An essay on the poetic and musical customs of the ancients

Introduction

Poetry, in the estimation of many, is a very questionable subject ; and for any one to announce this as the object of his pursuit, advocacy, or approbation, is, often, but a signal for others to sneer and jest at his expense. And yet even those who jest at the Poet are not unfrequently themselves singers, musicians, and men of taste ; and sometimes, also, admirers of certain Poets ; although, what is not less odd, such admirers do not usually agree very well as to the individual object of their approbation. And, again, what is still more- incongruous, we have observed that the most determined sober-minded proser will occasionally finger about amongst the Poets, and, like a sparrow with your choicest seeds, snatch here and there, with wonderful adaptability, the choice morsels which suit his own digestion.

With such contradictory elements, it is not the easiest task to define what is the public taste, or the public opinion, in reference to this art. To say that there is even a small respectable number of Englishmen who never were influenced by the finer impulses of Poetic feeling, would be, I think, contrary to the truth. The apparent contempt which is cast on Poetry would, indeed, premise that it is disagreeable to the human mind — at least, so far as Englishmen are concerned. But when we stick closely to the inquiry, we soon perceive that this contempt is only superficial ; that it has, in fact, no natural root in the soul ; that when the spirits of men are unbent from the trammels of habit and custom, they express themselves usually in rapturous strains of spontaneous Poesy. I have seen some of the hardest-tempered specimens of humanity

IV INTRODUCTION.

exchange their frigidity into the natural flow of harmony ; and when their restraints were loosened, and their sympathies awakened, they have become, for a time, more Poetic than the Poets themselves.

However, as this introduction will not afford sufficient space or a fair opportunity for discussing the nature, cause, and effect of these general and very comprehensive questions, I mention them at present merely to show the contradictions, and the deterring prospect that hang on his vision who attaches himself to the cause of Poetry. My firm and deliberately-formed opinion is, that the distaste of Englishmen towards the Poetic art is founded on false habit and mistaken notions, consequent, in a great measure, on our system of education ; and partly, also, on the lucre-seeking devotedness of our nation. But I leave the further consideration of these topics till some other occasion.

The generous reader will at once conceive, from these remarks, with what diffidence I have ventured to appear before the public. It has been the matter of many years' conflict with me, as to whether I should or not bring this volume to the press ; and the difficulty of meeting with an attentive and qualified adviser is not a little ; while, at the same time, it is next to impossible for a man to judge with strict correctness on his own productions. All these reasons I have weighed many times, and with much hesitation ; for it would be unfair to ask unconcernedly the attention of persons whose opinions we feel somewhat to disagree with our own.

With such a bundle of doubts and uncertainties, it may be legitimately asked, why have I written ? Why have I published ? To answer briefly — I have written in obedience to a natural propensity, and for the pure pleasure arising from such exercise. This has been, perhaps, the greatest and most regular enjoyment of my leisure time, even from early youth. When grieved with everything else, I have turned to my books with certain satisfaction and relief ; and this kind provision of elasticity of the spirit, implanted in my soul, has, no doubt, kept me out of many amusements

INTRODUCTION. V

of a much more mischievous tendency. Thus, instead of being any hinderance to my business habits, as some pretend that Poetry is, I believe it has been with me uniformly a stimulant to exertion, and a balm to the sores of commercial vexation. I have, therefore, so little to regret from the review of my acquaintance with the beneficent Muses, that I can heartily wish my best friends to be possessed of a similar attachment only in a greater and more refined degree. Poetry is the most innocent of amusements, and yet the most pleasing ; it consists, properly, in the cultivation of fine perceptions, good morals, and just reasons, which lead the mind to some grand conclusion. These are what I think the right materials for this art, and a love for these is a love for Poetry — a disposition implanted in human nature by the benevolent Creator, as a source of continual satisfaction and enjoyment.

One fact, often imputed to the Poets, is not to be denied — namely, that they sometimes go wild in their imaginations ! This is often set forth in derision against the whole class ! But what of that ? It is, surely, nothing extraordinarily strange that half a score Poets should run enthusiastic, while, at the same time, a thousand worshippers of mammon make a complete wreck of intellect, and display every unhappy symptom of insanity ! This is emphatically a mania-generation ! Look where you will, it is manifest ! Society is in the daily turmoil of one mania or other ! Speculation is so rampant, that it engulfs the major part of the capital and intellect of the land ; and no sooner is one mania past than another treads on its heels ; and they vie with each other for patronage and plunder, till, in the usual course of things, they sink, dragging with them many, who little expected, into the abyss of bankruptcy, insanity, and suicide ! Where has Poetry made such devastations in society as are constantly arising from that ambition after wealth, to which we give the modest titles of trade, industry, and the like \ Nay, verily, the madness of Poetry is perfect moderation in the comparison !

VI INTRODUCTION.

And, besides this, Poets are not so mad as old Cornelius Agrippa and his modern disciples assume. The verdict is one only of imperception ! Would you have a jury of lawyers to bring in a decision on the symptoms, the cause, and the operations of a fever ? Or, would you apply at a medical hall for the solving of some knotty points of law ? Certainly not, say you. And why, then, should the opinions, modes, and tactics of Poets be subjected to a right of judgment, or an imperious dictum, which applies not to any other class of men ? I only once had this question answered, and it was by a superior young clergyman, who gave one fell swoop, one general anathema, on all modern Poesy (thank the stars for my personal escape ! he had not read any of my verses) ! Well, his answer was, that he " knew too much of the caliber of modem Poets to countenance them /" Ah, me ! thought I, how strange that such spirits as Scott, Southey, Wordsworth, Hogg, Moore, Tennyson, Montgomery, and many more, should be dashed off the perch of fame by the tremendous flap of one redoubtable screech owl ! I felt a slight momentary inclination to remind him, as a fitting parallel, that there are people who think such hard things respecting some specimens of the modern black cloth as to cast reflections on their whole system ! But, resolving not to measure ignorance and impudence with him, or to imitate his questionable courtesy, I left him in quiet possession of his antiquated self-sufficiency, to chant old Ovid's " Metamorphoses," or Tate and Brady, as he should prefer. And still, I think it a pity that some of those who ought to be excellent and enlightened above others, should have so little harmony and charity in their souls. I would hope, after all, that such examples are not very numerous ; or we will suppose that this callow wisdom-bird had not framed his answer with sufficient caution ; and lest I might be misinterpreted, I cheerfully record my pleasurable experience with some of the more liberal of the clerical profession.

But, though I be well satisfied with my courtship of the Muses, yet I am by no means unconcerned in publishing ; and this through the distrust of my

INTRODUCTION. VII

individual proficiency. I would not willingly reflect discredit on a cause often at discount. My exercises are those of simple, unassisted nature, and my theme may therefore suffer for want of sufficient rearing. However, as I think I take a rather different view to some men of the natural position and claims of Poetry, I suppose it behoves me to offer some of my reflections to the genuine searchers after truth ; and if but one thought out of the whole should spring up to the profit of universal intelligence, I shall think myself amply paid in owning ever so trifling stock in the general fund.

For the purpose of leading my readers gently into my way of viewing the natural offices of Poetry, I have gathered a multitude of incidents relating to this subject, from the history of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, who, in many of their manners and customs, were much more allied to nature than we are. Not that I can approve all their doings ; by no means ; but much may be learned from a general review. To the unlearned, many of these Poetic usages, when related in plain English, will be both new and interesting ; and the classical scholar may find in them some acceptable reminiscences of his former reading.

From this collection of historical facts will be seen, at one view, that an extensive use was made of Poetry in the primitive ages, before the almost last remains of natural harmony were eradicated from the human soul, by the false principles of civilization. These reviews, and the reflections arising therefrom, ought to break down some of our narrow English and anti-natural sentiments ; and, as intimated elsewhere, it is my intention to follow out the argument in a future essay.

With reference to the pieces in verse, all I shall say, by way of recommendation, is, that they were not written intentionally for book-making, but for my private edification and expression of thought on passing events, as the occasions presented. Nevertheless, the vanity of authorship, which attaches even to the humblest of men, has no doubt crept in before this, and, combining with some hope

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

of profit, and the encouragement of several good friends, has brought me to the resolve of publishing. I do not volunteer to challenge criticism, because he would be a more fortunate man than this world produces in whom no fault could be found ; and the critic is unfit for his delectable employ who could not first discard Southey, Wordsworth, or Tennyson, until they had attained the edition of Laureate, and then turn complacently to exhibit good reasons for their perfection ! I should as soon expect compassion to a lamb in the slaughter, or that the saints should be exempt from the perversions of Satan, as imagine that any author could be safe from the powers of censure. However, it would be cowardice to shrink from public opinion on this account ; and, therefore, without undue concern for the issue, I cheerfully offer my reflections to the perusal of such as are candid enough to seek truth with a generous temper. I am persuaded that the essay on the Poetic Customs, &c, may be used with advantage as an ancient history for young scholars, and the verses may offer an agreeable pastime. In committing these several pieces to the public, I shall be glad if I can discover that they afford as much pleasure to my friends in their perusal as they have given me in their composition during the hours of recreation presented in the intervals of an active business life.

A. G. T.

Haxby Station, near York.

or

THE ANCIENTS.

Chapter I. The Hebrews

The author's object in the following pages is to present, in a plain narrative, the position of Poetry and its chief usages from the earliest ages, so far as to exhibit the poetic influence of the ancients, — and more particularly of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, — upon our English taste. Were it consistent with other engagements, he would most gladly pursue the theme through several collateral branches of the human family ; but, for the present, he must be content to confine his attention to those forerunners and modellers of our own literature. And perhaps to the general reader this will be less intricate, and therefore the more acceptable course.

A review of the rise and progress of any art or science offers, perhaps, the most certain means of arriving at its natural character and judging of its specific utility ; and in the case of Poetry, we have the truest index whereby we may observe the progress of civilization.

B

Z THE POETIC AND MUSICAL CUSTOMS

If we would unravel the origin and the fundamentals of Poesy, we must revert to the elements of nature ; we must fathom the caverned depths of the ocean, unpack the foundations of the everlasting hills, dissect the principles of creation, and analyze the First-moving Spirit ! Poesy is but another name for harmony, beauty, and proportion, whether as affecting the ear, the eye, or the intellect, and is, therefore, the essential of pleasure to all degrees of perception. It is the veriest impotency of mind to consider Poesy, or Poetry, as existing only in the measured numbers of written versification : this is merely a material manifestation of the inert spiritual principle which we are necessitated to employ as an instrument suited to our mean capacity, in that abject condition of taste to which the human mind has wofully descended.

The system of the universe is represented as a system of sympathy, harmony, and musical proportions. " The morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy," when the foundations of the earth were laid (Job, xxxviii.) ; and the harmony and beauty of even inanimate nature are frequently represented by the sacred writers as shouting for joy, or singing for gladness. The Psalmist says, " The pastures are clothed with flocks ; the valleys also are covered over with corn ; they shout for joy, they also sing ;" that is to say, they are filled with harmony and agreeable proportions — with beauty and perceptible bliss.

But, to address ourselves to what may be considered our more legitimate subject — namely,-vocal and written Poetry — we come first to the history of the Jews, as given in the inspired volume ; and the reader will require but a very brief sketch to be enabled to observe what a great amount of Poetry is contained in the Bible, from first to last. The records from the creation to the flood are so very limited,

OF THE ANCIENTS. tf

that we could scarcely anticipate any information on this particular question ; therefore, how great is the proof of the importance in which primitive harmony was held, when we find the fact recorded that Jubal "was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ" (Gen., iv. 21). Jubal was the son of Lamech, the son of Methusael, the son of Mehujael, the son of Irad, the son of Enoch, the son of Cain, the son of Adam ; hence our theme holds a very ancient position in the world's history. The original Hebrew word, which is here translated harp and organ, we are told, signifies literally "the beloved instrument" — a name indicative of its possessing qualities highly agreeable to the people who were acquainted with it. By the term father, we are to understand generally the inventor or originator of some qraffc, profession, doctrine, or other object; or the first of some particular class, as Abraham is called the father of the faithful, on account of the remarkable display of his faith in the offering of his son Isaac. Of the particular character or extent of this beloved instrument, the historians and critics pretend not to speak ; only all agree that it was an article of music.

From the above entire passage it appears that Jubal, who was nearly related to Adam, either invented instrumental music, or else so far was the improver on all preceding attempts as to create a new era in the performance, and therefore became emphatically styled the father of the art. In like manner we sometimes speak of Chaucer as the father of English Poetry.

From the same text we may conclude, further, that the antediluvians were in possession of some sort of songs, as without these we can scarcely conceive the use of music. Hence they must have had Poetry of some character, even at that early period ; and, considering the purity and the expressive beauty of their language before the confusion of speech, it is not improbable that they possessed finer harmony and greater effect of poetic diction than we usually suppose. This conclusion is justified by the great and beautiful harmony yet remaining in the old Hebrew and its kindred languages, as well as by the fact that the Hebrews, after the flood, used so much poetry and vocal music. Although, for some time after the Deluge, we have no mention made of songs, music, or other harmony, yet that silence must be purely accidental, or subservient to the greater design of the Scripture history ; for when Jacob secretly departed from Laban, his father-in-law, Laban pursued after Jacob, and reproached him for not taking an opportunity to celebrate their separation by feasting ; after which Laban would have sent him " away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp" (Gen., xxxi. 27) ; which shows that harmony formed a common part of their festivals and seasons of common merriment, and that it was a matter of regular course among them.

That songs and music were almost universal amusements with the Jews, we have ample proof and multiplied instances on record. On passing the Red Sea, the Israelites give us a fine example of their acquaintance with music and singing. " Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord, and spake, saying, I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously : the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea ;" and so on the inspired song runs through nineteen verses of the fifteenth chapter of Exodus. In this composition we find the most noble of poetic language, beautiful imagery, and sublime sentiment. And then Miriam, the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand ; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances, and they sang, apparently, the same song as Moses, either in the whole, after he had finished his performance, or, otherwise, repeated each

OF THE ANCIENTS. O

sentence singly in responses after him. Whence it appears highly probable that this ancient people were not only universally advocates of Poesy and harmony in general, but were practical poets, poetesses, and musicians; that they had their songs set to regular metre and music, and were, nearly all of them, good singers. Although it is not easy for us to discover the metre of this beautiful language, yet we cannot doubt its systematic composition ; otherwise the multitude could not have sung it together. Their beloved instruments of harmony were probably of a rude construction in comparison with ours, but were nevertheless capable, no doubt, of producing a fine simple expression •of pleasing and majestic sounds, suitable to the high •character of their devotional songs.

Tho most remarkable characteristic presented in the musical performances of the Israelites is the readiness with which all the people seem to have entered into the songs of praise and rejoicing ; and this aptitude, be it remembered, was immediately after their 400 years' residence under their hard taskmasters, the Egyptians, whose oppressions, one might have expected, would, if possible, drive all music and poetry out of their souls. But not so ; the essence of harmony appears to be inwoven with their very existence.

In the fifth chapter of the Judges we are presented with another very sublime specimen of Hebrew Poetry, in the song of Deborah and Barak, which, like the preceding, was composed expressly for the occasion of the deliverance of the Israelites from their enemies. It has been asserted that none of the Greek or Latin Poets ever equalled the lofty and natural expressions of this song.

But the great Poet of the Hebrews was David, who, in reality, was inspired from his infancy. In his ruddy youth we find him employed as the most expert musician in .charming the evil spirit of Saul, by the combined influence of his harp and voice. His splendid song of thanksgiving for God's blessings and deliverance from enemies, written in early life, is recorded in the second of Samuel (ch. xxii.). What is remarkable in this song is its being only another version of the eighteenth Psalm. It seems very probable, from the alterations and amendments which appear in the Psalm, that the composition had been of frequent use, and that the copy inserted in the Psalms was the most approved and matured edition.

The days of King David were, to the Jews particularly, the days of songs, music, and dancing, as we may observe in almost every passage of that famous monarch's life ; and besides the above instances of duplicate copies of their songs, we have, in the first Chronicles (ch. xvi.), a very beautiful hymn, which composes also the 96th and the 305th Psalms.

We hasten to examine the book of Psalms, than which a more splendid collection of sublime Poetry was never made. We derive the word Psalm from the Greek Psallo, which signifies to touch sweetly, and is indicative of the grandly animated performances of united voices and instruments. The book of Psalms is simply a collection of hymns and spiritual songs ; these were written by several hands, but chiefly by David, " the sweet singer," who was also probably the collector of them into one body. The titles of many of the Psalms declare their authors : a few were composed by Moses, one or two by Solomon, and some by others. This collection of divine songs was called by the Hebrews Sephir Tehittim, the Book of Hymns or Praises of the Lord. Many of the hymns were written for particular occasions of Divine Providence ; others are the standing themes of general sentiments, and are altogether, as near as possibly can be, the same in use, character, and arrangement as our religious hymn-books, only infinitely

OF THE AXCIENTS. 7

superior both in dicticn of language and sublimity of devotion.

The titles affixed to several of the Psalms render us considerable explanation, both respecting them and the general usage of music. The term JtoeginotJi, in the title of the fourth Psalm, as also in Psalms liv., lv., and lxxvi., signifies stringed instruments, and shows us that these portions of sacred Scripture were' sung to music by the congregation of the Jews. The word Selah, which frequently occurs in the body of the Psalms, has been thought by some to direct a repetition of the preceding part ; but whether it means exactly this or not, is by no means certain ; yet we cannot doubt much that it contained some sort of musical instruction to the performers.

Nehiloth, prefixed to the fifth Psalm, signifies the organ, and shows that this fine instrument was in religious use in the time of David, and that this Psalm in particular was directed to be sung thereto. In Ps. vi. and xii., Sheminith means the eighth, and shows that these songs were to be accompanied by the eight-stringed harp. The Psalm vii. bears the term Shiggaion, which may be interpreted into varying or changing songs or tunes ; and as this appears to be the personal performance of the sweet-singing King of Israel, we may reasonably suppose that he altered the style of the music, in the different parts, to express with more emphasis the several subjects of the hymn. (See also Hab., iii. 1.) Gittith, in the viii., Ixxxi., and lxxxiv. titles, is taken by some critics for the name of a tune, or song, or instrument that was either invented or much uced at Gaih. Some think it means the ivine-presses, and that the song was to be used in the vintage season. In Psalm ix. Muthlabhen is, in all probability, the name of some tune, or of some musical instrument ; and Haggaion (verse 16) is either a musical term or a call for particular attention. Aijeleth ShaJiar (Psalm xxii.) is the hind of the morning, and was, perhaps, the name of an instrument or tune ; or might be a song usually sung in the morning. Jeduthan (Psalms xxxix., lxii., and lxxvii.) was the chief musician, and the leader of those who were chosen to give thanks to the Lord " with trumpets and cymbals for those that should make a sound, and with musical instruments of God" (1 Chron., xvi. 42). Shoshannim (Psalms xlv., lx., Ixix., and Ixxx.) signifies, literally, lilies or roses, and seems here to be a name for either the music or an instrument. So also is Alamoth (Psalm xlvi. ; see 1st Chronicles, xv. 20.) Jonath-elem-rechoJcim (Ps. lvi.) is a dove in the remote woods. Al-taschith (Ps. lvii., lviii., lix., and lxxv.) means destroy him not. Several of these epithets might be affixed, in the first instance, as descriptive of the subjects of the songs ; or might be meant to express the views or conditions of the writer, and thence afterwards become the distinguishing name of the music originally used in those songs, even when applied to other words, as is sometimes done in our music.

In the title to Psalm Ixxxviii. we have much musical information. Mahalath is the flute ; Leannoth signifies to be sung alternately ; and Maschil, a tune. (See also Psalms liii., lxxiv., and lxxviii.)

The ciii. and five following Psalms were called Hallel, or Hymns, by the Hebrews, and are said to have been sung by them at the table in the new moon, the paschal, and other feasts, always concluding with Hallelujah.

In Psalm cxix. we are presented with a valuable curiosity of poetic literature. This splendid composition is divided into as many parts as there were letters in the Hebrew alphabet, and each part is subdivided into eight other portions or verses ; and each of these verses in the original begins with the same letter as that under which it is

OF THE ANCIENTS. i)

ranked ; that is to say, all the eight verses in the division under Aleph begin with a word whose first letter is Alepk, or the Hebrew A ; and so under every other letter through the Hebrew alphabet. The uniform beauty of this piece in the original cannot be equalled, we may fearlessly assert, in any language : it shows much experience and discernment in poetic arrangements, with great variety and skill of words. This Psalm has been styled, emphatically, the "Great Alphabet" and is, in all likelihood, the prototype of succeeding acrostic and alliterative Poesy.

In regard to the metrical composition of the Psalms, as already intimated, nothing is known for certain. Josephus (book vii.) says, "David being freed from wars and dangers, and enjoying for the future a profound peace, composed songs and hymns to God, of several sorts of metre ; some of those which he made were trimeters, and some were pentameters." And yet no one has attempted to define these metres, and probably but few will suppose that even Josephus himself thoroughly understood their nature. Our author, in the same place, describes the Jewish instruments of music. He says, that David " also made instruments of music, and taught the Levites to sing hymns to God, both on that called the Sabbath-day, and on other festivals. Now, the construction of the instruments was thus : — The viol was an instrument of ten strings ; it was played upon with a bow. The psaltery had twelve musical notes, and was played upon by the fingers. The cymbals were broad and large instruments, and were made of brass." With so much variety of songs and musical instruments, we cannot doubt that the music of this people was varied and extensive.

It is, indeed, probable that the Hebrews were unacquainted with musical notation ; hence their tunes must have been entirely traditional ; but for simple music this is no very serious detriment, especially when the habits and disposition of the people are continually working in favour of the art. Josephus says that Moses composed his song at the Red Sea in hexameter verse, although he gives us no clue to the nature of such composition, and perhaps he uses the term in compliance only with the notions of the Greeks, and as the best word within his command for their understanding. Our author nowhere gives any proof of his acquaintance with the old Hebrew metres. The fine poetic song which Moses wrote prior to his death is also termed an hexameter by Josephus.

Solomon, like his father David, was much devoted to the muses. His ascension to the throne was celebrated by a festival, with dancing, and music, and singing. "He also composed books of odes and songs, a thousand and five." (Jos., book viii.) He made " two hundred thousand trumpets, according to the command of Moses ; also, two hundred thousand garments of fine linen for the singers that were Levites ; and he made musical instruments, and such as were invented for singing of hymns, called Nablse and Cinyrse (psalteries and harps), which were made of electrum (the finest brass), forty thousand." He removed the ark into the temple with music and dancing ; and the people were so delighted with the ceremonies which he instituted at the dedication of the temple, that they returned home, making merry on their journey, and singing hymns to God. The Proverbs, Bcclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon are all well known, and consist almost wholly of Hebrew verse. The texture of these poetical performances is well worthy of study ; but for the present that exercise must be deferred, this reference being made to illustrate simply the poetic propensities of Solomon and of the Jews generally. These compositions