South America, observations and impressions

Front matter

V x ^ o

V .p v ^

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Preface

This book records observations made and impressions formed during a journey through western and southern South America from Panama to Argentina and Brazil via the Straits of Magellan. The nature of its contents is briefly outlined in the Introduction which follows, so all that I have to do here is to acknowledge gratefully the many kindnesses I received in every part of South America which I visited, and in particular from the following persons : Colonel Goethals, Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal, and other officers of the United States engineers stationed there, and Colonel Gorgas, head of the medical staff ; the officials of the Peruvian Corporation in Lima and of the Peruvian Southern Railways in Mollendo, Arequipa, and La Paz ; the officials of the Antofagasta and Bolivia Railroad Company; those of the Transandine Railway Company in Chile and those of the Buenos .Aires and Pacific and Argentine Great Western Railways Companies in Mendoza and Buenos Aires, and also those of the Leopoldina Railway in Brazil. Nor must I fail to express my obligations to the heads in New York of the firm of Messrs. W. R. Grace Co., who advised me regarding my journey, and to my friend Professor Bingham of Yale University, who, familiar with South viii PREFACE

America from his own travels and studies, has given me valuable help in many ways.

I have also to return my respectful thanks to the Governments of Chile and Brazil, who were good enough to extend to me facilities for travel on their railways, and to the Governments of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Uruguay for other courtesies. To many statesmen and scholars in these six republics, too numerous to mention by name, as also to not a few of my own fellow-countrymen from Britain and Canada who are there settled, I am indebted for hospitality, for private acts of kindness, and for valuable information.

JAMES BRYCE.

Junb 27, 1912.

NOTE TO REVISED EDITION

This edition has been carefully revised and many corrections have been made in it.

February 26th, 1913.

Table Of Contents

PAGE

Preface vii

Introduction .......... xvii

Chapter I The Isthmus Of Panama

The Part of the Isthmus and the Strait in History ... 1 The Isthmus of Suez and the Isthmus of Panama : The Route

from Colon to Culebra and Panama . . . . . 2

View from the Hill of Ancon 9

The Natives of the Isthmus : The San Bias Indians ... 13 The English Raiders : Drake and Morgan . . . . .15

The Canal : Gatun Locks and Lake ...... 19

The Great Cutting at Culebra 24

Administration and Sanitation of the Canal Zone ... 26

Failure of the French Undertaking due Primarily to Disease . 28

Commercial Prospects of the Canal 33

General Impressions made by the Isthmus and the Canal . . 35

CHAPTER II THE COAST OF PERU Cold Climate of the West Coast 37

The Antarctic Current • . . 38

Aridity and Barrenness of the Peruvian Coast .... 39

Payta : The Guano Islands . • 40

Lima : General Aspect and Buildings 46

Life and Society in Lima 51

Mollendo and the Peruvian Southern Railway .... 54

First View of the Andes 56

The Desert of Western Peru 57

The City of Arequipa 60

ix x TABLE OF CONTENTS

TAB*

The Volcano of El Misti 61

Oriental Aspect of Arequipa 64

Character of the People of Arequipa 66

A Story from Colonial Days 69

CHAPTER in CUZCO AND THE LAND OF THE INCAS

Physical Character of Peru 75

Crossing of the Andes from Arequipa to the Central Plateau of

Lake Titicaca 80

Scenery of the Valley from the Plateau to Cuzco ... 81

One of the Sources of the Amazon 86

Market Day at Sicuani : The Quichua Indians .... 88

Cuzco : Its Situation and Aspect 95

The Spanish Buildings at Cuzco 96

The Ancient Buildings : Inca Walls 102

The Prehistoric Fortress of Sacsahuaman 107

Impression made by the Remains of Ancient Peruvian Work . 114

Historical Associations of Cuzco 114

[Note on the Fortress Walls of Sacsahuaman] .... 118

CHAPTER IV LAKE TITICACA AND THE CENTRAL ANDES The Central Plateau and the Lake 119

Inhabitants of the Plateau : The Aymara Indians . . . 121

Scenery of Lake Titicaca 124

The Shrine of Copacavana 128

Voyage to the Sacred Islands 130

Koati : The Island of the Moon 131

The Island of the Sun 132

The Bath and Garden of the Inca 133

The Sacred Rock of the Wild Cat 135

View of the Snowy Range of Sorata or Illampu . . • 141

The Lake of Vinamarca 143

Tiahuanaco and its Ruins 144

Impression made by the Ruins 147

Character of the Ancient Peruvian Civilization .... 152

The Primitive Religion of Peru 156

Government and the Policy of the Incas • • 160

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Chapter V La Paz And The Bolivian Desert Page

Origin of the Bolivian Republic 166

General Physical Character of Bolivia . . . . 167

Approach to La Paz : The Barranca 168

Climate of La Paz : The Mountain Sickness or Soroche . . 171

The City and its Environs . . . . . . . . 174

Character and Habits of the Bolivian Indians .... 179

The Plateau from La Paz to Oruro 186

Uyuni : The Great Bolivian Desert 191

Passage through the Andes 198

The Borax Lake and the Volcanoes 199

View of the Western Cordillera 203

The Desert of Atacama . . . . . • . . 204

CHAPTER VI CHILE The Three Regions of Chile 206

Northern Chile : The Nitrate Fields 207

Megillones and Antofagasta ....... 210

Valparaiso 212

Santiago 216

Pedro de Valdivia and the Rock of Santa Lucia .... 218

Chilean Society and Politics . . . . . • . . 220

Southern Chile : Its Climate and Scenery 223

The Coast Cities : Concepcion and Talcahuano .... 225

Lota Valdivia and Corral 227

The Araucanian Indians : Their History, Customs, and Religion 232

Osorno and its German Colony 239

Rio Bueno 242

Attractiveness of Southern Chile 241

Lake Rinihue and the Chilean Forests 244

CHAPTER VII ACROSS THE ANDES The Andean Range 248

The Uspallata Pass from Chile into Argentina .... 250

Construction of the Transandine Railway 251 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PASB

Scenery on the Chilean Side 253

The Tunnel under the Summit of the Cordillera . . . 256

Scenery on the Argentine Side 256

Aconcagua and Tupungato 257

The City of Mendoza 260

Argentines and Chileans 264

Return across the Mountains and Ascent to the Cumbre . . 267

The Christ of the Andes 269

Observations on the Scenery of the Andes in General . . 271

Comparison with the Himalayas 276

[Note on the Passage of the Andes, in 1817, by the Army of

General San Martin] 280

CHAPTER VIII Discovery of the Straits, and Circumnavigation of the Globe, by

Magellan 284

Voyage of Sir Francis Drake 286

The Coast of Southern Chile : The Sea-birds . . . .286

Approach to, and Entrance of, the Straits 290

The Scenery of the Western Half of the Straits .... 291

Punta Arenas and Tierra del Fuego 300

The Eastern Half of the Straits 304

General Observations on the Character of the Straits . . 305

Their Historical Importance 307

The Falkland Isles, their Character and Products . . . 308

Their History 311

Their Scenery 313

CHAPTER IX ARGENTINA The Approach to Buenos Aires

Aspect of the City ....

Society in Buenos Aires

Physical Character of Argentina . .

Inhabitants of Argentina : The Gaucho

Agriculture and Ranching .

The Process of Settlement : Labour

316 318 324 327 329 330

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

The Scenery of the Pampas 334

Economic Prospects of Argentina 336

The European Immigrants . . 338

Character and Tendencies of Society in Argentina . . . 341

Argentina the Most Modern of South American Countries . 34.6

CHAPTER X URUGUAY How Uruguay became an Independent Republic . . . 349

Resources of the Country 350

The City of Montevideo 351

Population of Uruguay : Immigrants and Natives . . . 355

A Revolution in Uruguay 356

The Whites and the Reds 357

Causes of the Revolutionary Habit 358

Prosperity of Uruguay 362

CHAPTER XI BRAZIL How Brazil fell to the Portuguese 366

Physical Features of the Different Parts of the Country . . 368

Voyage from Montevideo to Santos 370

Santos and the Railway to Sao Paulo 372

The City of Sao Paulo and its People 374

Approach to Rio de Janeiro 377

Aspect of Rio : The Bay and the Mountains .... 378

Scenery of the Environs of Rio 382

Petropolis the « Hill Station " of Rio 384

Excursion through the Mountains 386

A Brazilian Forest 390

Naval Mutiny at Rio 395

Economic Resources of Brazil ....... 402

The People : German and Italian Immigrants .... 405

> The Negroes and Indians 407

Recent History of Brazil 410

Character and Tendencies of the Brazilians .... 416

The Future of Brazil 420 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter XII The Rise Of New Nations Paob

The Colonial Empire of Spain divided into Sixteen Republics

or Nations 423

What is a Nation? 424

Process by which New Nations Arise 426

The Administrative Divisions of the Colonies the Basis of the

Division into Republics 427

Influences which differentiate Nations 429

Geographical Position 429

Physical Environment : Climate 430

The Aborigines : Their Number and Character .... 432

The Struggle for Independence and the Civil Wars . . . 434

Recent Economic Development : Immigration .... 437

Which of the Republics have become Nations ? . . . . 438

Chile and Argentina : Mexico, Peru, Brazil .... 441

The Caribbean and Central American Republics . . . 441 Does there exist a Common Sentiment of Spanish-American

Nationality? 444

Will the Present Political Divisions be Maintained ? . . . 447

Prospects of International Peace in South America . . . 448

CHAPTER XIII THE RELATIONS OF RACES IN SOUTH AMERICA Importance of the Aboriginal Element in Spanish

American

454 455 458 460 460

Countries

How the Native Tribes came to Survive

Probable Present Numbers of the Indian Population

The Indians in Peru and Bolivia ....

Present State of these Indians, Social and Religious

Ulloa's Report on their Condition in the Eighteenth Century . 463

Universal Illiteracy of the Indians : Their Civil and Political

Status 465

Relations of Indians and Whites : No " Colour Line " in Latin

America 470

How the Presence of the Aborigines has affected the Whites . 475

vThe Negroes in Brazil 479

-Three General Conclusions regarding the Native Indians of South

America 480

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PAGE

It is not certain that they have injured the White Race by Intermixture 481

Demoralization of the Peruvian Indians by the Spanish Conquest, and Subsequent Oppression . . . . 481

Racial Repugnance not a Universal Phenomenon in the Relations of Peoples of Different Colour ..... 482

Chapter XIV The Two Americas And The Relation Op South America To Europe

Origin of the Name " America " 484

How it came to be applied to Two Continents .... 486

Some Physical Similarities of the Two Continents . . . 488

Some Similarities in their History 489

" Teutonic " America and " Latin " America .... 490

Divergent History of the Two Americas 492

The Indians : The Mines : The Settlers 493

Different Methods of Government . . . . ' . . 494

The Two Wars of Independence 496

The English Colonies held together while the Spanish split Up 499

What " Teutonic " and Latin America have in Common . . 500

The Contrasts between them are More Important . . . 504

Present Attitude of Spanish Americans to North Americans . 507 Real Affinities of Spanish America are with Some European

Sympathy and Intercourse with Spain not very Close . . 513

Relations are Most Intimate with France ..... 518 Are the South American Peoples a New Group, with a New

"Racial Type"? 520

Chapter XV The Conditions Of Political Life In Spanish- American Republics

European Views of Spanish America during and after the War

of Independence 524

Physical or Geographical Conditions affecting the Political Life 527

Racial Conditions : The Aborigines 528

Economic and Social Conditions 532

Historical Conditions in the. Colonial Period .... 534 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAOB

Historical Conditions during and since the War of Independence 536 The Peoples of the Republics began with no Experience in the

Methods of Free Government 537

Some Revolutionary Leaders did not approve Democracy . . 538

Would Monarchy or Oligarchy have been Better? . . . 540 Differences between the existing Republics: Three Classes of

States 541

Some have truly Republican Governments . . . ^ . . 543

Influences making for Political Progress 546

European Judgments on Spanish-American Republic unduly

Severe . 550

i CHAPTER XVI

Rapid filling up of the Cultivable Areas of the World . . 552

Regions available for Settlement in South America . . . 555

The Temperate Regions 556

The Selvas of the Amazonian Plain 558

Possible Future Population of South America .... 563

Elements, Aboriginal and White, in the Population . . . 564

Phenomena of Race Intermixture in South America , . . 566

No Predominant Type in the South American Peoples . . 568 Spanish Americans misjudged because their Conditions at Time

of Independence were not Understood 570

Evidences of Social and Political Advancement .... 573 South America has suffered from Want of Intellectual Contact

with Other Countries 574

The Spanish Race stronger on the Practical than on the Intellectually Creative Side 577

Backwardness of Knowledge and Intelligence in the Rural Parts

of Spanish America 580

Decline in the Influence of the Church and Religion . . . 582

Continued Vigour of the Spanish -American Race . . . 584

Note I. Some Books upon Latin America .... 587

Note II. A Few Remarks on travelling in South America . 588

Index 591

Maps. South America.

The Isthmus of Panama.

Parts of Peru and Bolivia.

The Straits of Magellan.

Parts of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.

Introduction

Whoever read as a boy the books of old travellers in the Andes, such as Humboldt's Aspects of Nature, or pored over such accounts of the primitive American peoples as are given in Prescott's Conquest of Peru must have longed to visit some day the countries that fired his imagination. These had been my experiences, and to them there was subsequently added a curiosity to learn the causes which produced so many revolutions and civil wars in Spanish America, and, still later, a sense that these countries, some of them issuing from a long period of turbulence, were becoming potent economic factors in the modern world. So when after many years the opportunity of having four clear months for a journey to South America presented itself, I spent those months in seeing as much as I could within the time, and was able to make some observations and form certain impressions regarding the seven republics I visited. These observations and impressions are contained in the following pages. They are, of course, merely first impressions, but the impressions which travel makes on a fresh mind have their value if they are tested by subsequent study and by being submitted to persons who know the country thoroughly. I have tried so to test these impressions of mine, and hope they may be of service to those who desire to learn something about South America, but xviii INTRODUCTION

have not time to peruse the many books of travel that have been written about each of its countries.

The chief points of interest which these countries have for Europeans and North Americans may be summed up as follows : —

1. The aspects of nature.

2. The inhabitants, the white part of whom are of Spanish origin, except the Brazilians, who come from Portugal.

3. The economic resources of the several countries.

4. The prospects for the development of industry and commerce.

5. The relics of prehistoric civilization.

6. The native Indian population.

7. The conditions of political life in the several republics.

It may be convenient that I should explain how far and in what order each of these topics is dealt with.

The first eleven chapters of the book contain a description of what I saw of scenery and of social and economic phenomena in the seven republics of Panama, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil, and in these chapters the first three of the above-mentioned subjects are dealt with when and as each country is described. It is Nature that chiefly engages the traveller's mind in Peru and Bolivia, as it is economic development which interests him in Argentina and Uruguay. In Chile and Brazil he must be always thinking of both. The fourth topic has been treated so fully by many writers who have brought special knowl-

INTRODUCTION xix

edge to it and have written professedly for the information of business men, that I have not thought it necessary to fill this book with statistical tables or, indeed, to do more than indicate the possibilities for commercial development or agricultural immigration which the natural resources of each country seem to promise.

It is only in Peru and Bolivia that any prehistoric monuments exist. Some of the most important and interesting of these I saw, and in describing them I have endeavoured to convey an idea of the character of the ancient Peruvian civilization (if that name can properly be applied to it) and of the people who produced it. This is done in Chapters III, IV, and V.

Only in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile did I have opportunities of seeing the native Indians. In the two former states they constitute a part of the total population far larger than in any other state (except Paraguay) : they are nominally Christians, and they lead a settled agricultural life. In Chile there is only one considerable Indian tribe remaining, the famous Araucanians. Of these warriors, of the Quichuas in Peru and of the Aymaras in Bolivia, some account will be found in Chapters III to VI.

In the above-mentioned eleven descriptive chapters I have endeavoured to individualize, so to speak, the chief countries of South America, so as to bring out the chief characteristics, natural and human, of each of them.

But marked as are the differences between the various republics, they have all something in common, something that belongs to South America as opposed to Europe or North America or Australia. There are xx INTRODUCTION

also certain general questions affecting the whole Continent which present themselves to the traveller's mind and need to be discussed upon broad and general lines. To these questions the last five chapters of the book have been devoted. One chapter endeavours to indicate the causes which have divided the vast Spanish-American dominion (including Mexico and Central America) as it stood in a.d. 1810 into the sixteen independent republics of to-day, some of which have become, others of which are becoming, true nations with marked national characteristics. Another chapter deals with the relations to the white population of the aborigines in the Spanish countries and of the negroes in Brazil, the only state in which negroes are numerous. It is a subject of study all the more interesting because these relations are altogether different from those borne by the European element to the coloured races in the British colonies, in India, and in the United States of North America, and also because the intermixture of races which is now going on in South America suggests physiological and ethnological problems of high interest. A third chapter (Chapter XIV) briefly compares the conditions of settlement and of government which determined the course of economic and political development in North and in South America respectively and enquires how far the latter Continent is to be considered any more closely related to the former than it is to Europe. Is there, in fact, such a thing as that which the word Pan- Americanism is intended to describe, or does the expression denote an aspiration rather than a fact ?

INTRODUCTION xxi

Of the political history of these republics very little is said in this book, and of their current politics nothing at all. That is a topic on which it would not be fitting for me to enter. But in travelling through the seven countries, in observing their physical features and the character of their people, and the state of knowledge and education among them, as well as in reading accounts of the kind of administration which the Spanish Crown gave them during nearly three centuries, I was struck by the influence which all these facts must have had upon the free governments which the Revolutionary leaders tried to set up when they broke away from the mother country. The history of Spanish America since 1810 cannot be understood or fairly judged, without taking these things into account. They have been the fundamental and determinative conditions of political life in these countries; and to them Chapter XV has been devoted.

In the last Chapter (XVI) I have touched upon several subjects relating to the South American lands and peoples in general for which no appropriate earlier place could be found, and have indulged in a few conjectures as to the future both of the several states and of the Continent as a whole. These are not meant as predictions, but rather as suggestions of possibilities which may serve to set others thinking.

Lest some of the views presented, especially those regarding the native races and political conditions should be deemed unduly optimistic, let me try to meet any such criticism by a few words on optimism in general.

xxii INTRODUCTION

Pessimism is easier than optimism, as it is easier to destroy than to construct. There was an old dictum in the Middle Ages, "Omnia tendunt naturaliter in non esse," 1 and Mephistopheles in Goethe's Faust tells us

that

If pessimism is easy, the more need to stand on guard against it.

The duty of a traveller, or a historian, or a philosopher is, of course, to reach and convey the exact truth, and any tendency either to lighten or to darken the picture is equally to be condemned. But where there is room for doubt, and wherever that which may be called the "temperamental equation" of the observer comes in, an optimistic attitude would seem to be the safer, that is to say, likely to be nearer to the truth. We are all prone to see faults rather than merits, and in making this remark I do not forget the so-called " log-rolling critics," because with them the question is of what the critic says, not of what he sees, which may be something quite different. If this maxim holds true, it is especially needed when a traveller is judging a foreign country, for the bias always present in us which favours our own national ways and traits makes us judge the faults of other nations more severely than we do those with which we are familiar. As this unconscious factor often tends to darken the

1 All things tend naturally towards non-existence. So in the original statutes of Oriel College, Oxford (founded in a.d. 1327). 1 All that comes into being deserves to perish.

INTRODUCTION xxiii

picture that a traveller draws, it is safer for him, if in doubt, to throw in a little light so as to secure a just result. Moreover, we are disposed, when we deal with another country, to be unduly impressed by the defects we actually see and to forget to ask what is, after all, the really important question, whether things are getting better or worse. Is it an ebbing or a flowing tide that we see? Even in reflecting on the past of our own country, which we know better than we do that of other countries, we are apt, in noting the emergence of new dangers, to forget how many old dangers have disappeared. Much more is this kind of error likely to affect us in the case of a country whose faults repel us more than do our own national faults, and whose recuperative forces we may overlook or undervalue.

Such considerations as these have made me believe that the natural propensity of a West European or North American traveller to judge Spanish Americans by his own standards needs to be corrected not only by making allowance for differences of intellect and character, but also by a comprehension of the history of these peoples and of the difficulties, many of them due to causes outside their own control, which have encompassed and entangled them ever since their ancestors first set foot in the Western world. Whoever compares these difficulties as they stand to-day with those of a century ago will find grounds not only for more lenient judgments than most Europeans have passed, but also for brighter hopes.

Neither in this matter, however, nor anywhere in xxiv INTRODUCTION

the chapters which deal with the social and political conditions of South America have I ventured to dogmatize. My aim has rather been to start questions and to indicate various sides from which South American problems may be approached. The interest of these new countries lies largely in the fact that while some problems already familiar to the Old World, have here taken on new aspects, others appear here almost for the first time in history. Some of them involve phenomena of race growth and race intermixture for the investigation of which the data we possess are still insufficient. Others turn upon the still unascertained capacity of European races for working and thriving in tropical countries. It may take many years before science can tell us half of what we desire to know regarding the economic possibilities of the central regions of the Continent, for the development of which no labour is now available. The future of the temperate South is more certain, for all the material conditions that make for prosperity in North America and Australia are present there also. These countries will be the home of rich and populous nations, and possibly of great nations. The most interesting of all the questions which a journey in South America suggests are those which concern the growth of these young nations. What type of manhood will they develop ? What place in the world will they ultimately hold ? They need fear no attacks from the powers of the Northern Hemisphere, and they have abundant resources within. Their future is in their own hands.

Chapter I

South America is bounded at its northern end by an isthmus and at its southern by a strait. They are the two gateways by which the western side of the Continent, cut off from the western and central portions by a long and lofty mountain range, can be approached from the Atlantic. It was by crossing the Isthmus that Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the South Sea. It was by penetrating the Strait that Magellan, seven years later, discovered that this South Sea was a vast ocean stretching all the way to the coasts of Asia. In old Spanish days all the commerce of the west coast passed over the Isthmus, 1 but when the days of steam navigation arrived, that commerce passed through Magellan's Strait. Now the Isthmus itself is to be turned into a strait and will be a channel for sea-borne trade, the main gateway to the West.

An isthmus and a strait are, to the historical geographer and to the geographical historian, the most interesting things with which geographical science has to deal. Commerce and travel and naval warfare concentrate themselves at the spot where a narrow channel connects wide seas, and the strip of land which severs two seas from one another interposes a barrier to waterborne trade and turns it off into other directions. It 1 The trade to the Philippines crossed the Continent at Tehuantepec,

B 1 becomes a point the control of which can stop the march of armies, and it furnishes a central stronghold whence ships can go forth to threaten the neighbouring coasts. Thus every strait and every isthmus has a high commercial importance, and almost always a political importance also, since lines of commerce have usually been, and are now more than ever, potent factors in human affairs, while the command of a water passage for fleets, or that of a land passage for armies, may be of capital importance in war.

The Eastern Hemisphere has an isthmus which has been significant for world commerce and for world history almost from the beginning of civilization. It is the Isthmus of Suez. So the Western Hemisphere has its isthmus of supreme importance, — that of Panama. It is a link between continents and a barrier between seas, which, though its history is far shorter than is that of Suez, yet has been at some moments in the last four centuries, and may be still more hereafter, of high significance for the movements of the world.

There are some notable points of similarity between these two isthmuses. Their breadth is not very different, — Suez sixty miles, Panama about fifty-four. The shortest line across each runs nearly due north and south. The continents which each unites are gigantic. Each lies in what is, or was till quite lately, a practically uninhabited country.

Here, however, the likeness ends; and we come to points of contrast that are more remarkable. The Isthmus of Suez is flat as a table from one end to the other; that of Panama is covered with high and generally steep hills. Suez is an arid waste, where there is not a brook and scarcely even a well, and by consequence not a tree, nor. any growing thing save a few thin and thorny shrubs. Panama has a tremendous rainfall in places, varying from one hundred and forty inches a year on the north side to sixty on the south, and is covered with wood so dense that roads have to be not only hewn through the forest but defended by incessant cutting against the efforts of a prolific nature, always seeking to reassert her rights. Having a keen, dry, desert air, the whole Suez region is a healthy one, where man need fear disease only in those few spots which he has in recent years brought under irrigation. Panama had for centuries a climate so deadly that even passing travellers feared to halt more than a few hours on either side of the Isthmus. Yellow fever, intermittent and remittent fevers, and all sorts of other tropical maladies made it their favourite home.