A handbook for rural school officers

Front matter

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Class

Book

Author's Preface

This is intended as a handbook for rural school trustees, and has for its purpose the stimulation of these officers in their interest in education to the extent that they will put forth the greatest personal effort to accomplish the most possible for their respective districts. It is intended that all information given herein shall be authentic, and that all suggestions shall be based upon the best methods and practices now used in administering the common schools of our country. The volume is a result of personal investigation of plans and practices now in use in the best rural communities of the United States.

Our educational system has grown out of the rural unit organized during our early history. At its very beginning, it was vital to our stability as a free government, it has persisted to the present, and its improvement as a national institution is now of great public importance. Each rural coHimunity has in it the vital elements necessary to a great America, and the public school must become the coordinating organization necessary to fuse these elements into a living force. The better the school the more vitalized the community must be. The greater the development provided for each individual, the more important and the more powerful our Nation will surely become. May each school officer recognize the fact that he holds the keys to American progress, which can only become the sum total of the combined thinking of all of the people.

It is not intended that this volume should represent some original plan for school organization and administration, worked out wholly differently from that now found in our viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE

best schools. On the other hand, it is purposely intended to point out the proven way to the best success through the means which have been tried in actual practice. The author has called upon many teachers and educators for suggestions, many of which have been freely used with the hope of making the contents of greatest practical value.

The author especially wishes to acknowledge the help which came directly from the members of his own faculty, who either offered suggestions which have been freely used or gave assistance in preparing one or more of the chapters. In this connection the following names should specifically be mentioned: F. E. Barr, George E. Craig, Alma A. Dobbs, Mary Ensfield, Josephine FitzGerald, George W. Frasier, Frances Johnston, Curtis Merriman, Bertha Most, and George H. Yost.

I also wish to make especial acknowledgment of the help received from Mr. Earl W. Morrison, a school architect with offices in Spokane, Washington, for his assistance in preparing the plans and drawings for most of the type-schools given in this volume.

N. D. Showalter

Cheney, Washington

January, 1920

Contents

Editor's Introduction v

Author's Preface vii

A Foreword xvii

Chapter I. The Public School as a National Asset . . 1

Government inventory of education — Evidence of education worth — Parents' recognition of the organized school — Nation's use of the school — Free government depends upon intelligent citizenship — Civic responsibilities — Faith in education — The school, "The Birthright of the Children" — School purpose at its beginning — Change in requirements — Education explained

— Larger responsibilities to the school — Need for larger subsidies.

Chapter II. General Plan of Organization ... 8 Schools administered by States — Beginning National subsidies

— Effect of subsidies on the older States — War and education

— National responsibilities — Tendency toward non-political boards — State boards as unifying element — State executive officer — County, "the unit of administration" — District units — Joint responsibilities of home and school.

Chapter III. The School Election and choosing School Officers 18

Requirements for good citizenship — Responsibilities in representative government — Means of political expression — How to determine National standards — The school in association with government — Facts disclosed in school-election records — Difficulty in securing qualiSed officers — Suggested remedies.

Chapter IV. Work of the Organized School Board

Requirements of school officers — Some common mistakes — Good organization and good records — Importance of board working as a unit — Need for a trustee's policy for use of buildings — Inspection of school premises — School spirit and leadership.

iii)

X CONTENTS

Chapter V. Resources and Finances . . . .,35

Financing as adopted by different States — Large units better for financing — Local district tax — Hoav buildings and equipment are provided — Bonds necessary to financing — The annual budget sj'stem — \'ouchers plan of payment — Keeping public records.

Chapter VI. The School Site 43

Choosing new site or improving the old — The relation of building site to the school — Attractive school grounds — Size of school site — Influence of surroundings upon children — Advantage of "Arbor Day" — Impressive surroundings.

Chapter VII. The School Plant 50

Buildings composing school plant — Trees and shrubbery in the plan — Secure landscape gardener — The " Teacherage " or school cottage — Advantage in securing trained teachers — Need for school gymnasium — Suggestions for buildings — Size of school buildings — Details for buildings — Proper lighting — Provisions for constructions — The color scheme — Relationship between physical and mental child — Pure air and proper ventilation — Installation of toilets — Water-pressure system — Drinking-fountains and lavatories — Water for fire protection and irrigation.

Chapter VIII. Furniture and Apparatus .... 75

Schoolroom atmosphere — School comforts and their attractions — School furnishings essential — Furnishings desirable — The school kitchenette — Essential apparatus — Desirable apparatus — Special apparatus — Playground apparatus — Good housekeeping in the schoolroom — Local firms most reliable.

Chapter IX. Schoolroom Decorations 85

/Esthetic tastes developed in all children — Furniture and its harmonious effect — Worth of beautiful surroundings — Handicap in artistic progress — Influence of decorations — Interior arrangement by teacher and pupils — Properly kept blackboards — Value of posters, programs, notices — Pictures for decoration — Life-story of picture necessary — Good framing an advantage — Pottery and the use of vases — Relationship of the beautiful and the good.

CONTENTS xi

Chapter X. Selecting the Teacher , . . • . 94

The teacher's influence — Special training necessary — Normal school as training center — Higher requirements in school — How to secure good teachers — Proper procedvu'e of investigation — General recommendations of little value — Standardizations necessary — Reception of teacher — Worth of cooperation.

Chapter XI. Special Official Duties . . . , . 103

Minimum time, maximum efficiency — Yearly school calendar — Bids and contracts — Rules and regulations governing official acts — Opening of school — Rights of petition — Care of defective youth — The lawful contract — Keeping of register — Official forms.

Chapter XII. The Daily Program 109

Need for definite schedule — A workable program for each day • — Important factors considered in program — Correct classifications — Length of school year a factor — Adjustments of program often necessary — Combination of class work — Alternating subjects — Substitution of subject-matter — Direction of seat work.

Chapter XIII. The Home and School in Cooperation . 119

Alliance of home and school — Transition from home to school — Personal association necessary — The teacher a social leader — A new point of view evolved — Parent-teacher movement — Aim and purpose of mothers' organization — The schoolhouse a meeting-place — Recommendations for organizations — Varied programs.

Chapter XIV. Rural School Supervision .... 127

Attention given to rural education — Administration and supervision different — Supervision in city systems — Disadvantages of small unit — Impossibility expected — Local welfare versus national interest — Two plans suggested — Good roads an element — Grange and other farm organizations investigate plans — School plants greatly changed.

Chapter XV. Consolidation of Rural Schools . . .134

Hov/ education has evolved — Now considered universal need — Increased interests — Unquestionable support — A progressive community — Careful consideration necessary — Limitations of xii CONTENTS

one-room school — Important items considered — How to reach

a decision — Means for transporting pupils.

Chapter XVI. Redirected Education 147 Complaints lodged against school — Investigation an outgrowi;h

— Changes in plans and policies — Child's development of first importance — Coordination of study and work — Personal adaptation — Combining facts and interest — The child's social needs

— Relation of school to community work — The church an important agency — The fully developed individual — What education must include.

Chapter XVIl. Practical Education 154

Early education defined — Individual differences — Applied principles made practical — The type and character of work — Combination courses for grades — Better understanding of surroundings — The well-balanced curriculum — Application of knowledge to immediate needs — Education and the growth of nations

— Constructive criticism.

Chapter XVIII. Manual Training and Home Economics IGI

Results from study — Development necessarily varied — Aim ^d manual arts teaching — Personal characteristics developed — ' Manual arts, as vitalizing element — The keynote of the subject — How determine usefulness — Organization and division of work

— What to include — Work outline for girls.

Chapter XIX. The Hot Lunch and its Value . . .169

General approval given to plan — Lunch-basket a necessity — Effect of hurried eating — How to make a beginning — A mother's appreciation — Opportunity it affords — Interest stimulated in children — Neon lunch common meeting-ground — Meaning of efficiency — Home-making duties.

Chapter XX. Health Education and Medical Inspection 176

Child welfare — Health supervision in schools — Program of work — Sense-training essential — Health and work — Home study and heal'ch — Precautions necessary — Three views for consideration — Examination may vary — Five primary defects — Ansemia common among children — "Poor food" has varied meanings — Sunshine and sleep — Personal history and family

CONTENTS xiii

record — Retardation caused by defects — Parents should cooperate — Carriers of disease — Hygiene made practical — Specialist must have tact — Habits valuable — Incentives best appeal — Moral hygiene and conduct.

Chapter XXI. Citizenship in a Democracy .... 192

Responsibility of individual — Ballot-box means of expression — Influence governing voting — Superiority of men — Liberty, its application — Nation, how characterized — Contributing agencies — Government individualistic — Equality of men — Education of fundamental — Program of education — Ideals needed.

List OF Books FOR Further Reading 201

Score Card to be used in measuring School Success 202

General Rating-Sheet for Standard Rural Schools . 203

Standard Rating-Sheet for Rural Schools . . . 207

Suggestions for County Trustees' Meetings or for CoMiNiuNiTY Meetings 209

Index 211

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

A Good One-Teacher Rural-School Plant . . Frontispiece

A Common Type of Schoolhouse Site ..... 44

A Better Type of School Site 45

A Small "Teacherage" and a One-Room Rural School . 52

A Two-Room Teachers' Cottage 53

A Three- or Five-Room Teachers' Cottage .... 54

A Four- or Five-Room Teachers' Cottage . ... 55

A Simple Outdoor Gymnasium 5^

A Simple and Satisfactory One-Room Rural-School

Building 58

Another Type of One-Room Rural-School Building . 59 A Simple Two-Room Rural-School Building ... 60 A Very Desirable Type of Rural-School Building . . 61

The Model Rural-School Building 63

An Interior View of a Classroom Q5

Heating and Ventilating Plan for a Small School . . 67 Cross-Section of the Ventilating Plan . . . . .69 Plan for a Toilet where Running Water is not available 71

Types of Modern Consolidated Schools . . . .140

Using the Old School Building 140

Map Showing School Consolidation in One Indiana

County 142

Different Means for Transporting Pupils . . . .144

Manual Training in the Rural School 164

The Domestic Science and Sev/ing Room . . . .164 The Hot Noon Lunch in the Rural School . . . .172

The Wrong Kind of School Toilet 180

Simple Health Inspection 180

Health Defects in City and Country Children Compared 187

A FOREWORD

CREED FOR THE SCHOOL TRUSTEE OR THE SCHOOL DIRECTOR

I BELIEVE in the directors, the devoted men of to-day and yesterday; that whatever they sow the community will reap.

I BELIEVE the director should visit the school often, consult with the teacher, advise with the parents, and cooperate with any power that will advance the cause of education in his school.

I BELIEVE the teacher makes the school; that no minted coin is small enough to pay for the services of a poor one, and none too rich for the real teacher.

I BELIEVE in the hopes and ideals of the efficient teacher; in her sympathy and power for good; in her enthusiasm and good cheer that leads her on.

I BELIEVE in the innocence of childhood, in sunshine, in laughter, in the castles that fancy rears; in the purity of child life, in the removal of temptation; in the suppression of vice and crime.

I BELIEVE there is a problem for every day I live; that opportunity knocks at my door continually; that progress and good citizenship demand that I stay at my post of duty.

I BELIEVE that ignorance is a tax; that the unskilled represent lost opportunity; that lack of training and proper development represent waste.

I BELIEVE that our greatest problem is the proper training of our generation; that interest and dollar marks will not weigh in the balance with our ideals of worth and character; that our hopes and fears must still center around the fountains of love and laughter.

I BELIEVE in civic pride; in community life; and in the responsibility of the individual; in public opinion; in the open forum; in the rule of the people; and that their voice is the voice of God. Amen.

Author unhioicn

A HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL OFFICERS

Chapter I The Public School As A National Asset

Our Government recently made an inventory of all of its assets. Public school education was placed near the top of the list. Wiile this is the first time that definite recognition has been given to public school education nationally, the people have given evidence of its worth by placing larger and larger responsibilities upon it with complete faith in its ability to respond. They have committed to it their children, knowing full well that it would stamp upon their young minds indelible impressions which would characterize them through life. Parents, too, have recognized the organized school as a means of securing a better understanding of the Nation's requirements. The Nation in turn has used the public school, because of its vast organization, to send propaganda broadcast to its millions of people. The school has shown itself to be the open portal to the home life. It has already been proved to be the greatest influence in securing the cooperation of community life with that of the Nation's needs.

It was clearly recognized by the founders of our free Republic that the maintenance of such a government must depend upon intelligent citizenship. If the ruling power be inherent in the people, then an educated citizenship is necessary to progress. "Education" here is used in its broadest sense, meaning a clear comprehension of life's needs with an earnest desire to give this in full measure to all of the people. In order to attain this end, each one must be rounded out to his highest development. Each one must be prepared to assume his portion of responsibility. If mistakes are made, all must suffer the consequences alike. Of great importance, then, is the thinking of each individual citizen. Good judgment and careful reasoning are essential requisites of each person. A democratic form of government can rest safe only with a people thus endowed, and can progress only to the extent that this conception, and the understanding of its own general welfare, prevail.

If each person has civic responsibilities, there must be some means of determining just what these are. Each one must not only know the principles upon w^hich our Government is based, but must be given the ability to help maintain those principles and to assist in carrying them to their highest development. This civic responsibility must be reinforced by a clearer conception of social relationship and of moral obligations. The word "government" represents an association of peoples, and the determining influences must carry out the idea of happiness and welfare for the entire group. Social intercourse of the right character means racial development of the highest order. Moral ideals form the basis for both civic and social improvement. Upon this rests the honor of the Nation. Conceptions of right and wrong, of truth and honesty, of honor and virtue, govern our actions and influence all of our decisions. In a democracy, then, there must be national conscience and national responsibility — all of which turns back to the people themselves, upon whom all responsibility falls and in whom all conscience exists.

In order to insure universal education of the right sort our public schools were inaugurated. Through this means personal development is guaranteed and the basis for independ-

PUBLIC SCHOOL A NATIONAL ASSET S

ent government is maintained. Faith in public education as an enterprise is evidenced by the growing interest which the people have shown in it through the years, by the fact that greater financial aid has been given each year, and by the further fact that it has been extended to include all the different types of human development, offering opportunity for technical and research study as well as providing a recognized general training. The school has often been called "the birthright of the children," and it is not an uncommon thing for parents to make sacrifices in order that their children may have the full benefit of the school direction. The State has shown a determination to protect this right of the child by enacting compulsory educational laws. These laws vary in strictness in the different States, but usually require children to attend school until they shall have had at least a common school education and until they are sixteen years of age. Some States also require that all children be required to continue even after this age or attainment unless profitably employed. Through such laws the State aims to protect the children and at the same time to foster independent citizenship for all its people.

The pubhc school was first organized to supplement the teachings of the home and the church. It was maintained during the winter months when the children could really be of little help to the parents. Children were required to work at an early age because of the difficulties surrounding pioneer life, and because httle machinery, which in recent years has saved both time and labor, had come into use. The schools at first represented very elementary work, and the teaching in many cases was imperfect. However, this institution proved its adaptation to the ever-changing conditions and won for itself universal approval and the unqualified support of the people.

The few short months allotted the school at first have been extended until now the "all-year school" is being advocated. Many city communities are now offering such advantages to their children, and the plan is sure to be generally adopted in time. As the three months' school grew into the six months' term, and the six months' term was extended to the nine and ten months' requirement, so also is the all-year school most certain to become an organized necessity in our final plan for educational work. This does not mean, of course, that each child must go during the entire year, but rather it offers the opportunity for continuous educational development, wherever that is possible, and also it offers a varied educational opportunity, suitable to different kinds of training and development, in addition to the civic, the social, and the moral training which has usually been recognized as a first requirement.

New subject-matter has been injected into the curricula from year to year, until school work now represents a workshop of the most practical character, in addition to the mental development which was once thought to be the only requirement. The three H's, representing the head, the hand, and the heart, have supplanted the old idea of the three R's which first formed the required elements. To discover a child's personal characteristics and to develop him so that he may become a useful member of society, is now considered as important as to direct his thinking and reasoning powers. Or, putting it in another way, we may say that the application of knowledge is now made a part of the school's work.

Education has its rootlets centered deep in the public school system, and depends in a large measure upon this institution to formulate the basic elements which develop into the larger, fuller, and more complete life needs and possibilities.

Since the whole child, mental, physical, and moral, must

PUBLIC SCHOOL A NATIONAL ASSET 5

go to school, it has been found necessary to make this institution responsible for the entire unity of his development. An individual must have a good physique in order to be a valuable member of society. Proper direction during childhood insures development of strength, and gives the right conception of health as well. One cannot be strong unless one's body is free from disease, and it is necessary to exercise proper care in this direction throughout one's life. All sense training must be done during childhood, and habits of the right sort should be formed during youth; hence this is the all-important season for instilling principles that will insure health and strength throughout the years. More and more are the schools coming to recognize the need of using the greatest care in directing this work, and each year additional responsibilities come in administering health education.

The time has passed when the teaching of a little physiology and hygiene sufficed, for this proved of little value because of its failure to make an impression which insured personal application. In the best schools hygiene is now taught by doing, and the lessons taught are immediately applied to the personal needs of the children. Results can be measured every day, and the children are forming habits during this impressionable period which will cling to them through life. This work is the more important when we recognize it as preventive teaching, since our best physicians consider this the fundamental basis of good health. This adds to the national value of the public school as an institution, and health education work w^ill be emphasized and directed more carefully in all of the schools as its value becomes more fully known.

It may well be added that much corrective work is also being done in many of the schools. Teachers generally are being taught to detect physical weakness and to cooperate with parents in determining the best means of giving relief.

Through medical inspection many discoveries have been made which have aided not only in improving the health of the children, but also in furthering at the same time their mental development. The early years of the child's life seem to be the age of preparation, the time during which he shall fill his storehouse with abundant energy, the time during which he shall convert personal characteristics into potential forces. The Nation is wise, then, in concerning itself deeply in the development and general welfare of each child during the formative period of his life, because such direction insures a more useful member of society.

Last but not least of the responsibilities now assigned the school is that of moral training. Morality is really a growth, and marks the individual strongest who for a long period of time is exposed to the highest and best principles of life and living. The proper use of knowledge is really fundamental in education, because a mind well developed, but used for destructive purposes, becomes a greater menace to society than ignorance itself. It is important, therefore, to teach by example the highest moral principles and to place an environment about the school and about child-life in general which will be conducive to the best things. During the child's early years moral principles may be established through imitation. It is most important, therefore, to furnish him with the best, as types from which to copy.

The home life should establish the first standards, but these must be supplemented in the school, where often deeper impressions are made on a child than through any other medium. The entire atmosphere of the school, then, should be such as to make impressions of the right sort, and each community should place upon the school responsibilities which will insure moral teaching both by precept and by example. Any influence destructive to high ideals should be removed from the school premises, and should not be per-

PUBLIC SCHOOL A NATIONAL ASSET 7

mitted in any neighborhood, because nobiHty of character is one of the first elements to bring happiness and insure equaHty and fraternity among men.

How important it is for a nation to be able to call forth strong men when the principles of government need to be maintained! How valuable it is to have wise counselors among the people in times of stress ! How necessary it is to have good organizers to formulate the massive strength into a combined force! How very necessary it is to have the scientist who peers deep into the mysteries of the unknown and discovers the laws which influence our progress ! All of these, combined with the universal intelligent citizenship, represent every phase of human achievement, and with earnest, honest convictions in undertaking what is best for all mankind — such citizenship is the greatest asset that any nation can have. Inlierent, then, in the people themselves do we find life's greatest possibihties. To bring this forth means '* education" in its biggest and broadest sense.

With all these things, and many more not mentioned, giving evidence of the worth of public education, it is quite certain that greater educational subsidies will be provided in future years, and that the pubhc school will be able to serve in a larger capacity the needs of a free people.

1. What evidence have we that education really pays?

2. Is it proper to tax all property, including public utilities, for educational purposes?

3. Are our public schools improving as rapidly as the growth and development of our country demands?

4. What can you suggest as the most important improvement which could be made by the public school as it now exists?

5. To what extent should the school be held responsible for the moral training and for the physical and health education of the children?

CHAPTER II GENERAL PLAN OF ORGANIZATION The Nation and the States

The National Government made no provision for education at the time our Federal Constitution was adopted. This was an intended omission, because it was strongly believed at that time that the schools should be directed and administered entirely by the States. In the President's Cabinet, therefore, as it was originally organized, and as it has been rearranged through the years, no Department of Education has been established. There has been a growing sentiment in favor of such a Department, and with the new recognition given to education nationally there is every reason why such a provision should be made. Now that the common school system has proved its worth, and has been recognized as a national enterprise, there is every reason why it should be fostered and harmonized in a way better to meet the needs of the National Government.

In the early part of the nineteenth century, when Ohio was admitted as a State (1802), there was a provision inserted into its Constitution which required that section number sixteen in each township be set aside as a subsidy for public school education. In accepting this Constitution the Congress of the United States established a precedent, which continued as a definite provision in each state constitution for ahnost fifty years. It should be stated that before the admission of Ohio several of the States made no provision for public education in their constitutions, while others made only slight mention as to the establishment of public education. Our national policy in education then really had its

GENERAL PLAN OF ORG.WIZATION 9

beginning with the approval of the Constitution of the State of Ohio.

Nearly fifty years later, when California was admitted to the Union, there was a provision in its Constitution that two sections, sixteen and thirty-six, be set aside in that State as a land grant for the common schools. For forty years this precedent continued to be recognized in the case of each State applying for admission, with the exception of the State of West Virginia, admitted during the Civil War in 1863, whose Constitution made no provision for a public school land grant. Three States, namely: Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, admitted since 1890, have provisions for four sections, two and thirty-two having been added to the old provision.

There were other types of subsidies provided for by some of the States, but these vary so much that each individual case cannot be cited. This additional provision, provided for in the Ilhnois Constitution, may serve as a type:

Five per cent of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the State of Illinois which shall be sold by Congress, from the first day of July, 1819, after deducting all expenses incident to the same, shall be reserved for the purposes following, namely : two fifths to be disbursed under the direction of Congress in making roads leading to the State; the residue to be appropriated, by the Legislature of the State, for the encouragement of learning, of which one sixth part shall be exclusively bestowed on a college or university.

That thirty-six sections, or one entire township, which shall be designated by the President of the United States, together with the one heretofore reserved for that purpose, shall be reserved for the use of a seminary of learning, and vested in the legislature of the State, to be appropriated solely to the use of such seminary by said legislature.

The older States, which constituted the Union before the admission of Ohio, soon began to sense the value of these land subsidies, and adopted within their respective legislatures the following resolution:

Resolved that each of the United States have an equal right to participate in the benefit of the public lands as the common property of the Union ; and that the States in whose favor Congress has not yet made appropriations of lands for the purpose of education, are entitled to such appropriations as will be in just proportion with those heretofore made in favor of the other States.

After much discussion by the National Congress, and after many different plans were proposed, this matter was finally dropped indefinitely until 1862, when Senator Morrill introduced a bill in Congress providing a land subsidy for the encouragement of agricultural teaching and scientific engineering training. With the approval of this bill a new precedent was established, following which came the establishment of the Land Grant colleges and institutions for the encouragement of agriculture and the industrial sciences. This led to the provision in the Constitution of the lateradmitted States for large land grants for institutions of higher learning. Subsequently, too, the Hatch Fund (1887) and the Adams Fund (1890) were created by Congress, to encourage agricultural experimentation and teaching; the Smith-Lever Fund was provided (1914) to inaugurate extension work in agriculture and home economics; and the Smith-Hughes Fund (1917) for the encouragement of industrial training and agricultural work in institutions below ths college grade.