Soils and soil cultivation, a non-technical manual on the management of soil for the production and maintenance of fertility

Front matter

SOIL

RANK D. GAR DNE

Class

Preface

This book is written for amateur as well as professional farmers and will also be of interest to students of agriculture and prospective farmers. It makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in farming and is designed to be a handy reference work on soils, their classification and treatment and the proper adaptation of crops with a view to preserving and increasing the fertility of the soil and producing the largest and best yield in point of quality.

Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and raising crops. This knowledge is scattered through many different volumes on different phases of the subject, in experiment station bulletins, agricultural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the most successful farming is based are here brought together in orderly and readable form. Not only are directions given for the management of the soil but the best types of farm buildings and equipment are fully described and illustrated, including farm machinery of the latest type, farm sanitation, drainage and irrigation.

The subject-matter is arranged in two parts of a number of chapters each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be quickly found. References are freely given at the close of each chapter. Each chapter has been prepared by a specialist in the subject presented. The name of the author appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those unacknowledged have been prepared by myself.

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit has been given these.

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and the other volumes in the series for their conception, and for many helpful suggestions in the presentation of its subject-matter.

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor R. S. Smith, both of The Pennsylvania State College, for helpful suggestions and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowledge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of the manuscript.

Frank D. Gardner.

Contents

PART L SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

Chapter 1. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CROP^ADAPTATION 15

Soils are permanent — What farmers should know — The science of the soil — How soils are formed — Weathering and disintegration — Decomposition — What is the soil — The soil solids — The soil fluid — Gases of the soil — Soil classification—Soil surveys — Soils of the United States — Classification by texture — Crop adaptation — Summary of soil adaptedness — Eastern soils not worn out — Soil adaptation of sixteen crops common to Northeastern States — Soil adaptation of the leading cropa of the North Central Region, South Central and South Atlantic Coast Region, Plains and Mountain Region, Pacific Coast Region — Aids to the solution of soil problems.

Chapter 2. PHYSICALrCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 33

Texture of soil — Water-holding capacity of soils — Water movement in soil — Absorption of fertilizers — Plasticity and ease of cultivation — Texture affects crop adaptation — Texture affects tillage — Structure of the soil — Granular structure — Granulation improved by organic matter — Good tilth important — Solubility of soil minerals — Rate of solubility depends on texture and kind of minerals — Soil bacteria increase solubility — Rapid solubility results in loss of fertility — Chemical composition of soils — Availability important — Elements essential to plants — Soil bacteria — Bacteria make plant food available — Nitrogen increased by bacteria — Bacteria abundant near surface.

Chapter 3. FERTILITY AND HOW TO. MAINTAIN 44

Fertility defined — Vegetation an index to fertility — Drainage reflected in character of vegetation — Lime content and acidity related to plants — Vegetation and alkali — Color of soil related to fertility — Maintenance of fertility — Fertility lost by plant removal — Loss by erosion — Preventing soil erosion — Farming systems that maintain fertility — Deep plowing advisable — Tillage is manure — Rotations are helpful — Rotations reduce diseases — Cover crops prevent loss of fertility — Legumes increase soil nitrogen — Drainage increases fertility — Manure is the best fertilizer — Commercial fertilizers add plant food only — The limiting factor — Fertility an economic problem.

Chapter 4. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 54

Object and use of commercial fertilizers — What are commercial fertilizers — Where are fertilizers secured — Carriers of nitrogen — Phosphorus — Potassium — Forms of fertilizer materials — Relative value of fertilizer ingredients — The composition of fertilizers — What analyses of fertilizers show — Commercial vs. agricultural value of manures — Mechanical condition — High-grade vs. low-grade fertilizers — Use of fertilizers — Value of crop determines rate of fertilization — Valuable products justify heavy fertilization — Character of fertilizer related to soil — What the farmer should know — How to determine needs of soil — Effect modified by soil and crop — Which is the best fertilizer to use — Needs of different soils — Crop requirements — ■ Fertilizers for cereals and grasses — Legumes require no nitrogen — Available forms best for roots — Slow-acting fertilizers suited to orchards and small fruits — Nitrogen needed for vegetables — Fertilizers for cotton — Miscellaneous fertilizer facts — Effect of fertilizers on proportion of straw to grain — Principles governing profitable use of fertilizers — When to apply fertilizers — Methods of application — Purchase of fertilizers — Home mixing of fertilizers.

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8 CONTENTS

Chapter 5. BARNYARD, STABLE AND GREEN MANURES 76

Manure an important farm asset — As a source of plant food — Physical effect of manures — Biological effect of manure — The value of manure — Horse manure — Cattle manure — Hog manure — Sheep manure — Poultry manure — Miscellaneous farm manures — Value of manure influenced by quality of feed — Amount and character of bedding affects value of manure — Methods of storing and handling — Losses of manure — Experimental results — How to prevent loss — Absorbents vs. cisterns — Sterilization — Reinforcing of manures — Economical use of manure — To what crops should manure be applied — To what soils should manure be applied — Climate affects decomposit ion — Eroded soils most in need of manure — Rate of application — Methods of applying manure — Top dressing vs. plowing under — The parking system — Distribution of benefits.

Green Manures.

When is green manuring advisable — Objections to green manuring — Principal green-manuring crops.

Chapter 6. LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS. 97

Soils need lime — Lime content of soils — How soils lose lime — Lime requirements of soils — Crops require lime — Tolerance to acidity — Lime as affecting growth of plants — Sources of lime — Forms of lime.

Functions of Lime.

Lime as plant food — Chemical action of lime — Physical effect of lime — Lime affects soil bacteria — Lime corrects soil acidity — Sanitary effect of lime — Injurious effect of lime — Rale of application — Time of applying — Frequency of application — Methods of applying — Relative values of different forms of lime — Mixing with manure and fert Qizers Experimental results — Spreading lime — Slaking lime — Crushing vs. burning lime.

Chapter 7. SOIL WATER, ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL 112

Amount and distribution of rain — Amount of water necessary to produce crops — Transpiration by plants — Forms of soil water — Capillary water — Gravitational water — Hygroscopic water — Water affects temperature of soil — Water storage capacity of soils — Moisture conservation — Removing excess of water.

Land Drainage.

Drainage increases warmth and fertility of soil — Improves health conditions — Open vs. underground drains — Quality of tile — Cost of tile and excavating — Depth and frequency of drains — Grades, silt basins and junctions — The outlet — Size of tile.

Chapter 8. GENERAL METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 124

Objects of tillage — Plowing — Time of plowing — Depth of plowing — Subsoiling — Disking — Harrowing — Planking or dragfrin^ — Rolling — Character of seed-bed — < 'ult i vat ion anil hoeing — Control of weeds — Soil mulches — Soil erosion — Soil injury — Time and intensity of tillage are economic factors.

Chapter 9. FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES AND GATES 139 The Farm Residence

Barns.

Hank barns — Dairy barns — Storage capacity — Floor space and arrangement — Sialile floors — Lighting — Ventilation ( 'onveniences — Silos.

Out Buildings.

The implement house — : Corn cribs— Hog bouses Poultry houses — Milk houses — Ice houBec Roofing Use of concrete Lightning rods — Fences and gates.

Chapter 10. FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 161

Advantages of farm machinery — Tillage machinery — Cultivators — Seeding machines — Corn planters.

CONTENTS

Harvesting Machinery- Mowing machines — Self-rake reaper — Self-binder — Corn harvesters — Threshing machines — Corn shellers — Silage cutters — Manure spreader — Milking machines — Spraying machines — Tractors — Farm vehicles — Hand implements — Tools — Handy conveniences — Machinery for the house — Buying farm machinery — Care of machinery — Condition of machinery — Utilizing machinery — Cost of farm machinery — Duty of farm machinery.

Chapter 11. ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS FOR THE FARM 189 The Real Power for the Farm

Gas engine principles — Vertical and horizontal engines — Ignition — Cooling system — Lubrication — Gas engine parts — Governors — Gas engine troubles.

Transmission of Power.

Shafting — Speed of shafting — The size of pulleys — Kind of pulleys — Straight and crown faces — Covering steel pulleys — Pulley fasteners.

Belts and Belting.

Advantages of belts — Disadvantages — Essentials of a belt — Leather belts — Rubber belts — Belt slipping.

Water Motors.

Overshot wheels — Undershot wheels — Breast wheels — Impulse water motors — Turbine wheels — The hydraulic ram.

The Farm Tractor.

The size of tractors — Tractor efficiency — Type of tractor.

Chapter 12. FARM SANITATION 204 Lighting

Kerosene lamps — Gasoline lamps — Acetylene gas — Electrical lighting. Heating — Ventilation — Water supply — Sewage disposal.

Chapter 13. FARM DRAINAGE AND mRIGATION 211 Land Drainage

Co-operation — Tile drains — Running the levels — Establishing the grades — Small ditching machines — Size of tile.

Irrigation.

Water rights — Co-operation — Sources of water — Dams and reservoirs — Methods of transmission — Losses in transmission — Head gates — Preparing land for irrigation — Farm ditches — Distributaries —Distributing the water — The check system — Duty of water — When to irrigate — Irrigation waters — Alkali troubles.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plan for a Farmstead {Color Plate) Frontispiece

PAGE

Rock Weathering and the Process of Soil Formation 16

The Soil Provinces and Soil Regions of the United States {Color Map) . . 20

The Soil Separates as Made by Mechanical Analysis 21

Inspecting and Sampling the Soil 22

A Soil Auger 32

Rate and Height of Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture 34

The Ease of Seed-bed Preparation Depends on Condition of Soil 37

Soil Fertility Barrel 50

Soil Fertility Plats 52

Effect of Top Dressing Meadows with Commercial Fertilizer 64

Effect of Fertilizers on the Growth of Sweet Clover 65

Effect of Commercial Fertilizer on Wheat on a Poor Soil 67

Soil Fertility Plats 70

Modern Convenience for Conveying Manure 83

Piles of Manure Stored Under Eaves of Barn 85

Spreading Manure from Wagon, Old Way 88

The Modern Manure Spreader 92

Rye Turned Under for Soil Improvement 95

The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime 99

Beets Grown With and Without Lime 101

The Old Way of Spreading Lime 107

A Modern Lime Spreader in Operation 108

A Lime Crushing Outfit Suitable for the Farmer 109

Details of Construction of a Farm Limekiln 110

Map Showing Mean Annual Rainfall for All Parts of the United States 112

Effect of Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat 115

Orchard Well Cultivated to Prevent Evaporation 118

Water Issuing from an Underground Drain 122

A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow 125

A Badly Eroded Field 127

Details of a Good Seed Bed 130

Terracing as a Means of Preventing Erosion 132

Another Way to Stop Erosion 133

An Attractive Farm House 140

Plans of a Farm House 141

A Good Type of Barn ►. 142

Interior of a Cow Stable 143

Economical and Practical Manure Shed 144

Plans for a Circular Barn 145

Cross-Section Showing Ventilation and Stable Floor of Concrete 146

Ensilage Cutter and Filler 147

A Good Implement Shed 149

Plan of Concrete Foundation of Corn Crib 150

Interior of Double Corn Crib 151

Two Views of Iowa Gable Roof Hog House 153

A Concrete Block Ice House 154

How to Construct a Concrete Water Tank 155

A "T" Connection for Heavy Wire Lightning Rods 156

A Good Type of Farm Fence 159

A Good Type of Walking Plow 161

12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

One Type of Sulky Plow 162

An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow 163

Spring Toothed Harrow 163

Double Disk Harrow 164

A Corrugated Roller 165

A Home-made Flanker 166

A Much Used Form of Corn Cultivator 167

a wheelbarrow seeder in operation 168

The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers 169

A Good Corn Planter 170

( John Harvester with Bundle Elevator 172

A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachment 173

An Up-to-date Threshing Machine 175

Four-hole Mounted Belt Corn Sheller with Right Angle Belt Attachment 176

Milking Machine in Operation 178

A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests 179

A Collection of Useful Hand Implements 180

Interior of a Workshop with a $25 Outfit of Tools 181

Home-made Barrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed 182

Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Easier 183

A Washing Machine Saves Much Hard Work for the Housewife 184

W'iikke do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky? .. 185

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Vertical Gas Engine 188

Sectional View of a Two-Cycle Engine 190

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Horizontal Gas Engine 191

Three H. P. Gas Engine Operating Binder 193

Engine Operating Pump Jack 195

Pelton Water Wheel 199

Turbine Water Wheel 199

Three-Flow Tractor in Operation 200

Hackney Auto-Plow 201

Plowing on a Large Scale (Color Plate) 202

Creeping Grip Tractor 202

Mor-Lite Electric Plant 204

Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House 205

Modified King System of Ventilation 206

A Pneumatic Water Tank 207

Fairbanks-Mouse Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes 208

The Kaustine Closet 209

A Low Priced Tile Ditcher 213

'In i : Ditcher in Operation 214

Delivery Gate to Farm Lateral 218

Tin: V-Crowder is Kxcellent for Making the Farm Ditches 218

Canvas Dam to Check Water 219

Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method 220

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 221

PART I SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT