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Preface
The science and practice of Dairying is constantly broadening. The different phases of this industry cannot now be mastered in so short a time as years ago, when eomparatively little was known about the principles upon which dairying is now securely based.
In connection with the teacliing of dairying in the special four-year course at the Iowa State College, a set of lectures on advanced butter-making was prepared. In compiling these lectures special endeavors were exerted toward embodying the principles of butter-making, as well as the best practice of this art, in this as well as in foreign countries.
The authors have studied, by personal observation and practice, the best and most progressive methods employed in butter-making in the principal dairy countries of the world, and have endeavored to incorporate these in this work. In connection with this practical phase of the question, the authors have endeavored to give such related scientific information as may be of interest and value. The general scientific knowledge has been absorbed from time to time from work done by various investigators at the different Experiment Stations. To all of these men w^ho have searched for and discovered facts bearing upon dairying, the authors wish to express thanks and acknowledgment.
The statistics and tables given in this work have been quoted from noted reliable authorities as indicated.
The authors believe that the subject of dairying should no
IV PREFACE.
longer be treated as one whole. For this reason such subjects as Testing Milk and its Products, Dairy Bacteriology, Cheese-making, and Technology of Milk and its Products, have not been treated comprehensively in this work.
These lectures have been used, modified and changed, and under preparation for several years. At the present time the writers believe they are in such a condition as to warrant the publication of them.
The authors admit that in our present state of knowledge it is in some instances difficult to distinguish well-established facts from those not so universally confirmed. It has been the object of the writers to give such information as is supported by the preponderance of experimental evidence.
The authors are also indebted to the following parties for the use of electrotypes : Mower-Harwood Co., and Cherry Bros., Cedar Rapids, la.; Creamery Package Co., Waterloo Cream Sep. Co., and Iowa Separator Co., Waterloo, la.; Vermont Farm Machine Co., BeUows Fafis, Vt.; Jensen Mfg. Co., Topeka, Kans.; Ox Fiber Brush Co., National Creamery Supply Co., International Harvester Co., Davis Cream Sep. Co., Borden & Selleck Co., and De Laval Sep. Co., Chicago, 111.; Wagner Glass Works, and J. H. Monrad, New York, N. Y.; Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y.; Empire Cream Sep. Co., Bloomfield, N. J.; Dairy Queen Mfg. Co., Flora, Ind.; Dairy Record, St. Paul, Minn., and W. D. Hoard, Ft. Atkinson, Wis.
G. L. McKay, C. Larsen.
Iowa State College, Dairy Department.
Chapter I. Page
Composition op Milk 1
1. Definition of Milk 1
3. Variation of Total Solids 3
5. Fat in Milk 5
6. Properties of Fat 7
7. Glj'cerides of Fat 8
8. Theories in Regard to Films Enveloping Fat -globules 9
9. Classes of Fats • 10
A. Volatile - H
B. Non-volatile 12
10. Composition of Butter-fat • 13
11. Casein 15
12. Albumen • 16
13. Sugar 16
\ 15. Gases or Taints of Milk 18
^ 16 Coloring Matter 20
17. Other Constituents of Milk 20
Chapter II
1. Mammary Gland as a Secretory Organ 22
2. Internal Structure of Cow's Udder 22
3. Theories of Milk Secretion 2.5
4. Conditions Affecting Secretion of Milk 28
5. External Appearance of Udder 29
6. Milk-fever 30
V
•VI CONTENTS.
Chapter III. Page
1. Color 31
2. Flavor 31
3 Opacity of Milk ; 31
4. Chemical Reaction of Milk 32
5. Specific Gravity of Milk 32
6. Natural Separation of Milk and Cream 35
7. Adhesion of Milk 37
8. Viscosity of Milk 37
9. Specific Heat of Milk 38
10. Effect of High Heat on Properties of Milk 38
A. Destroys nearly all Germs 39
B. Diminishes Viscosity or Body 39
C. Drives off Gases 40
D. Imparts a Cooked Taste 40
E. Precipitates Albuminoid and Ash Contents 41
F. Destroys Properties of Enzymes 41
G. Divides the Fat-globules 42
H. Caramelizes the Sugar 42
I. General Remarks 43
Chapter IV
2. Size and Shape of Bacteria 45
3. Favorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth 45
A. Food 45
B. Temperature 46
C. Moisture 47
4. Unfavorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth 48
5. Kind of Germ Found in Milk 49
6. Number of Bacteria in Milk 51
7. Sources of Bacteria in Milk 52
8. Effect of Thunder-storms on Souring Milk 53
Chapter V
1. Colostrum Milk 54
2. Salty Milk , 55
3. Bloody or Red Milk 56
4 Blue Milk 57
CONTENTS. VU
PAGE
5. Yellow Milk 57
6. Ropy Milk 58
7. Bitter Milk 58
8. Milk from Cows which have been in Milk a Long Period 60
9. Milk from Spayed Cows 61
10. Milk from Sick Cows 62
Chapter VI
1. Individuality of Cows 65
2. Breed of Cows 67
3. Time between Milkings 68
4. Manner of Milking 70
5. Milking-machines 70
6. Fore Milk and After Milk 73
7. Age of Cow 74
8. Lactation Period 74
9. Food of Cows 75
10. Environmental Conditions 76
CHAPTER VII. Receiving, Sampling, and Grading Milk and Cream 77
1. Receiving and Grading of Milk and Cream 77
A. Detection of Abnormal Milk Through the Senses 79
B. Use of Acid Tests 80
C. Use of Fermentation Tests 81
a. Gerber and Wisconsin Curd Tests 81
D. Grading Milk by Heating 82
E. Use of Babcock Test and Lactometer 84
2. Necessity of Good Milk 89
3. Sampling of Milk 93
4. Sampling-tube 94
5. Sampling Churned Milk 96
6. Frozen Milk 96
7. Sour and Coagulated Milk 97
8. Apportioning Skimmed Milk 97
CHAPTER VIII. Composite Samples 99
2. When to Sample 99 viii CONTENTS.
PAGE
3. Kind of Preservatives to Add 99
4. Arrangement of Composite Samples 102
5. Care of Composite Samples 102
6. Average Samples 104
7. Composite Sampling without the Use of Preservatives 104
Chapter IX
1. Finding Average Percentage of Fat 1 05
2. Calculation of Overrun 107
A. Thoroughness of Skimming 108
B. Completeness of Churning 108
C. General Losses in Creameries 108
D. ComiDosition of Butter Manufactured 108
3. Calculation of Churn-yield 109
4. Calculation of Dividends 109
5. Cream-raising Coefficient. . . .- 113
6. Statement to Patrons 113
7. Paying for Fat in Cream as Compared with Paying for Fat in Milk 116
8. Degree of Justice in Paying Cream Patrons More per Pound of
Fat than the Milk Patrons 117
CHAPTER X. Heating Milk Previous to Skimming 118
1. Reasons for Heating 118
2. Advantages of Warming Milk to High Heat Previous to Skim-
ming 1 19
3. How Heated : 121
Chapter XI
1. Gravity Creaming. 123
A. Shallow-pan System 123
B. Deep-setting System 124
a. Probable Explanation 126
C. Water-dilution Cream (HydrauHc) 128
2. Centrifugal Creaming 129
A. Advantages 129
B. History of Centrifugal Separators 130
C. Modern Separators 132
D. Classification of Separators 133
CONTENTS. - IX
PAGE
E. Process of Separation 134
F. Relative Amount and Richness of Milk and Cream
Obtained 137
a. Regulation of the Cream or Skimmed-milk Screw. . 137
h. Rate of Inflow l38
c. Speed 138
d. Temperature 139
G. Conditions Affecting Efficienc}- of Separators 139
a. Manner of Heating Milk 139
b. Condition of the Milk 141
c. Overfeeding the Separator 141
d. Speed 142
e. Steadiness in Running 143
/. Thickness of Cream 144
g. Slush in Bowl 144
h. General Remarks 145
Chapter XII
1. Introduction of Farm Separators 146
2. Reasons for Introducing Farm Separators 147
3. Objections to Farm Separators 152
4. Thickness of Cream 152
5. Power for Farm Separators 155
6. Care of Cream on the Farm 158
7. Disposition of Cream 167
A. Shipping of Cream 169
B. Making Butter on the Farm 169
Chapter XIII
2. Methods of Pasteurization 173
A. Intermittent 173
B. Continuous 174
3. Selection of Pasteurizers 175
A. Durability and Capacity 175
B. Economic Efficiency 175
a. Heating Surface 176
b. Degree of Adhesiveness 177
c. Thickness of Layer of Condensed Steam 180
d. DifTerence in Temperature on Each Side of Heat-
ing Surface 181
X CONTENTS.
PAGE
e. Proper Utilization of Steam Turned into the Pasteurizer 182
C. The Cost of Pasteurization 183
D. Advancement of Pasteurization 183
E. Advantages of Pasteurization 184
F. Disadvantages of Pasteurization 186
Chapter XIV
2. Objects of Cream-ripening 187
A. Production of Flavor and Aroma 187
B. Increases the Churnability of Cream 191
C. Increases the Keeping Quality of Butter 192
3. Ripening Temperature of Cream 194
4. Amount of Starter to Add to Cream 196
5. Stirring of Cream during Ripening 197
6. Natural Ripening 198
7. Artificial Ripening 199
8. Ripening Cream when Churning is Done Everj^ Other Day 201
9. Mixing of Cream 202
A. Quality of Cream 203
B. Kind of Market 204
C. Amount of Cream 204
D. General Creamery Conditions 205
10. Examining and Testing Cream for Acidity during Ripening. . . . 205
11. Mann's Test 206
12. Farrington's Test 208
13. Amount of Acid to Develop 208
14. Changes in Cream 210
A. Physical 210
B. Biological 210
C. Chemical 211
Chapter XV
2. History 216
3. Classification of Starters 216
4. Preparation of Natural Starters 217
5. Commercial Starters or Pure Cultures 217
6. Preparation of Commercial Starters 218
7. Inoculation 220
CONTENTS. xi
PAGE
8. Length of Time a Starter Can be Carried 222
9. Poor Starters 223
10. Under-ripening and Over-ripening of Starters 223
11. Amount of Starter to Use 224
12. Use of Starter-cans 225
Chapter XVI
2. Conditions Affecting the Churnability of Cream 227
A. Temperature 227
B. Richness of Cream 231
C. Amount of Cream in Churn 233
D. Degree of Ripeness 234
E. Nature of Agitation 235
F. Size of Fat-globules 236
3. Straining of Cream 238
4. Color 238
5. When to Stop the Churning Process 239
6. Churning Mixed, Sweet, and Sour Cream 243
7. Difficult Churning 243
8. Keeping Churn in Sweet Condition 245
9. Washing of Butter 247
A. Purpose of Washing 247
B. Temperature of Wash-water 247
C. Kind of Wash-water to Use 248
10. Methods of Purifying Wash-water 250
A. Filtration 250
a. Continuous 253
b. Intermittent 254
B. Pasteurization 250
11. Ad^•antages of Purification of Wash-water 255
Chapter XVII
1. Amount of Salt to Use to Produce Proper Flavor 256
2. Effects of Salt upon Keeping Properties 258
3. Salt Facilitates the Removal of Buttermilk 259
4. Salt in Relation to Water in Butter 259
5. Gritty Butter 263
6. Mottled Butter 263
7. Brine-salting 264
8. Objects of Working Butter 266 xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVIIl.
PAGE
1. Kind of Package to Use 269
2. Preparation of Tubs 271
3. Packing of Butter 273
4. Packing Butter for Exhibition Purposes 275
5. Storing Butter in Creameries 276
6. Cost of Producing One Pound of Butter 278
CHAPTER XIX. Composition of Butter 281
1. Average Composition 281
2. Effect of Composition of Butter on Quality 281
A. Curd and Sugar 282
B. Salt 282
C. Water 2<S3
D. Fat 286
Chapter XX
1. Standard for Judging 287
2. Manner of Judging 290
B. Flavor 290
C. Color 291
D. Salt 292
E. Style 292
3. Classification of Butter 292
4. Grades of Butter 293
5. Export Butter 296
Appendix
I. A Laboratory Course in Farm Dairying Consisting of Fourteen Exercises on Handling, Separating, and Testing Milk and Cream under Farm Conditions. A Few of the Exercises are Devoted to the >Ianufacture of Butter on
A Small Scale 299
II. Legal Standards for IMilk — Dairy Laws 314
III. Metric System of Weights and Measures with Tables for Converting them into Customary LTnited States Equivalents AND THE Reverse 3J5
BUTTER-MAKING.
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