A practical treatise on the cultivation of the sugar cane...

Chapter I. —A Description of the Methods of Cultivation usually practised in the West Indies

Chapter II.— On the Necessity of adopting a System of Cultivation and Manufacture based on a Knowledge of the Nature of the Plant and its Product, with a short description of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Cane,

Chapter III.— The Method of Cultivation best adapted to the West Indies, deduced from the results of successful Practice in various Islands— Refutation of the Arguments advanced against it by the Advocates of the Expensive and Inefficient System usually practised,

Chapter IV.— On the Planting of Canes— various Methods of Setting the Plants— advantages of Wide Planting, .

Chapter V.— Importance of returning the Megass to the Soil— the injurious Effects of severe Drought obviated by covering the Soil— Ratooning— proper Season for Planting,

Chapter VX —On Stock and Implements of Agriculture, .

Chapter VII. — Recapitulation — Necessity of Reform in the Methods employed for the production of Sugar— Importance of a wise Legislation with regard to the welfare of the West Indian Colonies— Their importance as Sugar producing Countries,

IV CONTEXTS.

Part II. Ox The Manufacture Of Sugar

Chapter I. — Losses sustained by imperfect Manufacture — Composition of the Cane and its Juice — State in which Sugar exists in' the Cane, 63

Chapter II. — Method of extracting the largest possible amount of Juice from the Cane — Varieties of Cane Mills — Loss occasioned by imperfect Machinery — Advantages of Steam Power for Cane Mills— Directions for the Prevention of Acidity and Viscous

Chapter III Proper Method of cutting Canes — Impurities of

Cane- Juice described — Soluble Salts— Azotised Compounds — Non-Azotised Vegetable Proximate Principles — Matiere Deliquescente of Hervey — Impurities which can be removed Mechanically, 86

Chapter IV. — Improvements arising from the Efforts to render the Production of Sugar from Beet-Root profitable — Dr. Mitchell's Experiments on Heating Canes to prevent the development of the Fermentative Action in the Juice after expression, ... .96

Chapter V. — Simple Methods of Defecating Cane- Juice — Method of Defecation without Animal Charcoal — Method of using Animal Charcoal — Varieties of Charcoal Filters, .... 102

Chapter VI. — Evaporation of the Defecated Juice — Necessity of rapid Evaporation, and Description of appropriate Evaporating Vessels — Concentration of Syrup at a low Temperature — Vacuum Pan — Gaddesden's Pan, 113

Chapter VII. — Crystallization and Curing of Sugar — Recapitulation and Remarks, . . .122

Chapter VIII.— Description of the Method of Sugar-Making usually practised in the West Indies — Losses sustained by its Operation — Concluding Remarks, .129

INTRODUCTION.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE WEST INDIA COLONIES, AND THE EVENTS WHICH HAVE LED TO IT.

The present deplorable condition of the British Colonies in the West Indies, is a subject of much importance to the nation. It is not only the planters, and the persons actually engaged in the West India trade, who will be sufferers by the continuance of this state of things, because, if our Colonies continue to decay, in the same ratio, as they have done for the last three years, till the time arrives for the equalization of duties, there is every prospect of the trade being monopolized by the Slave-holding States, in which case the consumer will be in a worse position than before the change in the sugar duties, unless means be devised to rescue our Colonies from their embarrassed and ruinous position.

The present abundance of sugar, and its moderate price, appears so satisfactory to those who are not imme-

B

2 INTRODUCTION.

diately connected with its production, that little thought is bestowed on the subject, and questions concerning the sources of future supply attract little attention.

Various methods have been proposed for rescuing the sugar-producing Colonies, and more particularly the West Indies, from the ruinous condition into which they have fallen. Many partially excellent and practicable plans have been suggested, and projects the most wild and fanciful have been proposed. But, while much has been said and written discursively, there is a want of information of a general and connected nature, as to what is the actual condition of the plantations — what has been the system of production usually adopted — who are the persons by whom this system is directed and carried out — what are the successive steps which have led to the present universal prostration and insolvency — and what would be the most advisable course, under these circumstances, for the Planters to pursue, in order to render available to the utmost, the means they possess. This is of much greater importance than proposals of remedies which are difficult of attainment, involving a vast outlay of national or private capital, and the success of which are at best problematical.

It is my purpose, in the following pages, to show, that the planters possess the means, if properly applied, of aiding themselves to a much greater extent than is generally practised ; and that the resources of the Colonies are not sufficiently developed, owing to the imperfect methods of

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Cultivation and Manufacture which have hitherto been in use, and which long custom, the apathy engendered by habits of routine, and the fear of failure in the case of attempting extensive reforms, cause to be still almost universally persisted in.

Very few persons agree as to what is the best course to be adopted by the Colonists. A very large portion of that body are of opinion, that nothing which they are of themselves able to effect, would be sufficient to save them from utter ruin, so long as the present policy of Government is persisted in, and the productions of slave-labour admitted to compete with them on equal terms. And this accounts, in some measure, for the apathy and want of exertion which has unfortunately so generally prevailed. The greater number — relying entirely on the undoubted justness of their claim to the assistance of Government, and using all their efforts to obtain this, bv endeavouring to enlist the sympathies of the nation in their behalf, and attempting, by petitions and remonstrances, to avert the evil they feared, — did not generally take in time, those decisive measures, which, though insufficient to prevent much embarrassment and loss, could alone be successful in preserving them from ruin.

Another party, who think that the principal difficulty arises, not so much from any fault or imperfection in the ancient methods of production, as from an inadequate supply of labourers, are of opinion, that the great remedy for their difficulties is to be brought about by immigra-

INTRODUCTION.

tion, and are only divided in opinion as to the race who are best suited for the climate and requirements of the Colonies. Thus we have advocates for European labourers.- for Kroonien, Hindoos, Portuguese of Madeira ; and a late writer on the subject extols the Chinese above all others ; and thinks that an immediate importation of 250,000 labourers from that empire would prove to be a universal panacea for all the evils that threaten or have befallen the West Indian Colonies,

The experiment of immigration has been tried to £ certain extent, and I cannot think it has at all realized the expectations of those persons who have made the trial, The expense of it has been very great, and the benefits derived from it have been not at all commensurate. It may be objected, that the success of the scheme could not be fairly tested because tried on so very limited a scale ; but I think it a hazardous experiment to invest so much capital as would be required to carry out a measure, the success of which is doubtful. And, besides, we do not perceive that in those places where the native population is most abundant, as in Barbados, they have been much better off, than in those Colonies where labour has been comparatively scarce. There has been nearly as much complaint of distress and ruin from the Planters of that densely populated island, as from other Colonies much more thinly peopled.

It is possible, that had more time elapsed between the enactment and the operation of the measures deter-

INTRODUCTION.

mined on by Government, the Planters might have been able to adopt a system calculated gradually to counteract the ruinous effects of the policy alluded to; but the suddenness as well as the magnitude of the changes which have taken place, have been such as to paralyse their efforts; and the depreciation in the value of property within the last three years,* has deterred capitalists from venturing to make advances for the improvements required, in consequence of the uncertain nature of the security.

It is universally admitted, that the measure of slave emancipation was precipitated in a manner inconsistent with prudent legislation, although a matter which involved interests and issues of such unprecedented and unparalleled importance, that the greatest statesman of the period expressed feelings of embarrassment and anxiety in approaching a question of such magnitude; still, there is little doubt, that had its operation not been followed - by the more recent injurious fiscal enactments, the present unfortunate results would not have been brought about.

* The value of property in some of these Colonies is reduced to such a ruinous degree, as in many instances to amount to nearly a. total loss ; and few purchasers can be found for such estates as are put up for sale, even at a most inadequate price. We have an instance of this in the case of some valuable contiguous estates in Demerara, being offered for sale for £14,000, the value of which, a few years ago, exceeded £100,000 ; and similar cases could be adduced which have occurred in the other Colonies.

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It is impossible to justify the various enactments which effect alterations on the sugar duties, and of which the Planters justly complain, as they are not only in direct contradiction to the avowed motives of the Government in abolishing slavery, but amount to a direct breach of the positive engagements entered into by them on that occasion.

The abolition of slavery had in itself, comparatively, little influence m bringing about the unfortunate state of affairs which prevails, as was evinced by the fact, that property, in some of the Colonies, and particularly in Barbados, where I then was, maintained its highest value for some time after the period of emancipation; and there is abundant evidence, that well conducted estates in all the West Indian Colonies, continued to yield as large a return to their proprietors as at any former period, Estates were leased at even an extravagant rental, and large transfers of property were made without dread or hesitation.

The cause of this temporary prosperity may be traced to the dependence placed by the Planters upon the promised assistance and protection of Government, w r hich they did not regard as a boon, but as an indisputable right— the just claim of a creditor for an admitted debt — because they had received only an instalment of the compensation to which Government had admitted they were entitled, being paid little over one third of the appraised value of their slaves, receiving only sixteen millions out of the forty-three millions, which was the valuation of the crown commit sioners. With this admitted claim, the Colonists could not doubt, that in the event of no further remuneration in money being awarded to them, they would enjoy the operation of such fiscal enactments, as would at least be equal in value to their acknowledged claim. If it had been believed at that time, that the present course would ever be adopted, or that so sweeping and sudden a change would ever take place, the Colonists would not have been lulled into a state of false security, and the value of property would not have been kept up at a false standard. Many persons who are now ruined by having invested their capital in West Indian property, would never have embarked in a speculation w T hich would have been deemed too hazardous to be prudent, even at a much lower value : and those who had no alternative would have began gradually to take such steps, as circumstances rendered necessary, to reduce the cost of production by every contrivance which skill, sharpened by necessity, could suggest.

The question of free trade generally, has been too much mixed and associated with that of the Colonies, and most persons seem to confound them with one another, and consider that the protectionist party in this country, and the West India body, are one and the same. There exists, however, a wide distinction. The latter demand not one particular policy or another ; they ask only for the fulfilment of the promises made to them, to which this country was solemnly pledged, and which they must obtain before

INTRODUCTION.

they are on a footing with the proprietors of land in the mother country.

In order to understand the exact nature of the claims of the Colonists, it is necessary to revert to the circumstances attending the passing of the act for the abolition of slavery.

In the first place, the right to hold property in slaves must be considered as admitted. This is placed beyond doubt by the manner in which slavery originated in our West Indian possessions. We find, by reference to the laws of the period, that grants of land were given, on the express condition, that a certain number of slaves should be settled and maintained thereon, and these slaves were sold to the settlers by British subjects, under the authority of Government. Numerous subsequent acts recognised and confirmed the property thus created.

The legal right to the possession of property in slaves, was therefore indisputable ; it was fully recognised by the State, in their directing an appraisement of their value, with a view to compensate the proprietors ; and it was finally determined to award them a limited grant of money, and to secure to them such advantages of a fiscal nature, as would equal in value their remaining claims.

The feeling which originated the abolition of slavery, was creditable to the nation, and although the measure might have been perfected, in a greater degree, by a more wise and cautious legislation, there can be no doubt that

INTRODUCTION.

the Colonies would have continued to be prosperous, and that such gradual improvements would have taken place in their resources, and such an increase in the amount of their productions, as would have enabled them to supply sugar in sufficient quantities for any amount of consumption in this country, and that they would eventually have been able to compete with slave-holding states in such a manner as to ensure the extinction of slavery.

It is impossible to deny, that the effect of competition is to cheapen production, and to stimulate those engaged in it, to the utmost energy, in developing and economizing their resources, and in effecting and adopting such improvements as necessity suggests. But if one party possesses advantages which are placed beyond the reach of the other, it is useless to commence a struggle, the evil result of which may be foreseen. But this view of the case seems to have been disregarded by those who legislated for the Colonies, while effecting the changes in question. They have evidently been influenced by the idea, that competition with foreigners would excite industry, and increase production, and they appear entirely to have overlooked the fact, that the competition is unequal, and can only, therefore, be productive of benefit to those possessing the greatest advantages; while its effect is to paralyse the industry of the less favoured party, and, as has been rendered apparent, by destroying their credit, to reduce them to a state of ruinous inaction, and prevent them from adopting many of the improved modes of manufacture, of

10 INTRODUCTION.

which their more favoured rivals are eagerly availing themselves, and thus adding to the advantages they already possess.

It is abundantly evident, then, that the principles of free trade cannot be with justice applied to the West Indian Colonies in their present condition, and that the claims of the Colonists are based upon the broad principles of equity and national good faith, and are altogether irrespective of legislative policy.

The Government have an undoubted right to legislate in accordance with the wish of the majority of the English people, and that right they exercised in abolishing slavery ; but they have no right to confiscate property. If it is necessary to destroy the property of individuals for the public good, it is also necessary to compensate them for the injury sustained, and, therefore, in removing the advantages of a fiscal nature, which were considerd as a portion of the compensation to the West India proprietors, it is but just that they should have an equivalent pecuniary remuneration. When this is done, it is time enough to talk about the free trade question, as affecting the Colonies with the empire generally, and with which the present demands of the West India proprietors have nothing to do. If the duty on foreign sugar was kept up in their favour, they would not be embarrassed y if, that being removed, an adequate pecuniary compensation was made, they would be in a position, by the investment of it in stock and machinery, to render themselves independent of any reduc-

INTRODUCTION.

tion in the value of sugar caused by equalization of duties, by reducing the cost of production in the same ratio, and increasing the value of the product by improved methods of manufacture.*

It cannot be denied, however, that the Planters have not in general availed themselves of such improvements as were within then reach. Some spirited and intelligent individuals, in almost every Colony, have seen the necessity of reforming the old systems of Cultivation and Manufacture, and their efforts have, in most instances, been as successful as coidd be expected, under the circumstances of their struggling, for the most part, single-handed, unsupported by adequate means, and having to contend against deeply-rooted and widely-diffused prejudices. And I have no doubt, that had there been more combination in the march of improvement, and more attention paid generally to the adaptation of the means they actually possess, dark as are the prospects of the West Indians, they would not

* An aggravation of the injury complained of by the Colonists, is its sudden and unexpected operation. Had any warning of such intention been given at the time of slave emancipation, measures might have been taken, and preparations made, to meet the difficulty when it arrived. And as the only chance of competition with the productions of slave-labour consisted in a complete change of the whole system of Cultivation and Manufacture which had hitherto been practised, and with which the persons engaged in it were alone conversant : and when it is known how extremely difficult it is to effect such changes in routine systems, even where the urgent necessity is evident, the glaring injustice of such aggravated wrong is so apparent as to require no comment.

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be reduced to the utterly ruinous condition in which they are placed at present.

The efforts of Lord Elgin, and others of the Colonial governors, in promoting the formation of Agricultural Societies, and otherwise encouraging the extension of knowledge and improvement among the Planters, are deserving of great praise; and in some of the Colonies much progress has been made in effecting improvements, and bringing to aid such implements of husbandry as tend to reduce the necessity for manual labour, and such improved methods of manufacture, as to ensure a more valuable product.

It is doubtless a subject of much wonder, that where it has been shown by examples of this nature, how much can be done to cheapen production, the general practice should be so little altered, and, with the exception of a limited number of spirited and intelligent individuals, the proportion of whom have varied much in the different Colonies, so little real progress should have been made.

There is a consideration, however, which, I confess, has tended very materially to diminish my own astonishment at the fact. My experience has convinced me, that sufficient regard has not always been paid to the qualifications of the parties to whom the care of estates has been intrusted. I am far from insinuating any thing against the probity, or even the industry, of this class, but the fact is, something more than these qualities, valuable and important as they are, is needed to make a good Planter. The character of

INTRODUCTION.

sugar cultivation has been mistaken. It is not, as has been too commonly supposed, a mere mechanical process^ but it is an art, demanding; for its due development, more than ordinary sagacity and intelligence. Formerly, indeed, estates were managed on principles which never even supposed the admissibility of change, or the possibility of improvement, and it is to be regretted that the same course still very generally prevails. For conducting such a system, no great talent was required — nay, if a manager wished to enjoy the good opinion and confidence of his employer, it was his interest studiously to avoid suggesting alterations, and make it his grand object implicitly to follow his instructions, without venturing to express an opinion on their expediency.

The chief direction of West Indian property was vested in the Attornies or agents of the absentee proprietors, The most eminent and active of these had been selected from the most industrious of the managers, or from the relatives of proprietors who might be resident in the Colonies, and were for the most part admirably adapted, by their energy of character, to carry on the routine system which prevailed. But, being for the most part deeply prejudiced in favour of the existing methods, (a feeling which a long course of routine seldom fails to establish., and which has been exemplified as much in the case of many of the old class of English farmers, as in that of the Planter,) and satisfied that no change of system was required, or at least, not feeling that they would be justified

INTRODUCTION.

in attempting any, they were not calculated to make any advance towards a more rational and economical method of management. Hence, when a change of circumstances rendered all their efforts unprofitable, they did not take those steps which the exigencies of the times demanded, to avert the ruin which a persistence in the old and imperfect practice threatened to accomplish. In fact, the change paralysed them. All that has been done by most of them, has been, to practise economy on a small scale, by reducing the salaries of subordinates, and battling with the merchant for reduced freight, and with the labourer for lower wages, not being able to understand the more comprehensive economy which is required.

I speak, of course, merely of what has fallen under my own observation, but I perceive that a late writer, in speaking of the practice in Jamaica, after using even stronger language on the subject, remarks as follows : —

" There is no communing with the overseer in regard to the welfare of the estate — no exchange of advice betwixt overseer and attorney, or at least none which merits the title. In fact, the whole system is quite opposed to such confidence and consideration. The attorney employs an overseer who will manage the property precisely as he directs, and who will bend to him in all things. The overseer, on the other hand, seeks to conciliate the goodwill, and secure the countenance, of his employer, the attorney — the only employer whom he knows, by doing all in his power to please him. He knows, that at any

INTRODUCTION.

moment, with or without a reason, the attorney may discharge him. Is it to be wondered at, therefore, that he is cautious of saying or doing ought offensive, when it could only lead to his own loss of employment, and attendant injury ? Of course, it will be understood that there are many attorneys who are exceptions to the above rule, which, I am very sorry to say, however, is still but too general. Nor do I intend to assert that a very strict supervision is not necessary. On the contrary, I consider a proprietor or agent cannot exercise too much vigilance, or interfere too often, when he finds things going wrong on an estate. But I think that an overseer should be brought to identify himself with the property of which he is in charge — that he should regard it as his comfortable and undoubted home, which he feels is secured to him by the good feeling and interest of the proprietor or agent. Were such a feeling called into being, and carefully fostered, many very great benefits would result. For instance, take an intelligent and right-minded man, of education and experience, and place him in charge of an estate, giving him an honest account of its pecuniary position, a clear idea of what is expected from him, and a genuine assurance of confidence, security, and indulgent consideration, and I feel convinced that he would study economy in the general management of the estate, and employ the energies of his mind in compassing its gradual improvement, instead of speculating on the advent of a successor. At present, the great aim of an overseer is, to keep his situation, which is

INTRODUCTION.

generally of so insecure a tenure,, that he thinks it a folly to enter into calculations which require time to carry out. It is a most injurious system, and should at all risks be altered, for without feeling a heart-in-hand kind of interest in the estate that he manages, the overseer can never act the part he oughts — Wrai/s Practical Sugar Planter, page 62.

Chapter I

A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS OF CULTIVATION USUALLY PRACTISED IN THE WEST INDIES.

The old system of cane cultivation is too well known to need description, but for the sake of comparison, I shall briefly advert to it.

The land under cultivation was generally divided into three or more nearly equal portions, according to the desire of the manager, to ratoon once, or oftener; and soon after the termination of the sugar making season, the preparation of the portion of land to be planted in the beginning of the succeeding year w T as commenced, by putting a gang of negroes with hoes, to break up the surface. This was generally done in a very superficial manner, as the labourer naturally exerted all his ingenuity to

give his work the appearance of being well performed,

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CULTIVATION OF THE SUGAR CANE.

with as little exertion on his part as possible. The size of the cane-hole was defined, by measuring squares of three, three and a-half, or four feet, according to the fancy of the Planter, with a line, and marking off the spaces with small sticks ; but generally, the shape of the old cane-hole was sufficient to direct the labourers in forming the new one, which was accomplished by digging about sixteen or twenty inches square out of the centre of each space, leaving a hard broad border of undisturbed earth, surrounding the hole formed. The earth removed by the operation being arranged on the one side of the hole, formed banks which presented parallel lines of newly turned earth, resting on a hard and unbroken base, and between these lines were the newly formed holes, separated from each other by a bar of undisturbed soil, called the " distance" or " cross-hole bank," which was covered with loose soil, by farther deepening the cane-hole at a subsequent operation, called " cross-holing." This operation entirely removed the surface soil from the hole, so that the hard unbroken subsoil was exposed at the bottom ; the surface of the field, when finished, presenting the appearance of a chess-board.

Although the earth was but imperfectly broken up by this process, it was a very laborious one, particularly in stiff soils, and where the roots of the recently cut canes interlaced the earth in all directions. In wet weather, also, the earth adhering to, and clogging the hoes in a very troublesome manner, they required continual scraping, which con-

PRESENT SYSTE3I OF CULTIVATION.

sunied considerable time, and in dry weather the ground was so exceedingly tough and hard, from never having been perfectly tilled, that very little progress could be made. In general each person would dig from fifty to one hundred cane-holes in a day, although I have seen much more pretended to be done by task-work, but in such cases very imperfectly, the earth being merely scratched into the form of the cane-hole.

The manure, partly made up in pens in the fields, to which it was to be applied, and partly carted from the homestead, and deposited in the intervals between the fields, was usually distributed with baskets, and placed on the spaces left between the holes befors cross-holing, the mould from this last operation serving to cover the manure. Sometimes, however, it was thrown into the hole after cross-holing^ and lightly covered with earth, till the time approached for planting, when it was dug out and drawn on the bank, or by the side of it.

It generally happened that only a portion of the manure for the crop was made up in time to be applied before the planting of the canes, indeed some Planters rather preferred its application during the growth of the plant, in which case it was carried in baskets and applied round the bunches of the growing canes, during temporary cessations, or after the close of the sugar making season.

The earlier the operation of digging the cane-holes could be performed, the more creditable to the judgment and exertion of the Planter, although this depended, in some de-

CULTIVATION OE THE SUGAR CANE.

gree, on the period of the crop being finished, on the time occupied in preparing land for planting provisions for the support of the slaves, or for sale, and, since the abolition of slavery, in a very great measure on the number of labourers who could be procured.