European history : an outline of its development

Preface

It is my hope that this book, while it may be used in any way, will be found of especial value by the teacher who has escaped from the bondage of set text-book recitations, as fortunately most teachers of history have now done.

In the preparation of the bibliographies and references I have had in mind both the needs of the teacher and of the pupil. Nothing adds so much to the interest of work in history as a more extensive knowledge of the subject on the teacher's part than the text-book gives, and an ability to fill it out and throw light upon it from various sources. The bibliographies give the names of many books not specifically referred to elsewhere. These are especially for the use of the teacher, and the intention has been to mention in each case the two or three best books. In the construction of the text also, while it has been my purpose to state as clearly as possible all the important facts, I have endeavored to make a text which would readily serve as the foundation for considerable expansion by both teacher and pupils. It will be noticed, possibly, that the stock historical anecdotes are lacking. These, if used at all, will have much more force and point coming from the teacher than if they stand in the text to be read and reread and repeated to the weariness of the bright pupil.

The specific references, while they may be of use to the teacher himself, are especially intended to be used with due judgment in the assignment of outside reading to the pupil and as the basis of reports to the class. At the close of each vi Preface

chapter two or three topics of especially assigned readings are given, but these are intended to serve as specimens rather than to furnish a complete list. The teacher can construct as many others as desired on the basis of the marginal topics and references. In the selection of the books, to which the specific references are made, I have been governed by the readiness with which the books can be procured. If a list of all those to which most frequent reference is made were drawn up, it would not exceed the limits of a good school library of European history. I believe that all the easily accessible sources in English have been referred to in most cases by specific references, and I have supplemented these by reference to two or three collections of sources in French and German which are readily obtainable and inexpensive.

In the preparation of the text I have endeavored to give especial emphasis to the different periods of history, and at the same time to make clear the continuous movement. If any fairly good conception can be gained from the study of history of the steady march of humanity up to its present level, one of its richest and most fruitful results has been secured, and it is a wish of mine, though one perhaps not easily realized, that the teacher should be able to make his class see in each lesson, or at least in each of the minor epochs of history, how the movement advances a stage in the given bit of time. I hope that the summaries prefixed to the different parts may be of service in this direction. It will be noticed also that the traditional divisions of general history have not been exactly followed, and that in a number of cases new names have been given to the divisions made. These names have been selected with a view to bringing out prominently the unity and continuous advance of history. The traditional divisions are, however, made clear enough in the text so that any one who prefers can make use of them.

Preface vii

The book can readily be made the basis of a two-years course of study by a use of the references and assigned readings. If this is desired, I should advise a division at the end of Part IV, as the most logical and satisfactory, although it does not divide the text quite evenly. I hope the book may also be found to serve a good purpose in colleges as the " backbone book " of a wider course of study or as a book of review on the completion of such a course.

I have received suggestions of value in the preparation of the book from a number of correspondents, but I am under especial obligation for such suggestions to Professors Lucy M. Salmon of Vassar College and Fred Morrow Fling of the University of Nebraska.

It is impossible that in a book of this kind errors both of the pen and of the press, and even graver ones, should not have escaped attention. I shall be very grateful to those who will call my attention to any of these which they may notice.

GEORGE BURTON ADAMS.

December 29, 1898.

Contents

PAGE

A Brief List of Books of Reference of Value to the

Teacher xxvii

Part I

PRIMITIVE EUROPE AND THE ORIENT Books for Reference and Further Reading ..... I

I. The Earliest History i

The Field of History — The Prehistoric Age — Succession of Historic Races of Men.

II. The Oriental Nations 7

Egypt — Egyptian Civilization — Assyria and Baljylonia — The Hebrews — The Phoenicians — The Persian Empire.

Part II The Greek Period

Books for Refer c7ice — Summary . . . . . -17

I. The Early History 19

Primitive Greek History — The Legendary Period — The Homeric Age — The Spartans — A Military Communism — A Ruling Minority — Athens — The Great Reformers — Two Typical Greek Constitutions.

II. The Struggle of Greece with Persia and its Results 29 The Beginning of the Persian Wars — The First and Second Invasions — Xerxes' Invasion — Greek Leadership passes to Athens — Rise of the Athenian Empire — The Age of Pericles.

ix

: Contents

PAGE

III. The Peloponnesian War and its Results. . . 34

The Beginning of the War — The Sicilian Expedition — The Last Period of the War, 413-404 B.C. — P'all of Athens — Supremacy of Sparta — The Invasion of Persia by Cyrus the Younger — A New Persian War — The Decline of Sparta.

IV. The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of

Alexander 42

Philip's First Steps — The Sacred Wars — The Conquest of Greece — The Conquest of Asia — The Fate of Alexander's Empire — Its Influence on Civilization — The Greek World between the Age of Alexander and the Roman Conquest — The Period Intellectually — Condition of the Greek World at the Roman Conquest.

Part III The Rise Of The Romans

Books for Reference — Summary . . . . . -53

I. Beginnings and Constitutional Changes ... 56

The Relation of the Romans to the Greeks in History

— The Geography and Peoples of Italy — The Pounding

of Rome — The Period of the Kings — Early Changes in

the Constitution — The Early Constitution of the Republic

— Rome begins her Conquests — Struggle of the Plebeians for Rights — Debtors demand Less Severe Laws — Conflict for Equality in holding Office.

II. The Struggle for Empire 66

The First Samnite and Latin Wars — War with the Greeks — The Roman Colonial System — Rome and Carthage, Rivals for Empire — The Importance of the Struggle

— The First Punic War — Hannibal's Invasion of Italy — Rome's Fortunes at their Lowest — The War carried into Africa — Effect of the War upon Rome.

Contents xi

PAGE

III. The Empire completed. Its Effect on Rome . . 79

Ten Years of Rapid Expansion — ^The Close of Greek History — Abuses in Rome's Provincial Government — The Abuses affect Rome herself — Tiberius Gracchus — Caius Gracchus.

IV. The Fall of the Republic 86

No Patriotic Leadership in Rome — Jugurtha measures Rome's Corruption — The First German Invasion — Causes and Results of the Social War — The First Step towards a New Nation — The Army becomes a Political Power — Civil War and the " Proscriptions."

V. The Beginning of the Cbsars 94

The Rise of Pompey — Csesar and Cicero — The First Triumvirate — New Civil War — Monarchy a Necessity — Caesar's Measures — The Second Triumvirate.

Part IV The Roman World-state With Its Fall

AND ITS REVIVAL

Books for Reference — Summary ...... loi

I. The Empire and its Decline 105

Character of the Early Empire — Constitutional Forms

— Economic and Literary Character of the Age — Provincial Administration — Augustus and the Germans — The Period of the Julian House — From Tiberius to Nero — The Flavian Dynasty — Growth of the Imperial Constitution — Five Good Emperors — The Roman Law — Disorders of the Third Century — Reforms of Diocletian

— Constantine the Great.

II. The Establishment of Christianity .... 120 Books for Reference and Further Reading . . . . .120 Christianity at the Death of Christ — Becomes a World Religion — Causes of Roman Persecution — Beginnings of Church Government — Christianity recognized by the State.

xii Contents

PAGE

III. The Last Age of Rome 126

Character of the Fourth Century — Causes of the Fall of Rome — From Slavery to Serfdom — Attacks upon the Frontiers — Characteristics of the Germans — The Third and Fourth Centuries — The Goths cross the Danube — Theodosius the Great — Invasions of Alaric — Breaking of —^ the Rhine Frontier — Rome's German Defender Sacrificed

— Invasion of the Huns — End of the Western Empire.

IV. The Founding of the German States . . . 137

A Second Period of German Conquests — Founder of the Frankish Empire — Arian versus Catholic — Clovis adopted the Catholic Faith — The Last Years of Clovis' Reign — The Ostrogoths conquer Italy — The Character of Theodoric's Rule — Growth of the Frankish Power — Decay of the Merovingian House — The Roman Empire of the East — The Reign of Justinian — Justinian's Work for Civilization — The Invasion of the Lombards — The Saxons in Britain — The Saxon States — No Roman Elements in the Saxon States.

V. The Franks, the Arabs, and the Papacy . . . 152

The Second Frankish Dynasty — The First Carolingians

— Their Power Established — The Government Strengthened — Arabia before Mohammed — Mohammed and his Religion — A Religion of Conquest — Conquests of the First Century — The Revolution of 750 — Arabian Science

— Coming in of the Turks — The Frankish Empire Restored

— Lombards threaten the Pope's Independence — The Franks protect the Pope.

VI. The Empire revived. Charlemagne .... 164

The Way prepared for a Great Empire — Conquest of Italy — Of the Saxons — Charlemagne's Other Conquests

— Revival of the Roman Empire — The Missi Doininici — Charlemagne's Schools — • Charlemagne's Place in History. .-

Contents xiii

Part V The Formation Of The Nations

PAGE

Books for Reference — Summary 173

I. The Breaking up of Charlemagne's Empire . -175 Causes of Division — Economic Condition — Louis I. the Pious — The Treaty of Verdun — End of the United Empire — New Barbarian Invasions — The Northmen — RoUo in Normandy and the Danes in England — ^^Ifred the Great — The Second Danish Invasion.

II. The Feudal System 185

The Conditions which gave rise to Feudalism — Forms of the Feudal System — The Feudal System in France — Feudal Rights and Obligations — The Serf Class — Gradual Improvement in the Condition of the Serf.

HI. The Rise of the New Nations 192

General Conditions — The Beginning in Germany — The Saxon Kings — The Empire revived by Otto I. — Effect of the Revival — The Beginning in France — Kings of Little Power — Norman Conquest of England.

IV. Empire and Papacy . 199

The Papacy during the Tenth Century — The Reforms of Cluny — Power of the Empire under Henry III. — The Beginning of the Conflict — Its Results — The Third German Dynasty, the Hohenstaufen — Danger to the Papacy — The Cities of Northern Italy — Guelf and Ghibelline — The Papacy at its Highest Point of Power.

V. The Crusades 209

Place of the Crusades in History — Motives of the Crusaders — The Beginning of the First Crusade — Results of the First Crusade — The Second and Third Crusades — The Later Crusades.

f xiv Contents

PAGE

VI. The Changes which followed the Crusades . .217 The Direct Results of the Crusades — The Rise of the Third Estate — The Third Estate on the Side of Strong Government — Effect of the Increased Use of Money — Fall of the Feudal System — Changes affecting the Serf Class — Institutions of the Cities.

VII. The Formation of the French Nation . . . 224 General Conditions in France — Two Great Difficulties — The Work of Louis VI. — France threatened by the Angevin Empire — The First Great Advance — The Growth of the King's Power — The Salic Law — The First Period of the Great Struggle with England — The King of England becomes King of France — Joan of Arc — The Final Triumph of France — Louis XI. and Charles the Bold.

VIII. England 236

Books for Reference and Further Heading ..... 236 General Character of English History — Period of the Norman Kings — Henry II. Abroad and at Home — England and Ireland — Henry's Two Sons — The Greatest of the Angevin Kings — The Hundred Years' War — The House of Lancaster — The Wars of the Roses.

IX. The Other States of Europe 247

The Situation in Germany and Italy — The Foundation of Austria — A Period of Many Dynasties — The Hussite War — The Rise of Other German States — Italy — Spain — The Rise of the Ottoman Empire.

Part VI Renaissance And Reformation

Books for Reference — Summary . , , . . -257 I. The Revival of Learning 259

A Transitional Epoch — The Meaning of Renaissance — The Place of the Middle Ages in History — Learning in the Middle Ages — Mediaeval Revivals — The Age of

Conte7its XV

Scholasticism — The Founding of the Universities — The Renaissance comes First in Italy — The Beginning in the Age of Petrarch — The Revival of Greek — Scientilic Method Recovered — The Invention of Printing and its Results — The Renaissance South and North of the Alps — Erasmus.

II. The Immediate Results of the Revival . . . 273

Advance in Knowledge — The Commercial Situation of the Fifteenth Century — Portuguese Discoveries — Columbus and his Discoveries — The Economic Results — The First Great Step in Physical Science — The End of the Renaissance — Art and Literature.

III. Revolution atiemited in the Government of the

The Papacy at Avignon — The Great Schism — The Demand for Reform — Wycliffe's Attempt at Reformation

— Huss and the Hussites — The Council of Constance — The Council fails to reform Government or Conduct.

IV. The Political Changes of the Age .... 290

Politics become International — The Condition of France — The Creation of Spain — Results of Ferdinand's Policy — England — Germany — Italy — France begins the Struggle — The First Invasion of Italy— A New French Claim on Italy — Rapid Changes in the Italian Situation

— The Dominions of Charles V. — The Imperial Election and its Results — France still seeks Dominion in Italy.

V. The Reformation of Luther 303

Luther's Theological Beliefs — Indulgences — Luther posts his Theses — Luther gradually led to Open Rebellion — The Protestant Position in Regard to Authority — The Diet of Worms — Events in Italy — The Treaty of Madrid — Enforcement of the Edict Delayed — Peace between France and Charles V. — The " Protestants " and their Strength— The Great Peasant War — The First Attack of the Turks — The Diet and "Confession" of Augsburg — The Emperor's Plans again Postponed.

xvi Contejits

PAGE

VI. The Later Age of the Reformation . . . -317

The Reformation in the North of Europe — Henry VIII. takes the Place of the Pope — England becomes Protestant

— Calvinism — The Reformation in France and Holland

— The Counter Reformation — TheSociety of Jesus.

Part VII The Struggle Of The Nations For Supremacy

AND EXPANSION

I. The Age of Religious Wars 328

The General Character of the Age — The Schmalkaldic War — Abdication of Charles V. — The Power and Character of Philip II. — Philip and Mary of England — England again Protestant — The Netherlands under the Hapsburgs — The Beginning of Resistance to Philip — The Independence of the United Netherlands^ — ^ England — Mary Queen of Scots — The Invincible Armada — Rise of the Puritan Party — Opposing Parties in France — Huguenot Civil Wars — The First of the Bourbons — Foreign Plans of Henry IV. — Beginning of the Thirty Years' War — The Bohemian Period of the War — The Danish Period — Sweden and France — Richelieu centralizes France — Richelieu and the Thirty Years' War — Gustavus Adolphus in Germany — The Death of Gustavus and Wallenstein — The French Period of the War — The Peace of Westphalia — The Empire Destroyed — The Other States of Europe in the Peace — The Sufferings of Germany — A New Era in English History — The Stuarts and the Puritans — The Reign of James I. — Charles I. and Parliament — Civil War Begun — The Great Rebellion and the Commonwealth.

II. France tries to dominate Europe .... 365

The Hapsburgs in 1660 — England and Holland — The Situation in France — Character of Louis XIV. — Colbert

Contents xvii

PAGE and the Finances — Colbert's Economic Measures — Preparing to annex Spain — Louis XIV. 's First War — Louis prepares to punish Holland — War against Holland — The Period of the " Reunions " — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — Resources of France Declining — Charles IL in England — The Revolution of 1688 — The War of the League of Augsburg — The Question of the Spanish Succession — The Partition Treaties — France annexes Spain

— The War of the Spanish Succession — The War goes against Louis — The Peace of Utrecht — The Rise of England — The Beginning of Louis XV. 's Reign — The End of the Stuart Dynasty.

III. The Rise of Russia and Prussia .... 386

The Position of Sweden — The Early History of Russia

— Russia in the Seventeenth Century — Peter the Great — Russia against Sweden — The Fall of Charles XH. — The First Promotion of the HohenzoUern — Chief Steps in the Making of Prussia — The Father of Frederick the Great

— The Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. — The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) — Maria Theresa determined to punish Frederick — France abandons her Hereditary Enmity — The Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

— Prussia a Great Power — Catherine II. of Russia (1762- 1796) — The Condition of Poland — The First Partition of Poland — Further Russian Advance — The Rise of the Eastern Question — Poland at last Destroyed — A Revolution in the Political Situation of Europe.

IV. The Struggle for Colonial Empire .... 40&

The Dawn of the Age of World Politics — The First Modern Colonial Powers — Spain's World Power Threatened — The Rise of the Dutch Republic — The Beginning of the English Empire — The First English Colonies — The Thirteen Colonies — Conflict between England and Holland — The Power of Holland broken by France — The Beginning of Rivalry with France — The Advantages xviii Contents of the English — Colonial Wars — The Situation in India

— King George's War — The Interval of Nominal Peace — The Great Colonial War (i 756-1 763) — Its Ultimate Consequences — The English Ministry determines to tax the Colonies — Compromise not Possible — The War of the Revolution — The English Empire apparently broken up

— The Revenge of France more Apparent than Real.

V. The French Revolution and Napoleon . . . 427

The Intellectual Leadership of France — The Deists — Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau — Abuses existing in France — Financial Condition of France — Attempts at Reform — The Danger of calling together the Estates General— The Struggle for One Chamber — The Struggle with the King — The King completely Overcome — Revolution Completed — The Rise of Opposing Parties — Financial Difficulties still Continue — Paper Money based on Land — The Republic Proclaimed — The Beginning of a Long War — The First Step towards the Republic — The King Executed — War against all Europe — The Reign of Terror, followed by Reorganization and Success — The Work of the Convention — Bonaparte forces Austria to make Peace — Revolution within the Revolution — Bonaparte in Egypt — A Strong Government — Bonaparte turns the Tide of War — The Interval of Peace — The War Renewed — Napoleon stretches his Power too Far— The Beginning of the End — The First Restoration — The Charter of 1814 — The Congress of Vienna — The "Hundred Days" — The Second Restoration and the Congress of Vienna — Results of the Revolution in Europe at Large.

VI. Europe since 1815 452

The Nineteenth Century an Age of Transition — Three Lines of Great Political Changes — The Absolutist Reaction — Revolutionary Movements — The Monroe Doctrine

— Further Reaction and a New Revolution in France — The Consequences of the Revolution in France — Preparation for Another Revolution — The Revolution of 1848 — The Second Republic — Revolution in Austria and Italy

Contents xix

PAGE

— Unsuccessful Attempts in Germany — The Suppression of the Revolution — The Second Empire established by Napoleon III. — Free Government indirectly Secured — The Congress of Vienna and the Idea of Nationality — The Independence of Greece — Attempts following the Two French Revolutions — The Spirit of Nationality growing Stronger — The Policy of Cavour — United Italy — WiUiam I. and Bismarck — The Army made Ready — The New Prussia's P'irst War — The Seven Weeks' War — The Results of the War for Germany — Results of the War for Austria-^ The Franco-Prussian War desired by Both Governments — The Pretext found for War^ — -The Course of the War — The Empire of Germany — Alsace-Lorraine and Rome- — -The Third Republic in France — Results of the Period in Europe at Large — The Eastern Question — Rise of Egypt under Mehemet Ali — Preliminaries of the Crimean War — The Crimean War (1854-1856) — Russia again attacks Turkey, 1877 — The Treaty of Berlin, 1878

— Later History of the Balkan States — Later Phases of the Eastern Question — The Greek and Turkish War.

VII. Anglo-Saxon Expansion and rnii Growth of World

Politics 487

Europe no longer the Stage of History — The Occupation of the World — Australia the First Step — Its Early History — A New English Nation — England in the Wars of the French Revolution — Napoleon's Attempt at Colonial Empire— The Expansion of the United States — The English Empire in the Napoleonic Period — The Expansion of Canada — The Struggle for Self-government — Canada opens the Way — A Great Change in English Methods of Colonial Government — A Second Great Annexation by the United States — Gold in California and Australia — A Theory of Imperial Dissolution — The Imperial Federation Movement — Expansion of English Dominion in India — Russian Expansion in Asia — The Results in Asia — The Occupation of Africa — The English Occupation of Egypt — The Insurrection of the Mahdi — The Anglo-Saxon Race in the World.

XX Co7itents

VIII. The Growth of the English and American Constitutions . . . . . . . .510

Books for Reference and Furl/ier Reading . . . . .510

Importance of the History of our Institutions — The Absolutism of the First Norman Kings — Our First Constitutional Document — The Beginning of our Judicial Institutions — The Magna Charta — The Right of Civil War — The Right of Insurrection Applied — The Idea of a Limited Monarchy — Origin of Representative Institutions

— The First Case of Town Representation — Progress in the Thirteenth Century — The King recognizes the Right of Parliament to control Taxation — Parliament takes a New Step — Another Most Important Right Gained — A Third Great Gain of Parliament's — The Exclusive Right to Legislate — Rise of the House of Commons — Summary of Results — First Dangerous Attack on the Constitution

— The Deposition of Edward II., 1327 — Right of Parliament to control Succession — The Progress of the Fourteenth Century — The Yorkist Period — Peculiar Character of the Tudor Period — Constitutional Change in the Position of the Church — Character of the Stuart Period

— Reasons for the Attitude of the Kings — The Religious Parties — Slow Advance towards War — The Second Great Constitutional Document — Period of Rule without Parliament — Concessions of King Charles — The King determines to Resist — The Constitutional Character of the Commonwealth — The Later Stuarts — The Revolution of 1688 — Results of the Revolution — Constitutional Questions in the Colonies — Progress in the Eighteenth Century in England — The Constitution of the United States — Tendency towards Democracy — Anglo-Saxon Institutions in Other States — The Common Work of England and America.

IX. Scientific and Economic Advance since the

Renaissance 544

The Close of the Renaissance — The Great Age of English Literature — Of Scientific Work — The Law of

Contents xxi

PAGE

Gravitation — The Idea of the Reign of Law — The Enghsh Deists — Leaders of French Thought in England — The Benevolent Despots — Character of Eighteenth Century Science — Advances in Science — A New Science — The Age of Machinery Begins — Its Effect on Manufacturing — On Labor — The Final Effect — Political Results — The Accumulation of Wealth — Nineteenth Century Science — Advances in Pure Science.

List of Abbreviations used in referring to the Various

Authorities Quoted ....... 559

Each chapter is followed by a list of Topics — Topics for Assigned Studies — and frequently by a list of Important Dates for Review.

xxu

Contents

LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES

The World as known to Eratosthenes and Strabo, from about

Frontispiece

PAGE

Greece at the Beginning of the Peloponnesian War

. facing 34

Empire of Alexander the Great ....

Italy before the Roman Conquest

Roman Empire between iio-iii

Europe about 525

• 143

Charlemagne's Empire .....

between 1 68- 169

Europe about 1200

. " 226-227

The Crusades .......

. 212, 213

Europe about 1560 between 334-335

The Baltic Lands at the Beginning of the Eighteenth Century . 387 Europe about 1740 ...... between 392-393

Central Europe about 181 2 showing Battle-fields from 1792

between 446-447

The Capetian Kings of France 235

The Kings of England, 1066-1485 246

The Genealogy of the Emperor Charles V. . . . . . 302

The Kings of England, Tudors, Stuarts, and Hanoverians . . 363

ILLUSTRATIONS

Egina

Rock-cut Figures at Aba-Simbul

Fragment of the Rosetta Stone

Nebuchadnezzar . . - .

Section of the Black Obelisk of Shalmanezar

Darius and Attendants

Necropolis of Darius near Persepolis

Altar on the Acropolis, Pergamos

The Acropolis restored, Athens .

Coin of Elis, with Figure of Zeus

Pericles .....

Greek Women decorating an Altar

The Parthenon as at Present

Plato

Pediment — Temple of Minerva, Aristotle ....

Theatre of Dionysius .

Temple of Edfu, Time of the Ptolemies

Mask of the Otricoli Zeus, Naples

An Old Roman School

Roman Lictors .....

Ruins of the Aqueducts, Rome

A Quadriga .....

Roman Trireme, with Boarding Bridge Rostra ......

The Circus Maximus, Rome Roman Chariot — a Triumph A Gladiatorial Combat A Ballista, Time of Caesar

PAGE lo

14 16

23 25 28

65 71 74 75 77 82 xxiv Illustrations

PAGE

The Coliseum 89

The Roman Forum, restored . . . . . . -91

Caesar's Bridge 93

Julius Csesar .......... 95

Cleopatra, with her Cartouche ....... 97

A Street in Pompeii 105

Pretorian Guards . 106

A Cameo — Portraits of Claudius, Agrippina the Younger, Livia,

and Tiberius 109

Marcus Aurelius 114

Constantine the Great 118

Christian Sarcophagus, with Labarum 123

German Bodyguard, Column of Marcus Aurelius . . . .128 German Settlement, Time of Tacitus . . . . . .130

German Weapons 136

St. Sophia, Constantinople ....,.,. 147

Fragment from the Digest of Justinian 151

The Kaaba at Mecca . . . . . . . -154

Tomb of the Caliphs at Cairo . . . . . . -159

Charlemagne , 167

Signature of Charlemagne 1 70

The Cathedral at Worms 179

Edinburgh Castle 187

Milan Cathedral . ..,...,.. 200 Harbor of Palermo ........ 205

Bird's-eye View of Rhodes 211

Knight Templar . . . . . . . . . -215

Saracenic Arms .......... 216

Grand Canal, Venice 219

A Hanseatic Ship 222

Notre Dame, Paris 227

Canterbury Cathedral ......... 230

Ilhistrations

XXV

PAGE

Tower of London . , 241

The Great Seal of England ....

St. John's College, Oxford .

Dante Alighieri .....

Gutenberg's Press ....

Armor of Columbus . . , ,

Columbus

Lorenzo Magnifico ....

The Duomo, Florence ....

The Emperor Charles V. , . .

Luther

Bridge and Castle of S. Angelo, Rome

Ignatius Loyola .....

Cannon of the Sixteenth Century