Types and market classes of live stock

Preface To First Edition

During the past eight years there has been added to the curriculum in most of our agricultural colleges a new course dealing with the types of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock. More properly speaking, it has been inserted at the very beginning of the work in animal husbandry, forming, as it logically does, the foundation course in the study of that important branch of agriculture. This is a soundly practical study; the student is brought to a much clearer conception of values and a much better appreciation of live stock than was possible under the former system of teaching.

Recognizing the need of a text on this subject which could be placed in the hands of students, the writer prepared and printed a loose-leaf edition which has been used at Ohio State University during the past three years. This met with favorable comment, and requests have been made that the material be put into book form. After careful revision and the addition of a number of illustrations, this is now attempted in the hope that students and teachers and the general reader as well may find such a book useful.

The arrangement of the subject-matter corresponds to the order usually followed in teaching, but may be varied as desired, each section of the book— Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, and Horses — being complete in itself.

The writer desires to express his indebtedness to numerous commission men, buyers for the packing houses, and others who have kindly given their assistance during his quests for information, and to numerous experiment station publications, particularly the series of excellent bulletins issued by the Illinois Station setting forth the results of their studies of the Chicago and St. Louis markets. Acknowledgment of valued assistance is due my present co-workers, and also Professors C. S. Plumb and F. R. Marshall at Ohio State University.

Iowa State College, H. W. VAUGHAN.

Preface To Fifth Edition

At most agricultural colleges, the study of beef cattle begins with the fat steer at the market, both on foot and in the carcass, proceeds from that to a study of cattle in the feed-lot, and then considers the selection and operation of the breeding herd. Similar procedures are followed in studying other kinds of live stock. If the student learns his first lesson at the market, he comes to the feed-lot fortified with a knowledge of what the market wants, and he then proceeds to a study of the breeding herd knowing what both the market and the feed-lot demand from the breeder.

This is the most practical method of teaching because the market should serve as a guide to the breeder and feeder; and it is best from a pedagogical standpoint because finished animals for the market are easiest to judge, are judged on practical points, the student begins his judging with the more elementary and proceeds to the more complex types, and as he progresses to each new stage he brings with him a soundly practical viewpoint gained from his previous experience. Finally, in his study of the commercial breeding herd, the produce of which goes direct to the feed-lot or market, he learns the necessity for using good purebred sires, and this leads in logical order to the study of the breeds of farm animals. He takes up the breed studies with a clear understanding that it is the function of these breeds to supply seed to improve all farm and range live stock, he has a firm belief in their power to perform this function, and he is led to compare and value the various breeds as they should be compared and valued, namely on their ability to meet practical requirements. In short, the modern plan of study, which proceeds from the market to the breeds, rather than from the breeds to the market, gives the student the right philosophy of the live-stock business, particularly the purebred live-stock business.

In the first edition of this book, published in 1915, the undersigned endeavored to present clearly and concisely the things a beginner in the field of Animal Husbandry should know, leading up to, but not including, the study of the breeds. The

10 Preface to Fifth Edition

favor with which the book was received far surpassed the expectations of those responsible for its appearance, and led to three reprintings of the original edition. Thus encouraged, the book has been rewritten so as to bring it up to date and give it greater clearness and accuracy, yet retaining the original plan without any radical changes.

A number of new illustrations are included. At the suggestion of several instructors at various colleges, three new chapters, III., VIL, and XXXVII. , have been added. These additions meet the test applied to all parts of the book, namely they treat concisely of subjects concerning which the beginner should be informed before taking up more advanced studies in animal husbandry.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

An Ideal Feeder's Head. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) — Frontispiece

1. Points of the Steer 28

2. Points of the Steer 29

3. Correct Type in the Fat Steer. (Photograph by Mr. F. E.

Colburn. Courtesy Iowa State College.) 32

4. A Steer with Excellent Lines. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) . 34

5. A Feed-Lot Model. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 37

6. Knocking Cattle 40

7. Wholesale Cuts of Beef 43

8. Cuts of Beef Indicated in the Live Animal. (Courtesy Iowa

State College.) 45

9. Beef Ribs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 50

10. Well-Marbled Beef. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 51

11. Dairy-Type Steer. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 63

12. Dairy-Type Steer. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 67

13. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. (Courtesy Iowa State

14. Carcasses of Beef and Dairy Calves. (Courtesy Iowa State

15. Union Stock Yards, Chicago. (Courtesy Mr. A. G. Leonard

and Union Stock Yard and Transit Co.) 77

16. Ideal of Early Beef Producers. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 86

17. Prime Baby Beef. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 88

18. Baby Beeves on Feed. (Courtesy Prof. A. B. Caine, Iowa

State College.) 89

19. Prime Fat Heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

20. Fancy Selected Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof.

H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 96

21. An Average Load of Steers on Feed. (Courtesy Iowa State

22. Fancy Feeder Calves ^ 103

23. Prime Fat Steers " 108

24. Choice Fat Steers 109

25. Good Fat Steers. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

26. Prime Baby Beeves. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) Ill

27. Old-Time Texas Long-Horn. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall,

Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.) 112

28. Modern Western Range Cattle. 113

29. Good to Choice Heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof.

H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 114

30. Good Cutters. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

31. Common or Inferior Canners. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy

Prof. H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 116

32. Choice Feeder. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

33. Good Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

34. Medium Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

35. Common or Inferior Feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78. Courtesy

Prof. H. W. Mumford, Illinois Experiment Station.) 120

36. Choice Veal Calf. (From 111. Bui {IS. Courtesy Prof. H. W.

37. Correct Type in the Beef Sire 132

38. Correct Type in the Beef Cow 134

39. An Excellent Breeding Cow. (Courtesy Iowa State College.). . 136

40. Points of the Dairy Cow 139

41. A Dairy Cow with Utility Points Emphasized. (Courtesy Iowa

State Department of Agriculture.) 141

42. A Combination of Beauty and Utility 142

43. Excellent Type in the Dairy Cow 144

44. An Inferior Dairy Cow 148

45. Excellent Type in the Dairy Bull. (Courtesy Iowa State

Department of Agriculture.) 152

46. A Dairy Bull with Strength and Vigor 153

47. Cross-Section of Cow's Udder. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the

Domestic Animals. Courtesy Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 156

48. Where Milk is Made 158

49. Circulation To and From the Udder 159

50. What Good Purebred Sires Can Do. (From Iowa Bui. 188.

Courtesy Prof. A. C. McCandlish, Iowa State College.) 174

51. The Dual-Purpose Type. (Courtesy Mr. J. .J. Hill, St. Paul,

52. The Dual-Purpose Type (Courtesy Mr. Geo. P. Grout, Duluth,

53. Points of the Sheep 195

54. Correct Type in the Fat Wether 197

55. Long-Wool Sheep. (Courtesy Iowa State Department of

Agriculture.) 199

56. Killing Sheep at Chicago 204

57. Wholesale Cuts of Mutton 206

58. Round-Joint and Break-Joints 209

59. Prime Native Lambs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 216

60. Prime Western Lambs. (Courtesy Armour & Company, Chi-

61. Choice Western Lambs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 219

62. Good Lambs. (Courtesy Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experi-

ment Station.) 220

63. Common or Cull Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof.

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 221

64. Prime Native Yearlings. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 222

65. Prime Western Yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy

Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 223

66. Good Yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. W. C.

Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 224

67. Common Wethers. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof. W. C.

Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 225

68. Fancy Selected Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Cour-

tesy Prof. W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 227

69. Good Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof.

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 228

70. Common Feeder Lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129. Courtesy Prof.

W. C. Coffey, Illinois Experiment Station.) 229

71. Correct Type in the Mutton Breeding Ram. (Courtesy Mr.

72. Correct Type in the Breeding Ewe 241

73. A Prize-Winning Flock 242

74. A Flock of Uniform Type 243

75. Class A Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S.

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 246

76. Class B Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S.

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 248

77. Class C Merino Ram. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S.

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 251

78. Class B Merino Ewe. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S.

Bureau of Animal Industry.) 252

79. Rambouillet Ewe. (Courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau

of Animal Industry.) 253

80. Wool Fiber Highly Magnified 255

81. Cross-Section of a Wool Fiber 256

82. Woolen and Worsted Yarns. (From U. S. House of Rep. Doc.

342, Wool and Manufactures of Wool.) 258

83. Clothing ahd Combing Wools. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

84. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

85. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

86. Grades of Combing Wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

87. Tender Wool Showing Break. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

88. Points of the Hog 284

89. Correct Type in the Fat Barrow 286

90. Finished Barrows. (Courtesy National Duroc-Jersey Record

Association.) 288

91. Fancy Market Bacon Pig. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) .... 292

92. Correct Bacon Type. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 295

93. The Hog Hoist 298

94. Dressing Hogs 299

95. A View of the Pork Coolers 300

96. Wholesale Cuts of Pork. (After 111. Bui. 147.) 302

97. Effect of Underline on Trimming of Side 304

98. Fat and Bacon Carcasses Compared. (Courtesy Iowa State

99. Unloading Hogs at Chicago 320

100. Prime Heavy Hogs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 323

101. Prime Butcher Hogs 324

102. Choice Butcher Hogs. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 325

103. Packing Sow 326

104. An Excellent Boar. (Courtesy Mr. W. H. Robbins, Springfield,

105. Pork Production in United States Closely Related to Corn Pro-

duction 335

106. Good Type in the Breeding Boar. (Courtesy Iowa State De-

partment of Agriculture.) 341

107. Good Type in the Breeding Sow. (Courtesy Iowa State De-

partment of Agriculture.) 342

108. Skeleton of the Horse. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domes-

tic Animals, after Ellenberger & Baum, Anatomy for Artists.

Courtesy Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 349

109. Bones of the Fore Leg 351

110. Fore Leg from Knee to Ground 352

111. Bones, Tendons, and Ligaments of the Fore Leg 353

112. Bones of the Hock 354

113. Man and Horse Compared. (From the Book of the Horse, by

permission of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) . . 355

114. Exterior of the Hoof 355

115. Diagram Showing Structure of Foot 356

116. The Parts of the Hoof 358

117. Attachment of Fore Leg to Body. (From the Book of the

Horse, by permission of the Gresham Publishing Company,

London.) 361

118. The Horse in Motion 364

119. Front View of Fore Legs 366

120. Side View of Fore Legs 366

121. Side View of Hind Legs 367

122. Rear View of Hind Legs 367

123. Defects in Fore Legs and Their Effect on Action 368

124. Sickle Hock 370

125. Points of the Horse 387

126. The Draft Type 389

127. Heavy Drafters in Harness 395

128. Before and After Fattening. (Courtesy Mr. B. E. Carmichael,

Ohio Experiment Station.) 398

129. Carriage or Heavy-Harness Type. (Courtesy Prof. C. N.

Arnett, Montana State College.) 400

130. The Heavy-Harness Type in Action. (Courtesy Mr. Wm.

Little, Irvington Farm, Sewickley, Pa.) 402

131. The Carriage Horse in Harness. (Courtesy The Spur, New

York City.) 404

132. Sensational Action. (Courtesy The Spur, New York City.) . . . 407

133. Roadster or Light-Harness Type. (Courtesy Hon. John R.

Thompson, Libertyville, 111.) , 413

134. The Light-Harness Horse in Action 416

135. Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. (Courtesy Mrs. R. Tasker

Lowndes, Danville, Ky.) 420

136. The Saddle Horse in Action. (Courtesy Mrs. R. Tasker

Lowndes, Danville, Ky.) 421

137. The Three-Gaited Saddle Type 423

138. A Typical Hunter. (From Nimrod's Condition of Hunters, by

permission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) .... 430

139. The Hunter in Action. (Courtesy The Field, New York City.) 431

140. A Hunt Team and Pack of Fox Hounds. (From Nimrod's

Condition of Hunters, by permission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) 432

141. Polo Pony of Excellent Type. (Courtesy The Spur, New York

142. The Polo Pony in Action. (Courtesy Mr. Harold A. Taylor,

Coronado, Cal.) 436

143. Horse Market at Union Stock Yards, Chicago 439

144. Eastern Chunk. (Courtesy Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana State

145. Express Horse. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Command-

ing Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 445

146. Light Artillery Horse. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 447

147. Heavy Artillery Horses. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg,

Commanding Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 448

148. Fire Horses 449

149. Runabout Horse 452

150. Cavalry Horse. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 453

151. High-Class Pony. (Courtesy Mr. Geo. A. Heyl, Washington,

111.) 454

152. Correct Type in the Draft Stallion ". 458

1 53. Correct Type in the Draft Mare. (Courtesy Iowa State Depart-

ment of Agriculture.) 460

154. A Highly Successful Sire. (Courtesy Mr. Wm. Crownover,

Hudson, Iowa.) 462

155. Blood Will Tell. (Courtesy Truman Pioneer Stock Farm, Bush-

156. Correct Type in the Jack. (Courtesy Mr. L. M. Monsees,

Pettis County, Mo.) 469

157. Prize- Winning Mules ' 470

158. High-Class Draft Mules 473

159. Mining or Pack Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 474

160. Cotton or Lead Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 475

161. Sugar Mule. (Courtesy Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Commanding

Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E. Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 476

162. Farm or Wheel Mule. (Courtesy Iowa State College.) 477

163. Small Pair of Wheel Mules to Army Wagon. (Courtesy Capt.

M. G. Thornburg, Commanding Officer Remount Service Training Camp, Auxiliary Remount Depot, Camp Joseph E.

Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 478

164. Bog Spavin 482

165. Bone Spavin 483

167. Ringbone and Cocked Ankle 489

Contents

Page

General Introduction 19

PART ONE— CATTLE Chapter Introduction 23

I. Beef Type 27

II. The Beef Carcass 40

III. Packing House By-Products from Cattle 57

IV. The Value of Type in Beef Making 63

V. American Cattle Markets 71

VI. Fashions in Market Cattle 85

VII. Selection of Feeder Steers 95

VIII. Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 106

IX. Breeding for the Market 125

X. Dairy Type 138

XI. The Secretion of Milk 155

XII. Variations in the Usefulness of Dairy Cows 164

XIII. Breeding for Milk Production 172

XIV. Dual-Purpose Cattle 180

PART TWO— SHEEP Introduction 189

XV. Mutton Type 194

XVI. The Mutton Carcass and the Pelt 203

XVII. Sheep Markets and Market Classification 214

XVIII. Breeding for the Market 235

XIX. The Merino or Fine-Wool Type 245

XX. Wools and Wool Growing 255

PART THREE— SWINE Introduction 279

XXI. The American or Lard-Type Hog 282

XXII. The Bacon-Type Hog 290

XXIII. The Hog Carcass 297

XXIV. Hog Markets and Pork Packing — Past and Present 314

XXV. Market Classification of Syrine 322

XXVI. Breeding for the Market 332

PART FOUR— HORSES Introduction 345

XXVII. Brief Anatomical Study of the Horse 348

XXVIII. Some Important Facts Concerning the Horse 361

Contents

Chapter Page

XXIX. Origin of the Types of Horses 374

XXX. Draft Type 384

XXXI. The Carriage or Heavy-Harness Horse 400

XXXII. The Roadster or Light-Harness Horse 409

XXXIII. The Saddle Horse 418

XXXIV. The Hunter and Polo Pony 428

XXXV. Market Classes of Horses 438

XXXVI. Horse Breeding 457

XXXVII. The Mule 468

XXXVIII. Market Classes of Mules 472

XXXIX. Unsoundness in the Horse 480

Index 493

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

Two distinct systems of farming are practiced in the United States— (1) grain farming and (2) live-stock farming. Grain farming is the growing of crops useful for food or clothing, the income being derived from the sale of these crops. Live-stock farming is that system in which the crops are used chiefly or entirely as feed for the live stock which is produced, the income being derived from the sale of animals, milk, and wool.

The maintenance of soil fertility is more difficult under the first of these two systems. Although it has been experimentally demonstrated that fertility may be maintained and increased by the use of commercial fertilizers and green manures without the aid of live stock, nevertheless the keeping of live stock and the utilization of farm manure afford the easiest method of maintaining and increasing the fertility of the soil. Where farming has been practiced for a long period of time, the most fertile and prosperous communities are those in which much live stock has been kept and the manure properly handled and applied to the soil.

Of the two systems, live-stock farming affords much greater opportunity for the development and application of knowledge and skill. The live-stock farmer must be equally competent as a crop producer with the grain farmer, and in addition must know how to handle and feed live stock economically. He must have a certain practical knowledge of animals and their requirements which comes with long experience, but which can be readily acquired by one who has a liking for farm animals.

Dr. C. E. Thorne of the Ohio Experiment Station has said, "While it is true that meat is an extravagantly wasteful food, viewed solely from the economic standpoint, yet it is also true that the ruling peoples of the earth are the meat eaters, and the time is probably far in the future when in this country meat will be banished from the tables of any but the improvident, even though further advance in its cost should take place. The outlook, therefore, is that for a long time to come the farmer who possesses the ability to handle live stock successfully will find ample opportunity for the exercise of his talents and ample reward for the larger ability which such exercise involves."

The keeping of live stock on the farm provides a means of utihzing as feed or bedding much that would otherwise be wasted. This applies to large amounts of roughage such as straw and corn stalks. Meadow aftermath and rough or stony land unsuited for the plow may be grazed, unmarketable soft corn may be fed, and other similar wastes may be converted into profits where live stock is kept.

Experiments indicate that if animals were kept in stalls or pens throughout the year and the manure carefully saved, the approximate value of the manure produced by each horse or mule would be $27, by each head of cattle $20, by each hog $4, and by each sheep $2. The total fertilizing value of the manure produced in the United States in one year would, therefore, be $2,477,100,000. In this estimate, no account is taken of the value of the manure for improving the mechanical condition and drainage of soils, which is fully as great as the value of the phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen contained in farm manure.

When fed to animals, a large proportion (about 80 per cent.) of the fertilizing element of the feed is recovered in the excrement. For example, if a ton of corn is sold off the farm, it removes fertility to the value of $6.56; while if fed to animals, this ton of corn results in manure worth, while fresh, $5 24. If this manure is properly handled and applied to the soil, little of its fertilizing value will be lost. The corresponding figures for one ton of oats are $7.43 and $5.94 respectively, for timothy $5.21 and $4.16, red clover $8.79 and $7.03, alfalfa $8.76 and $7.00, oat straw $3.30 and $2.64, corn silage $1.22 and $0.97, whole milk $1.96 and $1.52. In many instances the best method of increasing the fertility of a farm is to buy feeds which may be fed profitably to the live stock on hand, and then carefully handle and apply the manure produced. For example, a ton of cottonseed meal or wheat bran used for feed gives manure worth, while fresh, $19.20 and $10.19 respectively.

The live-stock farmer who fails to harvest the manure crop carefully is surely overlooking a great source of profit. On the other hand, animals should not be regarded merely as fertilizer factories. The manure produced by farm stock, while valuable, is secondary in importance to the value of the animals themselves. The stockman converts his crops into animal products of higher value to man, aiming thereby to reap a larger profit than is possible by the grain-farming system, and at the same time he increases the fertility of his land.

The advantages of live-stock farming may be summarized as follows:

1. Live-stock production, properly conducted, is a profitable business,

2. It provides a home market and pays better than average prices for farm crops.

3. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility.

4. Gives steady employment throughout the year to labor on the farm and thereby helps to solve the farm labor problem.

5. Utilizes as pasture much land unfit for the plow.

6. Utilizes much that would otherwise be waste on the farm, such as straw, corn stalks, soft corn and other unsaleable grain, meadow aftermath, many weeds, and garbage.

7. Affords the best means of utilizing such by-products as tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, and skim milk.

8. Affords opportunity for higher development and application of skill in farming.

9. The care and handling of live stock is intensely interesting work.

The stockman's success depends very largely upon the degree to which his animals meet with favor on the live-stock market. If he is to make a financial success of his business, he must produce what the market wants. Far too many feeders of live stock lack acquaintance with market demands. Far too many breeders devote themselves to a breed simply because it satisfies a hobby and because the breed appeals to their fancy, rather than because they see in their animals any special utility. Unless a breed of beef cattle makes possible the production of better beef for the market; unless a breed of swine is fostered because in it is seen the possibility of improving the quality or cheapening the cost of pork; unless a breed of draft horses is really useful when put to the test in the collar; then such breeds have little excuse for their existence, and those who foster them must sooner or later suffer financially for their efforts. Both the breeder and the feeder must know the demands of the open, market and keep them always in mind.

The word "purebred" has a wonderful charm to many persons, and perhaps rightly so, yet many an animal, very inferior from a utility point of view, has brought a large price merely because it had a pedigree and a registration number.

The word "imported," when prefixed to an animal's name, lends even greater charm. The greatest breeders of the past refused to be carried away by any charm of family history or lure of names. They rode no hobbies. They were intensely practical; they never overlooked the market requirements of the kind of animals they bred. No animal met with favor in their eyes unless such favor was earned by meat upon the back, milk in the pail, weight and quality of wool, pounds gained for pounds of feed consumed, or some other performance of practical value. With them it was a question of ultimately furnishing better animals for the market or lowering the cost of production. It must be just so with the master breeders of the present and future.

These pages aim to familiarize the reader with the types of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock, such knowledge being fundamental in all live-stock work and study, and valuable not only to breeders and feeders, but to all persons who buy and use animals.

Introduction

Cattle are useful to man because they produce meat and milk, both of which are in such demand that the production and marketing of them engage the attention of many thousands of people in America. Over two-fifths of the expenditures of families of medium income is for food. About one-third of the national dietary is composed of meat. Milk, butter, and cheese are produced in vast and increasing quantities, being staple articles of food.

America has been an exporter of beef and dairy products to the value of many millions of dollars annually. During the last few years these exports have declined markedly and we have now begun to import beef from South America. The United States practically dominated the world's export trade in fresh, chilled, and frozen beef with its contribution of over 63 per cent, of the total export trade of the nine surplus countries for the ten years 1895-1904. For the next five years the average fell to 33 per cent., and in the next year, 1910, the fraction was 9.4 per cent.; in 1911,4.9 per cent.; and in 1912, only 1.6 per cent. While the United States was experiencing this downfpll in exports of beef, Argentina grew from 17 per cent, of the total export trade in the earlier years to 80 per cent, in 1912. If to this be added the 15 per cent, due to Australia, and 3 per cent, due to New Zealand, in 1912, almost the entire export trade in this class of beef is accounted for.

The decline in America's exports of beef is partially due to a decrease in production, but is chiefly due to a population increasing at such a tremendous rate that the increase in home production of food does not keep parallel with it The United States had 7 millions of people in 1810, 17 millions in 1840, 38 millions in 1870, 76 millions in 1900, and 93 millions in 1910. Will it not be 150 millions in 1940, and 200 millions in 1960? Furthermore, only one-third of the population having census occupations is agricultural, and the fraction has declined from

83 per cent, in 1820 to 77.5 per cent, in 1840, 47 per cent, in 1870, 44 per cent, in 1880, 39 per cent in 1890, 35 per cent, in 1900, and 32.4 per cent, in 1910. These figures do not mean that our agricultural population has absolutely declined; on the contrary, it was never so large in number as it is today, with over 33,000,000 men, women, and children. The point is that the consumers of food-stuffs in America have increased at a much more rapid rate than have the producers. The producer of live stock in this country is assured of ready sale for all his products at remunerative prices.

Excepting Australia and New Zealand, the inhabitants of the United States are the most liberal eaters of beef, mutton, and pork. The average per capita consumption of dressed beef in this country was 78.4 pounds in 1918, and the total consumption of dressed beef, veal, mutton, pork, and lard amounted to 193.5 pounds per capita. According to the latest available figures, Cuba follows with 124 pounds, the United Kingdom 119 pounds, Germany 113 pounds, France 80 pounds, Denmark 76 pounds, Belgium 70 pounds, and Sweden 62 pounds. The average for Australia is 262,6 pounds, and for New Zealand 212.5 pounds.

The production of beef, mutton, and pork throughout the world, outside of China, is estimated to be about 50 billion pounds a year, dressed weight, including lard. The United States by far leads all other countries in the production as well as the consumption of meat and meat products. The census of 1910 estimated that the meat produced in the United States in the year was 16,940,000,000 pounds, embracing beef, vealj mutton, lamb, and pork, including lard. If the extra-edible parts are added, the grand total for 1910 was 19,712,000,000 pounds. Slaughtering and meat packing ranks first in value of products among all the manufacturing industries of the United States.

Milk may be regarded as more fixed than meat in the family dietary. The number of milk cows in this country has steadily increased from the earliest enumeration in the census of 1850, when the number of these cows on farms was 6,400,000, to the last census of 1910, when the number was 20,600,000. The estimate for 1919 is 23,467,000. The yield of milk per cow in 1918 was estimated to be 8,2 quarts per day for 287 days of the year, or 588 gallons. Assuming that 80 per cent, of the total number of dairy cows are of milking age, the total production of milk on farms in the United States was 11,044,000,000 gallons in 1918. If the production of cows in towns and villages were included it would add about 5 per cent, to the above estimate.