You infer that these sounds are caused by an organ.

You see an inscription on a wall. You say, " Some person wrote that inscription on the wall." There is the direct perception of the inscription. There is the recollection of the fact that similar inscriptions were made by a person, and the inference that the inscription before you was made by some person.

You see a person who gives indication of a fondness for intoxicating drinks. You infer that he will probably become a drunkard. The process in this case is the same as in the cases mentioned above. There is a perception of the fondness of the man for alcoholic beverages, the recollection of similar cases resulting in

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drunkenness, and the inference that this will result in drunkenness.

You have now seen the two ways in which the mind acquires knowledge — by direct perception, and by inference.

It may be asked, Does not the mind acquire knowledge by reasoning ?

Inferring is reasoning. The process of reasoning has been described above. It is quite a simple process. It is a process that is performed by the child many times every day.

The examples given above furnish the type of the largest portion of all our reasonings in regard to the practical affairs of life. In nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand, what are called the conclusions of reason, are inferences from analogy. The truth of this remark can be readily tested by the records of experience.

All the conclusions founded on experience are inferences from analogy. The physician has a patient. He prescribes a remedy. He is guided by his experience, he says. But what is the exact state of the case ? He has had, at a former time, a patient suffering in a similar manner, with similar symptoms. A certain medicine cured him. He infers that the same medicine will cure his present patient. The inference is an inference from analogy.

The statesman adopts a measure for the benefit of the country. He has found that a similar measure benefited another country, hence he infers that this measure will benefit his country. The conclusions of the statesman are inferences from analogy.

It may be said, Does not the mind arrive at truth by the process of induction ? Are not a large portion of the truths of science arrived at by induction ?

Yes ; but let us see what the process of induction is. You discover a new metal. You drop a piece of it in water, and it sinks to the bottom. You drop in another piece with the same result. You repeat the experiment several times, and come to the conclusion that all pieces of that metal will sink in water. The conclusion is an inference from analogy. You saw several pieces sink, and inferred that all similar pieces will sink.

It may be asked, Does not judgment inform us of some truths ? The fact that the phrase, "judgment and reasoning," is used by some writers, may lead the reader to suppose that judgment, as well as reasoning, is a source of knowledge. What is meant by judgment?

Judgment is the power of the mind to judge. What is judging ? what does the mind do when it judges ?

You judge it to be wise to do a certain thing ; in other words, you come to the conclusion that it is wise for you to do a certain thing ; in other words, you infer that it is wise for you to do a certain thing. Judging is inferring. We use the term judgment to mark a conclusion that results from the consideration of numerous and, perhaps, apparently conflicting facts or truths. A man of sound judgment can come to a wise conclusion, can draw an accurate inference, from facts that are complicated and somewhat obscure.

Many men can infer correctly in simple cases — where the facts are simple and clearly seen. Few men can infer correctly when the facts are complicated and conflicting.

It still remains true that there are but two ways in which the mind, by its own action acquires knowledge— by direct perception, and by inference.