An introduction to the use of the English language, grammar and rhetoric combined

Introduction

TO THE USB OP THE

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PUBLISHED B^ r

POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO,,

53 & 55 JOHN STREET,

NEW YORK.

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J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO THE USE OF THE

Grammar and Rhetoric combined.

Joseph Alden, D.D., LL.D.,

President of New York State Normal School,

AUTHOR OF

'Science of Government," "Elements of Intellectual Philosophy," "Christian

Ethics," " Hand Book for Sunday School Teachers," etc.

PUBLISHED BY

POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO.,

53 and 55 John Street, NEW YORK.

TEnu

Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by

JOSEPH ALDEN, D.D., LL.D.,

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Electrotyped by v J. M. ARMSTRONG,

Philadelphia.

Preface

THE study of Grammar and Rhetoric should lead the student to speak and to write good English. This result is not always reached. Many spend a large amount of time in the study of Grammar, and acquire a good degree of skill in technical parsing and in formal analysis, without correcting their habits of inaccurate expression.

If the study of the English language does not exert habitually a controlling influence over the student in his use of the language, it is of little use. The object to be gained is the habit of using the language correctly and skilfully. Definitions, distinctions, and rules, are useful only as they promote this end.

The design of this book is to lead the young student to observe the elementary facts of the language, and to apply them in practice. There is a natural order in which elementary facts should be learned. Attention has been given to that order in the construction and arrangement of the following chapters.

The facts to which the attention of the student is called, are few in comparison with the number found in treatises on Grammar. Those are given which are necessary to an intelligent entrance upon the correct use of the language. It is a mistake to present to the young student, at the outset, an exhaustive discussion of any topic.

By observing and applying in practice the facts contained in this work, the student will form in his mind a nucleus for accretion from further observations. Hence, the work is not designed to supersede treatises on grammar, but to put the mind of the student in a condition to use them to advantage.

Technical terms have, for the most part, been avoided, that the attention of the student may be fixed on the truth to be seen. When technical terms and formulas are made too prominent, they may engross too much of the student's attention. The student may keep a formula in mind, and strive to make the

PREFACE.

facts conform to it, instead of giving his undivided attention to the facts, and thus clearly perceiving them and their relations.

The author has aimed to elicit thought on the part of the student at every step of his progress. Things which he sees for himself, and not those which are told to him, constitute the student's real knowledge. No interest is felt in a study when no thinking is required. The interest felt in a study will be proportioned to the right exercise of mind put forth — not to the number of facts committed to memory.

Every exercise required in this manual is an exercise in composition— not an exercise in giving form to sentences. Invention is required, but not beyond the capacity of the young student. He is required not to cast sentence-moulds, but to express thought.

The questions given are designed to lead the student to see the truth for himself. Having seen it, he should be required to express it accurately. Every recitation should be an exercise in accurate oral expression.

In some cases answers have been given to questions. This would not have been done, could the author have felt sure that the book would be used only by well trained teachers. Such teachers will not confine themselves to the text-book. They will use it in such a manner as to combine the advantages of oral and of text-book instruction.

The author begs leave to remind the teachers who may use his work, that the vocabulary of the young student is very limited ; hence their instructions may not be understood. Great care should be taken to have the student understand the meaning of every word in the lesson, and of every word uttered by the teacher.

It is proper to add that in the composition and correction of this work, very valuable aid has been rendered by Miss Amelia D. Alden, teacher of Rhetoric and English Literature. A considerable portion of the part pertaining to Rhetoric was written

by her.

JOSEPH ALDEN.

New York State Normal School, May 20, 1875.

Source of Rules 190

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Chapter I. Sentences

1 . The fire burns brightly.

2. The peach-tree is in blossom.

3. Rain waters the earth.

4. The mountain is covered with snow.

These are sentences. They are composed of words. "What do words express ?

If you write a number of words on separate pieces of paper, and throw those pieces of paper into a hat, and then take them out, one by one, and place them one after another as you take them out, will they form a sentence ?

Why not?

You have five sentences before you. Let each member of the class tell what a sentence is.

You see that each sentence conveys a meaning — expresses a thought. What is a sentence ?

A. A sentence is the expression in words of a thought.

Can you express a thought without using words?

Give an example.

Can you express all your thoughts without using words ?

What is said about it ?

What is said about it ?

What is said about it ?

What is said about it ?

What is said about it ?

You observe that each of these sentences has two parts : the one mentions what is spoken of; the other tells what is said about it.

That which mentions what is spoken of, is called the subject.

That which is said about it, is called the predicate.

What is the subject in each of these sentences ?

What is the predicate in each sentence ?

Compose sentences having the following words for subjects : 1. Water. 2. Birds. 3. Gold. 4. Chestnuts. 5. Angels.

Compose sentences having the following words in the predicate: 1. Honorable. 2. Wise. 3. Industrious. 4. Feeble. 5. Truthful.

Compose a sentence having two or more words in the subject, and two or more words in the predicate.

What is a sentence ?

Of what two parts is a sentence composed ?

What is the subject of a sentence ?

What is the predicate of a sentence ?

Chapter II. Nouns And Verbs

1. John writes well.

2. The violet blooms in the spring.

3. The volcano throws out lava.

4. The ship sails on the ocean.

"What is John the name of ?

What is violet the name of?

"What is volcano the name of?

What is ship the name of?

Name the subject in each sentence.

You find that the subject, or the principal word of the subject of every sentence, is the name of something.

Every word which is the name of something, is called a noun.

Mention five nouns. In order to do this, think of five things, and give their names.

Point out all the nouns in the sentences at the beginning of this chapter.

"What is a noun ?

1. Fish swim.

2. Men think.

3. Dogs bark.

4. Birds fly.

Mention the nouns in these sentences.

Do fish do anything when they swim ?

Do men do anything when they think ?

Do dogs do anything when they bark ?

Do birds do anything when they fly ?

The words swim, jthink, bark, and fly, express action. Such words are called verbs.

How many kinds of words have we considered ? What is one kind called ?

What is the other kind called ?

The different kinds of words are called parts of speech.

1. The teacher loves his pupils.

2. Henry ran to the river.

3. The weary traveller sleeps sweetly.

4. The rabbit hides in the wood.

Name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

Name the nouns in each predicate.

Name the verbs in each predicate.

What part of speech is the principal word in the subject of a sentence ?

What part of speech is the principal word in the predicate of a sentence ?

What two parts of speech must every sentence contain ?

A verb asserts or affirms something.

What is asserted in sentence No. 1 ?

What word makes the assertion ?

What word makes the assertion in sentence No. 2 ? In sentence No. 3 ? In sentence No. 4 ?

If you were to strike out those words, what would become of the sentences ?

No assertion, affirmation, or statement, can be made without a verb.

How many words are necessary to form a sentence?

If a sentence is composed of two words, what parts of speech must those words be ?

What are verbs ?

A. Words which assert something.

Compose sentences containing the following verbs : read, forget, raise, deliver.

Chapter III. Classes Of Jvouns

1. John Howard was a philanthropist.

2. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.

3. The Hudson is a beautiful river.

A noun is the name of something.

Of what is John Howard the name ?

Of what is Boston the name ?

Of what is Massachusetts the name ?

Of what is Hudson the name ?

Those four words are names of individual things. Names of individual things are individual or particular terms ; when spoken of as nouns, they are called proper nouns. Proper, when thus used, means belonging to an individual.

A proper noun is the name of an c individual person or thing.

What is river the name of?

Is it the name of any particular stream ?

What are all streams of a certain size called ?

River, then, is a word applied to a great many objects of the same kind — to a class of objects. Names of classes of objects are general terms ; when spoken of as nouns, they are called common nouns.

What two kinds of terms have we considered ?

What kind of nouns are particular terms ?

What kind of nouns are general terms?

What difference between an individual, a particular term, and a proper noun ?

What difference between a general term and a common noun?

Compose a sentence having a proper noun for a subject.

Compose a sentence having a common noun for a subject. 2

1. Congress will adjourn soon.

2. The army is disbanded.

3. The Society for the Promotion of Agriculture is flourishing.

What is Congress the name of?

Can the term be applied to one man ?

How many persons does it take to make a Congress ?

What is army the name of?

Does it take more than one soldier to make an army?

What is society the name of?

The words Congress, army, society, imply a collection of individuals. These words are called collective nouns.

He had a flock of sheep and a swarm of bees ; — what kind of noun is flock? swarm?

1. Honesty is respected.

2. The sun exceeds the moon in brightness.

3. Benevolence is approved by all.

Did you ever see honesty ?

What did it look like?

You have seen honest men: to what did their honesty belong— their hair or their conduct ?

There is no such thing as honesty apart from conduct. When you say you have seen honesty, you mean that you have seen honest conduct — honest actions.

Is there any such thing as brightness apart from bright objects ?

Is there any such thing as benevolence, apart from the actions of moral beings ?

Honesty, brightness, and benevolence,a.re qualities considered apart from the objects to which they belong.

When we thus, in thought, separate qualities from their objects, and give those qualities names, those names are called abstract nouns.

What is an abstract noun ?

What is a common noun ?

What is a proper noun ?

What is a collective noun ?

What is a verbal noun ?

A. When some part or form of a verb is used as a noun, it is called a verbal noun.

Classes more or less numerous may be formed of nouns by putting together those which resemble one another in certain particulars.

Chapter IV. Article And Abjective

1. A boy is climbing the apple tree.

2. The boy has gone home.

3. A year is a long period of time.

4. An hour is a short period of time.

5. An earnest man is generally a successful man.

6. A high hill is before us.

When do we say a boy f and when do we say the boy t

A. We say a boy when no particular boy is meant. We say the boy when some particular boy is meant.

Wherein do the words a year express a different idea from the words the year ?

A and the are called articles, A is called the indefinite article ; the is called the definite article. Can you tell why they are so called ?

An is used instead of a, before words beginning with a vowel or a silent h,

Name the vowel letters.

Why is an used in sentences No. 4 and 5 ?

Would it be correct to say a eagle ? Why not ?

Would it be correct to say an high hill ? Why not ?

Compose sentences containing the indefinite article with the nouns camp, city, harbor.

Compose sentences containing the definite article with the same nouns,

Some grammarians call a and the adjectives. It is of little consequence what they are called, provided they are used correctly.

1. The good boy obeys his parents.

2. A strong wind is blowing.

3. The high mountain can be seen from a great distance.

4. A beautiful flower gives pleasure.

What is the subject, and what is the predicate of sentence No. 1?

What words compose the subject ?

What words compose the predicate ?

What part of speech is the t

What part of speech is boy ?

What is the office of the word good f that is, what does it tell?

What is the subject and the predicate in sentence No. 2 ?

What words constitute the subject ?

What part of speech is a f

What part of speech is wind ?

What is the office of the word strong ?

W T hat is the subject and the predicate of sentence No. 3?

What words constitute the subject ?

What part of speech is mountain t

What is the office of the word high f

What is the office of the word beautiful in sentence No. 4?

Did you ever see a good ?

Did you ever see a high ?

Are good and high names of things ?

What do they express ?

A. Facts pertaining to some things.

Did you ever see a good boy f

Did you ever see a high steeple ?

Words of this kind are always used with nouns — are added to nouns, and are called adjectives.

What kind of words are called adjectives ?

Name all the adjectives in the subjects of sentences No. 1, 2, 3, 4.

Compose sentences having the adjectives hind, avaricious, intelligent, noble, brilliant, in the subject or in the predicate.

Chapter V. Compabisom Of Adjectives

Suppose you are speaking of a hind man, and wish to speak of one who exceeds him in kindness. If you call the one kind, what will you call the other?

W T hat will you call one superior to both in kindness ?

Suppose there are three objects with different degrees of redness: you call one red; what will you callthe one that is superior to it in redness ?

What will you call the one that is superior to both ?

Suppose there are three men with different degrees of wisdom : you call one wise ; what will you call one superior to him in wisdom ?

What will you call one superior to both ?

These three different forms of an adjective are called degrees of comparison.

B

They are called the positive, the comparative, and the superlative degrees.

An adjective is said to be compared when these forms are named.

Make a rule for comparing adjectives after this manner.

Compose a sentence with the adjective lovely in the positive degree.

Compose a sentence having the adjective fine in the comparative degree.

Compose a sentence having the adjective sweet in the superlative degree.

'You speak of a man as righteous, and you wish to speak of one superior to him in righteousness ; what expression will you use ?

You wish to speak of one as righteous in the highest degree ; what expression will you use ?

What would you call an object excelling another in beauty ?

What would you call an object beautiful in the highest degree ?

Make a rule for comparing adjectives after this manner.

You speak of a good man. If you wish to speak of one superior to him in goodness, what word will you use ?

Suppose you wish to speak of one superior to both in goodness ; what word will you use ?

In comparing good, do you follow either of the rules you have made ?

There are a number of adjectives that are irregular in their comparison, that is, respecting which no rule can be made ; such as,

Little, Less, Least.

Many, More, Most.

Bad, Worse, Worst.

Far, Farther, Farthest.

Some adjectives have no positive degree ; such as, JPos. Comp. Super.

Upper, Uppermost.

Further, Furthest.

Nether, Nethermost.

Some adjectives have neither the positive nor the superlative degree:

JPos. Comp. Super,

Junior.

Senior.

Superior. ■

Inferior.

Compose sentences containing these four adjectives.

1. The school has one teacher.

2. The class in arithmetic contains twelve boys.

3. Two hundred sheep were sold in market.

4. The first class will read Milton.

5. The fourth tree in the row is a Norway Pine.

What part of speech is one?

To what noun does it belong ?

What part of speech is twelve t To what noun does it belong ?

What part of speech is two hundred t To what noun does it belong ?

The adjectives one, two, three, four, etc., are called numerals.

What part of speech is first ?

To what noun does it belong ?

What part of speech is fourth ?

To what noun does it belong ?

The adjectives first, second, third, fourth, etc., are called ordinals.

Adjectives may be divided into classes according to their meaning. It is not necessary to classify them in order to know their meaning and how to use them. The pupil should be required to name them from the office which they perform.

Chapter VI. Number

When you speak of more than one boy, what do you say ?

When you speak of more than one barrel ?

Of more than one house ?

Of more than one farm ?

Of more than one tree ?

Of more than one book ?

How does the form of a word thus used in speaking of more than one, differ from the form used in speaking of one ?

The form used in speaking of one thing, is called the singular ; the word used is said to be in the singular number.

The form used in speaking of more than one, is called the plural; the word used is said to be in the plural number.

How is the plural formed from the singular in the words boy, barrel, house, farm, tree and book f

The rule you have given applies to many nouns, but not to all.

What do you say when you speak of more than one fox ?

Of more than one brush ?

Of more than one box ?

Of more than one match ?

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and in similar nouns ?

What do you say when you speak of more than one wife ?

Of more than one life ?

Of more than one leaf?

Of more than one wolf ?

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and in similar nouns ?

What do you say when you speak of more than one lily ?

Of more than one cherry ?

Of more than one berry ?

Of more than* one fancy ?

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and in similar nouns ?

What do you say when you speak of more than one ox ?

Of more than one man ?

Of more than one woman ?

Of more than one child ?

Of more than one foot ?

Can you give a rule for forming the plural of these nouns — one that will apply to them all ?

There are some nouns which do not belong to a class, and for which no general rule can be given.

CHAPTER VII. NUMBER.- Continued

How many numbers has the English language ?

What do you mean when you say that the English language has two numbers?

A. That certain words have one form when a single thing is spoken of, and another form when more than a single thing is spoken of.

Compose sentences having gold, idleness, wisdom, in the singular number.

Can you compose sentences having these words in the plural number ? Why not ?

Some nouns, then, are used only in the singular number.

Compose sentences containing the nouns annals, archives, assets, tidings.

In what number are these nouns ?

What is the singular of each ?

Some nouns are used only in the plural number.

Compose sentences having deer, sheep, cannon, in the plural.

Compose sentences having the same words in the singular.

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers.

1. He is skilful in making indexes.

2. He has not written the indices correctly.

What is the singular of these words ?

It has two plural forms. When should the first be used?

A. When speaking of the contents of a book.

When should the second form be used ?

A. When speaking of an algebraic process.

Some nouns have two plurals differing in signification.

1 . He went with his brothers.

2. He went with his brethren.

What is the singular of these words ?

When is brothers to be used ?

A, When speaking of members of the same family.

When is brethren to be used ?

A, When speaking of members of the same church or association.

Compose sentences having the compound words son-in-laiv, court-martial, man-trap, m the plural.

In these words, one part performs the office of an adjec-

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

tive, and the other, of a noun. The part performing the office of the noun receives the plural form.

1. The Misses Brown are coming.

2. The Miss Browns are coming.

Which of these forms of expression is accurate ? A. Both are sanctioned by usage.

Many words adopted from foreign languages retain the plural of those languages.

Antithesis,

Crisis,

Hypothesis,

Parenthesis,

Phasis,

Phenomenon,

Thesis,

Alumnus,

Analysis,

Axis,

Basis,

Curriculum,

Effluvium,

Ellipsis,

Genus,

Rostrum,

Stimulus,

Antitheses.

Crises.

Hypotheses.

Parentheses.

Phases.

Phenomena.

Theses.

Alumni.

Analyses.

Axes.

Bases.

Curricula.

Effluvia.

Ellipses.

Genera.

Rostra.

Stimuli.

Some foreign words, in addition to their own plural form, have the regular English form.

Fulcrum, Fulcra,

Formula, Formulae,

Herbarium, Herbaria,

Memorandum, Memoranda,

Fulcrums.

Formulas.

Herbariums.

Memorandums.

Some languages, the Greek and Hebrew, for example, have three numbers ; viz., singular, dual, and plural. The dual form is used when two persons or things are spoken of.

From the facts to which attention has been called, it appears that the English language has many irregularities with respect to number. These are to be learned by observing the practice of good writers, and by referring to a good dictionary.

Chapter VIII. Case

1. James likes grapes.

2. Birds build nests.

3. Water allays thirst.

4. Sin causes death.

What is the subject of sentence No. 1 ?

What is the predicate ?

What part of speech is James?

What part of speech is likes t

What part of speech is grapes ?

James is the subject of the sentence, and is also the subject of the verb. You know that the principal word in the subject of a sentence is a noun ; and that a noun, or a word used as a noun, is the subject of the verb in the sentence.

What is the verb in sentence No. 2?

What noun is the subject of that verb ?

What is the verb in sentence No. 3 ?

What noun is the subject of that verb ?

What is the verb in sentence No. 4 ?

What is the subject of causes ?

A noun, when it is the subject of the verb, it said to be in the nominative ease. In what case is James?

In what case is birds ?

In what case is water ?

In what case is sin ?

What part of speech is grapes t

With what word in the sentence is it closely connected ? What is affirmed of James f

A. That he likes grapes.

What does the word grapes tell ?

A. It tells what James likes.

The word grapes is the object of the verb like.

What part of speech is nests f

Of what verb is it the object ?

What part of speech is thirst f

Of what verb is it the object ?

What part of speech is death t

Of what verb is it the object ?

When a noun is the object of a verb, it is said to be in the objective case.

In what case is grapes f nests ? thirst ? death ?

Name the subject and the object of the verb in each of the sentences.

Name the nominative and the objective case in each sentence.

1 . "Washington conquered Cornwallis.

2. The general commands the army.

3. Lightning struck the tree.

In what case are the words Washington, general, and lightning ? Why ?

In what case are the words Cornwallis, army, and tree ? Why ?

When are nouns in the nominative case ?

When are nouns in the objective case ?

Have nouns the same forms in the nominative and in the objective case ?

How, then, can you tell when a noun is in the nominative, and when it is in the objective case ?

A. The meaning of the sentence will always show what is the subject, and what is the object of the verb.

Compose sentences having the following verbs with nouns in the nominative and in the objective case : kill, save, defend, purchase.

1. John's horse broke the carriage.

2. The king's palace is beautiful.

3. A child's hat fell overboard.

4. The farmer's corn is ripe.

"What is the subject of the verb broke f

What case is horse in ?

What part of speech is John's ?

Is John's in the nominative case ? Why not ?

Is it in the objective case? Why not ?

John's is a noun : it is neither in the nominative nor in the objective case. Whose was the horse ?

Suppose instead of saying John's horse, you say John horse : would you convey the idea that the horse belonged to John ?

By saying John's horse, you tell whose horse broke the carriage. John's is a noun in the possessive case, because it denotes possession.

What case is king's in ? Why ?

What case is child's in ? Why ?

What case is farmer's in ? Why ?

How does the possessive case differ in form from the nominative and the objective ?

How many cases have nouns ?

In what case is the subject of the verb ?

In what case is the object of the verb ?

In what case is the noun denoting possession ?

Compose sentences having the following words in the possessive case : bird, king, ivater, j