The development of free schools in the United States as illustrated by Connecticut and Michigan

Front matter

«assj_jl^^^-g^

PRESENTED nv

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FREE |

Introduction

The typical public school of the United States is a free school. It is free in that it charges no tuition fees to resident pupils. However, it is a matter of common knowledge that in an earlier period tuition was one of the means of school support. This was certainly true of all states east of the Mississippi River, except Maine and Wisconsin, and actually if not legally may have been true of them also. A few states west of the Mississippi used tuition as a means of school support. Striking examples are Iowa, California, and Texas.

As one reviews the educational legislation of the different states, it becomes evident that in the period of 1840-1870 many laws were enacted having as their aim the attainment of schools free from tuition as a means of support. It is also evident that from an early period, children of the poor were not required to pay such fees. To make schools free meant to exempt aU children from such charges, and to support the schools entirely by other means, largely by taxation upon property. Laws which aimed to secure this condition were enacted m certain states, as follows: Delaware, 1829; Pennsylvania, 1834, 1848, 1868; Louisiana, 1847; Indiana, 1852; Ohio, 1853; Texas, 1854; Iowa 1858; West Virginia, 1863; Vermont, 1864; New York and Calif orma, 1867- Michigan, 1869; Connecticut, 1868-1870, and New Jersey 1871 ' In some cases, the laws left the matter entirely to local option, as for example the law of 1834 in Pennsylvania. In others, no local choice was given. It is also probable that much of the earlier legislation of this type was largely unrealized m actual practice, but the later laws were backed by sufficient sentiment and finances to make the schools practically free.

This development of free schools in the last century consisted not only of changes in the schools themselves, but also of changes in public opinion about the function, the orgamzation, and the administration of the public school. Since our schools depend upon pubUc opinion, the investigation of this evolution to ascertain its causes, tendencies, and results, may help us to understand better the present problems of education in our democracy.

V vi The Development of Free Schools

The task of studying intensively this movement in all states concerned is so enormous in extent that it was found impossible of accomplishment except by years of research and study. After a brief preliminary survey of the general movement, it was found desirable to select one or more states and study their history to ascertain how they illustrate this educational evolution. It was thought desirable, also, that the states selected should have a population very largely of the same origin; that at least one of the states should illustrate this development from colonial times; and that the vexing problems involved in religious and sectarian controversies about the public schools should not be present to such a degree as to unduly complicate and obscure the main issues. The two states of Connecticut and Michigan met these conditions, and they were selected for study.

Certain terms used in this study need definition. Tuition, rate-bill, pauper school and poor school, rate-bill school, rate, and free school, are terms which may be confused. Tuition meant the same as it does to-day, money paid by parents, or guardians, of pupils for schooling. Rate-bill was a term used somewhat carelessly, but usually meant a tuition bill with the added feature that if the parents of children were indigent, such parents would be exempted from payment of the tuition fees. This bill was levied upon and collected directly from individuals, but could be collected, if necessary, by seizure and sale of property. Like tuition, a rate-bill was usually charged in proportion to the number of children in attendance and the total number of days of school attended. Pauper school and poor school originally meant schools attended only by children of the poor. In time, these terms came to be applied to a public school using rate-bills as a means of support, if the attendance was composed largely of children unable to attend private schools. A rate-bill school was a public school using rate-bills as a means of support. A rate, in contrast with a rate-bill, was what we call a property tax. A free school was one supported entirely without tuition, or rate-bills. It might be public or private, and might be supported by an endowment, or by taxation and other means of public support. As used in this study, it means a public school supported entirely by taxation and other means of public maintenance.

The sources from which the material for this study has been

Introduction vii

drawn are indicated in the Appendices. The chief sources are reports of the state departments of education, school laws, and educational journals The writer is under obligation to Bryson Library of Teachers College, Hartford Public Library, Library of the University of Michigan, and the United States Bureau of Education for facilities furnished. His chief obligation is to Dr. Paul Monroe, who suggested the study and who has given much help in directing it.

Contents

PAGE

Introduction v

PART I. CONNECTICUT Colonial Beginnings in Connecticut 1

General Social Changes, About 1780-1870 10

Some Legislative and Administrative Changes in Education,

Educational Finance, 1780-1870 18

School Fund, Town Deposit Fund, Local Funds, Town Tax, Society Tax, District Tax, Tuition and Rate-bills, Minor Sources Development of Free Schools 42

A. Up to 1850

D. Extensions of Free School Principle since 1870

E. Immediate Results of Free School Laws and Free School Cam-

paign

PART II. MICHIGAN General Social Changes • 77

Some Legislative and Administrative Changes, 1785-1870 ... 79 Educational Conditions under the Government of the Northwest Territory, 1785-1805 81

Free School Development while Michigan Was A Territory . . 85 Beginnings of Free Schools and Free School Legislation under

the First Constitution 87

Free School Growth under Second Constitution and to Two

Mill Tax AND Optional Free School Law, 1850-1860 .... 91

Civil War Period and Abolition of Rate-bills 102

Extensions AND Constitutional Changes SINCE 1869 124

PART III. INFLUENCING FACTORS AND SUMMARY Population Elements 126

Influence of Teachers 137

Industries and Labor Union Movement 145

Taxpayers 150

Local Units of School Administration 152

Educational Finance, Connecticut 155

Educational Finance, Michigan 156

ix

X The Development of Free Schools

Role op State and Local Administrative Officers paqb

A. Connecticut 163

B. Michigan 163

Political Theory and Free Schools 169

Financial Panics AND Free Schools " . . . 174

Civil War and Free Schools 175

Private Schools and Free Schools 176

Free Education as Charity 181

Belief in Moral Value of Education 184

Causal and Influencing Factors 189

Results 194

Some Principles Demonstrated by the Study , 194

General Bibliography . 199

Bibliography on Connecticut 200

Statistical Tables — Connecticut

I. Population and Social Statistics 203

II. Rate-billa, Districts Using and Support 204

III. School Fund Dividends, 1799-1883 204

IV. Town and District Taxes, Support per Child 206

V. Teachers' Salaries, 1835-1878 206

VI. Use of Rate-bills by Counties 207

VII. Use of Rate-bills by Towns 207

VIII. Local Revenue and Districts Levying Tax 208

IX. Proportion of Public Funds as Contrasted to Local Funds

in Certain Communities 208

Documents — Connecticut

1. State Board Member on Pauper Schools 209

2. Platform of State Teachers' Association, 1868 209

3. Resolutions of Friends of Universal Education . . . . . 211

4. Petition of Hartford Ministerial Association, 1867 . . .211

5. Endowed Free Schools 212

6. Barnard and Boutwell on Rate-bills and Free Schools . . . 213

7. Philbrick on Rate-bills, 1855 214

8. Camp on Taxes, Rate-bills and Free Schools 215

9. Northrop on Rate-bills and Free Schools 216

10. Free Education as Charity 218

11. Northrop on Charity in Education . 218

Bibliography on Michigan . 219

Statistical Tables — Michigan

I. Salaries, Rate-bills, Proportion of Salary in Rate-bills, Gain

or Loss in Rate-bills, Total Districts and Free Districts . . 220

Contents xi ;

Statistical Tables — Michigan — Concluded paqb ;•

II. Population and Social Statistics 221 j

III, District Tax, Township Tax, Total Income per Child . . 222 4

IV. Teachers' Salaries per Month for Certain Years .... 223 J V. School Fund Income, 1839-1880 223 *

VI. Attendance in Public and Private Schools 224 '■

Documents — Michigan ;

A. Rate-bill: Teacher's Tuition List 225 J

B. Rate-bill and Warrant for Collection 225 j

C. Rate-bill: Notice of Assessor's Sale 226 ■

D. Rate-bill: Collector's Warrant 227 ;

E. Sectarian Definition of Free Schools 227 I

F. Counter-petition of Bishop McCoskry 228 •

G. Decision in Kalamazoo High School Case 229 i