Essentials of physiology, hygiene and sanitation

Front matter

Class -_Q P% Book_ T? b_

Gopight N°._

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

Preface

If we would have a healthy, physically efficient race, the indivi¬ duals must live lives conducive to health and physical well being. They must have a desire to be healthy and realize that their well¬ being depends largely upon their habits of life and that their physi¬ cal fitness is a matter largely within their own control.

The time to teach proper habits of living, “ health habits,” is in childhood. Healthy men and women are to be secured best, and perhaps only, by having the child develop “ health habits” which become second nature. But such habits, if they are to be rationally followed, must be based upon an underlying knowledge of the human body and of its needs and of the agencies which impair health and produce disease.

It would seem reasonable to assume that there is nothing that can be taught to the boy and girl more important than how to keep well and strong, how to avoid disease, and how to prolong their lives. Such knowledge can not but make them happier, more effi¬ cient adults, and better citizens. An effort has been made in the text to discuss these things in such a way that the average boy and girl in the seventh and eighth grades will readily, and without particular concentration, understand; and understanding, will be filled with a desire to make and keep their bodies physically sound and fit.

An attempt has been made to present the essential facts of hygiene and sanitation in a manner so simple as to be easily within the grasp and interests of the growing boy and girl. Amplifying and fixing in the mind the matters treated should be accomplished by class work. The first eight chapters deal with such anatomy and phys¬ iology of the body as it is believed the boy and girl should know. The teacher should illustrate these chapters by class work, for which the text provides a guide.

IV

PREFACE

The purpose of the author has been to keep the book as small as possible and at the same time tell what the pupil should know and what his mind can grasp. Many details which constitute use¬ ful knowledge and which are often included in similar books, but which are seldom grasped by the pupil so as to become a part of his store of knowledge, and which act rather to bury and conceal the more important facts, have been omitted. That only has been included which it is believed the average pupil between eleven and fourteen years of age can mentally assimilate so readily that it will become part of his permanent store of information.

John W. Trask.

Part I — Physiology, Or What The Different Parts Of The Body Do For Us Chapter Page

I. Our Bodies and What They Are. 3

II. The Bones and Their Purpose. 7

III. The Muscles and What They Do for Us . . 17

IV. The Brain and Nerves, and How They Control

the Body. 25

V. The Heart, Arteries, and Veins. 32

VI. The Alimentary Tract, and What Becomes of

the Food We Eat. 34

VII. The Blood and How it Carries Food to our

Muscles, Bones, and other Tissues ... 39

VIII. The Lungs and Why We Breathe. 42

Part II —personal Hygiene, Or How To Keep Well And Live Long

IX. Food — Why We Eat and What to Eat. . . 49

X. Food — Why We Eat and What to Eat

(Continued). 55

XI. Why We Drink and What to Drink .... 62

XII. The Kind of Air We Should Breathe ... 65

XIII. How Work and Play Train the Body. ... 68

XIV. The Need for Sleep. 71

XV. The Need for Regular Daily Habits. ... 75

XVI. The Skin And Its Care. 80

XVII. The Teeth and Their Care. 87

XVIII. The Eyes and Their Care. 94

XIX. Why We Wear Clothes and the Kind We Need 99 v

CONTENTS vi

CHAPTER PAGE

XX. Microbes, Good and Bad.103

XXI. What Disease Is and What it Means ... no

XXII. Why Some Diseases Spread from One Person to Another.117

XXIII. What We Can Do to Protect Ourselves from

Diseases Caused by Microbes.121

XXIV. Some Diseases are Spread by Insects ... 127

XXV. Tuberculosis. 133

XXVI. Smallpox and Vaccination.138

Part III — Hygiene Of The Home

XXVII. The Home.

XXVIII. Heating the Home.

XXIX. The Home (Continued).

XXX. The Home (Concluded).

M3

Part IV — Community, Hygiene, And Sanitation; Or What Our City And State Government Can Do To Protect Our Health

XXXI. How We Get Good Milk. 165

XXXII. How We Get Good Milk (Continued) .... 171

XXXIII. Water — What It Is; the Need for Good

Water and How to Get It.178

XXXIV. Sewage — What It Is and How Disposed of . . 185

XXXV. The City Health Department and What It

Does. 190

XXXVI. The City Health Department and What It

Does (Continued) .197

XXXVII. The City Health Department and What It

Does (Concluded) .201

XXXVIII. The State Health Department and What It

Does.205

XXXIX. The United States Public Health Service . 209

XL. Why Births and Deaths are Recorded ... 213

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

Directions for Keeping Clean.215

The Bath; To Keep Scalp and Hair Healthy; To Care for the Nails; How to Care for the Hands and Face.

Pasteurizing Milk at Home.216

Pasteurizing Milk for the Baby; Caution in Pasteurizing.

The Iceless Refrigerator.217

Digestion of Foods.219

First Aid Information and Practice.220

Bandages.220

Wounds.223

Stopping Bleeding from an Artery; Stopping Bleeding from a Vein; Bleeding of Small Blood Vessels — the Capillaries; Burns.

Drowning.226

Artificial Respiration: (1) Air going into the Lungs; (2)

Air going out of the Lungs.

A First Aid Kit.227

Index.229

Apollo Belvedere

PART I Physiology, Parts of or What the Different the Body Do for Us

The Discus Thrower

Shows a well developed body-machine

ESSENTIALS OF PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, AND SANITATION

CHAPTER I Our Bodies and What They Are

Our bodies are the houses in which we live. They are most wonderfully constructed. Our bodies as we see them consist of a head, a trunk, two arms, and two legs. By using our legs we can walk and run, by using our arms we can do many things. The trunk contains many important organs: a heart which pumps blood through our bodies, lungs by which we breathe, and a stomach and intestine which digest our food.

Our heads contain our brains, eyes, and ears. With our brains we think, reason, remember, and store up knowl¬ edge. With our eyes we see the world about us. With our ears we hear the many noises and sounds, the song of birds and the rumble of thunder — we hear each other talk.

Much of our success and happiness in life depends upon whether our bodies do their work well. If our brains can¬ not think and reason clearly, then we do not get along, we have trouble in school, and are likely to get into many difficulties. If our eyes do not see well, we miss many things. If our ears do not hear, we live in a noiseless world and do not have the pleasure of hearing people talk. If our hearts or lungs or stomachs are weakened, we become invalids and are deprived of many of the joys of life. If we lose a leg or an arm, we are crippled.

When our homes burn down, as they sometimes do, or are destroyed by the wind, as happens in some places, we can build new ones. But with our bodies it is different. Each of us can have but one body, which must last us during all our lifetime. If it becomes crippled or diseased, then we must get along during the rest of our lives with a body which cannot do many things.

As our bodies are so important to us and have so great an influence on our lives, we will naturally want to make them just as good and strong as we can and will do every¬ thing to keep them in the best possible condition. Fortu¬ nately most of us can have good bodies if we want them and can keep them sound and useful if we really try.

The various parts of our bodies become strong and skillful by proper use. They become weak and smaller if not used. If we use our brains to think and reason and study, then our brains become better and better able to think and to reason and to study. Every time we reason out a difficult example in arithmetic, we exercise our brains and make them better able to reason. The trained eye sees more than the untrained eye. The woods¬ man sees many things in the forest that others do not. The trained ear will hear and understand sounds that the untrained ear misses. How many many things the hands and arms can be taught to do! How much more skillful some are than others! And even our legs and feet can be trained. The untrained legs and feet are clumsy and stumble. We think of the deer as graceful in running, and of the mountain goat as sure-footed, but by proper use and training we too can be graceful and sure-footed.

OUR BODIES AND WHAT THEY ARE

Training the various parts of our bodies to do their work well is a thing we should all aim to do, and this is what we do when we play and when we work. When we walk, run, or play games we are training our bodies. Baseball and tennis train the arms, legs, and bodies, so do tag, skating, and swimming, and the various outdoor games boys and girls play. We can train our bodies even while we walk to school. We can teach the muscles of the back and neck to hold the body straight and the head erect, and the lungs to breathe deeply. The best time to train our bodies is when we are young. It is much easier then than when we are older.

But even after we have trained our bodies we must make them do things because they will not keep fit and in good condition unless we do. Our legs and arms and bodies and brains must be used or they get out of order. Using our bodies is sometimes spoken of as getting exer¬ cise. Sometimes we call it play, sometimes work. The man who works outdoors all day will exercise his brain in the evening by study. Or the man who works in an office will walk or play golf or tennis or baseball to exercise his body and legs and arms.

To keep our bodies strong and fit we also must not let them get sick and diseased. Some diseases are due to eating improper food, some to improper habits. These we avoid by proper eating and living. Some diseases are due to what we call microbes or germs, and are got from others who are sick. We shall learn more about these later.

We shall first learn how the body is built up of bones and muscles and tissues and how it contains organs which work for us and what the organs do.

1. What are our bodies?

2. What do our bodies consist of?

3. Do we need good sound bodies? Why?

4. What happens if our eyes do not do their work well?

5. What happens if our ears do not do their work well?

6. What happens if our brains do not do their work well?

7. What happens if our heart or lungs or stomach becomes

injured?

8. What happens if one loses a leg or an arm?

9. If our bodies become damaged can we get new ones? Why not?

10. Can we have good bodies if we want them? What do we need to do to have good bodies?

11. How can we make our bodies strong and better able to do things?

12. How do we make our brains able to think and reason better?

13. Can we make our eyes better able to do their work? Can we train our ears? Our arms? Our legs?

14. Why do we want trained bodies that are able to do things well?

15. How does playing games train the body?

16. How can we train our bodies while we are walking?

17. When can the body be best trained to do things, when we are young or when we are older? Why do you think this is so?

18. What happens if we do not use our bodies? What would happen if we did not use our arms for a long time?

19. What do people mean by “ getting exercise ”?

20. What may sickness and disease do to our bodies?

Chapter II

Each of us has in his body over 200 bones. These are so joined together that they support the body, and make it possible for us to stand straight, and to walk about. The bones are fastened to each other in such a way that they form a framework to which softer parts of the body, such as the muscles, are attached. This bony framework is called the skeleton. It is the skeleton which makes it possible for us to stand upright. If we had no bones, our bodies would be much like large jellyfish or oysters.

Some bones are long and slender, some are small like marbles, some are thin and flat. Their shape depends upon where they are in the body and what they have to do. Long bones are found in the arms and legs. Short round bones are found in the wrist and in the foot. Flat bones are found in the head, where they form a box to protect the brain. There are also bones which are very irregular in shape. Some of these are found in the face and other parts of the head.

Bones are hard on the outside and usually softer inside. The long bones are hollow like a pipe. The hollow part is filled with soft material called marrow. The inside of some bones is like a honeycomb. The little spaces have walls of bone and are filled also with marrow.

Bones are hard because they contain lime, just as the oyster shell which is made of lime is hard. But running

The Skeleton

Showing the bones of the body, front and back.

all through the hard part of bones are small canals which contain little blood vessels and nerves.

The Skull. — The bones of the head are called the skull. The skull is made up of 22 bones. Eight of these bones are so fastened together that they form a box. Inside of this box is the brain.

The bony box protects the brain from harm.

Fourteen of the bones of the head are in the face and give it its shape. All of the bones in the head except one are fastened together so that they do not move.

This one bone is the lower jaw. It is fastened to the skull in such a way that it moves as though it were held by a hinge. By moving this bone up and down on its hinge we can chew our food and open and close our mouths. The skull rests upon and is sup¬ ported by the backbone or spinal column.

The Spinal Column. — The spinal column is sometimes called the backbone, because it extends down the middle of the back. It is made up of 33 irregularly shaped bones called vertebrae. They are so joined together that each vertebra will move a little on the one above it and the one below it. The 33 bones taken together make the spinal column, which is about two feet long in an adult. While each vertebra will bend just a little on the one next to it, the whole spinal column will bend a good deal, as it

Showing the bones of the head.

does when we stoop over and pick up something from the ground, or when we bend our bodies sidewise or backwards.

The upper seven vertebrae are in the neck. The next twelve have ribs attached to them. The five below these are in the small part of the back at the waist. In the adult the next five vertebrae grow to¬ gether to form one bone called the sacrum, and the last four grow together and form one bone called the coccyx.

The spinal column forms a strong pillar which supports the head. The vertebrae are so shaped that there is formed at the back of the spinal column a bony tube in which is the spinal cord. This cord is an extension of the brain. From it large nerves extend out through openings be¬ tween the vertebrae.

The Thorax or Chest. — The thorax or chest is a bony cage inside of which are the heart and lungs. The bony cage pro¬ tects these important organs from harm. It is made up of the breast bone or sternum in front, the spinal column at the back and twelve ribs at each side. All the ribs are fastened to the spinal column at the back.

The upper seven are fastened to the sternum The Back Bone or p reas t bone in front.

umn, showing how The ribs llave s P ace s between them, but it is made up of these spaces are filled in by muscles which

veZL° ne n:“ extend fr0m 0ne rib t0 the next The

how it curves. ribs are so joined to the vertebrae behind ii and the breast bone in front that they will move up and out when we breathe. This movement is shown when one takes a long breath and expands his chest.

T he bony cage which makes the thorax opens at the top into the neck. At the bottom it is closed by a broad, flat muscle called the diaphragm . The diaphragm is used in breathing.

The Arm. — The bones of the arm consist of the humerus , which is the long bone extending from the shoulder to the elbow, and of the radius and ulna , two bones which extend from the elbow to the wrist. The part of the arm between the elbow and the wrist is usually called the forearm.

In the wrist are eight small bones so joined that they allow considerable movement, as will be seen by bending the wrist. Yet the eight bones are so fastened together that the wrist is very strong. The wrist bones are called the carpal bones.

Below the wrist bones and joined to them are five slender bones in the palm of the hand. They can be felt through the back of the hand. There is one for each finger and one for the thumb. They are called the meta¬ carpal bones.

Fastened to the metacarpal bones are the bones of the thumb and fingers. The thumb has two bones and each of the fingers three. These bones are called the phalanges. They are so fastened together that we can move each on the one next to it just as if it was fastened by a hinge. This is shown when we double up our fists. We can place the tips of our thumbs against the tips of each of the four fingers. We can also grasp hold of things and hang on to them with our hands. Very few animals can do this, The monkey can.

The arm is attached to the body at the shoulder by what is called the shoulder girdle. This is made up on each side of the collar bone or clavicle in front and of the shoulder blade or scapula behind. The clavicle is a slender bone joined at its inner end to the top of the breast bone or sternum. At its outer end it is joined to the shoulder blade. It keeps the shoulder out and prevents its falling forward. The shoulder blade or scapula is a flat bone and can be felt on each side, at the upper part of the back behind the shoulders. It can be felt to move when one moves his shoulder. The arm is joined to the shoulder blade in such a way that the arm can be moved in all directions, as when one throws a ball.

The shoulder girdle, the arm, and the hand, all taken together, are called the upper extremity. The principal purpose of the upper extremity is to grasp and hold on to things. No animal has hands so well adapted to do this as our hands are.

The Pelvis. — The lower end of the spinal column or backbone fits in between and is supported by two large irregularly shaped flat bones. They are called the ossa innominata or pelvic bones or sometimes the hip bones. There is one on each side. They are joined behind to the sacrum. They curve out and come together in front where they are joined together. The cavity between these bones is called the pelvis. These are the bones that we feel at our hips. They are also the bones upon which we rest when we sit.

The Leg. — The part of the leg above the knee is known as the thigh. It has one long strong bone, the femur. The femur is the longest, largest, and strongest bone of the body. Except at the ends it is round like a broom handle.

T 3

It is hollow in the center, however, so that it is probably better to say it is cylindrical like a gas or water pipe. The upper end is joined to the pelvic or hip bone on that side in such a way that it can be moved in all directions, in, out, forward, and back.

In front of the knee is the knee cap or patella. It is a flat bone and can be moved with the fingers. It protects the knee in front. We rest upon it when we get on our knees.

Between the knee and the ankle are two bones, the tibia and fibula. The tibia is sometimes called the shin bone. Next to the femur it is the longest and largest bone in the body. At the upper end it is joined to the femur, and at the lower end to the bones of the foot. The fibula is a slender bone. It is located on the outer side of the tibia and like it extends from the knee to the ankle.

The Foot. — The heel and back part of the foot are made up of seven small bones called the tarsal bones. Of these the heel bone, which is called the os calcis, is the largest and strongest. The tarsal bones correspond to the carpal bones of the wrist. In front of the tarsal bones are five slender bones called the metatarsal bones. These correspond to the metacarpal bones of the hand. There is one metatarsal bone for each toe. They can be felt through the top of the foot. Joined to each metatarsal bone are the bones of the corresponding toe. The bones of the toes are called the phalanges of the foot. There are two bones in the great toe, as there are in the thumb, and three in each of the other toes, as there are in the fingers.

The purpose of the legs is to support the body when we stand and to enable us to move about, to walk, and to run. While the bones of the hand and foot resemble each other in their number and arrangement, the hand is con¬ structed for grasping things and the foot to support the weight of the body. For this reason the foot is shaped in the form of an arch. This arch sometimes gives way and becomes flattened. The condition is known as flat foot. When one has flat foot it is difficult to do much standing or walking. It is important that we take care of our feet and wear shoes that are properly shaped and which while supporting the arch do not cramp and distort the toes.

1. How many bones are there in the body?

2. What do the bones do for the body?

3. To what are the soft parts of the body attached?

4. What would our bodies be like if we had no bones?

5. What can you say about the shapes of bones?

6. Where in the body are there long bones? Where are there round bones? Where flat bones?

7. What is the outside of bones like? What can you say of the inside of bones?

8. What is the inside of bones filled with? Have you ever seen the marrow of a bone in a beefsteak? Have you ever broken the leg bone of a chicken? What was the inside like?

9. What makes bones hard? Do you know some things lime is used for? Do you know where the lime used in making mortar comes from? Where do you think the lime in our bones comes from?

10. What is the skull?

11. How many bones are there in the skull?

12. What can you say about the shape of the skull?

13. What is inside of the skull?

14. What supports the skull?

15. What is the backbone or spinal column? How long is it? How many bones in it?

16. Does the spinal column bend? When do we bend our spinal columns? What would happen if we could not bend our spinal columns?

17. What is the thorax or chest?

18. What bones form the thorax? To what are the ribs fastened at the back?

19. What happens to your ribs when you take a deep breath?

20. What organs are inside the thorax?

21. Can you feel your heart beat through your ribs?

22. What is the name of the long bone of the arm between the elbow and the shoulder?

23. What bones are there in the arm between the elbow and the wrist?

24. What can you say about the bones of the wrist? Can you tell why the wrist can be bent in so many directions?

25. How many bones are there in the palm of the hand? Can you feel them through the back of the hand? Count them.

26. How many bones are there in the thumb? How many in each of the fingers?

27. Show in how many ways you can move the fingers and thumb? Could you do this if there were no bones in them?

28. What can we do with our hands that few animals can do? What animal can grasp hold of things and hang on to them just as we do?

29. Do you know where your collar bone is? Do you know its other name?

30. Do you know where your shoulder blade is? What is its other name?

31. Can you feel your shoulder blade move when you move your shoulder backward and forward?

32. What are the hip bones? What other names have they? Can you feel your hip bones?

33. What part of the leg is called the thigh? What is the name of the bone in the thigh?

34. To what bone is the femur joined at its upper end? In how many directions can the femur be moved?

35. What is the knee cap? Can you feel it with your fingers? What is its other name? Of what use is it?

36. How many bones are there in the leg between the knee and ankle? Do you know their names? What is the other name for the shin bone?

37. What is the heel bone called?

38. In what way do the bones of the foot resemble the bones of the wrist and hand?

39. In what way do the bones of the toes resemble the bones of the fingers?

40. Can you move the toes in as many directions as you can the fingers? Can you grasp things with your toes?

41. What do you use your hands for? What do you use your feet for? Can each do its own work best? What is flat foot?

42. Could you walk and run if there were no bones in your legs and feet? Why not?

43. Does one ever break the bones of one’s leg? What happens when a bone is broken?

44. Do people ever lose their legs? How?

45. What happens when one has one of his legs cut off?

46. Would you want to lose one of your legs? Why not?

CHAPTER III The Muscles and What They Do for Us

In the preceding chapter we talked about the bony framework of the body to which the softer parts are attached. Now more than half of the softer parts consists of what are called muscles. It is the muscles of our bodies that make it possible for us to walk, run, talk, and do many other things. It is the muscles that move the different parts of our bony skeletons. If we move our legs or our arms, it is the muscles that do it. If we talk, it is the muscles of the chest, throat, mouth, and lips that enable us to make the different sounds. It is its muscles that enable the bird to fly, the deer to run, and the snail to crawl.

The lean part of meat is muscle. All of a beef steak that is not bone or fat is muscle. When we eat meat it is usually the muscle that we eat. Of course there may be some fat with it which is not muscle. It has been explained that the soft parts of the body are usually at¬ tached to the bones. You have noticed how the lean meat in a steak or a chop is fastened to the bone.

Muscles are made up of many little fibers somewhat as a rope is made, except that the muscle fibers are shorter than those in a rope and are fastened together but not twisted. These muscle fibers have the power to contract, that is to make themselves shorter. When they make themselves shorter, they at the same time become thicker