Farm dairying, a treatise of dairy cattle, their feeding and care, and the handling and disposition of dairy produce on the farm

Front matter

HUHniUHt!

fHiSSli^

Class _HL2.:ki

Preface

IN THIS BOOK, treating of farm dairying, the author has endeavored to present the different phases of the subject in logical sequence. Much study has been given to dividing and systematizing the subject matter and to place the information in as good pedagogical form as possi1)le.

These essentials of farm dairying are the results of many years of practical experience on dairy farms, results of study and observations made in the United States and in leading European dairy centers, results obtained from teaching and experimenting at the college with which the author has been connected, and results gathered from leading authorities in this country.

I cannot express too much appreciation to my co-workers for their help, and to the various college and experiment station authorities for having supplied the opportunities for securing this valuable information.

Though this book is published after the close of the war, it contains much information from pre-war conditions. The cost of feed and labor is much higher now than before the war. The present high scale of prices is not sure to continue, so the author believes that the pre-war data as to prices is more serviceable than if attempts were made to change so as to conform with present and maybe temporary high plane of prices.

The author has made it a point to discuss this subject of farm dairying in such a way as to make the book valuable to the practical dairy farmer, as a text for students, and as a convenient reference to anyone interested in the important subject of farm dairying. It is hoped the book will fill a need and give a real service in improving and encouraging the dairy industry.

C. LARSEN.

South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Brookings, South Dakota, July 12, 191D.

Chapter I

I. Chief Purposes of Dairy Farming ... 1

1. Statistics of dairy industry in United States.

2. Utilizing field crops for human foods.

3. Utilizing labor profitably.

4. Obtaining sure and quick returns. 6. Utilizing rough lands.

6. Retaining and increasing richness of land.

7. Reducing the marketing expense of field crops.

8. Profits from power of reproduction.

CHAPTER n

I. The Dairy Cow 20

1. Desirable form of a good dairy cow.

2. Ability to consume and digest feed.

3. Ability to change feeds into dairy products. a Large udder capacity.

b Blood circulation. c Milk mirror.

4. Poise of dairy cow.

5. Ability to maintain life and health,

6. General form,

7. Score card for dairy cow.

8. Diagram naming parts of cow.

CHAPTER III L Breeds of Dairy Cattle . , , , . 35

1. Development of breeds.

2. Breeds of dairy cattle. a Ayrshire.

b Guernsey.

c Jersey.

d Holstein-Friesian.

3. Summary of leading dairy breeds.

4. Less common dairy breeds. a Brown Swiss.

b Dutch Belted.

yU

VIU CONTENTS

c Red Poll.

d Devon.

e Shorthorn.

/ French-Canadian, Dexter and Kerry.

5. Table of number of registered cattle in United States.

6. Table of composition of milk from different breeds.

CHAPTER IV L Value of Individuals in a Dairy Herd , , 62

1. Economic value.

a Ability to convert feed into milk.

b Value of calf.

c Value of manure.

d Value of feeds consumed.

e Cost of labor.

/ Beef value of cow,

g Interest and depreciation.

h General expenses.

i Service fee.

2. Esthetic value.

3. Outline for studying cost of milk production.

Chapter V

I. Determining the Production of Each Cow in the

Herd 81

1. Appearance of cow.

a Form indicating production.

2. Weighing and testing the milk, a Manner of obtaining records. h Composite samples.

c Testing milk by Babcock method.

d Cow testing associations.

e Value of dairy herd records.

/ Table of advanced registry requirements.

Chapter VI

I. Increasing Production of Dairy Herd . . 102

1. Improvement of present dairy herd. a Cull poor cows.

b Good feed and care.

c Good management.

d Fall freshening of cows.

2. Improvement of future dairy herd.

CONTENTS IX a Purchasing of good cows.

b Using a good dairy sire.

c Value of good dairy sire.

d Paternal ancestors.

e Inbreeding.

/ Keep herd sire separate from herd.

g Handling of cross sire.

h Do not change breeds.

i Bull associations.

y Value of pedigree.

k Maternal ancestors.

Chapter VII

I. Raising the Dairy Cow 134

1. Selecting right parents.

2. Feed and care of mother during pre-natal period. a Effects of surroundings of cow on calf.

3. Feed and care of calf.

a Care of calf when first born. b Place in which to keep calves, c Teach calf to eat grain. d Amount of milk to feed. e Measuring growth of calves. / Changing to skimmilk.

g Composition of whole milk, skimmilk and whey. h Substitutes for milk. i Calf feeders. / Diarrhea in calves. k Factors affecting size of cow. / Table giving birth weight of calves. m Large cows vs. small cows.

CHAPTER Vni

I. Feeding the Dairy Herd a Balanced Ration . 157

1. Composition of feeds.

2. Minerals in a cow's ration.

3. Salt for dairy cows.

4. Feed for milk production.

5. Feed for body maintenance.

6. Classification of feeds.

7. Calculation of balanced ration.

8. Feeding standards and their uses.

X CONTENTS

Chapter IX

I. Feeding the Dairy Herd a Succulent Ration . 171

1. Pasture grasses for cows.

2. Soiling crops.

3. Roots for dairy cows.

4. Mashes for dairy cows.

5. Silage for the dairy herd. a Advantages of silage.

b Fining the silo.

c Composition of corn In different stages.

d Sealing the silo.

c Silage fermentation.

/ Feeding silage.

6. Kinds of silos.

7. Water for the dairy cow,

Chapter X

I. Amount to Feed the Dairy Herd . , . 206

1. Amount of rough feed.

2. Amount of concentrates to feed.

3. Grinding feed.

4. Variety of feeds important.

5. Calculating cost of ration.

6. Feeding for maximum production.

Chapter XI

I. Milking the Dairy Cow 218

1. Condition of cow.

a Structure of cow's udder.

b Clean and healthy cows.

c Keep cow's teats in good condition.

d Swollen udders.

2. Condition of milker.

a Clean and healthful milker. b Manner of procedure in milking. c Dry hand vs. wet hand milking. d Milking the cow clean.

3. Condition of utensils.

a Clean and sanitary utensils.

4. Handling kicking cows.

5. Handling sucking cows.

6. Resting period for cows.

7. Lengthening of milking period.

8. Milk fever.

9. Handling of cow during freshening period.

CONTENTS Xi

Chapter XII

I. Methods of Milking 236

I. Hand Milking.

II. Machine Milking.

1. Chief parts of milking machine.

2. Cost of operation.

3. Breaking cows to milking machine.

4. Difference in cows for milking machine,

5. Cows releasing milk slowly.

6. Start machine in early part of lactation period.

7. Symmetrical and well shaped udders important.

8. Select and breed right cows.

9. Operator should understand milk elaboration.

10. Fit milking machine to cow.

11. Milking machine surroundings not too cold.

12. Cow giving down milk before attachment is made.

13. Keeping milking machine sanitary.

14. Watch closely for abnormal milk.

III. Kinds of milking machines.

1. Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy.

2. Calfway.

3. Empire.

4. Perfection,

5. Sharpies.

6. Waterloo Boy.

7. Hinman.

8. Disbrow,

9. Mehring. 10. Universal.

Chapter XIII

I. Handling and Marketing Milk for Human Food 264

1. Composition of normal milk.

2. Bacteria in milk.

3. Direct consumption of milk.

a Healthful cows and sanitary surroundings, b Cooling and aerating milk. c Ice on the dairy farm,

Xll CONTENTS

Chapter XIV

I. Handling Milk for Dairy Products on the Farm 273

1. Making butter on the farm.

o Skim cream of proper richness.

b Keep separator in proper condition.

c Churn fresh cream.

d Churning temperature.

e Composition of butter.

/ Coloring the butter.

g Washing the butter.

// Salting the butter.

i Working the butter.

y Packing and marketing.

k Difficult churning.

2. Marketing cream to be made into butter at factory.

1. Local creamery.

2. Cream buying station.

3. Direct shipment of cream.

3. Making cheese on the farm,

1. Coagulate with rennet.

2. Cutting the curd.

3. Heating the curd.

4. Preparing the cheese for press.

5. Pressing the cheese.

6. Curing the cheese.

4. Making soft cheeses on the farm.

1. Cottage cheese.

2. Neufchatel cheese.

3. Pimento cheese.

4. Cream cheese.

5. Club cheese.

5. Manner of disposal affects income.

Appendix 304

1. Armsby's tables of requirements for production and body maintenance.

Also table of dry matter, protein and net energy requirements.

2. Haecker's tables of requirements for milk production, food maintenance and nutrients in a pound of feeding stuffs.

3. Tables of organic and mineral analysis of foods.

Chapter I Chief Purposes Of Farm Dairying

The purposes for which dairy farming is practiced vary according to the conditions and natural surroundings, to the degree of intensity, the extent to which it is followed, and the inclination and character of the dairyman. There are some who are engaged in dairy farming without having any special purpose in view. It is invariably the aimless dairy farmer who has proven a partial failure.

When properly practiced, dairy farming is full of merits, and it is conducive to good economic results and to home building. In spite of many misconceptions, wrong practices, and consequently, only partial results, the dairy business has made good returns, and has been constantly increasing in extent and in popularity.

The following table gives some idea of the extent to which dairy farming is practiced in the United States :*

No. of Dairy Cows Value per Head Aggregate Value U. S. Census, 1910 20,625,000 $35.29 $ 727,802,000

The annual value of the dairy products in the United States is about as follows :

Condensed milk 11,888,792

Milk fed to calves 39,000,000

Twenty million calves 100,000,000

Total value of dairy cow products $l,OnO,926,527

The chief purposes of dairy farming in the United States may be classified as follows :

♦Bulletin No. 177, B. C. E., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

1. To Utilize field crops economically and to transform them into the maximum of animal products to be used for human foods and for human comforts.

2. To utilize labor profitably, especially during the slack seasons.

3. To reduce marketing expenses of field crops by reducing their bulk and weight.

4. To earn a sure income and obtain quick returns.

5. To make economical use of rough and otherwise waste land.

6. To obtain profits from the cow's power of reproduction.

Utilizing field crops for human foods. — Too often the question of utilizing the field crops does not receive the consideration which it deserves. A fundamental aim of human efforts is to produce human foods and human comforts. Many of the field crops, especially the roughage, cannot be used directly for human foods nor for human comforts.

To produce and harvest crops is one phase of farming. To utilize and market these crops in the most economical manner is another. Both are important and inter-dependent. It is said that the American farmer produces more new wealth per capita than any other farmer. It is generally conceded that the American farmer does not market his field crops so economically as do farmers of other countries. It is estimated that the American farmer obtains on an average about fifty percent of what the consumers have to pay for the articles produced on the farm. According to the best data obtainable, the Danish farmer, who probably employs the most efficient system of marketing in the world, secures about ninety percent of what the consumers pay for the farm products. The Danish farmer markets practically all of his field crops through the dairy cow and through the hog and the chicken.

Some farmers market the bulk of their crops by hauling them directly to market ; others by having the horse transform them into horse flesh ; others by having the sheep transform them into wool and mutton ; others have the hog transform them into pork and lard. Some again prefer to have the steer change the field crops into beef, and others have the dairy cow convert them into milk and butter fat. Some practice a combination of all, emphasizing one or more of these methods.

Under the widely different conditions existing in different localities, each of the above-mentioned methods of marketing field crops has its advantages and its disadvantages. The Central West farmer prefers to practice a combination of these methods. However, the profits accruing may be increased by carefully studying various methods and problems.

FIG.

1 — The herdsman's house and dairy bam at the South Dakota

State College.

The right dairy cow, fed and cared for properly, will produce more healthful digestible human food from a given amount of field crops than will any other farm animal. This is a strong statement, but according to experimental results and demonstrations, it is amply substantiated. The following figures are given with the view of showing the comparative economy of the different farm animals as means of marketing the different field crops.

A reasonably good dairy cow, producing 40 pounds of four percent milk per day, will consume about 1 1 pounds of grain and 20 pounds of clover hay, or its equivalent in a mixed and properly balanced ration. The 40 pounds of milk contain the following amount of solids or dry matter, of which practically all is digestible.

40 X .04 = 1.6 pounds of butter fat.

40 X -035 = 1.4 pounds of protein (casein and albumen).

40 X -05 = 3.0 pounds of milk sugar.

40 X .007 = 0.3 pounds of ash.

5.3 pounds dry matter produced daily from above ration.

According to experiments, a little more than 96 percent of the milk proteins are digestible, and a trifle less than 96 percent of the carbohydrates of the milk sugar are digestible, and probably all of the butter fat is digestible. This means that 97 percent, or 5.14 pounds of dry matter of the daily milk produced by the dairy cow are digestible.

The ration fed to the cow contained about 9.9 pounds of dry matter in grain and about 18 pounds of dry matter in the hay. About 80 percent of the 9.9 pounds of dry matter in the grain, or 7.9 pounds, are digestible, and about 43 percent of the 18 pounds of dry matter in the clover hay, or 77 pounds, are digestible.

This dairy cow then consumes about 15.6 pounds of digestible dry matter, and recovers from it in the milk 5.14 pounds of digestible milk solids. That is, the dairy cowrecovers about 33 percent of the digestible dry matter eaten, as digestible milk solids for human foods.

The hog, while not capable of recovering so large a percentage of the consumed feed solids for human food as is the dairy cow, ranks as one of the most economical animals. This is especially true when hogs are kept in connection with the dairy business. The by-products from the dairy, such as skim milk, buttermilk, and whey, when fed in connection with grain, according to various investigators, give the most economical gains. Henry of the Wisconsin station found that on such a ration, properly proportioned, the hog gains one pound of Hve weight from three pounds of digestible dry matter.

According to Atwater, about 58 percent of the cured pork is digestible fat, and about 8.1 percent is digestible protein. There would then be about fifty-eight hundredths of a pound of fat and eight hundredths of a pound of protein, or a total of sixty-six hundredths of a pound of digestible dry

FIG. 2 — The value of skim milk and buttermilk per 100 pounds feeding is equal to five times the market price of hogs.

for hog matter recovered by the hog from the three pounds of digestible dry matter consumed. This equals 22 percent.

The third common animal extensively used for transforming field crops into animal products is the steer. According to various investigators, a thousand-pound steer in the fattening lot consumes daily about 16 pounds of grain and eight pounds of hay, or its equivalent. About 90 percent of each of these feeds is dry matter, or 14.4 pounds in the grain and 7.2 pounds in the hay. About 80 percent of the dry matter in the grain, or 11.52 pounds, is digestible matter, and about 43 percent of the dry matter in the hay, or 3.1 pounds. This makes a total of 14.6 pounds of digestible dry matter consumed daily by the steer having the above-mentioned weight. Results of several experiments show that if a thousand-pound steer gains two pounds of live weight per day, he is doing well. Atwater also found that about 14.5 percent of beef is digestible fat and about 16 percent is digestible protein. The above-mentioned gain contains three-tenths of a pound of digestible fat, and about thirty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible protein. This makes a total of sixty-two hundredths of a pound of digestible dry matter recovered by the steer from 14.6 pounds of digestible dry matter consumed. That is, he recovers about 4.2 percent for human food.

Then summarizing the comparative ability of each of these three common farm animals to recover human foods from the various field crops, we have the following:

The dairy cow recovers about 33 percent. The hog recovers about 22 percent.

The steer recovers about 4.2 percent.

These results may range a little high for all of the above animals, as the data have been obtained from work performed at the difi^erent experiment stations. Under these conditions, the animals undoubtedly receive better care than is customary under average farm conditions. In addition, the animals used were perhaps of better quality than used under average farm conditions. However, great care has been taken to keep the data comparatively correct. From the above discussions, it will be noticed that there is a considerable waste of dry matter attended with having the field crops pass the roundabout way through the animal's body for human food. As population grows denser, the tendency will be to utilize as much of the concentrates, or grain, as can be used for human food directly, and to use the most profitable farm animals.

Roughages, such as corn fodder, hay, and straw, cannot directly be used as foods for people. To serve as such, they must be converted into animal products. Here the dairy cow excels. The hog. generally speaking, requires his food principally in the form of concentrates. The fattening steer needs a larger percentage of nutrients in the form of concentrates than does the dairy cow. Approximately speaking, the fattening steer eats two pounds of grain to one pound of hay, while the dairy cow reverses this ration to one pound of grain to two pounds of hay, or the equivalent in the form of other roughages.

The dairy cow has survived the most intensive farm conditions in the world. Years ago. very little was known about the chemistry of field crops and animal bodies, and therefore no calculations such as those made above could be made. Through actual practice and general observations, the farmers learned that the dairy cow was the most economical transformer of field crops. Where farms are small, land expensive, prices of feed high, and the population dense, as is the case in the best agricultural districts of Europe and the United States, there the dairy cow is used largely for the production of human foods and for human comforts, from field crops.

Utilizing labor profitably. — The responsibility of economically producing and marketing the world's food supply rests largely with the farmers. They stand at the source of all foods. They co-operate with the natural resources and with the elements to produce human food. Farm labor is an important item in producing the world's food supply.

In the temperate zone, especially in the central and central northwest United States, the crop-growing seasons are long enough to produce only one field crop each year. Consequently, there are about six months each year which constitute the growing season, and about six months when no crops can be grown. To produce new wealth only during half of each year is not good farm economics. In the central northwest, labor is employed on the farm, especially on those where live stock Is not kept, at the rate of about one man in the winter and two in the summer — in some instances, three. This means that at least one able-bodied man on each farm each fall is turned from a field of production of new wealth into a field of non-production of new wealth.

By practicing dairy farming to a greater extent, much of this labor could be economically utilized during the slack seasons. Our farms cculd be made factories for the continuous production of new wealth. The crops could be

FIG. 3 — A comfortable and convenient place for winter dairying.

and during the winter, labor produced during the summer ; and the dairy cow could profitably transform these field crops mto concentrated expensive food products without removing the fertility of the land.

The time of the year for the dairy work can be regulated. Not so with any of the field crops. The time of freshening of a cow is within reasonable control of the owner. For the average dairy farmer the fall-freshening cow is the most profitable. The winter affords the most favorable condi-

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM DAlRVlx\C. 9

tions for the farmer to get the hest and most work out of the dairy cow. llie labor is cheaper and more profitable. The prices of dairy products are about a third higher. The cow gives more milk during the year, and the fall calves are easier to raise.

In addition, the dairy cow affords opportunities for the various members of the family to partake in the work on the farm. The work in the barn and the dairy is not heavy work. It is work which requires attention and intelligence — two important characteristics which we wish to stamp upon every young person's life. So the purpose of the dairy cow in this connection is not only to use labor in a profitable manner, but to aid and develop industrious, attentive young people of regular habits.

The dairy cow has repeatedly demonstrated her ability to make large returns for the labor exerted and for food consumed. The dairy industry, though practiced only as a side issue in many places, constitutes one of the principal resources for taking care of the constant increase in the rural population, and provides for this increase a profitable employment. By practicing the proper system of dairy farming, two men can obtain profitable employment on a farm where formerly, under a system of grain farming, one man did the work. Stating it in another way, by proper dairy farming, eighty acres can be made to yield as much profit as will a 160-acre farm under the old system of grain farming.

Obtaining sure and quick returns. — As a safe investment, the dairy cow excels. The risk of growing a herd of dairy cows is less than that involved in handling other kinds of live stock. While there are diseases, and especially contagious diseases, affecting dairy herds, the attentive dairyman keeps the herd and surroundings in such a condition as to prevent and check any great losses from such sources. The dairyman keeps in close touch with every individual cow of the herd. The cows are taken into the barn, fed and milked twice a dav. If anv one member of the herd shows symptoms of sickness, such as lack of appetite, or a lessened flow of milk, she can be attended to at once. It is different with other classes of animals allowed to run, perhaps for months, without receiving frequent attention.

The food which the dairy cow receives is transformed into a separate product, removed from the cow twice every day. If anything should happen to the dairy cow, no accumulated lot of products representing several months of labor and feeding would be lost. Only the machinery is lost. With almost any other animal, the owner sustains a

loss of not only the machinery used for t r a n s f o rming the feed, but also the accrued products, from months and even years.

The products from the dairy cow can be realized upon at once. In fact, the cow products are of such a perishable nature that it is almost necessary to market them at once. This quick transformation of the feed by the dairy cow, and the ready Cash sales of the dairy products, reduce the risk of live stock farming to a minimum and supply the dairyman with cash.

The dairy cow may also be considered a safety in crop production. While it is not commendable to anticipate a crop failure, the wise farmer does not rely entirely upon the field crops for his income. Late spring, wet or dry seasons,

FIG. 4 — Com on unmanured ground ; yield 7 tons per acre. These two fields of com were grown on the same quarter section of land.

hailstorms, injurious insects, and early frost are likely to hinder the production of a mature field crop. The dairyman who, for instance, has a silo can utilize an immature corn crop and have splendid feed for a dairy herd, while otherwise it would be difficult, if not impossible, tc realize on such a corn crop.

Utilizing rough lands. — In some states and in some communities there is much rough and partially waste land which cannot well be tilled. Such land may be seeded to permanent t a m e pasture, and the maximum returns obtained by grazing a herd of good dairy cows upon it. This is especially true where the land is inclined to be low and woody.

Although extremely swampy land is frequently used for dairy cow pasture, the writer would not advocate such use. Such land fi-. 5_coi may serve for supplying feed for young stock, but for cows giving milk low land pasture of this kind grows grass that is coarse and not very appetizing. The cows should not wade around in swampy pastures, as their udders and teats are likely to become dirty. In the spring, during the wet season, it may be even difficult for the dairy cow to find a dry place on

M on manure-I ground ; yield 14 tons per acre.

which to lie down. In such low land, mosquitoes and other insects are usually very troublesome, especially during the middle of the summer. Outside of extremely low, swampy ground, however, the dairy cow can economically utilize rough land that cannot w^ell be farmed.

Retaining and increasing richness of land. — Among the various phases of agriculture, dairy farming stands unrivaled as the greatest upbuilder of the soil. This is evidenced in every dairy community.

The dairy farmer who transforms all of his feed into dairy products removes very little fertility from his farm. This is shown by the following table, compiled by Armsby :

M anurial Value of Farm Products

Pounds per ton

Value per ton

Nitrogen

Phosphoric acid

Potash

Nitrogen

Phosphoric acid

Potash

Meadow hay Clover hay. . .

Potatoes

Wheat bran .

Linseed meal Cottonseed meal . . .

Oats

20.42

40.16

7.01

49.15

105.12

8.20 11.20

3.20 54.60 32.20

3.40

23.00

.76

37.20

2.34

3.47 6.83 1.19

8.35 17.87

15.40

.37

9.04

1.13

.57

.78

.22

3.82

2.25

3.93 1.11

.87

.83 1.08

.24 1.61

.08 2.60

.14

1.06 1.46

.46 1.14

.99

5.10

9.07

1.87

13.31

21.11

28.16 7.91 7.43

Corn

6 75

Milk

8.18 2 09

Cheese

Butter*

Live cattle . .

Cream*

17.21

.50

11.78

1.41

*Calculated from South Dakota Station analyses.

The manurial value of $1000 worth of farm products fluctuates with the market prices. For this reason, the price is given in the following table, and represents about the current price at the time of w^riting.

CHIEF PURPOSES OF FARM IXMRVING

The manurial value of $1000 worth of each of the farm

products, calculated from the above table, is as follows:

Manurial Vc'lue of $1000 worth of clover hay @ $9 per ton $1007

" " " " " cottonseed meal @ $.'jO per ton IJOt

" " " " " wheat bran @ $20 per ton 665

" " " " " meadow hay ([v $S per ton 640

'* " " " '* linseed meal @ $40 per ton 552

" " " " barley @ $25 per ton 327

" wheat (rt $25 per ton 316

" live cattle @ $100 per ton 118

" " " potatoes ((( $20 per ton 93

" milk @ $25 per ton 83

" " " " cheese (^v $300 per ton 57

" '* " " butter @ $500 per ton .7

According to Cornell station, the different farm animals per thousand pounds live weight produce the following amount of manure, daily, having the composition shown in the following- table :

Amount and Composition of Manure

Analysis

Amount per day

% water

Nitrogen

Phos- _ phoric acid

Potash

Value per ton

Sheep

Calves

Hogs

Cows

Horses

The cow, then, produces about 13.5 tons of manure per year, which is ordinarily worth about $2 per ton, or $27 (value of nitrogen at 15 cents; phosphoric acid, 6 cents; potash at 4j4 cents per pound). The above amount includes sufificient litter to keep the cow reasonably clean. According to the Pennsylvania experiments, about 37 percent of the above-mentioned manure voided is liquid, and the remainder, or 63 percent, is dung.

The question of conserving the soil fertility cannot be too strongly emphasized. The richness of the soil is a natural heritage. Those who own the land do not own its natural plant food supply. They are simply trustees, and it is their duty to retain and even increase the richness of the land.

The west and central west should profit by the mistakes made in some of the older states. In the eastern part of the United States, and in some parts of the south, artificial fertilizers are used extensively. About $100,000,000 worth of artificial fertilizers is used annually in the United States.