A concise English grammar

Preface

The favor accorded to ^An Advanced English Grammar' 5 has led the authors, in response to many requests from' experienced teachers, to prepare this brief manual — of similar grade — for use in those courses of study which require a very concise textbook.

The plan will appear from the Table of Contents. Part One, which may serve either as an introduction or as a preliminary review, gives a rapid survey of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and an explanation of their substitutes — the Phrase and the Clause. Part Two deals systematically with Inflection and Syntax;, and closes with chapters on Clauses as Parts of Speech and the Meanings of Subordinate Clauses (as expressing time, place, cause, concession, purpose, result, condition, comparison, indirect discourse, and indirect question). Particular attention is paid to several matters that often give trouble to the student — such as shall and will, conditional sentences, and indirectness in assertions and questions. Part Three treats of Analysis. An Appendix contains Lists of Verbs and Tables of Conjugation.

The Exercises (pp. 157-208) follow the text in the same order of treatment, and references at the head of each, as well as parallel references in the Table of Contents, make it easy for the teacher to utilize them in connection with the topics which they illustrate. This arrangement obviates the necessity of interrupting the exposition of grammatical principles at every turn, and thus lends to pp. 1-156 a continuity otherwise unattainable. The passages selected for parsing, analysis, etc., iv PBEFACE

are, without exception, taken from distinguished British and American writers. There is also a good supply of constructive exercises, many of which afford practice in avoiding common errors of speech.

The terminology already adopted by the authors in their " Advanced English Grammar ;? was found to agree in most respects with that recommended by the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature. In the present book the few details of divergence have been so adjusted that teachers who wish to adopt the Committee's plan in all particulars may do so without difficulty, while those who prefer certain old established terms will find them in their accustomed places. An unusually full Index facilitates this adjustment.

G. L. K.

E. E. E.

Contents

[The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those in the second column to the pages of the Exercises.]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART ONE -THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE exer

TEXT CISES

General Principles 1

The Sentence — Subject and Predicate 2 157

Kinds of Sentences 2 157

The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 158

The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 8 158

Infinitives and Participles 10 159

Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 12 159

Compound Subject and Predicate 13 159

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 13 160

Phrases — Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 13 160

Clauses — Independent and Subordinate 14 161

Compound and Complex Sentences 14 161

Compound Complex Sentences 16 162

Clauses as Parts of Speech . . . .- 17 161

CHAPTER I — INFLECTION — NOUNS Inflection in General 19

Classification — Common Nouns and Proper Nouns .... 19 162

Special Classes — Abstract, Collective, Compound 20 162

Inflection of Nouns 21 162

Gender 21 162

Number 23 16a

Person 28

v vi CONTENTS

TEXT

Nominative Case 29 164

Possessive or Genitive Case 30 164

Objective Case (Accusative and Dative) 33 164

Parsing of Nouns 39 164

CHAPTER II — PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns 40 166

Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 41 166

Case of Personal Pronouns .41 166

The Self -Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) .... 43 167

Adjective Pronouns — Demonstratives 44 168

Adjective Pronouns — Indefinites 45 168

Relative Pronouns 47 169

The Relative Pronoun What 51 169

Compound Relative Pronouns 52 169

Interrogative Pronouns . . 53 171

Parsing of Pronouns 54 172

CHAPTER III — ADJECTIVES Classification of Adjectives 55 172

Adjectives — the Articles 57 173

Comparison of Adjectives 58 172

Irregular Comparison 59 172

CHAPTER IV — ADVERBS AND NUMERALS Classification of Adverbs 61 173

Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 62 174

Comparison of Adverbs . 63 175

Use of the Comparative and Superlative 64 175

Numerals — Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 65 176

CHAPTER V — VERBS Classification of Verbs 67 176

Auxiliary Verbs — Verb-Phrases 67 176

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 67 176

Copulative or Linking Verbs 68 176

CONTENTS vi£

,t,™™ EXER-

TEXT CISES

Inflection of Verbs 69 177

Tense of Verbs 69 177

Present and Past Tenses 70 177

Regular and Irregular Verbs 70 177

Person and Number • • • 70 177

The Personal Endings 71 177

Conjugation of the Present and the Past 72 177

Special Rules of Number and Person 73 178

The Future Tense — Shall and Will 76 179

Complete or Compound Tenses 78 181

Voice — Active and Passive 79 181

Conjugation of the Six Tenses 80 181

Use of the Passive Voice 82 181

Progressive Verb-Phrases 84 183;

Emphatic Verb-Phrases 86 183

Mood of Verbs 86 183

Indicative Mood 87 18£

Imperative Mood 87 183

Subjunctive Mood — Forms 89 183

Uses of the Subjunctive 90 183

Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 93 185

Special Rules for Should and Would 96 186

The Infinitive 101 188

The Infinitive as a Noun 102 188

The Infinitive as a Modifier 103 188

The Infinitive Clause 104 189

Participles — Forms and Constructions 106 190

Nominative Absolute 109 191

Verbal Nouns in -ing (Participial Nouns) 110 191

CHAPTER X — THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Clauses of Place and Time 122 194

Causal Clauses 123 194

Concessive Clauses 123 194

Clauses of Purpose and Result 124 195

Conditional Sentences (the Conditional Complex) 125 195 ■

Eorms of Conditions 127 195

Present and Past Conditions 127 195

future Conditions 128 195

Clauses of Comparison 129 196

Indirect Discourse 130 197

.Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Discourse . . 132 198

Indirect Questions 132 199

.Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Questions . . 134 200

CHAPTER VI — ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 155 207

Examples of Elliptical Constructions 155 207

Varieties of Ellipsis 156 207

PAGE

Exercises on Part One 157

Exercises on Part Two 162

Exercises on Part Three 201

APPEXDIX

Conjugation of the Verb to be 218

Conjugation of the Verb to strike 219

Index 223

ENGLISH GRAMMAE

Part One The Parts Of Speech In The Sentence

1. Words are the signs of ideas. The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition. Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs ; written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.

Most words are the signs of definite ideas : as, — Charles, captain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless.

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech : as, — from, in, and, but, if.

2. The relation in which a word stands to other words in connected speech is called its construction, and the orderly system of constructions in language is called syntax.

Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in v its meaning : as, — boy, boy's ; man, men ; drink, drank.

Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.

The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage, — that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.

2 THE SENTENCE

THE SENTENCE — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

Eire burns.

Rain is falling.

The army approached the city.

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.

Who is that officer ?

Does Arthur Moore live here ?

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

Open the window.

Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.

How calm the sea is !

What a noise the engine makes !

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory if it is uttered in an excited tone.

Note. All sentences, then, are either exclamatory or non -exclamatory. Similarly, a sentence of any class may be either affirmative or negative (i. e. " denying "). Thus, — " Tom rides well " (affirmative declarative) ; " Tom does not ride well " (negative declarative) ; " Go home " (affirmative imperative) ; " Do not go home " (negative imperative). This distinction, however, must not be pressed too far, for a sentence that is affirmative in form may be negative in meaning and vice versa. Thus, " What is left us but despair? " is equivalent to "Nothing is left" etc.; and "Are you not sorry?" often means in effect, " Of course you are sorry."

5. Every sentence consists of two parts, — a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

Thus, in the first example in § 4, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns. In the second, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the third, the subject is the army ; the predicate, approached the city.

THE PAETS OF SPEECH 3

6. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be ff understood." Thup, in "Open the window," the subject is "you (understood)." If expressed, the subject would be emphatic : as, — "You open the window."

7. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.

Here comes Tom.

Over went the carriage.

A sentence in which the whole or a part of the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.

How goes the world with you ?

THE PAKTS OF SPEECH

8. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech, — namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

I. NOUNS

9. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

Examples : Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, Chicago, island, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss.

n. PRONOUNS

10. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.

In "I am ready," the pronoun J is a convenient substitute for the speakers name. In " You have forgotten your umbrella,'" the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.

Other pronouns are : he, his, him ; she, hers, her ; it, its ; this, that ; who, whose, v:hom, which, what ; myself, yourself, himself, themselves.

4 SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES

11. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence the general term substantive is employed to include both nouns and pronouns.

12. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

Frank followed his father. [Frank is the antecedent of his.] Eleanor is visiting her aunt.

The book has lost its cover.

The trappers sat round their camp fire.

Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two antecedents, connected by and.]

III. ADJECTIVES

13. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 1

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

Little strokes fell great oaks.

14. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say "wooden box," we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive or limiting adjectives.

1 In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.

IV. VERBS

15. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing. 1

The wind blows. Her jewels sparkled.

The horses ran. Tom climbed a tree.

The fire blazed. The dynamite exploded.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

The treaty still exists. Near the church stood an elm.

The book lies on the table. My aunt suffers much from headache.

16. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

You will see. We might have invited her.

The tree has fallen. Our driver has been discharged.

17. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, " aiding ") verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.

Thus, in " You will see," the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action ; in ?f We might have invited her," the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did.

The auxiliary verb comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.

Where was Washington born ?

The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.

You must never be discouraged.

18. 7s (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.

1 The usual brief definition of a verb is, "A verb is a word which asserts. " But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.

6 ADVERBS

1. Gold is a metal.

2. Charles is my friend's name.

3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.

4. Iron becomes red in the fire.

5. Our condition seemed desperate.

6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.

7. My soul grows sad with troubles. — Shakspere.

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold. In sentences 4-7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative or linking verbs. 1

The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are : am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be. 2

V. ADVERBS

19. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus, in ff The river fell rapidly," the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In fr I am never late," ff This is absolutely true, 1 ' ff That is too bad," the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in ff He came very often," ff He spoke almost hopefully," ff The river fell too rapidly," they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.

Most adverbs answer the question w How ? " " When ? "

w Where ? v or u To what degree or extent ? w

The officer was severely reprimanded.

They sailed north.

The wind continued to blow hard.

He went out immediately and away he walked. — Defoe.

1 Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the " joiner " or " link."

2 For full inflection, see pp. 218-219.

PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 7

20. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.

Adjectives Adverbs

A brigJU fire burned. The fire burned brightly.

A fierce wind blew. The wind blew fiercely .

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives ; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

VI. PREPOSITIONS

21. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

A preposition is said to govern its object.

In ff The surface of the w r ater glistened," of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In "Philip is on the river," on shows Philip's position with respect to the river, In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.

22. A preposition often has more than one object. Thus, — " Over hill and dale he ran."

VII. CONJUNCTIONS

23. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.

In "Time and tide wait for no man," "The parcel was small but heavy," " He wore a kind of doublet or jacket," the conjunctions and, but. or, connect single words, — time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In "Do not go z/you are afraid," "I came because you sent for me," " Take my key, but do not lose it," each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.

8 DIFFEBENT PAETS OF SPEECH

VIII. INTERJECTIONS

24. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand ; hence their name, which means " thrown in."

Examples : Oh! I forgot. Ah, how I miss you ! Bravo ! Alas!

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

25. The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.

26. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.

I. Nouns and Adjectives Nouns Adjectives

Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire.

That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house.

The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here.

The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives ; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.

II. Nouns and Verbs Nouns Verbs

Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows.

Give me a stamp. Stamp this envelope.

It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief.

Other examples are : act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 9

III. Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives Adverbs

That is 2ifast boat. The snow is melting fast.

Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight.

Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early.

For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 190.

IV. ADJECTIVE6 AND PRONOUNS

Adjectives Pronouns

This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant.

That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo.

Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each.

For further study of this class of words, see pp. 44-47.

V. Adverbs and Prepositions

Adverbs Prepositions

Jill came tumbling after. He returned after the accident.

We went below. Below us lay the valley.

The weeds sprang up. We walked up the hill.

Other examples are : aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.

Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following: —

Noun. The calm lasted for three days.

Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds.

Verb. Calm your angry friend.

Other examples are : iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.

Noun. , Wrong seldom prospers.

Adjective. You have taken the wrong road.

Adverb. Edward often spells words wrong.

Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions.

Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy.

Adjective. We have an outside stateroom.

Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside.

Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach.

10 INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES

Noun. Sheep were feeding on the down.

Adjective. This is a down grade.

Adverb. We must go down.

Preposition. The stream runs down the valley.

Adjective. That boat is a sloop.

Pronoun. That is my uncle.

Conjunction. You said that you would help me.

Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica.

Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time.

Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late.

Preposition. I am waiting for the train.

Conjunction. You have plenty of time, for the train is late.

Interjection. Hurrah ! the battle is won.

Noun. I heard a loud hurrah.

Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah.

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES

27. Two classes of verb-forms really belong to different parts of speech, at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).

28. Each of the following sentences contains an infinitive :

To struggle was useless.

To escape is impossible.

To exercise regularly preserves the health.

To struggle is a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape, and regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) for to exercise regularly.

But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives.

29. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.

INFINITIVES AND PAKTICIPLES 11

30. The infinitive without to is much used in verb-phrases.

I shall go. Mary may recite.

John will win. Jack can swim.

Such phrases will be studied with the inflection of verbs.

Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences: — " I intend to go," " John is sure to win," *' Mary is permitted to recite," " Jack is able to swim."

31. The following sentence contains two participles : —

Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.

We recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink ; both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

32. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

33. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.

All present participles end in ing. Past participles have various forms, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 325).

34. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.

Tom is coming. Your book is found.

The drums are beating. The jewels are lost.

Our boat was wrecked. They have sold their horses.

I have sent the money. You have broken your watch.

He has brought me a letter. The ship had struck on the reef.

Such phrases will be studied with the inflection of verbs.

J.2 SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE

"SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

35. A sentence may consist of but two words, — a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus, —

Charles | swims.

Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus, — Young Charles | swims slowly.

Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun (Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb (slowly), which modifies swims by indicating how the action is performed.

The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence ; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (Charles swims), though the thought would be less definite and exact.

36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. It may be called the subject substantive.

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase. It may be called the predicate verb.

The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.

In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics : —

The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 13

The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the Governor General.

The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.

I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.

37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate.

1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.

2. Frances and she | are friends.

3. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves \ were piled together in confusion.

4. The watch | sank and was lost.

5. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared.

6. He | neither smiled nor frowned.

7. Snow and ice \ covered the ground and made our progress difficult.

38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the third, four substantives (hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by and. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth, the predicates are compound ; in the seventh, both the subject and the predicate.

39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate : and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or ; whether . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor).

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH PHRASES

40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech.

The Father of Waters is the Mississippi.

A girl with blue eyes stood at the window.

You are looking well.

The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something. With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective {blue-eyed), and modifies girl. At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies stood. Are looking could be replaced by the verb look.

14 PHRASES AND CLAUSES

41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.

A phrase is a noun-phrase, a verb-phrase, an adjective phrase, or an adverbial phrase, according as it is used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

In the examples in § 40, the Father of Waters is a noun-phrase ; vrith blue eyes, an adjective phrase ; at the window, an adverbial phrase ; are looking, a verb-phrase.

42. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.

Your umbrella is in the corner.

He has a heart of oak.

A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf.

My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap.