Front matter
C.T. Dearing Prinfmcj Co,
PHYSIOLOGY HYGIENE and SANITATION
An Elementary Text-Book of Physiology, with special attention given to Hygiene and Sanitation
Introduction
In the preparation of this book, one central idea prevails throughout — that of application of such knowledge to the life of the individual and the community that health may be preserved. Enough physiology is given in its relation to gross and minute anatomy to make clear the laws of health and the necessity for obeying them.
The writer realizes that it will be a long time before we shall cease to have opportunities to become infected with diseases that will be spread by careless, indifferent or ignorant people, but the effort is made in this book to create a health conscience so that when a communicable disease attacks an individual who knows how such diseases are spread, he will feel morally bound to try to limit it to his own household. When the public is educated to this degree, the spread of such diseases will be prevented to a large extent.
No apology is made for a frank discussion of the diseases caused solely by the carelessness in disposing of body wastes. A large number of people are dying each year of typhoid fever, dysentery (flux) and "summer complaint" (diarrhoea and enteritis) in children, every school district in the state being represented. These and many thousands more of our citizens are being made seriously ill because we have been too modest to tell our children that these body wastes are poisons.
The necessity for an efficient local and state board of health is made plain so that, with proper sentiment demanding it, the state and local laws for the protection of the people may be enforced.
4 INTRODUCTION
Why do we need a practical, health and life-saving physiology? The records of death on file in the Bureau of Vital Statistics of the State Boards of Health show that of the deaths registered nearly one-half are due to diseases that are practically preventable.
There are today in every state thousands of people, who recently attended our public schools, who do not know that tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and many other diseases come from seed (germs) and that to prevent these dreaded diseases, one has only to prevent these seed from being scattered and grown in other people.
As a result of this lack of information about one of every seven funerals that occur is caused from tuberculosis (consumption) and thousands who are ill of it are scattering the seed in every community so that about one of every seven of the children, for whom the state is now spending millions of dollars to educate, will die of this disease, and nearly one-half of them will die in the prime of their lives of diseases which are practically preventable, unless they are taught the means of saving themselves.
Many thousands of our people shorten their lives and become less efficient by the use of tobacco and alcohol; through ignorance of the value of pure food, water and air, and as a result of immorality. The school physiology is not complete if it does not arm the individual with the knowledge and purpose to avoid these errors and enable him to live in harmony with the laws of health.
The people spend foolishly a vast sum of money for patent medicines, many of them containing poison and alcohol, which usually do not do any good and may do a great deal of harm by the formation of a "drug habit' '
INTRODUCTION 5
or by delaying the proper treatment of a disease until all hope for cure is lost.
The average state pays to her dentists each year hundreds of thousands of dollars for constructing and repairing teeth. With the kind of knowledge that compels one to keep the mouth and teeth clean, and in the absence of disease, no one need pay a dentist much for repair, except as a result of an accident, or need suffer any of the terrible pain of neglected teeth.
From these considerations, it is evident that we must teach the children of today, what we, yesterday, did not know about the causes and prevention of disease that, tomorrow, the people may live longer, happier, freer from sickness and be able to carry on the warfare against disease with less opposition from ignorant people who must be protected in spite of themselves.
ILLUSTRATIONS (153)
INTRODUCTION.
Chapter. Page
I. THE HUMAN BODY A MACHINE 17
II. THE SYSTEMS OF THE BODY 21
a. Gross Anatomy.
b. Organs.
c. Sickness.
III. BODY CELLS 25
a. Minute Anatomy.
b. Cell Enemies.
IV. CELL ENEMIES 30
a. Bacteria.
b. Helpful Bacteria.
c. Harmless Bacteria.
d. Harmful Bacteria.
e. Shapes of Bacteria.
V. BACTERIA 35
a. How to Grow Bacteria.
b. Food for Germs.
c. Warmth for Germs.
d. Absence of Sunlight.
e. How Disease Germs Spread.
f. How Germs are Killed.
VI. THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM— THE SKELETON.... 42
a. Uses of the Bones.
b. Kinds of Bones as to Shape.
c. Joints.
d. Structure of Bones.
8 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page VII. HYGIENE OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 51
a. Care of the Bones.
b. Dislocations.
c. Sprains.
d. Fractures.
e. Stooped Shoulders.
f. Bone Felons.
g. Other Bone Diseases Caused by Germs, h. White Swelling.
i. Pott's Disease.
VIII. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 57
a. Power of Locomotion.
b. Connective Tissue.
c. The Muscles and Their Function.
d. Muscular Sense.
e. Attachment of Muscles.
f. Arrangement of Muscles.
g. Training of Muscles.
h. Muscle Wear and Repair.
IX. HYGIENE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 68
a. Exercise.
b. Form of Exercise.
c. Exercise of Occupation.
d. Games.
e. When to Exercise.
f. Muscle Enemies.
g. Tobacco and Alcohol, h. An Erect Figure.
X. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 74
a. Chemistry.
b. Composition of Matter.
c. Composition of Vegetable and Animal Matter.
d. Life by Death.
Chapter
XL
THE
ORGANS OF DIGESTION.
a.
Mastication.
b.
Insalivation.
c.
Gastric Digestion.
d.
Intestinal Digestion.
e.
Absorption.
f.
Assimilation.
Page .. 80
XII. KINDS AND QUANTITIES OF FOODS., a. Classes of Food.
b.
Water.
c.
The Carbo-Hydrates.
d.
Fats.
e.
Proteids.
f.
Minerals.
g.
Mixed Foods.
h.
Milk.
i.
Preparation of Foods.
J.
Methods of Cooking.
k.
Serving Foods.
FOODS .
a.
Food Values.
b.
Table of Food Values.
c.
Alcohol.
d.
How to Eat.
e.
Loss of Appetite.
XIII. FOODS 96
XIV. PRESERVATION OF FOODS 103
a. Refrigeration.
b. Pickling.
c. Dehydration.
d. Dangers of Food.
XV. MILK ,,,, 1Q9
a. Care of Milk.
b. Market Milk, "Certified Milk."
c. Skimmed Milk.
d. Butter and Cheese.
Chapter.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
a. Water Supplies.
Polluted Water.
Examination of Water.
Purification of Water.
The Common Drinking Cup.
Drinking Fountains.
a. Structure of Teeth.
The Shape of Teeth.
Injury of Teeth.
Care of Teeth.
Repair of Teeth.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Blood.
The Heart.
The Work of the Heart.
The Arteries.
Structure of Arteries.
The Capillaries.
Veins.
The Lymphatics.
Lymph Glands.
BLOOD CELLS
a. Red Blood Cells.
b. White Blood Cells.
c. Malaria.
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATION., a. Exercise.
Fresh Air.
Drugs for Headache.
Alcohol.
Tobacco.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
a. Objects of Respiration.
b. Organs of Respiration.
c. The Trachea.
b. c. d. e.
THE a. b. c. d. e. f.
g. h. i.
b. c. d. e.
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Chapter.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
THE
a.
b.
c.
AIR
a.
b.
e.
f.
b. c. d. e.
Page
LUNGS 169
How We Breathe. *
The Capacity of the Lungs.
The Rate of Breathing. 175
Composition of Air.
Air Pressure.
Nitrogen.
Carbon Dioxide.
Changes in Expired Air.
Effect of Breathing Air with Insufficient
Oxygen.
a. Quantity of Air Needed.
Methods of Ventilation.
Schoolroom Ventilation,
Sleeping Room Ventilation.
Sleeping Porches.
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.... 188 a. Dust in the Air.
Gases in the Air.
Exercise and Air.
Tight Clothing.
Postures.
Alcohol.
Tobacco.
INFLUENZA AND "COLDS" 195
a. Germs in the Air.
b. Influenza.
c. Prevention of Influenza.
TUBERCULOSIS 201
a. Frequency of Tuberculosis.
Site of the Disease.
The Cause of Tuberculosis.
The Signs or Symptoms of Tuberculosis. Examination by Physicians.
Heredity of "Consumption."
How the Disease Spreads.
Chapter XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
b. c. d. e.
Page TUBERCULOSIS (Continued 214
a. Prevention of Tuberculosis.
b. Treatment of Tuberculosis.
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 220
a. The Organs of the Excretory System.
The Kidneys.
Hygiene.
Bright's Disease.
The Bowels.
THE BODY WASTES IN DISEASE 226
a. Typhoid Fever.
b. How the Disease is Spread.
c. The Prevention of Typhoid Fever.
BODY WASTES (Continued) 232
a. Hookworm Disease.
Cause of Hookworm Disease.
How the Disease Spreads.
The Cure of Hookworm Disease.
Benefits of Treatment.
Prevention.
a. Functions of the Sikn.
Structure of the Skin.
Complexions.
The Dermis.
The Sweat Glands.
Heat Regulations of the Body.
Sickness and Body Temperature.
a. Bathing.
Cold Baths.
The Face and Hands.
The Feet.
Clothing.
Change of Clothing.
Tight-Fitting Clothing.
Shoes.
Flat Feet.
g. h. i.
Chapter Page
XXXIV. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 252
a. The Brain, the Spinal Cord and the Nerves.
b. How the Nervous System Works.
XXXV. THE ORGANS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
a. The Brain.
b. The Spinal Cord.
c. Nerve Cells.
d. The Nerves.
e. Plexus of the Nerves.
f. The Sympathetic Nervous System.
XXXVI. REFLEX ACTIONS AND HABITS ... a. Reflex Action and Character.
XXXVII. HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, a. Rest and Sleep.
b. c.
Tobacco.
Alcohol.
XXXVIII. THE SPECIAL SENSES
a. The Sense of Feeling.
b. Pain.
c. Taste.
d. Smell.
e. Uses of Smell.
f. Care of Nose.
XXXIX. HEARING
a. Organ of Hearing.
b. The Outer Ear.
c. The Middle Ear.
d. The Internal Ear.
e. How We Hear.
f. Care of Ear.
Chapter
XL.
SEEINC a.
The Eye Lids.
b.
The Eye.
c.
How We See.
d.
Near Sightedness.
e.
Far Sightedness.
f.
Astigmatism.
g.
A Cataract.
h.
Care of the Eyes.
i.
Eye Strain.
J.
Cross Eyes.
Page
.. 290
XLI. EMERGENCIES 301
a. Injury by Violence.
b. Punctures.
c. Bruises.
d. Bites of Animals and Stings of Insects.
e. Burns and Cold.
f. Frost Bites.
g. Electric Currents, h. Sun Stroke.
i. Heat Prostration.
XLII. EMERGENCIES (Continued)
a. Fainting.
b. Fits.
c. Asphyxiation.
d. Poisons.
e. Alcohol.
XLIII. COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDHOOD
a. General Considerations.
b. Diphtheria.
c. Scarlet Fever.
d. Whooping Cough.
e. Infantile Paralysis.
f. Chicken Pox.
TABLE OP CONTENTS 15
Chapter
Page
XLIV.
SANI' a.
rATION
Sanitation of the Home.
b.
Garbage.
c.
Sanitation of the Community.
d.
Health Boards.
e.
The State Board of Health.
f.
Volunteer Organizations.
g.
Tuberculosis Sanatoria.
Chapter I The Human Body A Machine
A practical knowledge of any machine results from a study of its use; its structure, or of the various parts composing it; its motive force, or power to make it work; its operation, or the way to make it work; the care of it, to keep it useful, and the repair of it should it be broken.
If this kind of knowledge were applied to all machines upon the farms and in the factories, they would do their work better for a longer time, at less expense and save their owners a great deal of worry, time and repair bills.
Some machines are so simple they can be understood at a glance, while others of complicated construction, like a watch, harvester, steam engine, linotype machine or a sewing machine, require careful study to understand their construction and remedy their ills. Machines costing a great deal of money are given expert care and attention to keep them in order and preserve them.
The human body is the most wonderful machine in the world. It is made up of millions of parts which work in harmony; it furnishes its power, wears out millions of parts every day and replaces them with new ones which it makes; it fights its battles with disease and superintends all its operations within itself; it has time left to gird the earth with the railroads, telephones, and telegraph and give us literature, music, arts and sciences and direct all the human activities of commerce and society.
A practical knowledge of the human body will be gained by the study of it as a machine.
Our happiness and success in life depend upon our good health. The body is said to be in good health when all its parts are doing their duty perfectly and in harmony.
One may spend long years of study and a great deal of money to secure a good education, yet, if he fails to care for his body and protect it against its enemies, his efforts may be wasted because of ill health or he may die from a disease which can be avoided. Recall six of the most successful people you know. How many of them have been sickly all their lives?
Sickness or illness is that condition of the body in which some of the parts are not doing their duty perfectly and in harmony.
The human body is such a complicated machine that thousands of men have spent their whole lives in its study and were never able to learn all about it. If all the books and papers that were ever written about the body were collected in one place, it would take a lifetime to count them.
The science or study of medicine includes all that is known of the human body. Those who devote a great deal of study to this science are called Doctors of Medicine. They are required to study the physiology, hygiene and pathology of the human body and many other branches of the science. Each of these subjects and many other branches of the science require a large book of more than a thousand pages to tell what is known of the body.
The purpose of this book is to give us enough knowledge of the physiology, anatomy, hygiene and pathology of our body to keep it well by obeying the laws of health.
THE HUMAN BODY A MACHINE 19
Anatomy is the study of the parts of the body.
Physiology is the study of the functions or uses of the parts of the body. Hygiene is the study of the laws of health. Pathology is the study of the diseases of the body or the conditions which make the body sick.
If we could imagine that these terms could be applied to a watch, for example, the physiology of the watch would tell us of the function or work of its parts. The wheels, moved by the spring, would turn the long and short hand to the letters or figures on the dial to tell the time of day, while the second hand moves around on the axle of one of the wheels to warn us of the passing minute. The anatomy of the watch would describe the parts ; the wheels, spring, long and short hand, the dial or face, second hand, axles, etc. The hygiene of the watch would give us the rules to keep it in repair and directions to keep it from running too fast or too slow. The " pathology' ' would describe a broken spring or jewel, axle or any of the "diseases" which would hinder it from keeping the correct time.
A study of its use, the parts of which it is composed and their uses, the method of its operation and its motive power, its repair and its care constitute a practical knowledge of any machine.
The human body is best studied as a machine to acquire a practical knowledge of it.
The complete knowledge of the body is embraced in the science of medicine.
Well-trained physicians are experts in the care of the body because they have a practical knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, hygiene and pathology and other branches of the science relating to the care of the body.
The purpose of this book is to give one enough knowledge of his body to keep it well and protect it against its enemies.
1. Why is the human body like a machine?
2. What are the necessary things to know about a machine? The body?
3. Why is it necessary to study the human body?
4. Which is most to be desired, a splendid education, wealth or good health? Why?
5. What makes you think the body is a complicated machine ?
6. What is health? Sickness?
7. What is the purpose of this book?
8. Describe what may be called the physiology of a sewing machine; its anatomy, hygiene, pathology; a steam engine; an automobile; a school.
9. Tell what we mean by the physiology, anatomy, hygiene and pathology of the human body.
10. Mention five things the human body does within itself.
11. Name five things which you think are the greatest the human machine has done for us.
Chapter II The Systems Of The Body
Gross Anatomy. Viewing the body as a whole, it is found to consist of three divisions; the head, trunk and limbs. The head is made up of the cranium and the face, and contains the brain and organs of special senses — the eyes, ears, nose and the tongue. The trunk is made up of two parts; the chest, which contains the heart and lungs, and the abdomen, which contains the stomach, liver, intestines and other organs of digestion. The limbs are described as the upper and lower extremities, or the arms and legs.
The examination of the materials composing the body shows that it is made of bones, muscles, fat, blood vessels, blood, lymph, nerves, cartilage, connective tissue and skin.
The bones, muscles, blood and other parts of the body have certain duties to do. Each system has a special task to perform.
It is necessary to study the body by systems in order to get a knowledge of its parts, use and care.
The Systems of the Body. A system of the human body is any group of parts w T hich perform in perfect order their particular duty. There are seven great systems of the human body. The muscular system gives to the body its power of movement; the osseous or bony system gives to the body its shape and rigidity; the digestive system prepares the food which is converted into force and flesh.
The circulatory system carries the blood and lymph to all parts of the body; the respiratory system furnishes means for supplying the body with air and ridding it of certain poisons; the excretory system rids the body of its refuse matter and poisons, and the nervous system controls and guides all the work of the body.
Each of these systems will be studied separately, but it must be remembered that all are so closely connected and work in such perfect unity that if one system becomes impaired it will affect the work of all of them. Thus, if a bone is broken, it interferes not only with the work of the muscles but the work of all of the systems of the body.
Organs. Any part of the body which has a special task to perform is called an organ. Thus, the heart is the organ which pumps the blood. The stomach is the organ which helps digest the food. The lungs are the organ which purify the blood by exchanging oxygen of the air for poisonous gases. The brain is the organ which helps to control the workings of the body. The eye is the organ of sight and the ear of hearing. One cannot live if the heart or lungs or brain stop working for even a short length of time. These three organs have been called "The Tripod of Life."
The steam engine may be powerful enough when working properly to draw a heavy train of cars, yet, if one of the wheels break, the throttle refuse to work, or the boiler sustain a serious leak, not only the engine but the entire train will be brought to a stop until repairs are made. That engine is useful and powerful only so long as all of its parts are performing their duties perfectly and in order.
It is so with the human body ; it may be digesting its
THE SYSTEMS OF THE BODY 23
food, moving itself about, breathing regularly, pumping its blood, ridding itself of poison and governing its operations, yet, if part of it is injured by a severe blow, cut, frozen or becomes poisoned by disease germs, or for any other reason is seriously damaged, the entire work of the body is halted or stopped until repair is made.
It is important that we protect the body from accidents or other injuries, and it is of special importance that the body be protected from sickness which is caused by impure air, food and water and other diseases which can be avoided.
Sickness. A great deal of sickness and many of the deaths that occur are caused by diseases practically preventable, and among these are tuberculosis or consumption, typhoid fever, small-pox, scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, la grippe, influenza (sometimes called Spanish influenza) and "summer complaint of children." These and other diseases will be studied under the systems of the body which are directly affected, but it must be borne in mind that any disease affects the work of the entire body. In no other way is the truth of the motto, "United we stand, divided we fall," better shown than in the work of the systems of the human body.
The gross anatomy of the body shows it to be of three main divisions, the head, trunk and limbs, and that it is composed of bone, blood, lymph, muscles, tendons, fat, blood vessels, connective tissue, nerves and skin.
It is found to consist of a number of systems, each of which performs a special task. In health all the systems of the body perform their tasks in conjunction with each other.
Any interference with a single system hinders the work of every other part of the body. Many diseases and accidents are preventable, and it is our duty to avoid them.
1. "What is meant by gross anatomy?
2. Name three divisions of the body and their parts.
3. "What materials compose the body?
4. What is meant by a system of the body?
5. Name seven systems of the body.
6. Describe the physiology of 'the muscular system, the osseous system, the digestive system and the other four which are mentioned.
7. What is an organ? Name three which are called "The Tripod of Life." Why?
8. Name four other organs of the body and their functions.
9. Explain what is meant by saying, "The work of the body may be likened to the work done by a machine."
10. Name five rules for general hygiene of the body given in this chapter.
11. What is meant by preventable sickness? How may such sickness be avoided?
12. Name nine diseases which can be prevented.
13. Where in this book will they be described?
14. What is the motto which applies to the work of the systems of the body?
Chapter III Body Cells
Minute Anatomy. In the last chapter the gross anat omy of the body was considered. The eye unaided by any instrument is able to see that the body is composed of bone, blood, muscles, nerves, skin, etc. To understand fully the workings of the body and how to protect it, it is necessary to take a closer view of the parts and see how they are constructed. They are made up of objects so small that they cannot .be seen with the eye alone, but can be seen only with the aid of the microscope. Such an examination of an object is termed a microscopical examination.
When an object is seen at a distance of several miles it may be difficult to say whether it is a dwelling, barn or some other object. Upon coming closer to it, we see it is made of bricks and we can see the mortar between them. Upon examination, we may see the grains of sand in the mortar. With the aid of different lenses these grains of sand may be enlarged until they appear as great stones.
Blood when examined by a microscope is found to contain millions of tiny round objects called cells. Likewise,
Pigr. 1. — A microscope with which to magnify objects too small to be seen with the unaided eye.
the bones, muscles, fat, skin, nerves, blood vessels and every part of the body are found to be made up of a great many tiny parts, so small usually that many hundreds would have to be placed end to end to reach an inch. All these tiny parts are called cells. A cell is known as the smallest division of living matter. In health, each cell retains its own identity ; that is, a blood cell never becomes a fat cell or a bone cell or a muscle cell, neither does any cell be- Fiff. 2.— Blood come a cell of another tissue. A tissue is
cells (magni- . . .
fied) in a small any part of a living body which is made
blood vessel.
up of cells.
The body is a mass of cells which make up the bones,
muscles, nerves, blood, fat, blood vessels, skin and other
tissues of which the body is composed.
The human body, like all other animals and plants which are found upon the earth, starts from a single cell, and, by dividing and growing, forms the entire body. The body is repaired by replacing new cells for those injured or worn out. Every motion of the body, every thought, every act of the body causes many cells to be destroyed.
Good health depends upon good cells. When the body is in good health new
cells are formed at once to take the place of those worn
out or injured.
In sickness, cells are destroyed much faster than new
ones can be made to take their places. When too many
cells are destroyed death of all the cells occurs and the
body is said to be dead. A person who is recovering
Fig-. 3.— A highly magnified body cell.
BODY CELLS
Fig-. 4.— The man looks "thin." The germs of tuberculosis (consumption) have destroyed millions of his body cells".
from a severe injury or illness is said to "look thin" or to have "lost flesh." This is only another way of saying that many more cells have been destroyed during his sickness than have been made to take their places.
Cell Enemies. Any condition or habit which destroys cells faster than they can be replaced results in impairment of the body. Keepinglate hours at night deprives the body of the time to repair itself, and a person persisting in this habit becomes less efficient or ill. In the same way, the body is affected by bad air, water and food, by alcoholic drinks and exposure to too much heat or cold and accidents.
Germs or bacteria are responsible for more than one-half of all the sickness of the world. They are, therefore, the worst of the cell enemies. They are microscopical in size, being so small that many thousands laid side by side will not cover the distance of one inch.
Pig-. 5.— The tiny dots are "germs or bacteria" in blood. The larger bodies are blood cells (highly magnified).
Minute Anatomy is a branch of science which treats of the smallest parts of which the body is composed. Such a study can be made only with the microscope, an instrument of many lenses which has the power to magnify an object and make it appear much larger than it is.
The cells composing the entire body are readily seen with such an instrument and the difference in size, shape, color or texture may be observed.
The body is constantly being destroyed by loss of cells. In health they are replaced immediately.
Sickness and death are caused by cells being destroyed faster than they can be replaced.
Consumption or tuberculosis, typhoid fever, pneumonia and diphtheria and all the diseases which are called "catching" are caused by bacteria or germs, which are the worst of all cell enemies.
1. What is minute anatomy and how does it differ from gross anatomy?
2. Explain what is meant by a microscopical examination of things.
Fig. 6.— The dotted lines point to two parts of the lung: which have been destroyed by the germs of "consumption."
BODY CELLS 29
3. What is a cell? Name six kinds of cells in the body.
4. How is the body repaired? How destroyed?
5. What happens to the body cells in health? In sickness?
6. What is meant by a person "looking thin?" Being dead?
7. Name seven cell enemies. How do they effect a person?
8. What cell enemies are responsible for more than one-half the sickness of the world?
9. Recall ten people you know who have been sick or who have died. How many of them were sick or died of the disease which yon know can and ought to be prevented ?
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