The church and the faith

Dedication

to the right reverend Hugh Miller Thompson, s.t.d., ll.d.,

TTTHOSE ABLE INSTRUCTION TAUGHT HIM TO SEEK FOR THE HIDDEN MEANING WHICH UNDERLIES THE EVENTS OF HISTORY, TO EXAMINE THE EVIDENCE OF HISTORIANS WITH A CRITICAL EYE, AND TO ACCEPT A RATIONAL THEORY OF DOCTRINAL DE- VELOPMENT ;

WHOSE WISE FORESIGHT AND TEMPERATE COURAGE HAVE POINTED OUT FOR HIM AND OTHERS THE SAFE PATH THROUGH AT LEAST ONE VEHEMENT CONTROVERSY OF MODERN DATE;

Preface

It is believed that a very definite aim, as the purpose of the present publication, will manifest itself to every attentive reader who has the patience to peruse it to the end. It may not be superfluous, however, to state that the author was conscious of a twofold design, while laboring at his manuscript. Having often wished, in vain, for some single book which should present in a small compass, for the benefit of such as he has been preparing for confirmation, the exact nature of some of the main reasons which, in his judgment, should actuate every one who seeks to become a member of the church at whose altars he unworthily ministers, he intends to employ the present volume for the instruction of his own candidates ; and offers it to the public in the hope that it may prove useful to others in a similar way. He also begs leave to say that he is thoroughly persuaded that the work contains an argument which is as important as it is uncommon; that, for himself, he holds to the correctness of the position assumed, and expects to die in that belief, as he has always lived in it since he became old enough to form an intelligent judgment in the premises; and that he has made an attempt to set forth his views, knowing them to be unpopular, because he has felt constrained to take that step by that strange necessity of strenuously advocating his peculiar ideas which lies so heavily upon most men of decided convictions, in whose ranks the author would shrink from claiming for himself a place, did not the exigencies of his period seem to exact such a sacrifice from his diffidence.

yi PREFACE.

Ten y^ars have sped on their way since this work was composed. Re vising it carefully after such an interval, and after several years in which it was not even glanced at, the writer has, of course, found somewhat to be changed, but he is surprised at the small amount of really important alterations he has been led to make. The positions assumed he regards as defensible ; and, relying upon the divine assistance, he is ready to maintain them against all assailants. Should he presently become convinced that any one of them is untenable, ,he will

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cheerfully seek, and diligently fortify, other ground, thankful for whatever agency shall have delivered him from so much of error. As, however, a whole decade has strengthened his persuasion that the teachings of this humble production are substantially those of nineteen Christian centuries, he is emboldened to commit these chapters to discriminating, well-informed, and enlightened readers with a certain degree of hopeful confidence that his extremely pleasant, though arduous, labor will not have been wasted.

THE AUTHOR.

December 1st 1886.

Chapter I. Importance Of The Subject

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Forms of government not unimportant, in particular forms of church government — Possibility of being more or less happy in heaven according to one's life on earth — All sects tend towards deterioration — The church the only hope of the world at large — Christ's Church dear to all who love Him 11

Chapter II. Theory Of The Church

Two theories, Monarchical and Republican — A model government not yet realized — Objections to a democracy — No form of government imposed upon us by Reason — God absolute Monarch of the universe — Danger of Centralization — Of License — The Church the champion of Freedom — To whom was the commission to rule Christ's Kingdom given ? — The Apostles communicated the Holy Ghost to the baptized — Commission to the Apostles alone — Our method of reasoning vindicated — The functions of the laity in the Christian Republic — This Republic a Monarchy also, governed by Christ through commissioned officers — The Apostolic Succession valueless out of the true Communion 19

Chapter III. Episcopacy

The Episcopal Theory satisfies the requirements of Scripture — The Papal Supremacy a fiction — The Church episcopal in second century — Universally — No trace of any previous change — Must have been so in the beginning — Likelihood of ambitious presbyters snatching the mitre — viii CONTENTS.

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Theory of a gradual, unrecorded usurpation subversive of the entire Faith — Reason of adoption of usurpation theory — Anti-episcopacy untenable 31

Chapter IV. Continuity And Kise Of The Chukch

The Christian Church a continuation of the Jewish — The Holy Spirit not given till Pentecost — Jewish ceremonies tolerated for awhile, but swept away at last by the destruction of Jerusalem — Rapidity of growth considered as a criterion of the doctrine taught by a sect — Natural causes insufficient to account for rapid advance of Christianity — Hatred of Jews for a suffering Messiah — Of Gentiles for a Crucified God — Of sinful man for goodness and truth — Christianity triumphant through cooperation of the Holy Spirit — The natural causes which, working with the divine agency, produced such speedy and solid progress in the early days of the Church were, 1st. Its admirable organization — 2nd. Its unity ; 3rd. Its purity ^ 41

Chapter V. Manich^ism

Early sects — Gnosticism — Manichaeism — Origin of evil — Consequences of Dualistic theory; Monachism — Puritanism — Brethren of Free Spirit — Calvinism— Universalism— Rejection of Old Testament 55

Chapter VI. The Church As An Establishment

Conversion of the world — Of Constantine — Edict of Milan — Glorious prospect before the Church — An Establishment unjust — Dangers of such a status to the Church — Imperial intermeddling in matters of faith — Aggrandizement of ministry — Evils arising with growth of Episcopal importance — 1st. Deterioration of character — 2nd. Elevation of unworthy men — Investiture Controversy — Bad results of Establishment . . 63

Chapter VII. Theory Of General Councils

The Saviour as a Teacher— Taught a system of the most perfect kind — Disciples needed one of another sort — A system necessary in all learning and teaching — St. Paul as a systematizer — Objections must be met by

CONTENTS. i x

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definite replies— Religion obedient to this law— One must philosophize in order to reflect — Impossible to instruct the ignorant without formulae — Opposition to Dogmatic Theology comes from repugnance to Christianity, from love of peace, from mental incapacity, from inherited prejudice — From arrogant way in which it has been taught — Analogy demands that we should not be left to the task of weighing authorities in order to ascertain the Truth — A safer way provided — Voice" of the Spirit to be sought for in the utterances of the whole church — Initiative in determining controversies belongs to the ministry — Laity must have at least the power of veto — Ministry a caste — Most exposed to governmental influence — Not as conservative as the laity — No council can a priori be pronounced General — Absolute unanimity not requisite — Council not to pronounce what the Faith ought to be, but what it always has been — Must, however, be allowed a certain liberty in drawing plain deductions and deciding upon propriety of forms — Tradition — Development 74

Chapter VIII

COUNCIL OF NICJEA, 325 A. D.

Alexandria — Its school — Its speculative tendency — Dispute between Alexander and Arius — Arianism — Its terrible and sweeping consequences — Constantine interposes — Members of the Council of Nicaea — Hosius — Busebius — Eustathius — Athanasius — His life — His importance to the Church — A remarkable synod — Transactions at its sessions — Discussion of the Homoousion — The controversy not an unimportant one — The reasonableness of the Catholic doctrine — The Monarchy of the Father — Decisions of the Council — Subsequent history of the struggle — Constantine and Arius — Constantius — His successors and their policies — Rise of Aetians and Semi-Arians — Arianism vanishes 95

Chapter IX

FIKST COUNCIL OF COSTSTAKTIN-OPLE, 381 A. D.

Anecdote of Amphilochius — Macedonius and Macedonianism — Apollinarianism and its founder — How far Apollinarius was responsible for the heresy which took his name — Necessity for a General Council — Times inauspicious — Sad effects of alliance between Church and State in deterioration of the former — Damaging influence upon morals of unintermitted controversy and strife — Council called — Constantinople — Theodosius the Great — His religious policy — Success of his arms — Constitution and conduct of Councils — Excuse for unruliness of ancient gatherings to be sought in the lack of Parliamentary Manuals — Gregory Nazianzen — Action of the Council— (Ecumenicity of Council — Division of the Church into Greek and Latin Churches — Difference between Greek and Roman tongues — Thev are established with corre-

CONTENTS.

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sponcling diversity of civilization in East and West respectively — Greeks degenerate in Asia — Greek the great language of theology— The Romans morally superior — Staunch and conservative — (Ecumenicity of 1st Constantinople proved by universal reception of its Creed 125

Chapter X

COUNCIL OF EPHESUS, 431 A. D.

Antioch and its school — Antagonism between Alexandria and Asia — Cyril — View of the Incarnation taken by Theodore of Mopsuestia — Nestorius patriarch of Constantinople — Accused by Eusebius of Dorylseum — Use of term TJieotokos — Its correctness — Reference to Rome of the dispute by both parties, Cyril and Nestorius — Growing importance of Rome — Celestine favorable to Cyril — Theodosius the Younger — Ephesus — Assembling of the bishops — Proceedings — Counter-proceedings of John and his adherents — Imperial countenance obtained by Cyril's party — Character of the Council — Question of authoritativeness not bound up with that of orderliness — End of the session — Reconciliation of principal disputants — Further history of Nestorianism — Church right in strenuously asserting the TheotoJcos — Decline of the heresy — Pelagianism— Pelagius — St. Augustine — His history, conversion, writings — Radical defect in philosophy of both Pelagius and Augustine — Man a free agent — His power a limited one — Reconciliation of contradiction — Rise of Pelagianism — History of the new doctrine — Zosimus of Rome at first approves and then condemns it — Ephesus pronounces its condemnation — Semipelagianism — Statement of view of man's freedom held by Pelagius — By Augustine — True theory that of cooperation — Discussion of Foreknowledge — Views concerning Adam — The Fall — Original Sin — Redemption — Regeneration — Decisions of Council of Ephesus — The Catholic doctrine of Election 147

CHAPTER XL

COUNCIL OF CHALCEDONY 451 A. D.

The monastic orders — The papacy — Their rivalry, and that of Alexandria and Constantinople — Dioscorus — Eutyches accused — Robber Synod — Nature of Eutychianism — Difficulties attending attempts to conceive of the union without fusion of the two natures — Commingling of natures destructive of doctrine of Mediatorship — Death of Theodosius, accession of Pulcheria, and her marriage with Marcian — Policy of government with regard to the holding of a council — Place and composition of Fourth General Council— Its proceedings— Case of Theodoret — Reluctance to issue definitions of the Faith— Condemnation of Eutychianism and affirmation that Christ exists "in two natures "—Cyril's orthodoxy discussed — Definition of Chalcedon justified — Ratification of three preceding General Councils— Advantages arising from this ratifi-

CONTENTS. x i

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cation — Chalcedon completes the defense and statement of doctrine of Incarnation — Church proof against natural tendency towards extreme views — History of Alexandrian church — Disturbances in Palestine — Leo's Encyclical — Zeno's Henoticon — Schism of Rome and Constantinople — Later history of Eutychians, or Jacobites 191

Chapter XII

SECOND COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE, 553 A. D.

Completeness of doctrinal system formulated by first four councils — Fifth and Sixth not unnecessary — Propriety of Justinian's scheme for settling faith by corresponding with the bishops instead of summoning them to a conclave — Theodore Ascidas excites a controversy about certain writings in order to draw off attention from Origenism — The errors of Theodore, Theodoret, and Ibas collected into Three Chapters, and condemned by Imperial Edict, 544, as favoring Nestorianism — The condemned authors — Justinian — Edict endorsed— Resistance of North- African Church — Of Vigilius, and Dalmatian and Illyrian bishops — Vigilius at Constantinople — Noted opponents — Africans mistaken as to action of Chalcedon with regard to writings of Theodoret and Ibas — Objection advanced by them to condemnation of dead men not valid — Fifth General Council — Ratification of its action — Plea for its authoritativeness 21G

Chapter XIII

THIRD COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE, 680-681 A. D.

Imperial contempt for theological controversy — Successive compromises — Their results — The Monothelite compromise — Its origin — Why Will was selected — Discussion of the new doctrine — Problem of contact — Heraclius — Rise of Monothelism — Sophronius — " Ectheus " (639) — Constans II. — Maximus — "Type" (648) — Opposition — Stephen of Dor — Maximus — Martin I. — Persecution and death of last — Of Maximus — Anastasius — Martyrs had not suffered in vain — Adeodatus excommunicates Patriarch of Constantinople — Donus — Agatho summons synod which condemns the heresy — Constantine Poganatus calls the Sixth General Council — Its proceedings — Remarkable episode — Decision of Council — Honorius of Rome anathematized — Further history of struggle, and downfall of Monothelism — Maronites 233

Chapter XIV. Iconoclastic Controversy

Certain controversies instrumental in dividing the Church — Judaism and idols — Early Christians denounce science — And art — Christianity not xii CONTENTS.

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hostile to Love of Beautiful — Art gains a foot-hold — Danger attending pictures and images — Idolatry enervating to soul of worshiper — Effeminacy the origin of idolatry in the Church — A reaction to be expected — Mahommedanism and Judaism deride the idols of Christians — Leo the Isaurian — Attacks images — Rouses the monks of the Archipelago — Opposition — Germanus resigns see of Constantinople — Italy rejects the edict — John Damascenus — Constantine V., Copronymus — Convenes Council at Constantinople, 754, and condemns images — Irritates the partisans of images — Severe and cruel treatment of patriarch of Constantinople — Leo IV. emperor — Irene — Council of Nicsea (787) restores images — Leo the Armenian a vehement Iconoclast (813-820) — Theodore Studites — Michael II. — Theophilus — Theodora ejects John the Grammarian, reinstates images, and institutes the Feast of Orthodoxy — Charlemagne — The Four Caroline Books — The middle course — Charlemagne rebukes both parties — Council at Frankfort in 794 — Lewis the Pious — Britain unites with France — Fair prospect clouded 255

Chapter XV. Schism Of East And West

The scene at Babel reenacted — No doctrine binding, however generally held, unless sanctioned by a council — Providence makes assembling of a general council impossible — Unity not destroyed by the Schism — Great injury, nevertheless, results — Causes of disruption — Moral or theological — Natural — Union with State — Minor causes — Iconoclastic controversy — "Filioque" — Grounds of objection raised by the Greeks to insertion of that clause — Unauthorized — Impugns Monarchy of the Father — History of Schism — Nicholas I. — Photius — Mutual excommunication — Attempt at reunion in Eleventh Century — In Thirteenth — In Fifteenth — Total failure — End of Byzantine Empire 280

Chapter XVI. Eucharistic Controversy

'lie Frankish race takes a leading position in the Church — Iconoclastic Controversy trenches upon doctrine of Eucharist — First Eucharistic Controversy — Doctrine of Paschasius Radbert — Opponents — Supporters — Discussion of Doctrine — Testimony of senses to be taken unreservedly or not at all — They testify against corporeal change — Christ's manhood is in heaven — We partake not of glorified, but of crucified, body — Position thus reached must be maintained at all hazards — On the other hand, Christ is present in Eucharist specially by His divinity — By His Vicar, the Holy Spirit — In a closer and mystical sense which we cannot understand — Nothing gained by theory of carnal presence — Our theory not tending to debase the Sacrament — Scholasticism — Weakness of Beren-

CONTENTS. x iii

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garius — He comes upon the stage — Advanced views which have become unpopular — He twice recants, and dies — Substance and Accidents — Transubstantiation and its consequences 298

Chapter XVII. Latin Chukch To The Tridentine Era

Pristine glory and sad decline of Rome — The wretched character of manypopes — General deterioration of the ministry — Moral tendency of certain false doctrines — Rome estopped from denying these charges — Palliating circumstance to be found in universality of degeneracy — Probably painted as more thorough than it really was — Doctrinal condition of Latin Church — Its status as an organization — Council of Trent (1545- 1563) — Causes of hatred between Romanists and Protestants — A plea for charity and justice 315

Chapter XVIII. Continental Reformation"

Luther — Real question before us regarding Lutheranism — Doctrine of Private Judgment — The Lutheran Body not a Church — Lay-baptism — Position of English Reformers upon this question — Consideration of the plea that the Lutheran and Reformed communions have prospered so greatly — Calvinism — Closing reflection 331