Manual of systematic theology, and Christian ethics

Preface

It is proper for me to state that this Manual is intended, first of all, for the use of students under my instruction ; and that the brief treatment which is here given to many topics is only meant to prepare the way for ample discussion in the class-room.

This primary design of the book is also my apology for quoting several Latin sentences without translation ; for re-translating a few passages of the New Testament ; for giving in some instances the Greek original of an important word or clause ; for referring to theological works in foreign languages ; and for calling attention to published articles or minor treatises of my own, which exhibit a little more fully than does this Manual, the considerations that favor some of the views here presented.

The same circumstance has had more or less influence upon the manner in which certain difficult questions are treated ; since my aim in teaching is to secure candid and thorough study on the part of those under my care, rather than to give them, in a dogmatic spirit, the results of my own investigation.

Whether a Manual of Theology and Ethics, prepared in this way, will be of any service to ministers of the gospel, iv Preface.

teachers of Bible-classes, or other thoughtful Christians, must depend in a great measure upon the care with which they examine the biblicaL passages referred to in the volume. For, if the work has any merit, this merit will be found in its orderly statement of the evidence which goes to prove that the Scriptures are a trustworthy revelation of the divine will ; and in its orderly presentation of the blessed truths which are taught by the Scriptures. In other words, the treatment of nearly every topic is biblical, rather than philosophical, and will be found useful in proportion to the care with which the Bible is consulted.

ALVAH HOVEY.

Newton Centre, July 2, 1877.

Index

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

PAGES.

Definitions, 9 - 1 1 ; Assumptions, 12-13; Cautions, 13- 14; Qualifications, 14-15; Benefits, 15-16; Topics, 17-18; Writers, 18-26.

Preliminary Observations, 27-28; Ten Propositions Stated and Defended, 28-40; Theistic Arguments in the Usual Form, 40-42.

Preliminary Considerations, 43-45; The New Testament History Credible, 45 - 53 ; Christ Jesus Infallible, 53-67; Promise of Inspiration to the Apostles, 67-73; The Old Testament Endorsed by Christ and his Apostles, 73-77; The Inspiration of the Sacred Writers Different from that of Ordinary Christians, 78-79; It made thera Infallible Teachers, 79-81 ; Nature of their Inspiration, 81 ; Sources of their Knowledge, 82-83; Objections to this Doctrine Considered, 83-87.

Modes of God's Existence, 88 - 92 ; Attributes of God, 92 - 96 ; Purpose of God, 96-99; Creation by God through the Word, 99-101 ; Preservation by God through the Word, 101-102; Providence of God in Christ, 102-104; Angels and their Service, 105 -117.

vi Index.

The Unity of Mankind, 118-119; The Essential Elements of Human Nature, 120-123; The Endless Existence of Man, 123- 125; The Moral Constitution of Man, 125-133; The Reality of Sin in Mankind, 133-136; The Nature of Sin in Mankind, 136-140; The Extent of Sin in Mankind, 140-143; The Degree of Sin in Mankind, 143-144; The Accountability of Men for their Sinfulness, 144- 151; The Penalty of Sin, 151 -168; The Results of Sin, 168-170.

The Person of Christ: — The Deity of Christ, 171 - 190 ; The Humanity of Christ, 190-192; The Personal Oneness of Christ, 192-194; Effect of the Incarnation on the Higher Nature of Christ, 194-204; Effect of the Incarnation on the Lower Nature of Christ, 204-207; The Work of Christ : — Propitiation by Jesus Christ, 207-230; Revelation by Christ, 231 -234; Government by Christ, 234; The Person of the Holy Spirit: — Deity of the Holy Spirit, 235; Personality of the Holy Spirit, 235 - 240 ; Identity of the Holy Spirit and the Spirit of God, 240-241 ; Work of the Holy Spirit, 241-242; Doctrine of Redejnption : — The Nature of Regeneration, 242 - 246 ; The Author of Regeneration, 246 - 247 ; Relation of Christian Truth to Regeneration, 247-252; The Error of Baptismal Regeneration, 252-256; Antecedents on the Part of Man to Regeneration, 256-258; The Doctrine of Election, 258-261; First Fruits of Regeneration in Experience, 261-263; The Nature of Justification, 264-266; The Author of Justification, 266-267; The Ground of Justification, 267 - 26S ; The Condition of Justification, 268 - 269 ; Reasonableness of this Doctrine, 269-272; Sanctification, 273-274; The Nature of Sanctification, 274; The Author of Sanctification, 274-276; The Means of Sanctification: A. Providential Discipline, 276-278; B. Religious Truth, 278-279; C. Christian Action, 279-285 ; D. Church Life, 286-288; E. The Lord's Day, 288-292; The Period of Sanctification, 292-295; The Certainty of Sanctification, 295-299.

Index. vii

Christian Churches, 300-312; Christian Ordinances: Baptism, 312- 233; The External Rite, 313-320; The Significance of the Rite, 320-323; The Subjects of the Rite, 323-326; Infant Baptism Unscriptural, 326-330; Relation of the Rite to John's Baptism, 33°-333'> The Lord's Supper, 333-344; The External Rite, 334- 335; The Import of the Ordinance, 335-337 ; The Proper Communicants, 337 - 344.

Natural Death, 345 ; The Intermediate State, 345-349; The Second Advent of Christ, 349-351; The Resurrection of the Dead, 351 — 354; The Last Judgment, 354-358; The Final State of Unbelievers, 358-362; The Final State of Believers, 362-364.

CHRISTIAN ETHICS.

Definition and Position of the Science, 365; Ground of Right, 365-369; Rule of Right, 369-371 ; Imperfection of Man's Ethical Knowledge, 371 ; Consequences of this Imperfection, 371 -372.

Christian Conduct with Reference to God, . . 373-376

Supreme Love to God, 373 ; His Honor the Highest Motive to Action, 373-374; Unceasing Worship or Prayer, 374; The Conduct of Public Worship, 374-375; Especially Prayer, 375-376.

Christian Conduct with Reference to One's Self, 376-381

Inference from the Second Command, .Love to Man, 376; Moral Nature of Man, or Conscience, 376-377 ; Culture of Conscience, 377~ 37% > Culture of Devout Affections, 379; Culture of Mental Powers, 379-380; Of the Senses and Sensibilities, 380; Of the Bodily Powers, 380-381.

Christian Conduct with Reference to Other Men, 381 - 41 6

Examination of the Golden Rule, 381 -383; Christian Conduct in Church Relations, 383 - 389 ; In Domestic Relations, 389 - 393 ; Duties of Masters to Servants, 393 - 399 ; And of Servants to Masters, 399-400; In Social Relations, 401-403; In Business Relations, 403-406; Appendix on the Use of Money, 406-410; And in Civil Relations, 410-411 ; As Subjects of Government, 411 -41 2; As Supporters of Government, 412; As Officers of Government, 412- 415; As Reformers of Government, 415-416.

Introduction

I. DEFINITIONS.

In its primary and strict sense, Theology is the science of God ; that is, an orderly exposition of the evidences of the existence and perfection of God. Used in this sense, it is the name of one Division of Systematic Theology, and is often called Theology Proper. But the term is also used as a substitute for the expression, Systematic Theology, and will be so employed in this Manual. 1

Systematic Theology is a scientific exposition of the various doctrines of the Christian religion, showing their true character, their proper foundations ', and their mutual inter-dependence}

It pre-supposes a knowledge of Biblical Theology; it includes Theology Proper and Apologetic Theology in part ; and it provides materials for both Polemical and Comparative Theology.

Religion, equivalent to religio, from relegere or religare, is, first, piety, or a reverent and dutiful spirit towards God, manifested in conduct ; and, secondly, the means by which this spirit is originated, sustained, and expressed, or the facts, principles, rites, and duties which are believed, observed,

1 Suicer's "Thesaurus," sub voce SsoXo^i'a ; Turretin (F.) " Theologia," &c. I. 1. i. q. i. ; Gerhard (J.) "Loci Theologici;" I. Proem.; Fleming (W.) "Vocabulary of Philosophy," s. v. Theology; Herzog "Real-Encyklopadie," s. v. "Theologie;" Thomas Aquinas, " Surama," Pt. I. q. i. art. 2. "A Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducit."

2 "Bib. Sac." I. 17S-217, 332-367, 552-578, 726-735; "Am. Bib. Repos." for 1845, 457 sc L-5 "Chr. Rev." xx. 492-506; xxi. 66-82; Hagenbach (K. R.) "Theologische Encyklopadie ; " Herzog " Real-Encyklopadie," s. v. " Dogmatik."

or performed by him who has this spirit. In the definition of systematic theology, given above, it has of course the second meaning. 1

Biblical Theology is used to signify a critical exposition of the religious doctrines taught by the successive writers of the Bible, or, in other words, a history of the development of religious doctrine among the Jews. It does not assume the inspiration of the Scriptures, nor the substantial unity of their teaching. 2

Apologetic Theology is a scientific exposition of the evidences of Christianity. It pre-supposes a good knowledge of the Bible, and of the History of the Christian religion, if not of systematic theology. But it may be included in systematic theology, as defined above, since the " foundations " of belief in the doctrines of the Christian religion are to be examined in systematic theology. 3

Polemical Theology is distinguished from Apologetic, ■ by being, on the one hand, more, aggressive, and, on the other, more denominational. It is not a defence of the Christian religion as a whole, but rather an attack upon certain alleged perversions of it. 4

Comparative Theology is an exposition of the points of agreement and of difference between the great systems of religious belief and worship which prevail among men, with a

1 Cicero (M. T.) "De Nat. Deor." ii. 28; Lactantius (F.) "Inst. Div." iv. 28; Miiller (J. G.) in " Studien und Kritiken" for 1835; Herzog " Real-Encyklopadie," s. v. " Religion ; " Bib. Sac. ix. 374-417 ; "Jahrbiicher fur deutsche Theologie undKirche," viii. S.715 ff . ; x. S. 718 ff . ; xi. S. 254 ff . ; Redslob (G. M.) "Zur Etymologie des Wortes Religio, " in St. u. Kr. 1841, 43.

2 Herzog " Real-Encyk." s. v. ii. S. 219 sq. ; Reuss (E.) "History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age ; " Schmid (C. F.) " Theology of the N. T. ; " Messner (H.) " Die Lehre der Apostel ; " Weiss (B.) " Theologie des N. T. ; " Oehler (G. F.) "Theology of the Old Test.;" Schultz (H.) " Alttestamentliche Theologie ; " " Presby. Quarterly, and Princeton Rev." for 1877, 5 sq.

3 Ebrard (J. H. A.) " Apologetik, oder Wissenschaftliche Rechtfertigung des Christenthums ; " and works noticed in Part Second.

4 All controversial works of Roman Catholics against Protestants, Pedobaptists against Baptists, Unitarians against Trinitarians, and vice versa, are embraced in this great branch of theology.

view to ascertaining their origin, credibility, and influence. This science is yet in its infancy. 1

In this treatise, all the doctrines of the Christian religion are supposed to be drawn from the Scriptures, and set forth in their logical order, so that they may stand before the mind as a system of religious truth. Yet many facts here put together are revealed but in part, and therefore their agreement with one another can be seen but in part. A perfect system presupposes perfect knowledge in him who describes it.

By limiting the doctrines of Christian Theology to those which are either plainly taught, or implied, by the Scriptures, we (a) pay suitable respect to the Word of God; (b) guard ourselves from the danger of interpreting that Word into harmony with our independent speculations ; (c) habituate our minds to a method of discussing Christian doctrines, safe in itself and adapted to the pulpit ; (d) obtain the clearest and deepest views of religious truth; and (e) derive the greatest spiritual benefit from our studies.

The possibility of showing the mutual consistency and inter-dependence of the doctrines of the Christian religion may be said to depend, still further, (a) upon their truth, for truth is always self-consistent ; (b) upon the proportion of the revealed to the unrevealed doctrines of the system ; (c) upon the clearness with which the connection between different parts of the system is revealed; and (d) upon the kind of affinity which exists between natural and revealed religion.

Some degree of prominence must be given to the special theological questions of the day, though it is necessary to guard against the mistake of supposing that the leading questions of to-day will be such tc the end of time. One is more apt to lay undue stress upon that which now agitates society than to withhold from it fit attention.

i Clarke (J. F.) "The Ten Great Religions;" Moffat (J. C.) "A Comparative History of Religions;" Hardwick (C.) "Christ and other Masters;" Miiller (Max) "Chips from a German Workshop; "LeggeQ.) "The Chinese Classics ; " Bigandet (P.) " The Life or Legend of Gaudama ; " Johnson (S.) " Oriental Religions."

II. ASSUMPTIONS.

The normal action of the mind must be trusted. For a denial of the general veracity of our mental action nullifies itself; because we indorse the action by accepting the denial, since the denial itself is a mental act. 1

Evidence is that which tends to produce belief in the mind to which it is offered ; unless it would be better to say, it is that which tends to produce knowledge or belief in the mind.

The value of evidence is always, therefore, to be measured by the power which it has to originate knowledge, or to produce belief in the mind of man. There is no other standard of its value known to mortals. Even God approaches men as those who can and must judge for themselves. He never demands faith without sufficient evidence.

Evidence may be divided into several classes, as that which is afforded (a) by primitive beliefs, judgments, and intuitions ; (b) by distinct perception or recollection ; and (c) by testimony or analogy. 2

Probable evidence rests upon testimony or analogy. Some persons reduce these to one, namely, Analogy. But this is scarcely correct ; for the human mind seems to be naturally pre-disposed to accept the testimony of a fellow-man. 3

Probable evidence may be indubitable, satisfactory, or weak. Its force is determined by its effect on the mind, and is found to be of every degree, from just above zero to moral demonstration.

1 Compare the remarks of Hamilton (W.) in "Philosophy of Common Sense," p. 21 sq. (Edition by Wight.)

2 McCosh (J.) "Intuitions of the Human Mind." He speaks of Primitive Cognitions, as of Body, Spirit, Substance, Power; of Prim. Beliefs, as of Space, Time, The Infinite ; and of Prim. Judgments, as to Identity or Difference, the Whole and its Parts, &c.

3 Gambier (J. E.) " Guide to the Study of Moral Evidence ; " Butler (J.) " Analogv," Pt. II. 67 sq. ; Hopkins (M.) "Lowell Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity," 23 sq. ; Greenleaf (S.) " A Treatise on the Law of Evidence," Pt. I. cc. I., III., IV.; Jahrbucher, 1867, 583 sq.; Chlebes (W.) " Uber das Verhaltniss von Glauben und Wissen," in St. a. Kr. 1846, S. 905 ff.

As the judgment goes with the stronger probable evidence, so the conduct should obey the judgment and honor the evidence. Probability is the guide of life ; and the soundest mind is the one that can best perceive the force of probable evidence.

III. CAUTIONS.

Human reason is finite, and therefore unable to comprehend what is infinite. Indeed, it is unable to comprehend in full many objects that are strictly finite, as, for example, the ocean. 1

Yet it can know, in part, that which is truly infinite as well as that which is indefinitely great. For a reality which is, in some respects, infinite and indefinable may be, in other respects, definable. Thus, an infinite mind may be known as mind; that is, as intelligent, voluntary, benevolent, &c, but riot directly as infinite. It can be classified as mind, but not comprehended as unlimited in power, knowledge, benevolence.

Moreover, human reason may have convincing evidence that something infinite exists, though it has never comprehended the infinite; just as it may have convincing evidence that many things exist which, though not strictly infinite, are known to transcend human knowledge.

There is need of special caution in treating of the relations of the infinite and the finite ; for one of the terms is never fully known. Consider, for example, the fact that two points in space, though but an inch apart, may be made to

1 Mansel (H. L.) " Limits of Religious Thought," and " Philosophy of the Conditioned;" Spencer (H.) "First Principles of a New System of Philosophy," Pt. L; McCosh (J.) "The Intuitions of the Human Mind;" Young (J.) "The Province of Reason; "Rogers (H.) "Reason and Faith," "The Eclipse of Faith," " Defence of the Eclipse of Faith ; " Calderwood (H.) " Philosophy of the Infinite ; " "Bib. Sac." VI. p. 673 sq. ; "Am. Theol. Rev." for 1S60, p. 1 sq. — both articles by Prof. H. B. Smith; "Am. Presb. Rev." for 1S70, p. 1 sq., by Prof. H. N. Day; Boyle (R.) " On Things Above Reason," and " On the Veneration which Man's Intellect owes to God;" Hamilton (W.) "Philosophical Testimonies to the Limitation of our Knowledge from the Limitation of our Faculties " in " Phil. Discussions," p. 591 sq.

approach each other forever without meeting. Here finite distance is matched with infinite motion in time, and seems to be its equal. So, too, finite wills seem to act freely, and even capriciously, under an infinite will, yet without obstructing its action.

The study of theology is, throughout, a study of the relations of finite beings to an infinite Being; and therefore great caution is necessary. Better leave many blanks in the system than go beyond the warrant of facts.

IV. QUALIFICATIONS.

Mental: soundness of judgment and power of systematic thought. For the questions to be considered are numerous and difficult ; the evidence to be weighed is manifold and easily perverted ; and a mistake at one point is sure to bring in darkness or error at other points. Good sense, rather than genius, is needed in the study of theology. 1

Moral: fairness of mind and deep reverence for truth. The doctrines of the Bible should be examined with perfect candor. Indifference is impossible ; but docility and a love of truth that overcomes prejudice are within the reach of every honest student. " Non pigebit me, sicubi haesito, quserere; nee pudebit, sicubi erro, discere. Quisque audit hoc vel legit, ubi pariter certus est, pergat mecum ; ubi pariter haesitat, quaerat mecum ; ubi errorem suum cognoscit, redeat ad me; ubi meum, revocet me." (Aug. De Trin. I, 2.)

Religious : faith, love, humility, docility, fruits of the presence of the Spirit of God in the soul. The importance of these is admitted by nearly all theologians. "The Scriptures," says Andrew Fuller, " exhibit a beauty and a life utterly incomprehensible to an unholy mind." "We must love divine things in order to know them," says Pascal. Says Bernard of Clairvaux, " Tantum Deus cognoscitur quantum

1 Goddard (C.) "The Mental Condition necessary to due Inquiry into Religious Evidence ; " " Duties of a Theologian," in " Bib. Repos." for 1839, p. 347 sq.

diligitur; orando facilius quam disputando et dignius Deus cognoscitur et invenitur ; " and Anselm, " Credo ut intelligam " (cf. "Cur Deus Homo?" c. 25). See John vii. 17; 1 Cor. ii. 15; Ps. xxv. 9; cxix. 18. 1

Educational ': knowledge of biblical interpretation and acquaintance with mental philosophy, with physical science, and with the history of religious thought. The first of these, interpretation, is far more important than either of the others. Hollaz mentions these conditions as pre-requisite to sound interpretation : (a) " Invocatio Dei, patris luminum ; (b) Notitia idiomatis quo sacra Scriptura legitur; (c) Attenta consideratio phrasium, scopi, antecedentium et consequentium ; (d) Depulsio uraeconceptarum opinionum et pravorum affectuum."

V. BENEFITS.

The study of theology ought to improve and satisfy the mind of the student. For the mind was made for the apprehension of truth as evidently as the lungs were made for the reception of air. Moreover, related truths belong to a system ; they stand together and support each other. Hence a knowledge of their relations is required by the mind. 2

Says Liicke : " I am of the opinion that the scientific interest which calls for systematic theology is for the most part different from that which calls for historical or critical theology. It is the systematic interest, and not the subordinate interest in the organic arrangement of given historical

1 Edwards (B. B.) " Influence of Eminent Piety on the Intellectual Powers," in "Christian Rev." for 1840, p. 1 sq. ; Luthardt (C. E.) "Die Lehre vom freien Willen," S. 388 sq.; Augustini (A.) Opera, Vol. II. p. 453, ep. 120, ed. J. P. Migne; Anselm "Cur Deus Homo," I. 2; Leathes (S.) "The Witness of the Old Test, to Christ," p. 140; Miiller (J.) "The Christian Doctrine of Sin," I. p. 178 9.

2 Shedd (W. G. T.) "The Method and Influence of Theological Studies," "Discourses and Essays," p. 7 sq. ; Sears (B.) "An Educated Ministry," in "Chr. Rev.," Vol. XVIII. p. 567 sq. , Robinson (E. G.) " Doctrine and Life," in "Chr. Rev." for 1S59, p. 161 sq. ; Hovey (A.) "The Study of Doctrinal Theology Useful to Pastors," in "Chr. Rev." 1863, p. 646 sq. ; "The Christian Pastor; his Work, and the Needful Preparation ; " Chalmers (T.) "Institutes of Theology," I. p. 353 sq. ; Bonifas "The Relative Value of Christian Doctrine," in "Theological Eclectic" for 1S70; Wayland (F.) "The Apostolic Ministry."

material, the interest in so representing the doctrines of Christian faith and action in their absolute truth that all doubt and contradiction and internal incoherence of Christian thinking may vanish away." 1

It should also purify and protect the conscience. For the doctrines of Christianity are sacred : perversion of them is a great sin ; and therefore no teacher can innocently neglect the best knowledge of them within his reach. To teach them positively, and so effectively, without doing violence to conscience, he must study them thoroughly, with the best helps within his reach.

It should, at the same time, deepen, as well as test, his religious life. Some of the truths, plainly taught in the Scriptures, and claiming the attention of a student of theology, are fitted to try his faith and humility severely. But, if he bears the trial, a great blessing follows. " Light is sown for the righteous." Christian knowledge is favorable to deep piety. Ignorance is not the mother of real devotion.

It should make his preaching more truthful and comprehensive. A man should preach what he intelligently believes. Beyond that he cannot go with safety to himself or to others. Not only in reaching the impenitent, but also and especially in edifying Christians, does a knowledge of theology serve a minister of the gospel.

It should both augment and improve his influence over others for their good. A minister's success is equal to the balance of good over evil in his influence, whether that influence be direct or indirect. A right, as well as a deep impression is to be made. 2

1 Nitzsch (C. I.) " Praktische Theologie," III. I. S. 90 sq.

2 " Sunt qui scire volunt eo tantum fine ut sciant, et turpis curiositas est ; et sunt qui scire volunt ut sciantur ipsi,.et turpis vanitas est; et sunt item qui scire volunt ut scientiam suam vendant, verbi causa, pro pecunia, pro honoribus, et turpis quaestus est. Sed sunt quoque qui scire volunt ut aedificent, et charitas est; et item qui scire volunt ut aedificentur, et prudentia est." Again: "Ut legeret intelligendi fecit cupiditas ; ut intelligent oratio impetravit ; ut impetraret vitas sanctitas promeruit. Sic cupiat, sic oret, sic vivat qui se proficere velit." St. Bernard, Sermo XXXVI. super Cant. p. 604.

VI. TOPICS.

I. The Existence of God.

II. The Bible from God.

III. The Perfection of God.

IV. The Doctrine of Man.

V. The Doctrine of Salvation.

VI. Christian Churches and Ordinances.

VII. The Doctrine of The Last Things.

Whether this arrangement of topics is the best possible must be left for the present undecided. Against it, one objection may be raised, to wit, that the first and third topics belong naturally together; but, in response, it may be said, that the second topic is in its place, because it presupposes the first, and is pre-supposed by the third.

The arrangement of topics given above is practically followed by nearly all theologians, and is adopted formally by many; for example, Turretin, Hodge, Miiller, Wardlaw, and others.

Calvin, Marheinecke, Martensen, and others, regard all Christian truth as embraced in the Doctrines of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The baptismal formula, and the early creeds may have suggested this view ; but it gives no suitable and sufficient place to Anthropology.

Liebner, Thomasius, Fuller, and others, would have the person and work of Christ embrace all Christian truth. This view, however, tends to subordinate unduly the work of the Father and of the Holy Spirit, and to make the incarnation of the Word indispensable, even apart from sin.

Oosterzee and, partly, Augustine, make the Kingdom of God the ruling idea of all theological truth. I. God : The King. II. Man: The Subject. III. Christ: The Founder of the Kingdom. IV. Redemption : The Character of the Kingdom. V. The Way of Salvation : The Law of the Kingdom. VI. The Church : Its Training School. VII. The Completion of the Kingdom.

Hase, in " Hutterus Redivivus," makes Reconciliation, through Christ, the regulative idea. I. The Sources : Bible (and Nature). II. The Object: God. III. The Subject: Man. IV. The Means: Christ, &c. V. The Result: Reconciliation.

VII. WRITERS ON SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

The following contains the names of a few men who discussed particular doctrines only ; but most of those mentioned treated in their works of all the doctrines which they included in theology.

i. Athanasius was born in Alexandria about a.d. 300, and died there in a.d. 373.

His doctrinal writings are the following: 1. A Discourse respecting the Incarnation and the Logos. 2. An Exposition of his Faith in the Trinity. 3. A Letter on the Decrees of the Nicene Council. 4. A Letter on the Doctrine of Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria. 5. Four Orations against the Arians. 6. A Letter to Serapion. 7. Another to Epictetus ; and 8. A Treatise, in two books, against Apollinaris. All these works relate to the Divinity of Christ, or to the doctrine of the Trinity, in some of its aspects. Athanasius is a clear, logical, and earnest writer. No one of the Greek fathers is worthy of so careful study as a theologian.

2. Augustine was born Nov. 13, 353, and died Aug. 26, 430. His doctrinal works are very numerous ; and, apart from his De Civitate Dei, a work even more comprehensive and doctrinal than Edwards's " History of Redemption," may be arranged in three classes. 1. Those which relate to the Trinity, in opposition to the Arians and Manichaeans. 2. Those which relate to Anthropology, in opposition to the Pelagians ; and, 3. Those which relate to the polity and purity of the Church in opposition to the Donatists.

These works evince fair scholarship, great depth and acuteness of thought, a vigorous imagination, and oftentimes fervid piety.

3. John of Damascus was born somewhat prior to a.d. 700, at Damascus. The time of his death is unknown ; but it was between a.d. 754 and 787.

His principal Treatise was entitled, "An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith." It is the earliest work on systematic theology, but not strictly original. It is composed largely of quotations from the fathers of the Church, with connecting and explanatory remarks.

4. Anselm of Canterbury was born in a.d. 1033, at Aosta, of Piedmont, and died a.d. 1109.

His theological writings were as follows : r. Monologium de Divinitatis essentia. 2. Proslogion de Dei existentia} 3. De fide Trinitatis et de incamatione Verbi. 4. Cur Dens Homo ? 2 The second contains his famous a priori demonstration of the existence of God, and the fourth is the earliest elaborate statement of the commercial theory of the Atonement.

5. Peter of Lombardy was born near Novara, in Lombardy, about a.d. i 100, and died, according to some authorities, in a.d. 1 160; according to others, in a.d. 1164^ His great work in theology was entitled Sententiarum Libri Quatuor. It resembles somewhat the Treatise of John of Damascus, but evinces much greater acuteness. It quotes from the fathers, and attempts to reconcile their conflicting views.

"The Sentences" was for a long time used as a text-book on theology in Catholic universities. Teachers lectured upon it, as they did on the works of Aristotle.

6. Thomas Aquinas was born in a.d. 1227, at Aquino, in Campania, and died in a.d. 1274. His principal work was entitled Summa Theologica, and divided into three parts. In Part First, he treats of the Being and Attributes of God, of Predestination, Providence, and the Trinity ; of Angels ; of the Creation of our World ; and of Man, — his nature, primitive state, the origin of evil, free will, the penalty of sin, &c.

1 Translated in the "Bib. Sacra," Vol. VIII.

2 Translated in the "Bib. Sacra," Vol. XL, XII.

In Part Second, he treats of the powers of the human soul, the nature and extent of moral law, and indeed of all questions in Christian Ethics. In Part Third, he treats of the Person and Work of Christ, and of the Sacraments. Aquinas belonged to the Augustinian school of theologians.