The age of mammals in Europe, Asia and North America

Front matter

Pitrcf^iase^ from

I i

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Preface

To the memory of Huxley as my chief teacher in comparative anatomy, as well as to that of Balfour, niy first teacher in embryology, I have dedicated this work. Huxley set forth the logic of Darwin as applied to pala3ontology ; Balfour's genius was beyond imitation, but his pupils may follow the example of his ardent enthusiasm and his genial way of living the life of science.

Only a few men of the last century had the gift of speaking in clear language both to the learned and unlearned, and the greatest of these was Huxley. To write both for the man of one's own profession and for the layman, to be accurate and abreast of the specialist who knows as much or more of a subject than you do, while intelligible to the non-specialist — there is the difficulty. Many times have I thought to myself in the course of the preparation of these and similar lectures how simple it would be to address either audience separately. Yet I consider it fortunate that both are with us, because I share Huxley's confidence in addressing those who are willing to do a little serious thinking in order to enjoy the vast vistas of interesting truth which come as the reward of effort. I share also his conviction that it is the duty of the man of science to devote a certain part of his time, however absorbed in research he may be, to an honest attempt to scatter scientific truth. Although I may not claim that any parts of this volume are light reading, I have endeavored both to hold the attention of those who are already within the charmed temples of palaeontology and to attract new votaries to its shrines. It should, however, be clearly understood that considerable sections of this work are purely documentary and may be passed over rapidly by the general reader.

Time and place are the main theme of this work rather than descent, which has been the main theme of all previous general treatises on the Csenozoic mammals ; it is a study of the sources or birthplaces of the several kinds of mammals, of their competitions, migrations, and extinctions, and of the times and places of the occurrence of these great events in the world's history. To set forth this history in all its grandeur, it is interesting to consider the question of past environments, such as the past geography (palseogeography) of the earth, the changes in climate and in the earth's surface which conditioned the evolution of plant life (palaeobotany) as the primary source of food supply for the mammals. Thus geology, geography, botany, and climate are treated as leading to a clear understanding of each of the successive groups and movements of mammalian life.

In a way this work marks the completion of a special line of study

vii viii

PREFACE which I began in 1898 and have been pursuing at intervals for eleven years, namely, the comparison of the new and old world life.

It is thus an exposition and explanation of two presidential addresses of mine delivered before the New York Academy of Sciences in February, 1899 and 1900, entitled "Correlation between Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe and America," also of a paper published recently by the United States Geological Survey, entitled " Cenozoic Mammal Horizons of Western North America." In the Introduction I have drawn freely on several popular addresses of mine, " The Rise of the Mammalia in North America " (1893), " Ten Years' Progress in the Mammalian Palaeontology of North America" (1905), "The Present Problems of Palaeontology " (1905), and, finally, "Palaeontology," an article prepared for the forthcoming edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

The stimuli]^ to put these studies into the present collected form was given by the generous foundation of the Harris Lectureship in Northwestern University by Mr. Norman Waite Harris in 1906. As originally delivered ! in December, 1908, to the students of that institution, the lectures were in general popular form. It has required a year to verify and expand them, so that the volume is practically of date December 31, 1909. The oral style appropriate to the lecture has given way necessarily to the written style ; there is a greater fullness and I trust a greater clearness.

In gathering the materials for the preparation of these addresses and of this volume, my foremost acknowledgments are due to the profound and accurate researches of my friend. Professor Charles Deperet of the University of Lyons, as well as of my former student and present colleague in the American Museum of Natural History, Dr. William Diller Matthew. The very precise data which they have brought together, coupled with my own researches and observations on the mammals of the Old and New Worlds, have furnished the chief material for the broad comparisons and generalizations which I have attempted to make. I have also reviewed the general literature of the subject, and I desire to acknowledge the aid of my former student and present research assistant, Mrs. Johanna Kroeber Mosenthal, who has been intrusted with a large part of the reading, translation, and collation of facts derived from the foreign and American sources.

The reader will observe that the collections in the American Museum of Natural History as well as our observations in the field are very largely drawn upon. These have been gathered and planned during the past twenty years under my direction, and the fullest acknowledgments are due to the able and energetic explorers who have helped to bring these rare treasures of the past together, especially to Dr. J. L. Wortman, Dr. W. D. Matthew, Mr. J. W. Gidley, Mr. 0. A. Peterson, Mr. Walter Granger, Mr. Barnum Brown, and Mr. Albert Thomson. The necessity for great precision in field records, especially for recording the exact levels on which specimens are found, I have impressed constantly upon the minds of these explorers. Such precise records have important bearing on the question of time as well as

PREFACE ix of evolution; they were omitted in the pioneer work of Leidy, Marsh, and Cope. This precision in America, coupled with the precision especially of Professor Deperet's records and observations in France, has rendered possible the present comparison between the New and Old Worlds. Large collections have been secured also by the museums of Princeton University and the University of California, by the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh, the Field Museum of Natural History of Chicago ; and some few additions have been made in recent years to the famous collection brought together by Professor Marsh in Yale University. The equally famous collection of Cope is now the property of the American Museum of Natural History.

The space and time distribution of the mammal life of Europe as set forth in Deperet's articles in the Comptes renclus, I have brought together in visual form in a new series of maps.

The American records, sections, and maps are drawn from those brought together in my recent bulletin, " Cenozoic Mammal Horizons of Western North America," together with some additions from my observations in Africa and from the very latest work in Wyoming. I am here indebted especially to the cooperation of Mr. Granger. The United States Geological Survey has given permission to reproduce many of the illustrations from my bulletin.

The reader who finds it difficult to picture the rare and ancient forms of mammals has to thank that gifted artist of the life of the extinct world, Mr. Charles R. Knight, for the series of restorations drawn under my personal direction, which are brought together for the first time in this volume. It is always to be understood that such restorations represent hypotheses merely or approximations to the truth. We know little or nothing about the color markings of these extinct forms, and even the attempt to outline the proportions of the limbs and body is somewhat hazardous ; yet these representations serve, in connection with photographs of the skeletons, to give us a sense of the general size and proportion, and to assemble before the eye such inferences as to the homes and habits of the animals as can be deduced from their skeletons, especially from the teeth and feet, and from the kind of rock in which their remains have been discovered.

Mrs. L. M. Sterling has prepared many of the anatomical and geological illustrations with artistic fidelity. Mr. Aleth Biorn and Mrs. Mosenthal have prepared the Deperet series of maps. Mr. Erwin S. Christman has contributed several drawings. The field photographs are chiefly the work of Mr. Albert Thomson and other members of our field parties. The photographs of skeletons are part of the remarkable series executed by Mr. A. E. Anderson. I am indebted to many workers in other institutions for generous assistance. In the palaeobotanic work I have enjoyed the assistance of Miss Elsbeth Kroeber, also of Messrs. F. A. Knowlton, A. A. Hollick, and T. D. A. Cockerell.

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PREFACE

The entire text has been studied by Dr. W. D. Matthew and Dr. W. K. Gregory, to whom I am indebted for many valuable criticisms and suggestions.

A liberal appropriation by the trustees of the American Museum of Natural History has facilitated the large amount of special study, which has been devoted to the preparation and illustration of this work. I have also recently been transferred from a teaching to a research professorship in Columbia University.

Finally, the especial purpose of the work is to spread the knowledge of palaeontology in the United States. It will be cause for regret if the extended information as to localities, here brought together for the first time, should lead to the hasty or untrained collection of fossils, or to the still more harmful ill-considered description of new species. All descriptions should be preceded by painstaking examination of previous types, and should be accompanied by figures and short, clear diagnoses. All type specimens should find their way into large central and accessible museums where they can be readily examined.

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

American Museum of Natural History, December 31, 1909.

Contents

PA6K

Preface v

Chapter I. Introduction

1. Philosophy of the Structure of Mammals .

Rise of Palseontology

Law of Correlation

Systematic Palaeontology

Darwin's Influence

Primitive and Progressive Stages Precise and Philosophical Research Influence of American Discovery

Primitive and Progressive Forms of Teeth 10

Primitive and Progressive Foot Structure 13

Primitive and Progressive Skull Structure 17

II. Mammals and their Environment 18

Origin and Migration 19

The Law of Adaptive Radiation 22

The Orders of Mammals 25

Adaptive Radiation and Geography 29

The Polyphyletic Law 30

Adaptations to Alternations of Habitat 31

The Law of Analogous Evolution 32

The Law of Irreversibility of Evolution 34

III. Geographic or Space Distribution of Mammals . . . .35

Zoogeography 35

Migration Routes and Barriers 38

IV. Geologic or Time Distribution of Mammals 39

Time Divisions 39

Preliminary Correlation 41

Importance of Time Correlation 42

Time Value of Fossils 44

Geologic Formations and Life Zones 47

Progressive Con-elation 50

Geologic Formations as a Record of Environments 53

V. Duration of the Age of Mammals 58

Mountain Births 58

Modes of Estimating Csenozoic Time 61

Length of the Caenozoic Era 63

VI. Thk World Supply of Mammals . 64

Mammals of the Northern Hemisphere, Holarctica 65

Africa as a Center of Mammalian Evolution 68

xi

Xll

CONTENTS

PAGB

Antarctica, Australia, aud South America 75

Australasia or Notogfea 77

South America or Xeogaea 78

General Conclusions 79

7. Pal^ogeogkaphy 80

CHAPTER II. THE EOCENE Pal^:ogeography of Eocene Europe 83

palieogeography of north america 84

Atlantic Border Region 84

Mountain Region 85

Mountain Basin Deposits 86

Volcanic Materials 90

Pacific Coast. Close of the Cretaceous 92

Late Cretaceous and Early Eocene Flora 93

Alternate Union and Disunion of European and North American Life 95

Faunal Phases .95

The Archaic Mammals 96

I. The Basal Eocene Life of Europe and America .... 97

Close of the Age of Reptiles and Beginning of the Age of Mammals . 97

Seashore Transition Beds in Europe ....... 99

Continental Transition Beds in America 100

Animals of the First Faunal Zone 102

Basal Eocene, First Faunal Phase 102

Basal Eocene of Europe, Thanetian Formations 103

Basal Eocene of North America 104

Puerco Life 106

Torrejon Life 107

II. The Lower Eocenk Life of Europe and America . . . .111

Lower Eocene, Second Faunal I'hasG .112

Lower Eocene Life of Europe . . . . . . . . .113

Sparnacian Life, Coryphodon Zone 114

Lower Ypresian Formations 115

Upper Ypresian Formations . . . 117

Lower Eocene Life of North America. Wasatch, and Wind River . . . 118 Formations of the Coryphodon Zone . . . . . . .119

Wasatch Life 124

Wind River 128

Fishes of the Green River Shales 135

III. Middle and Upper Eocene Life of Europe and North America . 137

Third Faunal Phase 138

Middle and Upper Eocene Life of Europe 140

Geological Succession 143

Mammalian Succession 146

Collective Fauna of the Phosphorites of Quercy 151

Middle and Upper Eocene Life of the Rocky Mountain Region . . .153 Geology of the Middle Eocene .157

CONTENTS Xlll

PAGE

Bridger Fish and Reptile Fauna 160

Tlie Succession of Middle P^ocene Mammals 161

Upper Eocene 166

The Atlantic Coast Region 170

Causes of Extinction of the Archaic Orders of Eocene Mammals . . 172

CHAPTER III. THE OLIGOCENE Fourth Faunal Phase 178

Mammals of the Lower Oligocene 179

Pal^ogeography 182

Continental Connections 182

Geographic Changes in Europe 183

Europe 184

America 185

Physiographic Conditions 185

Europe 185

I. Oligocene Life of Europe 187

Lower Oligocene, Saniioisian 187

Middle Oligocene, Stampian 190

Upper Oligocene, Aquitanian 193

IL Upper Eocene and Oligocene Life of North Africa . . . 199

Geology of the Fayum Deposits . 200

Fauna of the Fayum Deposits 201

III. Oligocene Life of America 204

Geologic Conditions 204

Prevailing Mammal Types 208

Lower Oligocene, Titanotherium Zone 210

Middle Oligocene, Oreodon Zone . 219

Upper Oligocene, Protoceras Zone 225

Upper Oligocene, Diceratherium Zone 227

Upper Oligocene, Promerycochoerus Zone 231

Causes of Extinction of Oligocene Mammals 237

CHAPTER IV. THE MIOCENE Fifth Faunal Phase , 242

Flora and Climate of Europe 242

Continental Connections 244

Physiographic Changes in Europe 246

Miocene Life of Europe and America Compared 246

I. Miocene Life of Europe 249

The Older Fauna 249

Lower Miocene or Burdigalian 250 xiv CONTENTS

PAGB

Middle Miocene or Vindobonian 255

1. Stage of Sansan 25'i

2. Stage of Simorre 260

3. Stage of St. Gaudens 263

Middle Miocene Primates 263

Upper Miocene or Pontian 264

Physiographic Conditions 265

Pikernii 267

Characteristic Life 269

Upper Miocene Primates 271

The Seven Rhinoceros Phyla of the Miocene 272

II. Middle Miocene Life of Asia 273

III. Miocene Life of North America 276

Transition, Arikaree 277

Ancient Physiographic Conditions 278

Miocene Flora : . 282

Lower Miocene, Merycochoerus Zone . . . . . . . . 285

Middle Miocene, Ticholeptus Zone 288

Upper Miocene, Hipparion and Procamelus Zone 297

Miocene History of American Deer . . 302

CHAPTER V. THE PLIOCENE Sixth Faunal Phase 304

I. Pliocene Life of Europe 304

Modernization 304

Palseogeography 304

Pliocene Birds 307

Pliocene Primates 307

Partial List of Mammals 308

Faunal Break with the Miocene 309

Faunal Divisions 309

Lower Pliocene or Plaisancian 311

Middle Pliocene or Astian 313

Upper Pliocene or Sicilian . 317

II. Pliocene Life of Asia 321

Life of Southern Asia 323

Evolution of the Proboscidea 330

Conclusions as to the Age of the Siwalik Fauna 332

Life of Eastern Asia 332

Pleistocene Life of India 335

III. Pliocene Life of North America 336

Relations with Eurasia 337

American Migration of Asiatic Antelopes 337

Reunion with South America 339

Evidence of Fish Faunas 339

Geologic Succession 340

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

Climatic and Physiographic Conditions 342

Flora of the Pliocene 343

Flora of California 343

Sirenians on the Pacific Coast 344

Flora of the Eastern States . . . 345

1. Late Miocene or Early Pliocene 345

Alachua Clays or ' Archer Beds ' of Florida 346

Kepublican Kiver of Kansas, Peraceras Zone 348

Characteristic Lower Pliocene Mammals 350

Horses, Rhinoceroses, 1 apirs, Even-toed Mammals, Mastodons, Carnivores 350

2. Lower Pliocene, Late Phase 353

Snake River Formation, Neotragoceros Zone 353

Virgin Valley and Thousand Creek of Nevada 356

Rattlesnake Formation of the John Day Valley, Oregon .... 357

3. Middle Pliocene 360

Blanco Formation of Texas, Glyptotherium Zone ..... 360

4. Upper Pliocene or Lower Pleistocene 366

Peace Creek Formation, Florida 366

' Loup River ' Formation of Nebraska, Elephas Imperator Zone . . 368

Conclusions as to American Pliocene . 369

Causes of Pliocene Extinction 369

CHAPTER VL THE PLEISTOCENE

Seventh Faunal Phase 374

Similar Divisions of the Seventh Phase in the New and Old Worlds . 374

Time Divisions of the Quaternary . . 375

Glacial Period in the Alpine Region . . 377

Alternate Migration Theory . . 378

Faunal, Glacial, and Culture Stages . . ... . ; 378

The Eolithic Stage . 382

Duration of the Pleistocene 385

Geologic Deposits 386

[. Pleistocene Life of Europe 386

Four Faunas, Secular Northward and Southw^d Migrations . . . 388

1. The First or Early Pleistocene Fauna 391

Geologic Proofs of the First Glacial Advance 392

Flora of the Norfolk Interglacial 393

Mammals of the Norfolk Interglacial 393

Lower Pleistocene of France 395

Characteristic Lower Pleistocene Mammals 397

Elephants 397

Human Culture Stages. Eolithic Flints 399

2. The Second or Mid-Pleistocene Fauna 399

Flora of the Interglacial Periods 401 xvi

CONTENTS

PAGE

First Faunal Sub-Zone 402

Eolithic Stage. Heidelberg Man 403

PalaBolithic Stage. The Chellean 404

Second Faunal Sub-Zone 405

Flora 407

Horses of the II and III Faunal Zones 408

Life of the Mediterranean Islands 409

Human Culture Stage. Mousterian 410

3. The Third or Upper Pleistocene Fauna 412

Pleistocene and Recent Habitat Zones 414

Tundra Fauna and Flora 415

Steppe Fauna. Elevation 415

Forest Fauna 417

Migration 419

Mammals of the Third Faunal Zone 419

Mammoths 419

Reindeer or Caribou 422

Carnivores 422

Herbivores 424

Geographic Distribution of the Third Fauna 425

The Schweizersbild Cave 425

Kesslerloch Cave 425

Voklinshofen 426

Human Culture Stages • 427

Solutrian 427

Magdalenian 427

4. The Fourth, Post-Pleistocene, or Modern Fauna .... 428

II. Pleistocene Life of North Africa 429

Climate 430

Sources of African Life 430

III. Pleistocene Life of North America 434

Introduction 434

Geologic Divisions of the American Quaternary 435

Faunal Divisions of the American Quaternary 438

Succession of Elephants or Mammoths 440

Physiographic and Climatic Changes 442

Elevation. Subsidence. Reelevation 412

Glacial and Interglacial Stages 444

Climate of the Great Mountain Basin 447

^Migrations of the Sangamon Flora in Canada 448

Migrations of Mammals 449

Migrations of Birds 450

Insects 450

1. Early and Mid-Pleistocene Mammals of the Plains .... 452

Relative Age of the Equus and Megalonyx Faunas 453

Early Phases of the Equus Zone 454

CONTENTS Xvii

PAGE

Hay Springs, Nebraska 456

Rock Creek, Texas 458

Silver Lake of the Oregon Desert 458

Late Phases of the Equus Zone 461

Early and Late Pleistocene Life of Kansas 461

2. Mid-Pleistocene Mammals of the Forested Regions .... 464

Aftonian Interglacial Stage .... 467

Upper Lake Lahontan Beds 468

Port Kennedy Cave, Pennsylvania 468

FrankstoM^n Cave, Pennsylvania 470

Ashley River, South Carolina . 471

Rancho La Brea, Southern California 472

Washtucna Lake, Washington 474

Afton, Indian Territory 475

Potter Creek Cave, California 475

Samwel Cave, California 477

Big Bone Lick, Kentucky 478

Characteristic Mid-Pleistocene Mammals 480

Mastodons 480

Bison 482

Mountain Antelopes 483

Lions 485

3. Fauna of the Ovibos Zone 486

Conard Fissure of Arkansas . 487

Canadian Deposits 488

The Alaskan Fauna 489

Characteristic Mammals of the Third or Ovibos Zone .... 492

Distribution of Musk Oxen 492

Sirenians or Sea-Cows 493

Antiquity of Man in North America 494

Man and the Mastodon 495

Man and Megalonyx 496

Human Implements and Extinct Mammals 497

Human Remains in Cave Deposits . 498

Skeletal Remains attributed to Early Man 499

Causes of Pleistocene Extinction 500

THE HARRIS LECTURES

DELIVERED AT NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, DECEMBER, 1908