Pharmaceutical botany; a text-book for students of pharmacy and science

Front matter

Class_

GopightN 0 _ 1

CCBCR1GHT DEPOSIT.

Preface To The Third Edition

The author has first endeavored to present in a clear, systematic way those fundamental principles of structural and taxonomic botany which serve as a key to the approach of pharmacognic problems. But he has not been unmindful that the use of the work has extended to academic institutions and, so, in this edition, has broadened the scope of the former text. To this end about ninety additional pages of subject matter have been introduced. Several old cuts have been removed. Forty-three new ones have been in¬ serted. Hypothetical discussions have been avoided which saves time for the reader.

The arrangement and plan of the chapters are similar to that of the former edition, in order to adapt the work to several methods of approach. Chapter I on “Fundamental Considerations” has been augmented by treatises on Botanical Nomenclature, Paraffine and Celloidin Imbedding, Sectioning, Staining and Mounting, Micro¬ tomes and other information dealing with the preparation of materials for microscopic examination.

Ten pages have been added to Chapter V on Cytology. Under “Protoplasm and its Properties,” six pages have been written on the subject of Irritability and Irritable Reactions. Under “ Non- Pro toplasmic Cell Contents” several additional commercial starches are discussed and two original plates on starch grains added. Addi¬ tional cuts on Collenchyma, Stone Cells, Sclerenchyma Fibers, Trichomes and Fibrovascular Bundles have been inserted in Chapter VI.

Nine additional pages of subject matter and illustrations have been added to Chapter VII. Original figures of all of the important types of fruits appear here for the first time.

vii

Vlll

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

Chapter VIII on “Taxonomy” has been increased by seven pages of new data, and the whole former text carefully revised.

Chapter IX on “Ecology” has been newly introduced as has also a Glossary of Botanical Terms. The index has been so planned as to make the information contained in this book readily accessible.

To the authors of works from which cuts were borrowed the writer’s thanks are due.

H. W. Y.

Preface To The Second Edition

The appearance of the United States Pharmacopoeia IX and the National Formulary IV, with the many changes in the lists and definitions of officially recognized vegetable drugs made it necessary to revise the former edition of this work.

In the course of revision, the writer has taken cognizance of the growing importance of Botany in the curricula of pharmaceutical institutions and has accordingly expanded upon the subject matter of the former text.

With the adoption for the first time by the new United States Pharmacopoeia of pharmacognic standards for numerous drugs, Pharmacognosy has risen to the forefront in this country as a science. While its proper comprehension requires laboratory instruction in chemistry, physics, and crystallography as well as botany, neverthe¬ less a rather extended foundation in structural botany stands out preeminently as the most needed requirement.

The work has been for the most part remodeled. Chapter I deals with Fundamental Considerations. Chapter II is devoted to the life history of the Male Fern, a median type of plant, the considera¬ tion of which, after the students have received fundamental practice in the use of the microscope, the writer has found commendable, for it not only gives beginners a working knowledge of structures and functions, the homologies and analogies of which will be met in the later study of forms of higher and lower domain, but holds their interest on account of its economic importance.

The life history of a type of Gymnosperm, White Pine, is next taken up in Chapter III. Chapter IV considers the life history of an Angiosperm as well as coordinates the resemblances and differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Chapters V, VI and VII are devoted respectively to Vegetable Cytology, Plant Tissues and Plant Organs and Organisms. Among the many additions to.

IX

X

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION the topics included in these might be mentioned a treatise on Cell Formation and Reproduction including Indirect Nuclear Division, twenty pages on Non-Protoplasmic Cell Contents, the considera¬ tion of Woods, Root Tubercles, the gross structure and histology of different types of leaves, broad histologic differences between Monocotyl and Dicotyl leaves, the histology of floral parts and the his¬ tology of types of fruits and seeds. Chapter VIII on Taxonomy has been increased by the addition of 144 pages. Several new fami¬ lies of drug-yielding plants have been added and the treatment of family characteristics has in the majority of instances been broad¬ ened. The habitats of drug-yielding plants have been added. In that portion of the tables dealing with the names of official drugs, those official in the National Formulary have been so designated by the abbreviation N. F., to distinguish them from others that may occur in the same portion of the table and which are official in the Pharmacopoeia.

In keeping \vith the increased size of the book, many new illus¬ trations have been introduced. A number of these are original drawings, photographs and photomicrographs. To the authors of other works from which cuts were borrowed, the writer’s thanks are due.

The writer in conclusion desires to thank Dr. John M. Macfarlane, head of the Botanical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, for valuable suggestions during the preparation of portions of the text.

H. W. Y.

Chapter I

DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY.—i. Morphology (Gross Anatomy, Histology, Cytology). 2. Physiology. 3. Taxonomy or Systematic Botany. 4. Ecology. 5. Genetics.

6. Phytopathology. 7. Phytogeography. 8. Phytopalaeontol¬ ogy. 9. Etiology. 10. Economic Botany and its sub¬ divisions. 1-2

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.—Natural System: species;

genus; family; order; class; subdivision; division; variety;

race; hybrid.... 2-3

OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS. 3-4

BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE. 4~7

THE MICROSCOPE.—Definition. The simple microscope. The dissection microscope. The compound microscope: its con¬ struction and use. The binocular microscope. Rules for the care of the microscope. 7-14

MAKING OF SECTIONS.—Free hand sectioning. Kinds of sections. Microtomes (hand, sliding and rotary), their construction and use. 15-20

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING A TEMPORARY MOUNT . 20

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING PERMANENT MOUNTS.— The mounting medium; Staining. Method for the Prepara¬ tion of a Canada Balsam Mount. Method for the Prepara¬ tion of a Glycerin-Gelatin Mount. Technique of Fixing, Dehydrating, Hardening and Imbedding in Paraffine. Tech¬ nique of Sectioning and Mounting Material Imbedded in Paraffine. Method for the Staining and Mounting of Material in Paraffine Ribbons affixed to slide. Imbedding in Celloidin. Sectioning Celloidin Material. Staining and Mounting Celloidin Sections... 20-30

DESILICIFICATION. SCHULZE’S MACERATION PROCESS.. 30-31

MICROMETRY.—Unit of microscopical measurement. Standardi¬ zation of the Ocular Micrometer... 31-32 xi

Xii CONTENTS

Chapter II

HISTORY OF THE SPOROPHYTE OR ASEXUAL GENERATION. —Gross structure of stem. Histology of mature stem. His¬ tology of growing apex. Histology of mature root. Histology of root apex. Continuity of crude sap flow. Histology of stipe. Histology of lamina. Comparative physiology of root, stem and leaf. Gross structure and histology of the sori and sporangia. Rupture of sporangium and spore dis¬ semination. HISTORY OF THE GAMETOPHYTE OR SEXUAL GENERATION.—Origin of new sporophyte or diploid plant from fertilized egg. Growth of seedling into mature sporophyte. Alternation of generations.

CHAPTER III Life History of a Gymnosperm (Pinus Strobus)

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHITE PINE TREE (SPOROPHYTE). —Staminate cones. Carpellate cones. DESCRIPTION OF THE GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION.—The Male Gametophyte. The Female Gametophyte. Fertilization. Seed Formation and Distribution. GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

CHAPTER IV Life History of an Angiosperm

DESCRIPTION OF THE DOG’S TOOTH VIOLET.—Development of Female Gametophyte. Maturation of the Pollen Grain and formation of the Male Gametophyte. Pollination and Fertilization. Ripening of the Ovule to form the Seed and of the Ovary to form the Fruit. Germination of the Seed and development of the Mature Sporophyte.

RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIO- SPERMS.

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS.

33-44

45-52

. 53-58 58 58-59

CHAPTER V Vegetable Cytology

VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY.—Definition. The Plant Cell as the Fundamental Unit. A typical Plant Cell.

PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES.—Structure. Metabolism.

Irritability (Thermotropism, Chemotropism, Sitotropism, Hydrotropism, Heliotropism, Geotropism, GalVanotropism, Thigmotropism.) Reproduction.

PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS—Cytoplasm; fiucleus; nu¬ cleolus; plastids (leucoplastids, chloroplastids, chromoplastids)

CELL FORMATION AND REPRODUCTION.—Asexual and sexual cells. Reproduction defined. Asexual Reproduction: Fis¬ sion; Gemmation; Free Cell Formation; Rejuvenescence. Sexual Reproduction: Conjugation and Fertilization.

INDIRECT NUCLEAR DIVISION.

NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS. —Sugars. Starch.

Inulin. Hesperidin. Strophanthin. Salicin. Saponin. Coniferin. Digitoxin. Characteristics of Glucosides. Alkaloids and their properties. The alkaloids, Strychnine, Veratrine, Nicotine, Caffeine, Cocaine, Aconitine, Colchicine. Gluco-alkaloids. Asparagine. Calcium Oxalate. Cystoliths. Silica. Tannins. Proteins. Aleurone Grains. Mucilages and Gums. Fixed Oils and Fats. Volatile Oils. Resins. Oleoresins. Gum Resins. Balsams. Pigments. Latex. Enzymes Classification of Enzymes..........

CELL WALLS.—Their formation and composition. Growth in area and thickness. Various kinds of cell walls and behavior of each to micro-chemic reagents.

CHAPTER VI Plant Tissues

PLANT TISSUES.—Tissue defined. The Tissues of Spermatophytes and Pteridophytes: Generative Tissues. List of Tissues.

MERISTEM.—Definition. Primary and secondary meristems; their distribution..

xiii

60-61

62-68

68—70

70- 71

71- 74

74-96

96—98

99-100

XIV

PARENCHYMA.-—Definition; ordinary parenchyma; assimilation parenchyma; conducting parenchyma; reserve parenchyma; their structure, distribution and function....

COLLENCHYMA.—Definition, function and distribution.

SCLERENCHYMA.—Definition; stone cells; sclerenchyma fibers;

wood fibers; bast fibers; their distribution.

EPIDERMIS.—Definition; transpiration and water stomata; epider¬ mal papillae; trichomes; scales; their distribution and functions.

ENDODERMIS.—Definition, distribution and functions.

CORK.—Definition; its derivation, function and distribution ....

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.—The structure, origin, distribution of latex cells, laticiferous vessels and secretory cells. Latex . .

SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM) TISSUE.—Definition; distri¬ bution; function.

TRACHEARY TISSUE.—Tracheae: Definition, function and classifi¬ cation; Tracheids: Definition and function.

MEDULLARY RAYS.—Primary and Secondary; their distribution and functions.

FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES.—Definition of the various types; the distribution of each type; Xylem and Phloem.

SECRETION SACS.—Definition and distribution.

INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES.—Definition; schizogenous and lysigenous air spaces; their relative size.

SECRETION RESERVOIRS.—Definition; structure; internal glands; secretion canals.

CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION .

CHAPTER VII Plant Organs and Organisms

PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS.—Organ and organism defined. Vegetative Organs: Roots, stems and leaves. Reproductive Organs: Flower, fruit and seed. Embryo and its parts; func¬ tion of the cotyledon.

101-103

103-106

106-109

110- 112

112-116

116- 117

117- 119 119

119-120

XV

THE ROOT.—Definition; functions; root hairs; root cap; generative tissues; differences between root and stem.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS AS TO FORM.—Primary root; tap root; secondary roots; fibrous and fleshy roots; anomalous roots; adventitious roots; epiphytic roots; haustoria.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO DURATION OF ROOT.—Annual; Biennial; Perennial.

ROOT HISTOLOGY.— A. Monocotyledons. B. Dicotyledons; Histol¬ ogy and Development of the California Privet root; Abnormal structure of Dicotyl roots; Histology of a Dicotyl Tuberous Root, Aconitum.

ROOT TUBERCLES.—Definition; occurrence on roots of Leguminosae, Myricaceae, etc.; their etiology.

THE BUD.—Definition; plumule, scaly buds, naked buds; Classifica¬ tion of Buds According to Position on Stem: terminal bud; axillary or lateral bud; adventitious bud; accessory bud. Classification of Buds According to Development: leaf bud; flower bud and mixed bud. Classification of Buds According to their Arrangement on the Stem: alternate; opposite; whorled..

THE STEM.—Definition; direction of growth; functions; size; nodes and internodes; stem elongation; duration of stems; stem modifications; above ground stems; herb and tree defined; underground stems; exogenous and endogenous stems. . . .

STEM HISTOLOGY.—Annual Dicotyl; Perennial Dicotyl; Excep¬ tional Types of Dicotyl Stems; Lenticels and Their Forma¬ tion; Annual Thickening of Stems; Method of formation; “Annual Ring.” Bark: Definition; zones; Periderm; Phelloderm; Histology of Cascara Sagrada bark. Wood: alburnum; duramen; microscopic characteristics of Angiospermous and Gymnospermous woods; Histology of Typical Herbaceous Monocotyl Stems; Histology of Typical Woody Monocotyl Stem.

THE LEAF.—Definition; leaf functions: photosynthesis; assimilation;

respiration; transpiration.

TYPES OF LEAVES DEVELOPED IN ANGIOSPERMS.—Cotyle¬ dons; Scale leaves; Foliage leaves; Bract leaves: bracts and bracteoles; Sepals; Petals; Microsporophylls; Megasporophylls

121-123

123- 124

124- 132

132-135

135 - 136

136- 140

140-154

155-156

XVI

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES.—Primordial leaf.

Its formation. 156

PHYLLOTAXY.—Definition; spiral law of leaf arrangement; alternate;

opposite, decussate; whorled; fascicled; leaf rank.156-157

VERNATION.—Definition; indexed or reclinate; conduplicate; con¬ volute; circinate; plicate; involute; revolute . . . . . . .157-158

THE COMPLETE LEAF/—Its parts; sessile; petiolate; exstipulate;

stipulate.158-159

LEAF VENATION.—Furchate; parallel; reticulate; pinni-veined;

palmately veined; anastomosing veins. 159

LEAF INSERTION.—Definition; radical; cauline; ramal; perfoliate;

amplexicaul; connate-perfoliate; equitant.159-161

FORMS OF LEAVES.—Simple and Compound, (a) General Outline:

ovate; linear; lanceolate; elliptical; oblong; inequilateral; or¬ bicular; peltate; filiform; oblanceolate; cuneate; spatulate; ensiform; acerose; deltoid. ( b ) Apex: acute; acuminate; obtuse; truncate; mucronate; cuspidate; aristate; emarginate; retuse; obcordate. (c) Base: cordate; reniform; hastate; auriculate; sagittate, (d) Margin: entire, serrate; dentate; crenate; repand; sinuate; incised; runcinate; lobed; cleft; parted; di¬ vided. Forms of Compound Leaves.161-166

LEAF TEXTURE.—Membranous; succulent; coriaceous. 166

LEAF COLOR.—Variations in color. 166

LEAF SURFACE.—Glabrous; glaucous; pellucid-punctate; scabrous;

pubescent; villose; sericious; hispid; tomentose; spinose; rugose; verrucose. 166

DURATION OF LEAVES.—Persistent or evergreen; deciduous; cadu¬ cous; fugacious.

GROSS STRUCTURE AND HISTOLOGY OF THE LEAF PETIOLE.

—In Monocotyledons. In Dicotyledons. Pulvinus. Pericladium.167-168

STIPULES.—Definition; lateral; free-lateral; lateral-adnate; lateralconnate; lateral interpetiolar. Axillary; ochrea. Modified Stipules.168-169

XVII

THE LAMINA.—Definition. Mode of Development of the Lamina of Leaves: Dorsoventral; convergent; centric; bifacial; re¬ versed; ob-dorsoventral. A. Dorsoventral: (a) Dorsoventral Umbrophytic; ( b ) Dorsoventral Mesophytic; (c) Dorsoventral Xerophytic; (d) Dorsoventral Hydrophytic. Gross Structure and Histology of Different Types of Dorsoventral Leaf Blades.

Gross Structure and Histology of the following types: B.

Convergent; C. Centric; D. Bifacial.169-173

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF STOMATA.173-176

HISTOLOGIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEAVES OF DICOTY¬ LEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. 176

INFLORESCENCE.—Definition; Parts of Inflorescences; Determi¬ nate; Indeterminate; Mixed Forms of Indeterminate and Determinate Inflorescences.177-180

PRiEFLORATION.—Convolute; involute; revolute; plicate; imbricate;

valvate; vexillary; contorted. 180

THE FLOWER.—Definition; floral parts; essential organs; complete;

perfect; hermaphrodite; regular; symmetrical; imperfect; double; staminate; pistillate; neutral; connation; adnation. . 181-183

THE RECEPTACLE, TORUS OR THALAMUS.—Definition; varia¬ tions in structure; anthophore; gonophore; gynophore; carpo¬ phore. .. . 183

THE PERIGONE.—Definition; dichlamydeous; monochlamydeous . 183

THE CALYX.—Definition; parts; physical characteristics; connation;

kinds and forms; persistence; adnation; sepaline spurs; sepaline stipules; sepaline position.183-185

THE COROLLA.—Definition; parts; physical characteristics; func¬ tions. Forms of the Corolla and Perianth.185-188

THE ANDRCECIUM OR STAMEN SYSTEM.—Definition; parts; terms denoting number of stamens in flower; insertion of sta¬ mens; proportions of stamens; connation of stamens; stamen color. Gross Structure and Histology of the Filament. Gross Structure and Histology of the Anther. Anther Dehiscence. Development of the Anther. Attachment of Anther.

Pollen: description; forms.188-195

THE GYNCECIUM OR PISTIL SYSTEM—Definition; Gymnospermous and Angiospermous; parts; the pistil a modified leaf; carpel; dehiscence; apocarpous and syncarpous pistils; terms denoting the number of carpels entering into the formation of the pistil; compound pistils; ovules or megasori as trans¬ formed buds; position of ovules in ovary; Gymnospermous and Angiospermous ovules; structure of Angiospermous ovule; shape of ovule.

THE PLACENTA.—Definition; types of placenta arrangement . . .

THE STYLE.—Definition; style-arms; relation to carpels forming the gynoecium; variations from typical stylar development . . .

THE STIGMA.—Definition; forms in wind- and animal-pollinated flowers; stigmatic papillae.

POLLINATION.—Definition; Close and Cross Pollination; terms applied to plants pollinated by various agencies.

MATURATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN AND FORMATION OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE.

MATURATION OF THE EMBRYO SAC AND FORMATION OF THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE.

FERTILIZATION IN ANGIOSPERMS.—Process; formation of embryo and endosperm.

THE FRUIT.—Definition; modifications ... .

FRUIT STRUCTURE.—Pericarp; pseudocarp; anthocarp; epicarp;

mesocarp; endocarp; sarcocarp; putamen; sutures; valves; dehiscence.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.—Simple; Aggregate; Multiple; dry dehiscent; dry indehiscent; fleshy indehistent. Forms of Simple Fruits: capsular; schizocarpic; achenial; baccate; drupaceous. Etaerio. Forms of Multiple Fruits; strobile or cone; sorosis; syconium; galbalus.

HISTOLOGY OF A CAPSULE, VANILLA.

HISTOLOGY OF A MERICARP, FCENICULUM.

THE SEED.—Definition; structure; functions; appendages.

MODE OF FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALBUMEN. —Perispermic; endospermic; perispermic and endospermic; exalbuminous and albuminous seeds.. .

195-197

199- 200

200- 201 202

202-204

204-211

211- 212

212- 213

213- 214

214-215

XIX

A MONOCOTYL SEED.—Its gross structure and histology.

A MONOCOTYL SEEDLING.—Germination and structure.

A DICOTYL SEED.—Its gross structure and histology.

CHAPTER VIII Taxonomy

THALLOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Protophyta, Myxomycetes, Algae, Fungi and Lichenes. The Mounting and Staining of Bacteria. Life histories of representative types of Thallophytes. Plants of the group yielding drugs and eco¬ nomic products.

BRYOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Hepaticae and Musci. Life history of a typical true moss.

PTERIDOPHYTA.—Definition. Characters of the Lycopodineae, Equisetineae and Filicineae. Life history of a typical fern. Plants of the group yielding official drugs.

SPERM ATOPHYTA (PHANEROG AMI A) .—Definition. Charac¬ teristics of the Gymnosperms and of the Order and Family yielding important drugs and economic products. Table of official and unofficial drugs yielded by Gymnosperms including part of plants used, botanical origins and habitats. Charac¬ teristics of the Angiosperms and of the classes and families yielding drugs. Tables of official and unofficial drugs with the names of the plants, parts constituting the drugs and habitats.

CHAPTER IX Ecology

PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.—Definition. Classification based on re¬ lation plant associations have assumed in regard to water. Characteristics of Hydrophytes, Helophytes, Halophytes, Xerophytes, Mesophytes and Tropophytes.

GLOSSARY..

INDEX.. . .

Pagbs

215- 216

216- 217

217- 218

219-282

282-287

287-292

29 2-407

408-412

412-440

441-479

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.

• • & 4 * • ...

* * f

.

*

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•

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Chapter I

FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Botany is the Science which Treats of Plants DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY

1. Morphology treats of the parts, or structure of plants. It is divided into:

(a) Macromorphology or Gross Anatomy which deals with the ex¬ ternal characters of plants or their parts; ( b ) Micromorphology or Histology which considers the minute or microscopical structure of plants and plant tissues; and (c) Cytology which treats of plant cells and their contents.

2. Physiology deals with the study of the life processes or func¬ tions of plants. It explains how the various parts of plants perform their work of growth, reproduction, and the preparation of food for the support of animal life from substances not adapted to that use.

3. Taxonomy or Systematic Botany considers the classification or arrangement of plants in groups or ranks in accordance with their relationships to one another.

4. Ecology treats of plants and their parts in relation to their environment.

5. Plant Genetics seeks to account for the resemblances and dif¬ ferences which are exhibited by plants related by descent.

6. Phytopathology treats of diseases of plants.

7. Phytogeography or Plant Geography treats of the distribution of plants upon the earth. The center of distribution for each species of plant is the habitat or the original source from which it spreads, often over widely distant regions. When plants grow in their native countries they are said to be indigenous to those regions. When they grow in a locality other than their original home they are said to be naturalized.

8. Phytopalaeontology or Geological Botany treats of plants of former ages of the earth’s history traceable in their fossil remains.

9. Etiology is the study of the causes of various phenomena ex¬ hibited by plants.

10. Economic or Applied Botany deals with the science from a practical standpoint, showing the special adaptation of the vegetable kingdom to the needs of everyday life. It comprises a number of subdivisions, viz.: Agricultural Botany, Horticulture, Forestry, Plant Breeding, and Pharmaceutical Botany. Pharmaceutical Botany considers plants or their parts with reference to their use as drugs. It interlocks very closely with other departments of botanical science.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

The classification of plants is an attempt to express the exact kinship which is believed to exist among them. By grouping to¬ gether those plants which are in some respects similar and combining these groups with others, it is possible to form something like an orderly system of classification. Such a system based upon natural resemblances is called a natural system. In a natural system of classification every individual plant belongs to a species, every species to a genus, every genus to a family , every family to an order, every order to a class, every class to a division . In many instances species may be subdivided into varieties or races. The crossing of two varieties or species, rarely of two genera, gives rise to a hybrid. Thus, the species Papaver somniferum which yields the opium of the Pharmacopoeia belongs to the genus Papaver, being placed in this genus with other species which have one or more essential character¬ istics in common. The genera Papaver, Sanguinaria and Chelidonium, while differing from each other in certain essential respects, nevertheless agree in other particulars such as having latex, perfect flowers, capsular fruits, etc., and so are placed in the Papaveracece family. The Papaveracece family and the Fumariaceoe family are closely allied, the latter only differing from the former in having irregular petals, usually diadelphous stamens and non-oily albumen and so both of these families are placed in the order Papaverales. The orders Papaverales, Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales, etc., are related by a common structure namely, two seed leaves or cotyledons and so are grouped together under the class Dicotyledonea. The Dicotyledoneoe differ from the Monocotyledonea in that the latter group possess but one cotyledon; but both classes agree in having covered ovules and seeds, and so are placed in the subdivision Angiospermce. The Angiospermce differ from the Gymnospermce in that the latter possess naked ovules and seeds; but both of these subdivisions agree in producing real flowers and seeds. For these reasons they are placed in the division Spermatophyta of the Vege¬ table Kingdom.

OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS

I. Thallophyta

II. Bryophyta

III. Pteridophyta

1. Protophyta

2. Myxomycetes

3- Algas

4. Fungi

5. Liche.nes

1. Hepaticae

2. Musci

1. Lycopodineae

2. Equisetineae

3. Filicineae f Bacteria 1 Cyanophyceae [ Acrasiales Phytomyxales [ Myxogastrales [ Chlorophyceae | Phaeophyceae [ Rhodophyceae ( Phycomycetes I Ascomycetes I Basidiomycetes l Fungi Imperfecti [ Crustaceous Foliaceous [ Fruticose f Marchantiales J Jungermanniales l Anthocerotales [ Sphagnales Andreaeales l Bryales Lycopodiales Selaginales . Isoetales { Equisetales Ophioglossales Filicales

IV. Spermatophyta

2. Angiospermae j i. Gymnospermae

Cycadales

Ginkgoales

Coniferales

Gnetales

| Monocotyledoneae 1 Dicotyledoneae

BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE

Before Carl von Linne, (Linnaeus) the great Sweedish naturalist, brought forth the binomial plan of nomenclature, no uniformity existed in the assignment of plant names. Among the pre-Linnean botanists there were some who designated plants by single names, others who employed sentences in naming them, some of which were quite lengthy, and a number who adhered to the practice bf naming them in their own modern tongue. The result was quite obvious, a number of systems were employed and confusion pre¬ vailed among students. According to the binomial plan which has been universally adopted, every plant belongs to a species which is given two Latin names. The first name is the name of the genus or generic name, the second, the name of the species or specific name. The generic name corresponds, in the naming of persons, to the surname or family name, while the specific name is analagous to the given name. Thus, the Wild Cherry is named Prunus serofyna, Prunus representing the name of the genus, serotina the specific name or kind of Prunus. The name of the genus (pi. genera) is always a substantive in the singular number and must not be applied to more than one genus. Its spelling should begin with a capital letter. Genera names may be taken from any source what¬ ever. Some, like Fagus for the Beech genus, and Acer for the Maple, are of Latin origin. Others have been latinized from other lan¬ guages. Some have been named after some therapeutic property, their roots, leaves, flowers or seeds were thought to possess; for example, Jateorhiza , a latinized compound of two greek words, iareLpa, healing, + ptfot, root, because of the healing virtues of the root. A number have had names ascribed to them because of some peculiarity of structure, color, taste, odor, behavior, habit or appear ance of the plant or portion thereof.

Thus, Eriodictyon (from Gr. eptov, wool -\-8lktvov , net) alludes to its wooly, netted veined leaves; Melaleuca (from Gr. p.e\as, black, +XeuKos, white) alludes' to the black bark of the trunk and white bark of the branches; Marrubium (from Hebrew marrob, bitter) refers to its bitter sap; Barosma (from Gr. fiapvs, heavy + o<rprj> odor) in allusion to its strong smell; Epiphegus (from Gr. ext, upon, -\-<f>rjy 6 s, the beech) alludes to its growth on the roots of that tree; Impatiens (from Lat. in, not and patiens , enduring) refers to the sudden bursting of the capsules of this genus when touched; Lyco¬ podium (from Gr. Xu/cos, a wolf, + robs, a foot) pertains to the appearance of the shoots of this genus. Many have been named in honor of eminent naturalists or friends of these, or other noted persons. For example, Collinsonia was named in honor of Peter Collinson, an English botanist of the 18th century; Dioscorea in honor of Dioscorides, the Greek naturalist \Paullini a after Paullini, a German botanist of the 17th century; Cinchona in honor of the countess of Chinchon, who brought the bark to Europe in 1640 and Jejfersonia, in honor of Thomas Jefferson.

The specific names are for the most part adjectives which agree with the names of genera to which they belong in case, gender, etc. They may, however,’ be nouns and in a few instances consist of two nouns or a noun and an adjective. If an adjective it should begin with a small letter, as in Rhus glabra and Euonymus atropurpureus. When the specific name is a noun, it may either be a proper noun in the genitive case when it should begin with a capital, as Garcinia Hanburyi ; or it may be a common noun in the genitive, when it should begin with a small letter, as Grindelia camporum; or the noun may be in apposition to the generic name and so in the same case, as Cytisus scoparius. Names that had formerly been used for genera but since reduced to species are always capitalized, whether origi¬ nally proper nouns or not, as Aristolochia Serpentaria and Anacyclus Pyrethrum. In cases where two nouns make up the specific name, the first of these is in the nominative case, the second in the genetive, the two names being connected by a hyphen, as Capsella burs a-pastor is. The botanical name of the species yielding the drug, Aspidosperma, (Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco) will serve as an example of the specific portion of the names being composed of a noun and an adjective. Specific names taken from names of persons should always begin with a capital.

Names of varieties are applied in three different ways. Either the name of the species is given and followed by the prefix var. before the varietal name, as Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelminticum ; or the varietal name may be appended to the name of the species, as Chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum) or the varietal name may be placed immediately after the name of the genus and the specific name dropped, as Chenopodium anthelminticum.

It frequently happens that a botanist is careless in naming a species, and, without ascertaining whether the same name has been assigned to another species, applies it to his, thus causing duplication. For example, there are two distinct species of plants named Prunus virginiana, one of these, the Wild Black Cherry, the other, the Choke Cherry. In this instance the name Prunus virginiana does not tell us which species the writer or speaker refers to. It might be the Choke Cherry named 11 Prunus virginiana ” by Linnaeus or the Wild Black Cherry named 11 Prunus virginiana ” by Miller at a later date. Accordingly, it is necessary to add to the name of the species the author’s name. Thus, Prunus virginiana Linne refers to the Choke Cherry while Prunus virginiana Miller refers to the Wild Black Cherry. In this connection it is customary to abbreviate the name of the author thus, L. for Linne, Mill, for Miller, Ait. for Aiton, Loisel. for Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, or Tourn. for Tournefort.

Whenever a plant is transferred from one genus to another, it must retain its original specific name, unless the genus to which it is transferred already possesses a species with that name, in which case a new specific name must be given it. Moreover, the name of the botanist who assigned the original specific name but placed it under a different genus must be placed in parenthesis between the specific name and the name of the botanist who later connects it with another genus. For example, we read as the official definition for Purging Cassia in the National Formulary IV—“The dried fruit of Cathartocarpus Fistula (Linne) Persoon.” The significance of the name Linne in parenthesis is that he had previously given the specific name Fistula to the plant indicated but placed it under a different genus, which genus happened to be Cassia. Therefore Persoon, in connecting it up with another genus Carthartocarpus, avoided binomial duplication by interjecting Linne parenthetically between his name and the specific name Fistula.

The names of families are designated by the name of one of their principal genera or ancient generic names with the ending aceae, e.g., Ranunculaceae from Ranunculus, Malvaceae from Malva, etc. The following names, because of long usage, are exceptions to the rule: Palmae, Gramineae,Guttiferae, Umbelliferae , Labiatae, and Compositae.

Orders are generally designated by the name of one of their prin¬ cipal families, with the ending ales, e.g., Rhamnales from Rhamnaceae , Rosales from Rosaceae. Suborders are likewise designated, but with the ending—ineae, e.g., Malvineae from Malvaceae. Other older endings may, however, be retained for these names providing they do not lead to confusion or error.

Names of classes, subclasses, divisions and subdivisions are desig¬ nated from one of their characters by words of Latin or Greek origin, some similarity of form and ending being given to those that desig¬ nate groups of the same nature, as Monocotyledoneae, Dicotyledoneae; Archichlamydeae, Metachlamydeae; Thallophyta, Spermatophyta; Gymnospermae; Angiospermae.

In the case of Cryptogams the use of old family names as Algae, Fungi, Lichens, Musci, etc. is permissible for designating groups above the rank of family.

THE MICROSCOPE

A microscope is an optical instrument, consisting of a lens, or combination of lenses, for making an enlarged image of an object which is too minute to be viewed by the naked eye.

Microscopes are of two kinds, viz.: simple and compound.

THE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

This consists simply of a convex lens or several combined into a system and appropriately mounted. A good example of a simple microscope is a reading glass. This type of simple microscope is valuable in field work, in the examination of dried herbarium ma¬ terial or the external characters of crude drugs, where only a low magnification of the object is required.