The Holy Roman Empire ... Eighth edition

Front matter

THE HOLY KOMAN EMPIRE THE HOLY EOMAN EMPIEE BY JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L. FELLOW OF ORIEL COLLEGE AND REGIUS PROFESSOR OF CIVIL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD M.P. FOR ABERDEEN ILonicm MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1889 All rights reserved This Library Edition is printed from ihe Eighth Crown 8vo Edition PKEFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION The object of this treatise is not so much to give a narrative history of the countries included in the Romano-Germanic Empire — Italy during the middle ages, Germany from the ninth century to the nineteenth — as to describe the Holy Empire itself as an institution or system, the wonderful offspring of a body of beliefs and traditions which have almost wholly passed away from the world. Such a description, however, would not be intelligible without some account of the great events which accompanied the growth and decay of Im perial power ; and it has therefore appeared best to give the book the form rather of a narrative than of a dissertation ; and to combine with an exposition of what may be called the theory of the Empire an outline of the political history of Germany, as well as some notices of the affairs of mediæval Italy.

To make the succession of events clearer, a Chronological list of Emperors and Popes has been prefixed. The great events of 1866 and 1870 reflect back so much light upon the previous history of Germany, and so much need, in order to be properly understood, to be viewed in their relation to the character and influence of the old Empire, that although they do not fall within the original limits of this treatise,

Preface

VI some remarks upon them, and the causes which led to them, will not be out of place in it, and will perhaps add to whatever interest or value it may possess. As the Author found that to introduce these remarks into the body of the work would oblige him to take to pieces and rewrite the last three chapters, a task he had no time for, he has preferred to throw them into a new supplementary chapter, which accordingly contains a brief sketch of the rise of Prussia, of the state of Germany under the Confederation which expired in 1866, and of the steps whereby the German nation has regained its political unity in the new Empire. The book has been revised throughout, and some additions made to it, for most of which the Author has to express his thanks to his learned German translator, Dr. Arthur Winckler, of Brunswick.

He also desires to acknowledge the benefit which he derived, in prepar ing the last chapter, from the suggestions of his friend Mr. A. W. Ward, Professor of History in Owens College, Manchester, whose eminence as a historian is too well known to need any tribute from him. Lincoln's Inn, London, June 28, 1873. Note to the Eighth Edition This Edition has been revised, and a number of corrections made, for most of which the Author is indebted to the learning of his friend the Italian trans lator of the book, Count Ugo Balzani, himself a distinguished authority on Italian history. December 22, 1886. CONTENTS

Chapter I Introductory Chapter II The Roman Empire Before The Invasion Of

THE BARBARIANS PAGE The Empire in the Second Century ...... 4 Obliteration of National distinctions ..... 5 Rise of Christianity ........ 9 Its Alliance with the State ....... 9 Its Influence on the Idea of an Imperial Nationality . . . 11

Chapter III The Barbarian Invasions

Relations between the Primitive Germans and the Romans . . 13 Their Feelings towards Rome and her Empire . . . . 14 Belief in its Eternity . . . . . . . . 18 Extinction by Odoacer of the Western branch of the Empire . 23 Theodoric the Ostrogothic King . . . . . . 25 Gradual Dissolution of the Empire . . . . . . 27 Permanence of the Roman Religion and the Roman Law . . 28

Chapter IV Restoration Of The Empire In The West

The Franks 31 Italy under Greeks and Lombards ...... 34 The Iconoclastic Schism ........ 35 Alliance of the Popes with the Frankish Kings . . . . 35 The Frankish Conquest of Italy . . . . . . 38 Adventures and Plans of Pope Leo III ..... 40 Coronation of Charles the Great . . . . . .44 CONTENTS VIII

Chapter V Empire And Policy Of Charles Page

Import of the Coronation at Rome ...... 49 Accounts given in the Annals of the time . . . ■ ■ 50 Questions as to the Intentions of Charles . . . . ■ 55 Legal Effect of the Coronation . . . • • • • 59 Position of Charles towards the Church . . . . • 61 Towards his German Subjects ....... 64 Towards the other races of Europe . . . . . . 67 General View of his Character and Policy . . . . . 69

Chapter VI Carolingian And Italian Emperors

Reign of Lewis I. ......... 73 Dissolution of the Carolingian Empire . . . . . 75 Beginnings of the German Kingdom . . . . . 76 Italian Emperors . . ... . . . . . 77 Otto the Saxon King 79 Coronation of Otto as Emperor at Rome ..... 84

Chapter VII Theory Of The

MEDIÆVAL EMPIRE The World-Monarchy and the World-Religion .... 87 Unity of the Christian Church ...... 89 Influence of the Doctrine of Realism . . . . . 92 The Popes as heirs to the Roman Monarchy .... 94 Character of the Revived Roman Empire . . . . . 97 Respective Functions of the Pope and the Emperor . . 99 Proofs and Illustrations . . . . . * . .104 Interpretations of Prophecy . . . . . .106 Two Remarkable Pictures . . . . . . .110

Chapter VIII The Roman Empire And The German Kingdom

The German or East Frankish Monarchy . . . . .116 Feudality in Germany . . . . . . . j j 7 Reciprocal Influence of the Roman and Teutonic Elements on the Character of the Empire . . . . . . CONTENTS IX

Chapter IX Saxon And Franconian Emperors Page

Adventures of Otto the Great in Rome . . . . .128 Trial and Deposition of Pope John XII . ... . . 129 Position of Otto in Italy . . . . . . .133 His European Policy . . . . . . . .134 Comparison of his Empire with the Carolingian . . . 137 Character and Projects of the Emperor Otto III . . . 139 The Emperors Henry II and Conrad II . . . . . 144 The Emperor Henry III 145

Chapter X Struggle Of The Empire And The Papacy

Origin and Progress of Papal Power . . . . . .147 Relations of the Popes with the early Emperors . . . . 149 Quarrel of Henry IV and Gregory VII . . . . .152 Gregory's Ideas . . . . . . . .154 Concordat of Worms . . . . . . . .157 General Results of the Contest . . . . . .157

Chapter XI The Emperors In Italy

'. FREDERICK BARBAROSSA Frederick and the Papacy . . . . . . .160 Revival of the Study of the Roman Law . . . . .165 Arnold of Brescia and the Roman Republicans . . . . 167 Frederick's Struggle with the Lombard Cities . . . . 168 His Policy as German King . . . . . . .171

Chapter XII Imperial Titles And Pretensions

Territorial Limits of the Empire — Its Claims of Jurisdiction over other Countries . . . . . . . .175 Hungary . . . . . . . ■ .176 Poland 177 Denmark . . . . • • ■ ■ .177 France .....■■•• 178 Sweden . . . ■ ■ . ■ • .178 CONTENTS X PAGE Spain 179 England l79 Scotland .180 Naples and Sicily . ■ ■ • • • .181 Venice * 181 The East 182 Rivalry of the Teutonic and Byzantine Emperors . . ■ 183 The Four Crowns 186 Origin and Meaning of the title 'Holy Empire' . ■ • 192

Chapter XIII Fall Of The Hohenstaufen

Reign of Henry VI 197 Contest of Philip and Otto IV 198 Character and Career of the Emperor Frederick II . . 199 Destruction of Imperial Authority in Italy .... 203 The Great Interregnum . . . . . . . .203 Rudolf of Hapsburg 205 Change in the Character of the Empire ..... 205 Haughty Demeanour of the Popes ...... 209 Protest of the Electors at Rhense . . . . . 211

Chapter XIV The Germanic Constitution The Seven Electors

Germany in the Fourteenth Century . . . . .212 Reign of the Emperor Charles IV . . . . . .216 Origin and History of the System of Election, and of the Electoral Body 216 The Golden Bull 221 Remarks on the Elective Monarchy of Germany . . .224 Results of Charles IV's Policy 226

Chapter XV The Empire As An International Power

Revival of Learning . . . . . . . .231 Beginnings of Political Thought . . . . . .231 Desire for an International Power . . . . . .233 CONTENTS XI PAGE Theory os the Emperor's Functions as Monarch of Europe . . 235 Illustrations .......... 240 . Relations of the Empire and the New Learning .... 242 The Men of Letters — Petrarch, Dante . . . . .245 The Jurists . . . . ... . . . . 247 Passion for Antiquity in the Middle Ages : its Causes . . 248 The Emperor Henry VII in Italy . . .... 252 The De Monarchia of Dante . . . . . . .255

Chapter XVI The City Of Rome In The Middle Ages

Rapid Decline of the City after the Gothic Wars . . . 262 Her Condition in the Dark Ages . . . . . .263 Republican Revival of the Twelfth Century . . . . 265 Character and Ideas of Nicholas Rienzi ..... 268 Social State of Mediæval Rome ...... 270 Visits of the Teutonic Emperors ...... 272 Revolts against them . . . . . . . .274 Existing Traces of their Presence in Rome . . . . 276 Want of Mediæval, and especially of Gothic Buildings, in Modern Rome 278 Causes of this ; Ravages of Enemies and Citizens . . . 279 Modern Restorations . . . . .'. . .281 Surviving Features of truly Mediæval Architecture — the Belltowers ........-• 283 The Roman Church and the Roman City ..... 284 Rome since the Revolution . . . . . . .288

Chapter XVII The Renaissance

: CHANGE IN THE CHARACTER OF THE EMPIRE Weakness of Germany . . . . • • • .291 Loss of Imperial Territories . . . . ■ ■ .292 Gradual Change in the Germanic Constitution . . . . 296 Beginning of the Predominance of the Hapsburgs . . . 299 The Discovery of America . . . . • • .299 The Renaissance and its Effects on the Empire .... 300 Projects of Constitutional Reform ...... 302 Changes of Title CONTENTS

Chapter XVIII The Reformation And Its Effects Upon The Empire Page

Accession of Charles V . . . . . . • .307 His Attitude towards the Reformation ..... 309 Issue of his Attempts at Coercion . . . . . .310 Spirit and Essence of the Religious Movement . . . ■ 313 Its Influence on the Doctrine of the Visible Church . . . 315 How far it promoted Civil and Religious Liberty . . • 317 Its Effect upon the Mediæval Theory of the Empire . . . 320 Upon the Position of the Emperor in Europe . . . . 321 Dissensions in Germany . . . . . . . .322 The Thirty Years' War 323

Chapter XIX The Peace Of Westphalia

: LAST STAGE IN THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE Political Import of the Peace of Westphalia . . . .325 Hippolytus a Lapide and his Book . . . . . .327 Changes in the Germanic Constitution ..... 328 Narrowed Bounds of the Empire . . . . . .329 Condition of Germany after the Peace ..... 330 The Balance of Power 333 The Hapsburg Emperors and their Policy . . . . . 336 The Emperors Charles VII and Joseph II . . . .339 The Empire in its last Phase ....... 340 Feelings of the German People . . . . . .341

Chapter XX Fall Of The Empire

The Emperor Francis II ....... 343 Napoleon as the Representative of the Carolingians . . . 344 The French Empire ....... 347 Napoleon's German Policy ....... 348 The Confederation of the Rhine ...... 349 End of the Empire ••■•.... 350 The Germanic Confederation . . . . . . .351 CONTENTS XIII

Chapter XXI Conclusion

: GENERAL SUMMARY PAGE Causes of the Perpetuation of the Name of Rome . . .352 Parallel instances : Claims now made to represent the Roman Empire 353 Parallel afforded by the History of the Papacy . . . . 355 In how far was the Empire really Roman . . .359 Imperialism : Ancient and Modern . . . . . .361 Essential Principles of the Mediæval Empire .... 363 Influence of the Imperial System in Germany . . . .364 The Claim of Modern Austria to represent the Mediæval Empire . 366 Results of the Influence of the Empire upon Europe . . . 369 Upon Modern Jurisprudence . . . . . . .369 Upon the Development of the Ecclesiastical Power . . . 370 Struggle of the Empire with three hostile Principles . . . 374 Its Relations, Past and Present, to the Nationalities of Europe . 376 Conclusion .......... 378 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE Recapitulation : Stages in the Decay of the Old Empire . . 383 Denationalisation of Germany . . . . . . .385 The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the House of Hohenzollern 386 The Kingdom of Prussia 388 Character and Reign of Frederick the Great . . . . 390 Prussia during the Wars of the Revolution . . . 391 The Congress of Vienna . . . . . . . .394 Establishment of the Germanic Confederation . . . 395 Aims and Efforts of the German Liberals . . . . .398 The Revolution of 1848-49 401 Restoration of the Federal Constitution ..... 403 The German Parties and their Policy ..... 404 The Schleswig-Holstein War 407 Convention of Gastein . . . . . . ■ .411 War of 1866 : Fall of the Confederation 413 The North German Confederation . . . . .414 The War of 1870 with France CONTENTS PAGE Establishment of the New German Empire . . . • 418 Causes of the Progress of Germany towards Unity . . • 419 General character of the Policy of Prussia . . . ■ 421 Relation of the New Empire to the ancient Holy Empire . . 424 National Unity in Germany and Italy . . . . .426 Changed Aspect of European Politics . . . . .427

Appendix

Note A. — On the Burgundies . . . . . 429 Note B. — On the Relations to the Empire of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . . 431 Note C. — On certain Imperial Titles and Ceremonies . . 432 Note D. — Hildebert's Lines contrasting the Past and Present of Rome 437 INDEX DATES OF SEVEEAL IMPOETANT EVENTS IN THE HISTOEY OF THE EMPIEE B.C. 48 Battle of Pharsalia. 3 1 Battle of Actium. A.D. 325 Council of Nicæa. 476 End of the separate Western Empire. 728 Revolt of the Italians from the Iconoclastic Emperors. 800 Coronation of Charles the Great. 888 End of the Carolingian Empire. 962 Coronation of Otto the Great. 1014 Final Union of Italy to the Empire. 1076 Quarrel between Henry IV and Gregory VII. 1096 The First Crusade. 1176 Battle of Legnano. 1250 Death of Frederick II. 1308 League of the three Forest Cantons of Switzerland. 1347-53 Career of Rienzi. 1356 The Golden Bull. 1415 Council of Constance. 1453 Extinction of the Eastern Empire. 1492 Discovery of America. 1521 Luther at the Diet of Worms. 1618 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 1648 Peace of Westphalia. 1701 Prussia recognised as a Kingdom. 1742 End of the House of Hapsburg.

DATES OF IMPORTANT EVENTS XVI 1756-63 Seven Years' War. 1801 Peace of Luneville. 1806 Abdication of Francis II. 1815 Formation of the German Confederation. 1866 Establishment of the North German Confederation. 1871, 18th Jan. Establishment of the New German Empire. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EMPERORS AND POPES b Year of Accession. Bishops of Rome. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. B.C. 27 Augustus. Tiberius. Caligula. Claudius. A.D. 14 37 41 42 St. Peter (according to Jerome). Nero. 54 67 Linus (according to Irenæus, Eusebius, Jerome). Clement (according to Tertullian & Ruflnus). Anacletus (?) 68 Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian. 68 78 Titus. Domitian. 79 81 91 Clement (according to some later writers). 100 109 Nerva. Trajan. 96 98 Evarestus (?) Alexander (?) Hadrian. 117 119 Sixtus I. Telesphorus. 129 Antoninus Pius. 138 139 143 Hyginus.

Pius I. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF Year of Accession. Emperors. Year of Accession. Bishops of Rome. A.D. 157 A.D. Anicetus. 161 168 177 Soter. Eleutherius. Marcus Aurelius. Commodus. Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Niger. Septimius Severus. 180 Victor (T) Zephyrinus (?) 193 193 193 193 202 193 Caracalla, Geta. Opilius Macrinus, Diadumenian. Elagabalus. 211 217 Calixtus I. 218 219 Alexander Severus. 222 223 230 235 236 Urban I. Pontianus. Anterius or Anteros. Fabianus. Maximin. 235 Cornelius. Lucius I. Stephen I. The two Gordians, Maximus Pupienus, Balbinus. The third Gordian. Philip. Decius. Hostilian, Gallus. Volusian. Æmilian, Valerian, Gallienus. Gallienus alone. 237 238 244 249 251 251 252 253 252 253 257 259 Sixtus II. Dionysius. 260 Claudius II. 268 269 Felix. Aurelian. Tacitus. Florian. Probus.

Carus. 275 Eutychianus. 270 275 276 276 283 Caius. 282 Carinus, Numerian. Diocletian. Maximian, associated with Diocletian. 284 284 Marcellinus. 286 Year of Accession. Bishops of Rome. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. 304 Vacancy. Constantius, Galerius. Severus. Constantine (the Great). Licinius.. Maximin. Constantine, Gal erius, Licinius, Maximin, Maxentius, and Maximian reigning jointly. A.D. 305 306 308 Marcellus I. 306 307 308 309 310 311 Eusebius. Melchiades. Sylvester I. 314 Constantine (the Great) alone. 323 336 337 Marcus I. Julius I. Constantine II, Constantius II, Constans. Magnentius. 337 352 Liberius. 353 356 Felix (Anti-pope). Constantius alone. Julian. Jovian. Valens and Valentinian I. 361 363 364 366 Damasus I. Gratian & Valentinian I. Gratian and Valentinian II. Theodosius. 367 375 384 Siricius. 379 Arcadius (in the East), Honorius (in the West). 395 398 Anastasius I. Innocent I. 402 Theodosius II.

(E) 408 417 418 418 422 Zosimus. Boniface I. Eulalius (Anti-pope). Celestine I. Valentinian III. (W) 432 440 Sixtus III. Leo I. (the Great). 424 Marcian. (E) Maximus, Avitus. (W) 450 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF XX * Reckoning the Anti-pope Felix (a.d. 356) as Felix II. Year of Accession. Bishops of Rome. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. 461 Hilarius. Majorian. (W) Leo I. (E) Severus. (W) Vacancy. (W) Anthemius. (TV) A.D. 455 457 461 465 467 468 Simplicius. Olybrius. (W) Glycerius. (W) Julius Nepos. (W) Leo II, Zeno, Basiliscus. (all E) Romulus Augustulus. (W) (End of the Western line in Romulus Augustus. (Henceforth, till a.d. 800, Emperors reigning at Constantinople.) Anastasius I. 472 473 474 474 475 476) 483 Felix III* 491 492 496 Gelasius I. Anastasius II. Symmachus. (Laitrentius, Anti-pope.)

Hormisdas. 498 498 514 Justin I. 523 526 John I. Felix IV. 518 Justinian. 527 530 Boniface II. (Dioscorus, Anti-pope.) John II. Agapetus I. Silverius. Vigilius. Pelagius I. John III. 530 532 535 536 537 555 560 574 578 Benedict I. Pelagius II. Justin II. 565 Tiberius II. Maurice. 578 590 Gregory I. (the Great). 582 Phocas. 602 604 607 Sabinianus. Boniface Year of Accession. Bishops of Rome. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. 607 Boniface IV. A.D. 615 618 625 638 640 Deus dedit. Boniface V. Honorius I. Severinus. John IV. Heraclius. 610 Constantine III, Heracleonas, Constans II. 041 642 649 654 657 Theodoras I. Martin I. Eugenius I. Vitalianus. 668 672 676 678 682 683(?) 685 Adeodatus. Domnus or Donus I. Agatho. Leo II. Benedict II. John V. Conon. Sergius I. (Paschal Anti-pope.) (Theodoras, Anti-pope.)

Constantine IV (Pogonatus). Justinian II. 685 685(?) 687 687 687 Leontius. Tiberius III. 694 697 701 705 708 708 John VI. John VII. Sisinnius. Constantine. Justinian II restored. 705 Philippicus Bardanes. Anastasius II. 711 713 715 Gregory II. Theodosius III. Leo III (the Isaurian). 716 718 731 741 Gregory III. Zacharias. Constantine V (Copronymus). 741 752 752 757 767 768 772 Stephen (II). Stephen II (or III). Paul I. Constantine (Anti-pope). Stephen III (IV). Hadrian I. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF The names in italics are those of German kings who never made any claim to the imperial title. Year of Accession. Popes. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. A. D. 775 780 795 Leo IV. Constantine VI. Leo III. Deposition of Constantine VI by Irene. Charles I. (the Great). (Follovring henceforth the new Western line.)

Lewis I. (the Pious). 797 800 816 817 824 827 827 Stephen IV. Paschal I. Eugenius II. Valentinus. Gregory IV. 814 Lothar I. 844 Sergius II. Leo IV. Benedict III. (Anastasius, Anti-pope.) Nicholas I. Hadrian II. John VIII. 840 847 855 855 858 867 872 Lewis II (in Italy). 855 Charles II, the Bald (W. Frankish). Charles III, the Fat (E. Frankish). 875 881 882 884 885 Martin II. Hadrian III. Stephen V. Formosus. 891 896 896 897 897 898 Boniface VI. Stephen VI. Romanus. Theodore II. John IX. Guido (in Italy). Lambert (in Italy). Arnulf (E. Frankish). 891 894 896 Lewis (the Child) A 900 Benedict IV. 899 903 903 904 Leo V. Christopher. Sergius III. Anastasius III. Lewis III of Provence (in Italy). 901 Conrad I. 911(?) Year of Accession. Popes. Emperors. Year of Accession, A.D. 913 914 A.D. Lando.

John X. 915 928 Leo VI. Stephen VII. John XL Leo VII. Stephen VIII. Martin III. Agapetus II. John XII. Berengar (in Italy). Henry I (the Fowler). 918 929 931 936 939 941 Otto I (the Great), crowned E. Frankish king at Aachen. 936 946 i 955 Otto I, crowned Emperor at Rome. 963 964 965 972 Leo VIII. (Benedict V, Anti-pope ?) John XIII. Benedict VI. 962 974 974 974 983 985 996 Otto II. 973 (Boniface VII, Anti-pope?) Domnus II (?) Benedict VII. John XIV. John XV. Gregory V. (John XVI, Anti-pope ?) Sylvester II. Otto III. 983 996 999 Henry II (the Saint). 1002 1003 1003 1009 John XVII. John XVIII. Sergius IV. Benedict VIII. John XIX. Benedict IX. 1012 1024 1033 Conrad II (the Salic). 1024 Henry III (the Black). 1039 1044 1045 1046 1048 1048 1054 (Sylvester, Anti-pope.) Gregory VI. Clement II. Damasus II.

Leo IX. Victor II. Henry IV. Stephen IX. Benedict X. Nicholas II. Alexander II. 1056 1057 1058 1059 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF XXIV * Those marked with an asterisk were never actually crowned at Rome. Year of Accession. Popes. Emperors. Year ol Accessiœ A.D. 1073 A.D. Gregory VII (Hildebrand). 1077 1080 (Clement, Anti-pope.) (Rudolf of Swabia, rivaL) 1086 1087 Victor III. Urban II. (Hermann of Luxemburg, rival.) 1081 (Conrad of Franconia, rival.) 1093 1099 1102 Paschal II. (Albert, Anti-pope.) (Sylvester, Anti-pope.) 1105 1118 1118 1119 1121 1124 Gelasius II. (Gregory, Anti-pope.) Calixtus II. (Celestine, Anti-pope.) Honorius II. Henry V. 1106 Loth ar II. 1130 Innocent II. (Anacletus, Anti-pope.) (Victor, Anti-pope.) Celestine II. Lucius II. Eugenius III. 1125 1138 1143 1144 ♦Conrad III. 1138 1145 Frederick I. (Barbarossa). 1153 Anastasius IV.

Hadrian IV. Alexander III. (Victor, Anti-pope.) (Paschal, Anti-pope.) (Calixtus, Anti-pope. ) Lucius III. Urban III. Gregory VIII. Clement III. 1152 1154 1159 1159 1164 1168 1181 1185 1187 1187 1191 Celestine III. Henry VI. 1190 1198 Innocent III. *Philip, Otto IV (rivals). 1197 Otto IV. Frederick II. 1208 * Those marked with an asterisk were never actually crowned at Rome. Year of Accession. Popes. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. 1216 1227 1241 1241 Honorius III. Gregory IX. Celestine IV. Vacancy. Innocent IV. A.D. 1243 (Henry Raspe, rival.) (William of Holland, rival.) *Conrad IV. Interregnum. *Richard (earl of Cornwall), *Alfonso (king of Castile), (rivals). 1246 1246-47 1254 Alexander IV. 1250 1254 1261 1265 1269 1271 Urban IV. Clement IV. Vacancy. Gregory X. 1257 1276 1276 1277 1277 1281 1285 1289 Innocent V. Hadrian V. John XX or XXI.

Nicholas III. Martin IV. Honorius IV. Nicholas IV. Vacancy. Celestine V. Boniface VIII. *Kudolf I. (of Haps- ' burg). 1273 *Adolf (of Nassau). 1292 1292 1294 1294 * Albert I. (of Hapsburg). 1298 1303 1305 Benedict XL Clement V. Henry VII (of Luxemburg). Lewis IV (of Bavaria). (Frederick of Austria, rival.) 1308 1314 Vacancy. 1314 1316 1334 John XXI or XXII. Benedict XII. Clement VI. 1347 1342 1352 Charles IV (of Luxemburg). (Gunther "of Schwartzburg, rival.) Innocent VI. 1362 Urban V. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF XXVI Those marked with an asterisk were never actually crowned at Rome. t All the succeeding Emperors, except Charles VII and Francis I, belong to the house of Hapsburg. X Crowned Emperoj-, but at Bologna, not at Rome. Year of Accession. Popes. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. A.D. 1370 1378 Gregory XL Urban VI.

(Clement VII, Anti-pope.) Boniface IX. (Benedict, Anti-pope.) *AVenzel (of Luxemburg). 1378 1389 1400 1394 *Rupert (of the Palatinate). 1404 Innocent VII. Gregory XII. Alexander V. John XXII or XXIII. 1406 1410 1409 1410 Sigismund (of Luxemburg). (Jobst of Moravia, rival.) 1417 Martin V. Eugene IV. 1431 * Albert II. (of Hapsburg).! 1438 1439 (Felix V, Anti-pope.) 1440 1447 1455 Nicholas V. Calixtus IV. Pius II. Paul II. Sixtus IV. Innocent VIII. Alexander VI. Pius III. Julius II. Leo X. Frederick III. 1458 1464 1471 1484 *Maximilian I. 1493 1493 1503 1503 1513 -{Charles V. 1519 1522 Hadrian VI. Clement VII. Paul III. Julius III. Marcellus II. Paul IV. 1523 1534 1550 1555 1555 *FercRnand I. 1558 1559 Pius IV. *Maximilian II. 1564 1566 Pius V. Those marked with an asterisk were never actually crgWHed at Rome, Year of Accession.

Popes. Emperors. Year of Accession. A.D. 1572 A.D. Gregory XIII. 1576 1585 1590 1590 1591 1592 Sixtus V. Urban VII. Gregory XIV. Innocent IX. Clement VIII. Leo XI. Paul V. ♦Rudolf II. 1604 1604 ♦Matthias. *Ferdinand II. 1621 1623 Gregory XV. Urban VIII. 1612 1619 1644 1655 ♦Ferdinand III. 1637 Innocent X. Alexander VII. ♦Leopold I. 1658 1667 1670 1676 1689 Clement IX. Clement X. Innocent XL Alexander VIII. Innocent XII. Clement XL 1691 1700 ♦Joseph I. ♦Charles VI. 1705 1711 1720 1724 1730 1740 Innocent XIII. Benedict XIII. Clement XII. Benedict XIV. ♦Charles VII (of Bavaria). ♦Francis I. (of Lorraine). 1758 Clement XIII. 1742 1745 1769 1775 Clement XIV. Pius VI. ♦Joseph II. 1765 *Leopold II. ♦Francis II. 1790 1792 1800 Pius VII. Abdication of Francis II. 1806 1823 1829 1831 1846 Leo XII. Pius VIII.

Gregory XVI. Pius CHAPTEK I. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE CHAPTEE I INTRODUCTORY Of those who in August 1806 read in the English newspapers that the Emperor Francis II had announced to the Diet his resignation of the imperial crown, there were probably few who reflected that the oldest political institution in the world had come to an end. Yet it was so. The Empire which a note issued by a diplo matist on the banks of the Danube extinguished, was the same which the crafty nephew of Julius had won for himself, against the powers of the East, beneath the cliffs of Actium ; and which had preserved almost unaltered, through eighteen centuries of time, and through the greatest changes in extent, in power, in character, a title and pretensions from which all meaning had long since departed. Nothing else so directly linked the old world to the new — nothing else displayed so many strange contrasts of the present and the past, and summed up in those contrasts so much of European history.

From the days of Constantine till far down into the Middle Ages it was, conjointly with the Papacy, the recognised centre and head of Christendom, exercising over the minds of men an influence such as its material strength B THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 2

Chapter I

: could never have commanded. It is of this influence and of the causes that gave it power rather than of the external history of the Empire, that the following pages are designed to treat. That history is indeed full of interest and brilliancy, of grand characters and striking situations. But it is a subject too vast for any single canvas. Without a minuteness of detail sufficient to make its scenes dramatic and give us a lively sympathy with the actors, a narrative history can have little value and still less charm. But to trace with any minuteness the career of the Empire, would be to write the history of Christendom from the fifth century to the twelfth, of Germany and Italy from the twelfth to the nineteenth ; while even a narrative of more restricted scope, which should attempt to disengage from a general account of the affairs of those countries the events that properly belong to imperial history, could hardly be compressed within reasonable limits.

It is therefore better, declining so great a task, to attempt one simpler and more practicable though not necessarily inferior in interest ; to speak less of events than of principles, and endeavour to describe the Empire not as a State but as an Institution, an institution created by and embodying a wonderful system of ideas. In pursuance of such a plan, the forms which the Empire took in the several stages of its growth and decline must be briefly sketched. The characters and acts of the great men who founded, guided, and overthrew it must from time to time be touched upon. But the chief aim of the treatise will be to dwell more fully on the inner nature of the Empire, as the most signal instance of the fusion of Eoman and Teutonic elements in modern civilisation : to show how such a combination was possible ; how Charles and Otto were led to revive the imperial title in the West ; how far during the reigns INTRODUCTORY 3

CHAPTER 1

, of their successors it preserved the memory of its origin, and influenced the European commonwealth of nations. Strictly speaking, it is from the year 800 a.d., when a King of the Franks was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, that the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire must be dated. But in history there is nothing isolated, and just as to explain a modern Act of Parliament or a modern conveyance of lands we must go back to the feudal customs of the thirteenth century, so among the institutions of the Middle Ages there is scarcely one which can be understood until it is traced up either to classical or to primitive Teutonic antiquity. Such a mode of inquiry is most of all needful in the case of the Holy Empire, itself no more than a tradition, a fancied revival of departed glories.