The history of Aryan rule in India, from the earliest times to the death of Akbar

Front matter

rHE HISTORY OF

ARYAN RULE IN

I N D 1 A mm

Part I : Aryavarta Before The Muhammadan Conquest Iapter Page

I. Aryans and Non- Aryans in Vedic India 3

The One in Many : The Aryans in Mesopotamia : Anglo-Saxons and Indo-Aryans : The Matriarchal and Patriarchal Systems : Aryan Village Organisation : Early Aryan Religion.

II. The Epic Age 33

Political Development in the Epic Age : The Ramayana and Mahabharata : The Surya-vamsa and the Chandra-vamsa.

III. The Buddha as a Statesman and Social

Reformer 45

The Advent of Gautama Buddha : The Differentiation of his Teaching from that of Brahmanism : The Organisation of the Sangha : Parliamentary Institutions in Buddhist India : The Buddha's Social and Political Influence.

IV. The Buddhist and Jain Sanghas — Alexander's

Raid 57

Aryan Genius for Organisation : The Work of the Buddhist Sangha before the Time of Asoka : Contact between Hellenic and Indo- Aryan Civilisation : The Persian Empire and Alexander's Raid into Northern India.

V. The Maury an Empire 66

The Revolt in India and the Founding of the Mauryan Empire : Chandragupta and his Policy as an Imperialist : The Aryan Freeman : The Centralisation of the Village Communities : The Co-operative System in Ancient India : Roads and Waterways : Irrigation : Department of Navigation : Chandragupta' s Capital and Municipal Government : Drink Traffic and Gambling : Department of

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Agriculture : Administration of Justice : The Imperial Council : Chandragupta's Daily Routine of Work : Court Life : Imperial Revenue : The Army and Navy : Chandragupta's Successor, Bindusara.

VI. Asoka 89

Accession of Asoka : Buddhist and Jain Propaganda : Asoka' s Early Life and Military Conquests : His Conversion : The Edicts : His Foreign Missions : General Assembly of the Sangha at Pataliputra : Asoka's State Pilgrimages : Progress of the Dharma in India and Beyond : Asoka as a Democratic Leader : Brahmanical Influence upon Buddhist Doctrine : Asoka as a Popular Educator : The Weakness of Buddhism as a Social and Political Creed : The Development of Buddhist Ritualism : Death and Canonisation of Asoka as a Buddhist Saint : Asoka' s Private Life.

VII. Mauryan Art 104

The Monuments of Asoka' s Reign : The Two Phases of Asokan Art : The King's Craftsmen and Aryan Artistic Traditions : ' Persian Bell-shaped Capitals ' : The Symbolism of the Lotus Flower : Buddhist Hermitages and Chapter-houses : The Popular Art of Bharhut and Sanchi : Indo-Aryan Symbolism ; the Swastika, Stupa, the Holy Mountain and Tree : The Buddha worshipped as the Deity : The Stupa in Asoka' s Time : The Temple of Bodh-Gaya : The Sikhara : Wooden and Stone Buildings in the Mauryan Epoch : The Continuity and Vitality of Indian Art Traditions : The Aniconic Symbolism of Asokan Sculpture.

VIII. The Break-up of the Mauryan Empire and the

Turki Invasions 119

Asoka's Successor, Dasaratha : The Break-up of the Mauryan Empire : The Sunga Dynasty : Pushyamitra revives the Great Horse-sacrifice : Buddhism and Brahmanism : Patanjali, the Sanskrit Grammarian, and the Revival of Brahman Scholarship : The Alleged Persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra : The End of the Sunga Dynasty : The Kanva Dynasty : Invasions of India by Turki Tribes : Menander and the Establishment of a Turki Buddhist Dynasty in the North- West Provinces.

IX. The Aryanisation of Southern India — The

Kushan Bmpd^e 127

The Shifting of Indo-Aryan Political Power Southwards : The Practical Application of Vedic Philosophy to Indian Life : Aryan Influence upon Early Dravidian Civilisation : The Dynasties of Southern India : Trade of Southern India in Early Times : The Rise of the Andhra Power : Popular

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CONTENTS

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Buddhism and the Teaching of the Buddha : The Beginnings of Gandharan Art : Yoga in Early Buddhist Times : The Doctrine of Reincarnation : The Symbolism of Aryan Village-planning : Hellenistic Influence in the Kushan Empire : Mahayana Buddhism and the Spread of Buddhist Propaganda in China : The Extent of the Kushan Empire : Kanishka and Nagarjuna : Intercourse between India and the Graeco-Roman World : Kanishka summons a General Assembly of the Sangha : Kanishka' s Wars and Death : His Successors : Development of India's Maritime Trade and Colonies : Mahayanist and Hmayanist Art.

X. The Gupta Empire 147

The Beginning of the Gupta Era and the Indo-Aryan Revival : Chandragupta of the Gupta Line : The Buddhist Sangha in the Fourth Century a.d. : Chandragupta' s Conquests : Aryan versus Turki Domination : Samudragupta and his Campaigns : The Revival of Sanskrit learning : The Vaishnava Cult : Popular Education under the Gupta Emperors : The Gupta Recensions of the Indo-Aryan Epics*

XI. India in Gupta Times 159

The Code of Manu : The Influence of Buddhist Ethics upon Indo-Aryan Social Life : The Theory of Kingship : Imperial Taxation : The Ethics of Ritualistic Purity : The Relationship of the Sexes : The Law of Karma : The Accession of Vikramaditya : The Iron Pillar at Delhi : Vikramaditya's Conquests : Fa-Hien's Observations on the Condition of India : Indian Culture in Gupta Times : Religious Tolerance : The Principles of Indo-Aryan Religion.

XII. The Huns in India — Gupta Art and Architecture 171

Kumaragupta : Indo-Aryan Imperialism, its Strength and Weakness : Skandagupta and Buddhist Teaching : The Hun Invasions : The Indo-Aryan Military Code : Skandagupta's War Finance : His Death : Puragupta : Baladitya and the Wars with the Huns : The Hun Ruler Toramana : Mihiragula's Savagery rouses a General Revolt : Defeat of the Huns by a Confederation of Indo-Aryan States : Effect of the Hun Invasions upon Indo-Aryan Social and Political Life : Gupta Architecture and the Derivation of the Sikhara.

XIII. HARSHA AND THE HEGIRA 1 87

Northern India after the Defeat of the Huns : The Rise of the Chalukyan Power in the Dekhan : Pulakesin I : Harsha- Vardhana of Thaneshar restores the Fortunes of Aryavarta

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and is opposed by Pulakesin II : Harsha's Court : Hiuen- Tsang and his Indian Pilgrimage : His Observations on the Character and Condition of the People and the Government of the Country : Public Instruction : The Universities : Nalanda : Hiuen-Tsang's Visit to the King of Kamarupa : He attends Harsha's Court and instructs the Emperor and his Sister in the Tenets of the Mahay ana School : Harsha's Personal Character : He convokes a General Assembly of the Sangha to listen to Hiuen-Tsang's Arguments : The Great Festival of the Trimurti : Indian Political Life in the Seventh Century : The Hegira and the Influence of Buddhism on Islam.

XIV. The Dekhan and Southern India from the

Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries 212

Pulakesin II, Ruler of the Dekhan : The Rise of Saivism in the Dekhan and Southern India : The Parliament of Religions and its Authority : The Historical Evidence of Temple Architecture : Fergusson's Misleading Classifications : The Early Saiva Revivalists : Sankaracharya and his Mission : Local Self-government in Southern India : The Sukrd-nitisdra on Caste and the Organisation of Village Life ; Craft-guilds and Mercantile Corporations ; Imperial Taxation ; The Jurisdiction of the King and his Officers ; Planning of the Royal Capital ; the King's Ministers ; Parks and Forests ; Administration of Justice ; the Ethics of Sukracharya : The Dravidian and Aryan Ideals : South Indian Inscriptions relating to Local Self-government : The Chola System of Government : Brahmanical ' Tyranny ' : The Chola Kings and the Aryanisation of the South.

XV. The Artistic Record of Southern India from

the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries 242

XVI. Islam's First Footing in India — Northern India from the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries 247

Harsha's Successor, Arjuna or Arunasa : Conflict with China and Tibet : The Arab Invasion of the Eighth Century : Effect upon Islam of Contact with Indo-Aryan Civilisation : The Political Degeneration of Aryavarta : The Rajputs and Rajputana : Struggles with the Arabs : Rajput Culture : The Gurjara Kingdom : Kashmir and its Chronicles.

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CONTENTS

Part II : The Muhammadan Conquest And The Indo-aryan Renaissance Chapter Pagb

I. Mahmud of Ghazni 279

The Beginning of Turkish Domination in Islam : Mahmud of Ghazni and his Raids into India : Death of Mahmud : His Character.

II. The Afghan and Turkish Sultans of Delhi 290

Fall of the Ghaznevide Empire : Revolt in India : The Afghan Dynasty of Ghur : Shlhab-ud-dm's Invasion of India : Defeat and Death of Prithivi-raja : Fall of Kanauj : Sack of Benares : Bihar raided : Qutb-ud-dm, Sultan of Delhi : ' Saracenic ' Culture and Indo- Aryan Art : The Political Ethics of Islam : Muhammadan Conquest of Gaur : Altamsh : The Khilji Dynasty : 'Ala-ud-din and his Kultur : Effect of his Policy upon Islam in India : Mubarik Khan : The Tughlak Dynasty : Tughlak Shah : Muhammad Tughlak and his Atrocities.

III. Firuz Shah 315

Firuz Shah and his Rajput Mother : His Early Life and Accession to the Throne of Delhi : His Administrative Reforms : Public Works : Organisation of Slavery : The Social Programme of Islam.

IV. The Psychological Effect of the Muhammadan

Conquest 324

The rapprochement between Hinduism and Islam : Development of the Aryanisation of the South : The Aryanisation of Islam and the Hindu Renaissance : Sunnis and Shiahs.

V. Break-up of the Delhi Empire 335

Musalman Gaur and its Architecture : The Sultans of Jaunpur : Husain Shah and his Patronage of Hindu Learning : The Cult of Satya-Pir : The Jaunpur School of Islam : The Kulbarga Dynasty : The Gujerat Dynasty and Wars with the Rajputs of Me war : The Portuguese in India : The Afghan Dynasty of Malwa, : The Fariiki Dynasty of Khandesh.

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VI. Marco Polo 359

India in the Thirteenth Century as described by Marco Polo.

VII. The Mogui, Invasion 367

Timur, the Ancestor of the Great Moguls, and his Invasion of India.

VIII. The Founding of the Mogul Empire 378

Effects of the Mogul Invasion : The Sayyid Dynasty of Delhi : The Lodi Dynasty : Babur's Conquest.

IX. The Turkish Dynasty of Bijapur 385

Yiisuf 'Adil Shah and the War with Vijayanagar : Political Influences in the Dekhan : Ismail 'Adil Shah I : The Struggle for Mastery in the Dekhan : Ibrahim 'Adil Shah I : Ibrahim dismisses Turkish and Mogul Officers : Friendly Relations with Vijayanagar : Asad Khan : Wars with Ahmadnagar : Death of Ibrahim.

X. Fall, of Vijayanagar 399

Ali 'Adil Shah renews the Alliance with Vijayanagar and attacks Ahmadnagar : The Musalman League for the Destruction of Vijayanagar : The Battle of Talikota.

XI. Hindu India in the Muhammad an Period —

Village Life : Chaitanya's Birthplace : His Boyhood : Enters a Sanscrit Tol : Becomes the Head of a Tol : His Fame as a Pandit : Philosophical Contests : Visit to Gaya and Change in his Spiritual Outlook : His Mission : Opposition from the Brahman Aristocracy : Popularity with the Masses : Influence upon Islam : Essence of his Teaching.

XII. Babur 420

Babur, his Character and Attitude towards Indian Life : Establishes his Capital at Agra : Defeat of the Rajputs : Administrative Measures and Public Works : Death.

XIII. HUMAYUN 428

Humayun's Character : Fights with his Relatives for the Throne : Sher Khan defeats Humayun and forces him to leave India, xxii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XIV. Sher Shah's Reign and the Restoration of

the Mogul Dynasty 437

Sher Shah's Administrative Policy : Revenue System : Treatment of the Ryots : Military and Civil Organisation : His Campaigns : Takes Chitor : His Tomb at Sahseram : Salim Shah : Shaikh 'Alai and his Preaching : Muhammad 'Adil Shah and the Break-up of the Delhi Empire : Return of Humayun and his Accidental Death.

XV. Akbar : The Protectorate of Bairam Khan 450

Accession of Akbar : Bairam Khan as Protector : Defeat and Death of Hemu at Panipat : Struggles with the Afghans of Bengal : Akbar assumes the Government : Bairam Khan's Rebellion and Death.

XVI. Akbar as Ruler of Aryavarta 458

Akbar and the Associates of his Boyhood : The Insubordination of his Generals : Murder of the Prime Minister by Adham Khan : Akbar' s Marriage with a Rajput Princess : Raja Bihari Mall and Rajput Influence at Court : War with the Rana of Mewar : Afghan Rebellion in Bengal : Attempt on Akbar's Life : Akbar abolishes Taxes on Pilgrims : Rebellion of Mirza Hakim : Siege and Capture of Chitor : Founding of Fatehpur-Sikri : Faizi and Abul Fazl : Akbar's Life at Fatehpur-Sikri.

XVII. Akbar as Ruler of Aryavarta {continued) 480

War with Gujerat : Revolt of the Mirzas : War with the Afghans in Bengal : Todar Mall and his Financial Reforms : Akbar's Land Revenue Policy : Raja Man Singh's Campaign in Rajputana.

XVIII. Akbar as Spiritual Deader of Islam 492

Akbar's Religious Studies and Views : The Debates in the Ibadat-Khana : The Imperial Library : Psychical Research : Akbar assumes the Spiritual Leadership of Islam : Administration of the Crown Domains : Renewed Disturbances in Bengal and Gujerat.

XIX. The Din-Ilahi 511

The Din-Ilahi and its Relationship to Indo-Aryan Religious Orders : Proclamation of the Din-Ilahi : Changes in Court Ceremonial and Ritual of Divine Service : Raja Todar Mall becomes Diwan of the Empire : Akbar's Reply to the Charge of Apostasy : Influence of the Din-Ilahi.

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HAPTER PAGE

XX. Akbar as Chakra-vartin 520

Akbar removes his Capital to Lahore : Defence of the North-west Frontier : A Mahdi Pretender : Death of Raja Birbal : Conquest of Sind, Kathiawar, Katch, and Orissa : Akbar Undisputed Master of the Ancient Aryavarta : His Administrative Policy : Claims Sovereignty over the Dekhan : Chand Bibi and the Defence of Ahmadnagar : Akbar leaves Lahore and assumes Command in the Dekhan : Rebellion of Prince Salim and Murder of Abul Fazl : Akbar' s Domestic Troubles and Death.

Index 539

MAPS

Ancient India 3

From Fergusson's History of Eastern and Indian Architecture, by kind permission of Mr John Murray.

India under Muhammadan Rule 279

From Fergusson's History of Eastern and Indian Architecture . by kind permission of Mr John Murray.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATK PAGE

i. Eastern Gateway of the Bharhut Stupa

Frontispiece

Belongs to about the third century B.C., and is one of the numerous monuments erected by Asoka, either to contain relics of the Buddha or to mark the sacred places hallowed by his memory. The illustration shows one of the four entrances to the pilgrims' procession path, which were placed at the cardinal points, and part of the stone rail enclosing it. The clustered pillar, surmounted by a lion, represents an imperial standard, and is an example of the fine craftsmanship of the Indo-Aryan masons under whose direction Asoka' s monuments were planned and executed. They were State servants under the special protection of the Crown. The fact that foreign craftsmen who showed exceptional skill were sometimes admitted into their ranks accounts for the frequent traces of Hellenic craftsmanship found in royal Indian monuments, but the inspiration of the art is always essentially Indian. See Chapter VIL Photo India Office.

2. Indo-Aryan Village Plans 26

A. Dandaka, named after a Brahman's danda, or staff, and

intended for an asrdma, or hermitage.

B. Nandyavarta, or ' Abode of Bliss/ intended for a mixed

population including all the four varnas. (Corrected from Ram Raz, essay on the Architecture of the Hindus.)

3. The Buddha under the Bodhi Tree 48

From a colossal statue at Anuradhapura, Ceylon, attributed by Dr Coomaraswamy to the second century a.d., but probably a century or two later. It represents the Buddha as he began to emerge from the state of profound meditation.

4. Northern Gateway of the Sanchi Stupa 76

The stupa, like that at Bharhut, is one of Asoka' s monuments, but the elaborately carved gateways, reproducing ancient Indian town or village gateways, were added by different royal donors at later periods. See p. no.

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5. Capital of Asoka's Ph,lar at Sarnath 96

The pillar was erected by Asoka, reproducing an imperial standard, to mark the spot in the Deer Park at Sarnath, near Benares, where the Buddha preached his first sermon. It is another fine example of the handicraft of the Mauryan ' king's craftsmen.' The base of the capital represents the lotus ' with turned-down petals ' (see p. 106). Photo Archaeological Survey of India.

6. Buddhist Shrinks from the Bharhut Sculp-

tures no

A. The Bodhi Tree enclosed by a shrine, representing an

ancient Aryan village Council-house appropriated to the teaching of the Law. See p. 109.

B. A village shrine of the third century B.C., showing the

prototype of the later Hindu temple, with its garbha-griha, the ' Holy of Holies,' the antarala, a porch or verandah for the priests, and the mandapam, the assembly hall for the people. See pp. 116-117.

7. Buddhist Stupa from the Amaravati Sculp-

tures 112

The original marble slab is now in the Madras Museum. It shows a complete stupa with its gateways and the rail enclosing the pilgrims' procession path. The base of the stupa itself was elaborately carved with a series of the reliefs by which the pilgrims were taught the principal events in the Buddha's lives and the various stages through which he passed before he obtained enlightenment. Amaravati was a great seat of Buddhist learning from the time of Asoka. The sculpture probably belongs to the fifth or sixth century a.d. See p. 130.

8. Interior of the Karle Chapter-house 132

Representing one of the assembly halls of the Buddhist Sangha carved in the living rock. The comparatively severe style of architectural sculpture shows it to belong to the earlier Hinayana school, which inherited the artistic traditions of the Vedic period. It is one of the great Buddhist works of the Mauryan dynasty.

9. Temple of Bodh-Gaya, Restored 144

From the Annual Report of the Indian Archaeological Survey, Eastern Circle, 1908-9, by kind permission of H.M. Secretary of State for India in Council.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS io. Travellers or Pilgrims listening to a Village

Kathak 154

From a nineteenth-century Indian painting. A group ot travellers or pilgrims are gathered round a fire in the courtyard of a dharmasala, or rest-house, and listen intently to a village story-teller. The painter, an Indian Rembrandt, has tried to imitate the chiaroscuro of European pictures, but has kept to traditional Indian technique, using gold for the fire and its reflection on the ground. Collection of the Government Art Gallery, Calcutta.

11. Stele of Naram-Sin 180

See pp. 112-113, 181-182. In the Louvre. Photo Mansell.

12. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh 182

Shown in Layard's Nineveh, 2nd Series, Plate XVI. From the reproduction in the author's Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, by kind permission of Mr John Murray. See pp. 113 and 182.

13. Vishnu Shrine, Barwar Sagar, Central Pro-

vinces 184

A shrine with a typical Vishnu sikhara, characteristic of the Gupta period, probably derived from the watch-tower of an Aryan royal palace. Like the standards of Aryan royalty it was crowned by Vishnu's blue lotus flower with turned-down petals, a symbol of world-dominion. In this case the mandapam, or assembly hall of the people, has not been added to the front of the shrine, which consists only of the garbha-griha, the deity's throneroom, and the antarala, or porch for the attendant priests.

14. VlSHVAKARMA CHAITYA HOUSE, ELLORA l86

Probably the Guildhall of the masons who carved the monasteries and temples of Ellora.

15. Trimurti Sculpture, Elephanta 204

(M. Victor Goloubeff's photo.) Probably of the later Gupta period. It represents the Three Aspects of the One Eternal — Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. In this sculpture, one of the

xxvii noblest of Indian classic masterpieces, the place of Brahma, on the right, is taken by Parvati, Siva's sakti, as the Creatrix. See pp. 184-185. For a full description of the Elephanta sculptures see the author's Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India and Ideals of Indian Art (Murray).

16. Siva Temple at Badami 216

A small but one of the most perfect examples of Indian temple architecture, probably built by the royal craftsmen near the time when Badami was capital of the Chalukyan kingdom, or about the seventh century a.d. Photo Archaeological Survey of India.

17. Bronze Statuette of Apparswami 226

One of several statuettes of the Saiva revivalist, a predecessor of Sankaracharya, now in the Colombo Museum. He lived about the sixth century a.d., but the sculpture belongs to the tenth or eleventh century, the great Chola period. See p. 245.

18. Interior of a Modern Temple Mandapam 232

A very good example of nineteenth-century Indian building craft — the assembly hall of the Durga Temple at Benares, popularly known as the Monkey Temple, because the monkeys in the neighbourhood are fed by the priests from the worshippers' offerings. The temple mandapam was the assembly hall of the Indo- Aryan village community.

19. The Great Temple, Tanjore 240

Built by the Chola emperor Rajaraja I about the beginning of the eleventh century. View from north-east end of court to right of the entrance.

20. Bronze Statuette of Nataraja 244

From the Tanjore temple. One of the masterpieces of the Chola period. See p. 246.

21. Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho 264

Khajuraho, the ancient capital of the Chandela dynasty, in Bundelkhand, is now deserted, but its splendid temples, about thirty in number, still testify to the genius of the Indian master-builder. Most of them were built about the beginning of the eleventh century. The Kandarya Mahadeva temple, though dedicated to Siva, is an

xxviii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS elaboration of the Vishnu type of temple (Plate 13), characteristic of the Gupta period and of North Indian temple architecture generally. The contemporary temple of Tanjore (Plate 19) shows the typical Siva temple, derived from the ancient stupa, which is most characteristic of Southern India, where the Saiva cult is predominant. To a Saiva worshipper there is no inconsistency in placing a Siva image in a Vishnu shrine, for Siva to him is Brahma Vishnu, and Siva — the Three in One.

22. Surya Temple at Martand 272

Built by Lalitaditya in the eighth century a.d. The trefoil arches are derived from the niche of a Buddhist shrine, following the shape of the image with its aureole.

23. Interior of the J ami' Masjid, Ahmad abad 340

Built by Ahmad Shah of Gujerat. It follows closely the design of the Ranpur temple, built by Ahmad Shah's contemporary, the Rana Kumbha of Chitor. See pp. 341- 342.

24. Jain Temples at Palitana, with so-called

Pathan Domes 342

25. Tower op Victory, Chitor 344

Built by the Rana Kumbha to celebrate his victory over Mahmud Khilji of Malwa in 1440 (see p. 344) . The design of these splendid Hindu towers was adapted to the minarets of Indian mosques, as may be seen at Ahmadabad and elsewhere.

26. Baz Bahadur and Rupmati 354

The attachment of Baz Bahadur to the Hindu songstress was a favourite subject with Indian painters. In this picture the pair are seen riding by night among the hills of Rajputana, a torch-bearer in front lighting up the path. From an eighteenth-century Indian painting in the Calcutta Government Art Gallery.

27. Timur Enthroned, attended by Tributary

Chieftains 370

From a Persian manuscript of the sixteenth century in the India Office Library (MS. 137, folio 71 verso), by kind permission of H.M. Secretary of State for India in Council.

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The picture is entitled in the original " The Seating on the Throne of the Lord of the Conjunction after the killing of the Amir Husain," and represents Timur receiving the homage of tributaries after his accession. It is no doubt the work of one of the Mogul court painters, possibly of Babur's or Humayun's time, but more probably Akbar's.

28. (1) Tomb of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II at Bijapur.

(2) Tomb of Muhammad 'Adil. Shah at Bijapur 394

Two typical examples of Bijapur architecture. The great dome of Muhammad's tomb is larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and is a triumph of the Indian master-builder's engineering skill. By an ingenious arrangement of pendentives, arranged in the form of a lotus, the huge weight of the dome is balanced within the interior of the building, instead of being thrown against heavy external buttresses according to the more clumsy Roman system.

29. The ' Elephant Stables/ Vijayanagar 406

It is highly improbable that this building was originally designed for elephant stables. It is much more likely to have been the mosque built by Ramraj for his Muhammadan bodyguard. Though the orientation is not strictly orthodox, in other respects it closely resembles the design of a mosque.

30. (1) Tomb of Sher Shah at Sahseram. (2) Tomb

of humayun at delhi 446

Like most Muhammadan tombs, these two are extremely characteristic of the men for whom they were built, the massive grandeur of Sher Shah's monument showing a marked contrast to the pompous but rather tawdry elegance of Humayun's, designed in the Persian taste affected by him.

31. Akbar entertained by his Foster-brother 458

From one of a series of pictures painted by Akbar's orders to illustrate the history of his reign, the Akbar-nama. The picture represents Akbar entertained by his foster-brother, 'Azam Khan, at Dipalpur, Panjab, in 1571. The names of the artists, all Hindus, are inscribed upon it: Jagan (outline), Sur Das (colour), Madhu (portraits). From the original in the Indian Section of the Victoria and Albert Museum, by kind permission of the Director and Secretary.

XXX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

32. The Siege of Chitor 466

The destruction of a tower, caused by the explosion of a mine during the siege by Akbar in 1567. From the Akbar-nama Series in the Indian Section of the Victoria and Albert Museum, by kind permission of the Director and Secretary. The picture is a double one and the reproduction shows one half of it. The artists' names are Muskina (outline), Thura (colour).

33. (1) The Jami' Masjid, Fatehpur-Sikri. (2) The

Daftar Khana, Fatehpur-Sikri 470

Akbar' s royal mosque and his Record Office. See pp. 470 and 476-477. A full description of the buildings at Fatehpur- Sikri is given in the author's Handbook to Agra and the Taj (Longmans) .

XXXI

CORRIGENDA At pp. 116, 117, and 182 garbha-griha has been misprinted garbha-grihya.

PART I

ARYAVARTA BEFORE THE MUHAMMADAN CONQUEST i

ARYANS AND NON-ARYANS IN VEDIC INDIA

INDIA, whether regarded from a physical or intellectual standpoint, is herself the great exemplar of the doctrine of the One in Many which her philosophers proclaimed to the world. Though singularly varied both in climate and geographical character, there is one great force which regulates the rainfall and helps to fertilise the soil — the magnetic attraction of the tremendous mountain barriers which separate her from the main continent of Asia and hold up the onrush of the monsoon clouds. Always containing amongst her population an immense variety of racial elements, from the highest grade of civilisation to the lowest, there was from the earliest recorded times one dominant race whose religious theory and political institutions consolidated the loosely cohering particles of the State and made Indian history. From the time of Alexander's raid until the beginning of British rule India was always politically a self-contained state, in so far that no successful invader, once he had established a dynasty there, ever dreamt of extending his conquests further than her most northern boundaries, or beyond the ocean which surrounds her eastern and western shores. And in the domain of thought, though India has been more prolific in schools of philosophy and religion than any other country in the world, there runs through them all a vein of perception or insight which differentiates them from the characteristic bent of Western intellect and makes them distinctively Indian. Religion in the West is the light given from above which illuminates the path of life, but yet remains, for most men and women, remote from life itself. In India philosophy and religion have always been regarded as the essence of all sciences, and the mainspring of all the forces which control life in every aspect.

The Aryan people who gradually imposed their civilisation upon the whole of India were closely related to that masterful race which in the first or second millennium before Christ began to dominate the shores and islands of the Mediterranean and the Kuxine, whose intellectual power gained a supremacy in Europe not less than that won by their fellow-Aryans in India. But so far as the scanty evidence of early Vedic literature goes, the first Aryan invaders of India were pastoral and agricultural rather than seafaring folk, and their entr}< into India was chiefly through the north-western gateways of the Himalayan mountain wall. There is, indeed, every probability that some of the early Indo- Aryan settlements in the Panjab came by sea, through the Persian Gulf and up the Indus — the route by which part of Alexander's expedition returned to Babylon ; for it is now known that Babylon was ruled by an Aryan dynasty for about six hundred years, and there is no doubt that the great cities of Mesopotamia were always in close commercial intercourse with India.

Modern archaeological research has thrown much light upon the history of the Aryans in Western Asia. In the second millennium B.C., or when the Aryans were pushing their way into Northern India, the Mitannians, an Aryan people worshipping the nature-spirits of the Vedas, Surya, Varuna, and Indra, had founded a powerful kingdom between the Tigris and Euphrates, and the old Vedic tradition of the conflicts between the Devas and the Asuras can perhaps be referred to the struggles between the Aryan worshippers of Surya and the Semites of Assyria, who became subject to the kings of Mitanni. About 1746 B.C. the Kassites, another branch of the Aryans, made themselves masters of Babylon, and thus an Aryan dynasty ruled over Babylonia for the following six hundred years. During these centuries it is more than probable that the Aryans of Mesopotamia assisted in the colonisation of the