Men of the old stone age, their environment, life and art

Front matter

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Class

Preface

This volume is the outcome of an ever memorable tour through the country of the men of the Old Stone Age, guided by three of the distinguished archaeologists of France, to whom the work is gratefully dedicated. This Palaeolithic tour* of three weeks, accompanied as it was by a constant flow of conversation and discussion, made a very profound impression, namely, of the very early evolution of the spirit of man, of the close relation between early human environment and industry and the development of mind, of the remote antiquity of the human powers of observation, of discovery, and of invention. It appears that men with faculties and powers like our own, but in the infancy of education and tradition, were living in this region of Europe at least 25,000 years ago. Back of these intelligent races were others, also of eastern origin but in earlier stages of mental development, all pointing to the very remote ancestry of man from earlier mental and physical stages.

Another great impression from this region is that it is the oldest centre of human habitation of which we have a complete, unbroken record of continuous residence from a period as remote as 100,000 vears corresponding with the dawn of human culture, to the hamlets of the modern peasant of France of A. D. 191 5. In contrast, Egyptian, ^Egean, and Mesopotamian civilizations appear as of yesterday.

The history of this region and its people has been developed chiefly through the genius of French archaeologists, beginning with Boucher de Perthes. The more recent discoveries, which have come in rapid and almost bewildering succession since the foundation of the Institut de Paleontologie humaine, have been treated in a number of works recently published by some of the

* The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author's tour.

vii viii PREFACE

experienced archaeologists of England, France, and Germany. I refer especially to the Prehistoric Times of Lord Avebury, to the Ancient Hunters of Professor Sollas, to Der Mensch der Vorzeit of Professor Obermaier, and to Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands of Doctor R. R. Schmidt. Thus, on receiving the invitation from President Wheeler to lecture upon this subject before the University of California, I hesitated from the feeling that it would be difficult to say anything which had not been already as well or better said. On further reflection, however, I accepted the invitation with the purpose of attempting to give this great subject a more strictly historical or chronological treatment than it had previously received within the limits of a popular work in our own language, also to connect the environment, the animal and human life, and the art.

This element of the time in which the various events occurred can only be drawn from a great variety of sources, from the simultaneous consideration of the geography, climate, plants and animals, the mental and bodily development of the various races, and the industries and arts which reflect the relations between the mind and the environment. In more technical terms, I have undertaken in these lectures to make a synthesis of the results of geology, palaeontology, anthropology, and archaeology, a correlation of environmental and of human events in the European Ice Age. Such a synthesis was begun many years ago in the preparation of my Age of Mammals, but could not be completed until I had gone over the territory myself.

The attempt to place this long chapter of prehistory on a historical basis has many dangers, of which I am fully aware. After weighing the evidence presented by the eminent authorities in these various branches of science, I have presented my conclusions in very definite and positive form rather than in vague or general terms, believing that a positive statement has at least the merit of being positively supported or rebutted by fresh evidence. For example, I have placed the famous Piltdown man, Eoanthropus, in a comparatively recent stage of geologic time, an entirely opposite conclusion to that reached by Doctor A. Smith Wood-

PREFACE ix

ward, who has taken a leading part in the discovery of this famous race and has concurred with other British geologists in placing it in early Pleistocene times. The difference between early and late Pleistocene times is not a matter of thousands but of hundreds of thousands of years; if so advanced a stage as the Piltdown man should definitely occur in the early Pleistocene, we may well expect to discover man in the Pliocene ; on the contrary, in my opinion even in late Pliocene times man had only reached a stage similar to the Pithecanthropus, or prehuman Trinil race of Java ; in other words, according to my view, man as such chiefly evolved during the half million years of the Pleistocene Epoch and not during the Pliocene.

This question is closely related to that of the antiquity of the oldest implements shaped by the human hand. Here again I have adopted an opinion opposed by some of the highest authorities, but supported by others, namely, that the earliest of these undoubted handiworks occur relatively late in the Pleistocene, namely, about 125,000 years ago. Since the Piltdown man was found in association with such implements, it is at once seen that the two questions hang together.

This work represents the co-operation of many specialists on a single, very complex problem. I am not in any sense an archaeologist, and in this important and highly technical field I have relied chiefly upon the work of Hugo Obermaier and of Dechelette in the Lower Palaeolithic, and of Henri Breuil in the Upper Palaeolithic. Through the courtesy of Doctor Obermaier I had the privilege of watching the exploration of the wonderful grotto of Castillo, in northern Spain, which affords a unique and almost complete sequence of the industries of the entire Old Stone Age. This visit and that to the cavern of Altamira, with its wonderful frescoed ceiling, were in themselves a liberal education in the prehistory of man. With the Abbe Breuil I visited all the old camping stations of Upper Palaeolithic times in Dordogne and noted with wonder and admiration his detection of all the fine gradations of invention which separate the flint-makers of that period. With Professor Cartailhac I enjoyed a broad survey of the Lower x PREFACE

and Upper Palaeolithic stations and caverns of the Pyrenees region and took note of his learned and spirited comments. Here also we had the privilege of being with the party who entered for the first time the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert, with the Comte de Begouen and his sons.

In the American Museum I have been greatly aided by Mr. Nels C. Nelson, who has reviewed all the archaeological notes and greatly assisted me in the classification of the flint and bone implements which is adopted in this volume.

In the study of the divisions, duration, and fluctuations of climate during the Old Stone Age I have been assisted chiefly by Doctor Chester A. Reeds, a geologist of the American Museum, who devoted two months to bringing together in a comprehensive and intelligible form the results of the great researches of Albrecht Penck and Eduard Bruckner embraced in the three-volume work, Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter . The temperatures and snowlevels of the Glacial Epoch, which is contemporaneous with the Old Stone Age, together with the successive phases of mammalian life which they conditioned, afford the firm basis of our chronology; that is, we must reckon the grand divisions of past time in terms of Glacial and Interglacial Stages; the subdivisions are recorded in terms of the human invention and progress of the flint industry. I have also had frequent recourse to The Great Ice Age and the more recent Antiquity of Man in Europe of James Geikie, the founder of the modern theory of the multiple Ice Age in Europe.

It is a unique pleasure to express my indebtedness to the Upper Palaeolithic artists of the now extinct Cro-Magnon race, from whose work I have sought to portray so far as possible the mammalian and human life of the Old Stone Age. While we owe the discovery and early interpretation of this art to a generation of archaeologists, it has remained for the Abbe Breuil not only to reproduce the art with remarkable fidelity but to firmly establish a chronology of the stages of art development. These results are brilliantly set forth in a superb series of volumes published by the Institut de Paleontologie humaine on the foundation of the Prince of Monaco; in fact, the memoirs on the art

PREFACE xi

and industry of Grimaldi, Font-de-Gaunie, Altaniira, La Pasiega, and the Cantabrian caves of Spain (Les Cavernes de la Region Cantabrique), representing the combined labors of Capitan, Cartailhac, Verneau, Boule, Obermaier, and Breuil, mark a new epoch in the prehistory of man in Europe. There never has been a more fortunate union of genius, opportunity, and princely support.

In the collection of materials and illustrations from the vast number of original papers and memoirs consulted in the preparation of this volume, as well as in the verification of the text and proofs, I have been constantly aided by one of my research assistants, Miss Christina D. Matthew, who has greatly facilitated the work. I am indebted also to Miss Mabel R. Percy for the preparation and final revision of the manuscript. From the bibliography prepared by Miss Jannette M. Lucas, the reader may find the original authority for every statement which does not rest on my own observation or reflection.

Interest in human evolution centres chiefly in the skull and in the brain. The slope of the forehead and the other angles, which are so important in forming an estimate of the brain capacity, may be directly compared throughout this volume, because the profile or side view of every skull figured is placed in exactly the same relative position, namely, on the lines established by the anatomists of the Frankfort Convention to conform to the natural pose of the head on the living body.

In anatomy I have especially profited by the co-operation of my former student and present university colleague Professor J. Howard McGregor, of Columbia, who has shown great anatomical as well as artistic skill in the restoration of the heads of the four races of Trinil, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon. The new reconstruction of the Piltdown head is with the aid of casts sent to me by my friend Doctor A. Smith Woodward, of the British Museum of Natural History. The problem of reconstruction of the Piltdown skull has, through the differences of interpretation by Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith, become one of the causes celebres of anthropology. On the placing of the fragments of the skull and jaws, which have few points xii PREFACE

of contact, depends the all-important question of the size of the brain and the character of the profile of the face and jaws. In Professor McGregor's reconstruction different methods have been used from those employed by the British anatomists, and advantage has been taken of an observation of Mr. A. E. Anderson that the single canine tooth belongs in the upper and not in the lower jaw. In these models, and in all the restorations of men by Charles R. Knight under my direction, the controlling principle has been to make the restoration as human as the anatomical evidence will admit. This principle is based upon the theory for which I believe very strong grounds may be adduced, that all these races represent stages of advancing and progressive development; it has seemed to me, therefore, that in our restorations we should indicate as much alertness, intelligence, and upward tendency as possible. Such progressive expression may, in fact, be observed in the faces of the higher anthropoid apes, such as the chimpanzees and orangs, when in process of education. No doubt, our ancestors of the early Stone Age were brutal in many respects, but the representations which have been made chiefly by French and German artists of men with strong gorilla or chimpanzee characteristics are, I believe, unwarranted by the anatomical remains and are contrary to the conception which we must form of beings in the scale of rapidly ascending intelligence.

Henry Fairfield Osborn.

American Museum of Natural History June 21, 1915.

In sending forth the second edition I have been able to add the results of recent research on the jaw of the Piltdown man, and on the presence of anthropoid apes in Europe during the

Old Stone Age.

H. F. O.

December 20, 191 5.

Preface To The Third Edition

The call for a third edition of this volume has afforded me an opportunity not only to correct a number of minor errors in the illustrations and text, to which friendly reviewers and critics have called attention, but also to add an account of the Palaeolithic history of Spain and of the western region of northern Africa.

The relations of the ancient life of the Iberian Peninsula with that of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were at times very close indeed. In fact, the very characteristic industry known as the Capsian, which developed in North Africa during Upper Palaeolithic times, extended throughout southeastern Spain, the two regions constituting a single archaeologic province. The art of Alpera and Cogul, which in the earlier editions of this work was attributed to Neolithic times, belongs rather to the close of the Palaeolithic and was probably contemporary with the Capsian and Tardenoisian flint industry of these stations. It embraces hunting scenes with numerous human figures in silhouette, wholly distinct from the possibly contemporaneous Magdalenian art of the north.

Before perusing Chapter VI, which covers the close of the Upper Palaeolithic in France, the reader will therefore do well to turn to the new and extensive note in the Appendix describing this African life and industry. A clear understanding of the sources of the flint industry of Aurignacian times and also of the Tardenoisian flint industry and so-called Azilio-Tardenoisian culture described in Chapter VI will thus be gained.

Although the recent researches in Spain have greatly extended our knowledge, it is still to France that we turn for the most significant developments in the prehistory of Europe. Since the first publication of this work French archaeology has sdv PREFACE

suffered by the tragic death of Dechelette in the war; and also by a suspension of the wonderful course of discovery and research that marked the decade preceding the fateful year of 1914. Many problems — especially those discussed in the earlier chapters of this work — which might have been cleared up by further French research have remained untouched. For the same reason it would be premature to reconsider the chronologic succession of human types and geologic events which was provisionally proposed in the first edition of this work in 191 5. We hope that brighter days are coming when science and art may be able to resume their peaceful paths, and that materials may then be gathered for a fourth edition of this work in which some, at least, of the many unanswered questions may be reconsidered in the light of further researches in the archaeology of France.

The anatomy of Palaeolithic man has been debated in a long discussion about the Piltdown Race, and even at this writing it is not finally agreed that the Piltdown jaw belongs with the Piltdown skull, because the new evidence brought forward by Dr. Smith Woodward, although strong, is not deemed entirely conclusive. This uncertainty is an instance not of the failure of scientific inquiry, but of the general desire of scientists to accept only that which has been conclusively demonstrated and to keep on seeking for conclusive evidence. Similar uncertainty exists regarding the anatomy of the Brunn Race, to which no new contributions have been made. It is interesting to record the fact that Professor J. H. McGregor, whose models and restorations of Palaeolithic man included in the illustrations of this book have been so widely appreciated, is now making a special and intensive study of Palaeolithic man which will no doubt be attended by important results. Similarly, another colleague of the author, Professor William K. Gregory, is studying anew the evolution of the anthropoid apes and other Primates, so that further light on the anatomy and evolution of primitive man may shortly be expected.

Henry Fairfield Osborn.

Contents

INTRODUCTION '

PAGE

Greek conceptions of man's origin i

Rise of anthropology 3

Rise of archaeology 10

Geographic changes 34

Climatic changes 37

Migrations of mammals „ 42

CHAPTER I Pliocene climate, forests, and life 60

Transition to the Pleistocene 62

The first glaciation 64

The First Interglacial Stage 66

Early Pleistocene fauna 69

Eoliths, or primitive flints 84

The second glaciation 86

The Second Interglacial Stage 90

Migrations of the reindeer 102

The third glaciation 104

CHAPTER II XV xvi CONTENTS

PAGE

The river-drift stations . '. 119

Pre-Chellean industry 126

Chellean industry 148

Chellean geography 154

Paleolithic stations of Germany 159

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY l6l

The use of fire 165

acheulean industry l66

The second period of arid climate 173

Late Acheulean implements 177

The Neanderthal race of Krapina 181

CHAPTER III Close of the Third Interglacial 186

The Fourth Glacial Stage 188

Arctic tundra life 190

Environment of the Neanderthal race 196

Mammals hunted by the Neanderthals 202

Cave life 211

Disappearance of the Neanderthals

CHAPTER IV Opening of the Upper Paleolithic . . 260

The Grimaldi race 264

Arrival of the Cro-Magnons 269

Upper Paleolithic cultures 275

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE

Upper Paleolithic races 278

Burial customs . . ....... . 303

Origin of the Solutrean culture . . 330

The Brunn race 334

Solutrean art ......... 347

CHAPTER V Origin of the Magdalenian culture

Magdalenian culture

Magdalenian climate .

Mammalian life . . .

Human fossils . . .

Upper Palaeolithic art

Magdalenian painting

Art in the caverns

Polychrome painting .

Magdalenian sculpture

Decline of the Magdalenian culture

Cro-Magnon descendants ......

364 376 382 xviii CONTENTS

Chapter VI Page

Close of the Old Stone Age 456

Invasion of new races 457

Mas d'Azil 459

Fere-en-Tardenois 465

Azilian-Tardenoisian culture 466

Azilian-Tardenoisian industry 470

The burials at Ofnet 475

Ancestry of European races ...... 489

Transition to the Neolithic 493

Neol thic culture 496

Neolithic fauna 498

Prehistoric and historic races of Europe 499

Conclusions 501

NOTE

I. Lucretius and Bossuet on the early evolution of man 503

II. Horace on the early evolution of man 504

III. AESCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN 505

IV. 'Urochs' or 'Auerochs' and 'Wisent' 505

V. The Cro-Magnons of the Canary Islands 506

VI. The length of Postglac al time and the antiquity of

THE AUR GNACIAN CULTURE 51O

VII. The most recent discoveries of anthropoid apes and

SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA 511

VIII. Anthropoid apes discovered by Carthaginian navigators 511

IX. The jaw and skull of the Piltdown man 512

X. Family sepulture of La Ferrassie, France 513

XL Paleolithic history of northwestern Africa and

southern Spain 514

Index 547

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I. Neanderthal man at the grotto of Le Moustier (in tint)

Frontispiece

PAGE

Plate II. Discovery sites of the type specimens of human and prehuman races (in color) facing 19

Plate III. Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java 87

Plate IV. The Piltdown man ■ 145

Plate V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints .... 203

Plate VI. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon' .'".' 273

Plate VII. Cro-Magnon artists in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume (in

facing 358

Plate VIII. Bison painted by Palaeolithic artists in the cavern of Alta-

mira (in color) facing 414

FIG.

1. Modern, Palaeolithic, and chimpanzee skulls compared .... 8

2. Skull and brain of Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java .... 9

3. Three great types of flint implements 11

4. Evolution of the lance-point 15

5. Map — Type stations of Palaeolithic cultures 16

6. Section — Terraces of the River Inn near Scharding 25

7. Section — Terraces of the River Rhine above Basle * 26

8. Section — Terraces of the River Thames near London 28

9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach in Lower Austria .... 29

10. Section of the site of the Neanderthal cave 31

11. Sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern . . 32

12. Map — Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation . . 35

13. Section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the Glacial Epoch . . 37

14. Chronological chart — Great events of the Glacial Epoch .... 41

15. Zoogeographic map 45

16. The gibbon 5°

xix xx ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.

17. The orang 51

1 8. The chimpanzee, walking . 52

19. The chimpanzee, sitting 53

20. The gorilla 55

21. Median sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man . . 56

22. Side view of a human brain of high type 57

23. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (side view) . . 58

24. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (top view) ... 59 \

25. Map — Europe during the Second Glacial Stage 65

26. The musk-ox 66

27. The giant deer (Megaceros) 68

28. The sabre-tooth tiger (Machcerodus) 70

29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man 73

30. Discovery site of Pithecanthropus 74

31. Section of the volcano of Lawoe and the valley of the Solo River 75

32. Map — Solo River and discovery site of Pithecanthropus .... 75

33. Section of the Pithecanthropus discovery site 76

34. Skull-top of Pithecanthropus, top and side views 77

35. Head of chimpanzee, front and side views 78

36. Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, side view 79

37. Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, three views 80

38. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, side view 81

39. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, front view 82

40. Side view of a human brain of high type 83

41. Outlines of human and prehuman brains, side and top views . . 84

42. The hippopotamus and the southern mammoth 92

43. Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant 93

44. Map — Geographic distribution of Merck's rhinoceros, the hippo-

potamus, and the straight-tusked elephant 94

45. Section of the Heidelberg discovery site 96

46. The sand-pit at Mauer, discovery site of the Heidelberg man . . 97

47. The Heidelberg jaw . 98

ILLUSTRATIONS xxi

48. Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (side view) . . 99

49. Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (top view) . . roo

50. Restoration of Heidelberg man 101

51. Map — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage 105

52. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 108

53. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations 109

54. Map — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage no

55. Excavation at Chelles-sur-Marne in

56. Map — Western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage . . . 116

57. Three terraces on the Connecticut River 120

58. Four forms of the Chellean coup de poing 121

59. Section — Terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul 122

60. Very primitive palaeoliths from Piltdown 127

61. Pre-Chellean coups de poing from St. Acheul 128

62. Pre-Chellean grattoir or planing tool from St. Acheul 129

63. Discovery site of the Piltdown skull 131

64. Section of the Piltdown discovery site 133

65. Primitive worked flint found near the Piltdown skull 134

66. Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown site 135

67. Piltdown skull and skull of South African Bushman . . . . . 136

68. Restoration of the Piltdown skull, three views 137

69. Section of the Piltdown skull, showing the brain 140

70. Brain outlines of the Piltdown man, of a chimpanzee, and of mod-

ern man, compared 140

71. The Piltdown man, side view 142

72. The Piltdown man, front view 143

73. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations 149

74. Section — Middle and high terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul . 150

75. Excavation on the high terrace at St. Acheul 151

76. Small Chellean implements 153

77. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany 160

78. Entrance to the grotto of Castillo 163 xxii ILLUSTRATIONS

79. Section — archaeologic layers of the grotto of Castillo 164

80. Map — Acheulean stations 167

81. Late Acheulean station of La Micoque in Dordogne 168

82. Method of 'flaking' flint 169

83. Method of 'chipping' flint 170

84. The fracture of flint 171

85- Large Acheulean implements 173

86. Map — Valleys of the Dordogne and the Garonne 175

87. The valley of the Vezere 176

88. Acheulean implements, large and small 178

89. A Levallois flake 179

90. The grotto of Krapina 181

91. Section — Valley of the Krapinica River and grotto of Krapina . . 182

92. Section — The grotto of Krapina 183

93. Skull from Krapina, side view 184

94. Map — Europe during the Fourth Glacial Stage 189

95. The woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth 190

96. Typical tundra fauna 193

97. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany ' . . . . 195

98. The type station of Le Moustier 197

99. Excavations at Le Moustier 198

100. The Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli 200

101. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein 201

102. The woolly mammoth and his hunters 208

103. The woolly rhinoceros 210

104. Map — Distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids . 214

105. The Gibraltar skull, front view 215

106. Section of the Neanderthal discovery site 216

107. The Neanderthal skull, side view 217

108. The skull known as Spy I, side view 220

109. Discovery site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 222

ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii no. Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints ; 223

in. The skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, three views 224

112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type from La Cotte de St. Brelade . 225

113. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern

Frenchman, side view 227

114. Outlines of the Gibraltar skull and of a modern Australian skull 228

115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints compared with one of high modern

type, side view 230

116. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern

Frenchman, top view 231

117. Diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men .... 233

118. Section of the skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, showing the brain . 235

1.19. Brain outlines of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, of a chimpanzee,. and of

modern man, compared 235

120. Brains of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic races, top and side views . 236

121. Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 238

122. Thigh-bones of the Trinil, Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, and modern

races 240

123,"* The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, side view . . . 242

124. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, front view . . 243

125. Map — Mousterian stations 245

126. The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia 246

127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia 247

128. Typical Mousterian ' points' from Le Moustier 250

129. Mousterian ' points ' and scrapers 251

130. Late Mousterian implements 255

131. Entrance to the Grotte du Prince near Mentone 262

132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants 265

133. The Grimaldi skeletons 267

134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth, front and side views 268

135. Map — Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic human fossils .... 279

136. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 280

137. 'Tectiforms' from Font-de-Gaume 283 xxiv ILLUSTRATIONS

138. Map — Distribution of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhi-

noceros .... 285

139. Section of the grotto of Aurignac 290

140. Section of the grotto of Cro-Magnon 291

141. Skull of Cro-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants .... 292

142. Head showing the method of restoration used by J. H. McGregor . 293

143. The rock shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne 296

144. Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and skeleton of Cro-Magnon

type from the Grotte des Enfants, compared 297

145. Sections of normal and platycnaemic tibias 298

146. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' side view 300

147. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' front view' 301

148. Brain outlines of Combe-Capelle, of a chimpanzee, and of modern

man, compared 303

149. Evolution of the burin, early Aurignacian to late Solutrean . . . 307

150. Typical Aurignacian grattoirs, or scrapers 309

151. Evolution of the Aurignacian 'point' 311

152. Prototypes of the Solutrean 'laurel-leaf point' . . ... . . . 312

153. Map — Aurignacian stations 314

154. Outlook from the cavern of Pindal 315

155. Mammoth painted in the cavern of Pindal 316

156. Primitive paintings of animals from Font-de-Gaume 318

157. Woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . . . 319

158. Carved female figurine from the Grottes de Grimaldi . . . . . 321

159. Female figurine in limestone from Willendorf 322

160. Female figurine in soapstone from the Grottes de Grimaldi . . . 323

161. Superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from Le Tri-

lobite . . . 324

162. Silhouettes of hands from Gargas 325

163. The rock shelter of Laussel on the Beune 326

164. Section of tin- industrial layers at Laussel 327

165. Bas-relief of a woman from Laussel 328

ILLUSTRATIONS * xxv

PAGE

Bas-relief of a man from Laussel 329

Map — Solutrean stations § 331

The skull known as Briinn I, discovered at Briinn, Moravia . . . 335

Solutrean 'laurel-leaf points' . .. . . . 339

The type station of Solutre 342

Excavations at Solutre 343

Typical Solutrean implements 346

Mammoth sculptured on ivory, from Predmost, Moravia .... 349

Engraved and painted bison from Niaux 353

Decorated sagaies or javelin points of bone 354

Horse's head engraved on a fragment of bone, from Brassempouy . 355

Painting of a wolf, from Font-de-Gaume 356

Crude sculpture of the ibex, from Mas d'Azil 357

Decorated batons de commandement 359

Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial epoch . . . 362

Engraved and painted reindeer from Font-de-Gaume 365

Four types of horse frequent in Upper Palaeolithic times . . . . 367

Horse of Celtic type, painted on the ceiling of Altamira .... 363