Criminology, by Maurice Parmelee

Front matter

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Preface

A decade has passed since my book on the applications of criminology to criminal law and procedure was published. It grew out of several years of experience with criminals in courts and prisons in this country, and criminological research in Europe. At that time it was my intention to follow that book with a similar one on the applications of criminology to penal treatment.

Since then the biological, psychological, and social sciences upon which criminology is based have advanced rapidly, and much work has been done within the criminological field itself. Hence much of the criminology of a decade or more ago is already obsolete. I have, therefore, abandoned my original plan, and, having commenced at the beginning of the subject, have attempted a comprehensive survey of the whole field of criminology.

Much of the criminological writing heretofore has been more or less unilateral in its character. This has been due almost always to one-sided knowledge, sometimes also to prejudices and preconceived notions. For example, some writers have claimed that crime is due entirely to social causes, others have asserted that it is due entirely or almost entirely to the traits of the criminal himself.

There is now available a much larger fund of knowledge from which to construct a criminological theory and to devize a practical program. Consequently there is no longer any excuse for unilateral theories of crime. It is obvious that crime cannot be attributed to any one group of causes. Furthermore, it is manifestly impossible to measure precisely the extent to which any one factor gives rise to crime. Criminological theory today is more cautious and catholic, and does less violence to the facts. It is, therefore, more accurate though less pretentious than some of the older criminology.

The present work is a companion volume to my Poverty and Social Progress. In these two books I have attempted to describe

VI PREFACE

the two greatest of social evils, namely, poverty and crime. The present work will, I hope, prove to be useful to many of those interested in and working with the problem of crime, and as a textbook for college and university courses in criminology. I wish to thank my brother, Dr. J. H. Parmelee of the Bureau of Railway Economics, Washington, for reading all of the manuscript and making many helpful suggestions. I wish also to thank Dr. Joseph A. Hill, Chief of the Division of Revision and Results of the United States Bureau of the Census, Washington, for enabling me to inspect some of the proof sheets of the Bureau's report on Prisoners and Juvenile Delinquents.

MAURICE PARMELEE.

New York City, January, 19 18.

CHAPTER I The Study of Criminology

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Application of science to the study of crime — Criminology a hybrid science — The sciences used in criminological research — The principal branches of criminology — Sociological significance of the study of crime 3

Chapter II

Equivalents of crime and punishment among animals — The limits of the analogy between man and the animal world — Alleged equivalents of crime among plants — Juridical punishment of animals by men — The beginnings of crime among men — Origin of crime in violations of custom — Influence of magic and religion upon the evolution of crime — Influence of moral ideas upon the evolution of crime — The earliest crimes: treason; witchcraft; sacrilege; incest; poisoning; violations of the hunting rules 7

Chapter III

The struggle for existence — The conflict between individual and social interests — Forms of social control: habit; custom; public opinion; religion; magic; the state, government, and law — Social utility the criterion for social control — The limits of social control — The characteristic features of crime — The definition of crime — Crimes created by religious, despotic, and class legislation — Vicious acts stigmatized as criminal : acts penalized in order to stimulate public opinion against them — The distinctive traits of the criminal class. . 25

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Part II. Criminogenic Factors In The Environment Chapter IV Physical Environment — Climate, Season, And The Weather

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Influence of the physical environment in general — Influence of topography and the nature of the soil — Influence of climate, the seasons, and the weather — Meteorological factors mingled with cultural forces 43

Chapter V Urban And Rural Crime And Vice — Demographic Factors

Influence of demographic conditions — Apparent preponderance of urban over rural criminality — Forces which accentuate urban criminality: the concentration of population increases human desires, causes greater conflict of individual interests, intensifies the struggle for existence, and creates more opportunities for crime — The organization of vice in cities — Unorganized vice in the country — Influence of the growth of population upon crime 54

Chapter VI

The economic struggle for existence — Economic changes and crime: seasonal fluctuations; the trade cycle; prices; wages — The economic crimes: crimes against property — The economic status of the criminal — Economic classification of criminals — Occupational distribution of criminals — Professional criminality — Influence of economic organization upon crime — Poverty and crime — The standard of living and crime — Wealth and crime and vice 67

Chapter VII

Political organization and crime — Theories of government — Governmental responsibility for crime: inefficient and corrupt government — Influence of war and militarism upon crime 92

Chapter VIII

Religion and crime — -Science and crime — Art and crime — The press and

crime — The advance of civilization and the increase of crime . 106

CONTENTS IX

Part III. Criminal Traits And Types Chapter DC Page

Anatomical and physiological basis of criminality — The theory of the born criminal: Lombroso — The organic basis of the mental factors in criminality: instinct; feeling; intelligence — Abnormalities in the neural basis of mind — The organic causes of amentia — The organic causes of dementia, the neuroses, and abnormal appetites — Race and criminality 127

Chapter X

Instinct — Habit — Feeling — Intelligence — Types of mental abnormality: amentia; dementia; insanity; the neuroses; abnormal habits — The mental inadaptability of the criminal — Mental defect and moral deficiency: moral imbecility and insanity — The social maladjustment of the criminal 142

CHAPTER XI Characteristic traits of criminal aments — The measurement of mental

ability — The extent of criminal amentia 156

Chapter XII

The borderline between amentia and normal mentality — The borderline between amentia and dementia and insanity — Demented and insane criminals — The influence of physiological crises — Influence of bad habits, the neuroses, traumatic injuries, abnormal suggestibility, mental conflicts, etc. — Summary of mental traits prevalent among criminals 171

Chapter XIII

Simple classifications of criminals — Lombroso's classification — Ferri's classification — Classifications derived from Lombroso and Ferri — Garofalo's classification — Criticism of classifications of criminals — A new classification of criminal types — Description of the principal criminal types — Distribution of criminals among the criminal types 186

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Chapter XIV Page

Differences between childhood and adulthood — Extent and character of juvenile crimes — Poverty and juvenile criminality — Parentage and home life: broken homes; illegitimacy — Education and crime: intellectual education; moral education; vocational training; illiteracy and criminality — Recreation and crime — Immigration and crime — Effect of imprisonment upon young criminals 207

Chapter XV

Apparent preponderance of male over female criminality — Extent and character of female crimes — Conjugal condition of criminals — Differences between men and women: physical inferiority and sympathetic nature of woman; greater variability and katabolism of man — Lenient treatment of female criminals — Woman shielded from criminality by her secluded life — Extra-judicial female crimes — Prostitution and crime : 231

Part IV. Criminal Jurisprudence Chapter XVI The Evolution Of Criminal Law And The Classification Of Crimes

The origin of criminal law: private vengeance; the lex talionis; composition — Influence of despotic, class, and priestly rule — Penal codes — The Roman law — The English common law — The king's peace — Crimes classified as acts — Functional classifications of crimes — A subjective classification of crimes — Relation between the criminal and the civil law 251

Chapter XVII

The procedure of accusation — The procedure of investigation — English and French criminal procedure — Combination of the procedures of accusation and investigation: public prosecution — The reform of criminal procedure 272

Chapter XVIII The Scientific Principles Of Evidence

Superstitious methods of securing proof: the wager; the ordeal; torture — The English law of evidence — Medical jurisprudence: the evils of

CONTENTS XI

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contradictory medical testimony; the training of medico-legal experts — Expert testimony — Abolition of the coroner's office — The oath — The psychological examination of witnesses: the causes of erroneous testimony; the psychological expert — The scientific stage of evidence 285

Chapter XIX

The injustice of private defense — Public defense and the reform of criminal procedure — Abolition of the plea of guilty — Significance of public defense for a scientific criminal procedure: the individualization of punishment; the education and selection of prosecutors, defenders, and judges — Public defense and the contradictory debate — Free civil justice 301

Chapter XX

The English jury — The characteristics of jurors — Criticisms of the jury — The functions of the judge — The training and appointment of judges — The control of the judiciary 316

Chapter XXI

The police and the army — Police organization and administration: national and local police control; the rural police — The functions of the police — The training and selection of the police force — The integrity of the police — Evil influence of unenforceable laws against vice — Homicide in the United States — Arrest — Preliminary detention — Provisional liberation — Indemnification for mistaken detention and prosecution 335

Part V. Penology Chapter XXII

The objects of punishment: vengeance; elimination; restraint; deterrence; restitution; reformation; etc. — The varieties of penalties — Imprisonment — Transportation — Poetic penalties — The scope of punishment — The severity of punishment: influence of despotism, war, magic, and religion — The Inquisition — The modern humanitarian movement: the Renaissance; the industrial revolution; the division of labor; modern science 357

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Chapter XXIII Page

The sanctions of punishment — The nature of moral phenemena — Moral concepts and social control — The theory of penal responsibility — Free will and determinism — The psychological basis of the penal function: anger; vindictiveness; fear — The doctrine of partial responsibility — Penal responsibility and the individualization of punishment t>73

Chapter XXIV The Sentence And The Individualization Of Punishment

The fundamental principle of modern criminal law — The types of individualization: legal; judicial; administrative — The criteria of individualization: the crime; the criminal; social conditions; the origin, type, and intensity of the criminality — Limitations upon individualization — The indefinite sentence — Suspension of sentence and probation — The penal treatment of the young: the juvenile court — Judicial and administrative individualization: rehabilitation; periodical revision of sentences ! 389

Chapter XXV

Arguments for and against capital punishment — The abolition of the death penalty — Humanitarian sentiment and the death penalty — The death penalty and political crime — Methods of capital punishment 410

Chapter XXVI

The types of prisons — The cellular prison — Development of the personality of the prisoner — Prison administrators — Solitary and social prison life — Classification of prisoners — Prison labor: prison maintenance; wage labor for prisoners — Evils of contract labor — Educational, religious, and recreational facilities — Prison discipline: causes of misconduct in prison; malingering; prison penalties; the marking system — Self government in prisons — Sex problems in prisons — The prison psychosis — The prison type 421

Chapter XXVII

Prison evils — -Houses of detention — Local jails — Reception and observation prisons — Types of penal institutions: reformatories; col-

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PAGE onies; asylums; penitentiaries — Release and after-care — Substitutes for imprisonment — Corporal punishment — Restitution — Sterilization 441

Part VI. Crime And Social Progress Chapter XXVIII Political And Evolutive Crimes And Criminals

The distinction between common crimes and political and evolutive crimes — Evolutive and involutive vice — Freedom of thought and of action — Political freedom — Freedom of speech — Treason and sedition — The types of evolutive and political criminals: radicals and conservatives; the pathological type; the emotional type; the rational type — The instigation of political and evolutive crimes — The treatment of evolutive crime 453

Chapter XXIX

The significance of evolutive crime — Religious restrictions upon freedom — Christianity as the national religion — The laws against blasphemy and profanity — Sabbatarian legislation — Religious discrimination in military conscription — Sumptuary and economic legislation — The law against suicide — Repression in matters of sex and reproduction — The conservatism of the human mind — The prevention of evolutive crime: flexibility in the organization of society — Evolutive crime and democracy 469

Chapter XXX The Prevention Of Crime

Changes in the nature and extent of crime — The prevention of crime dependent upon the prevention of other social evils — Individual and social criminogenic factors — The normal life as a preventive of crime 489

Appendix A. Prices of Cereals and Crimes against Property .... 493

Appendix B. A Biometric Study of the English Convict 495

Partial Bibliography 503

Index 515

Chapter I The Study Of Criminology

Application of science to the study of crime — Criminology a hybrid science — The sciences used in criminological research — The principal branches of criminology — Sociological significance of the study of

Few subjects arouse so universal or so deep an interest as the study of crime. This interest is due in the main to the adventurous and romantic traits in human nature. Criminal conduct appeals to these human traits because it is regarded as being a spontaneous response to impulse, and even the most prosaic and conventional individual chafes to a certain extent under the restrictions of law and morality. If this interest is not so great as to become morbid, it may have great utility, because crime is both a serious practical problem and an important subject for scientific study.

During the past century the extent to which scientific methods have been applied to the study of human and social phenomena has increased greatly. To be sure, there still is much opposition to the scientific study of these phenomena. Some of this opposition arises from anthropocentric notions with regard to the exalted position of man in the universe. Some of it arises from anti-scientific theological dogmas. Some of it is due to propagandists who are eager to push through certain social reforms, and are therefore unwilling to await the results of careful and cautious scientific investigation. All of this opposition creates a prejudice against attributing human conduct to natural causes. But slowly this opposition is being overcome, and crime will before long be regarded as a purely natural phenomenon.

Special attention has been devoted to the study of crime and the criminal since the remote past. The early pseudosciences of physiognomy and phrenology attempted to describe the traits of the criminal. At the present time many sciences are contributing to this study. From the laboratories of these sciences, from the researches of scientific workers, from statistical investigations of various kinds are to be derived the facts for the study of crime and the criminal. These facts are not adequate as yet for a final synthesis, but they nevertheless have great scientific and practical value.

Criminology is not one of the fundamental sciences, but is a hybrid product of several sciences. Zoology, anthropology, history, and sociology contribute to the description of the nature, origin, and evolution of crime. Meteorology, demography, and the special social sciences, such as economics, politics, etc., contribute to the analysis of the environmental causes of crime. Anatomy, physiology, psychology, and psychiatry furnish the facts and methods for the study of the traits arid types of criminals. Comparative jurisprudence and law contribute to the study of the penal treatment of crime and the criminal.

Consequently, many scientific methods are applied in criminological research. Zoological, anthropological, and historical methods are used in tracing the evolution of crime from its prototypes among animals to the forms it takes in civilized society.

Meteorological methods are utilized in studying the influence of the weather, climate, season, topography, and other telluric forces upon criminal conduct. These factors of the external physical environment are of fundamental importance in any study of conduct. Demographic methods are used in studying the influence of the density and distribution of the population, of the increase or decrease of population, and of migrations of population.

The sociological method involves a study of the numerous social factors which cause criminal conduct and play a part in making criminals and criminal types. Among these factors are the economic, political, religious, moral, and artistic factors. Closely connected with the sociological method is the statistical method, because it is frequently used in sociological investigation. But the statistical method may be used to aid any of the

THE STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGY 5

other methods, so that it must be regarded as ancillary to all of these methods.

The anatomical method brings to light abnormalities and malformations of the external structure of the organism which in some cases are of significance with respect to criminal conduct. It reveals defects and derangements of the internal organs which frequently have a far-reaching influence for evil upon conduct. It describes the structure of the nervous system, a knowledge of which is absolutely necessary for the study of mental traits.

The physiological method studies the organic processes in the viscera and elsewhere in the body, and brings to light functional derangements which frequently have an injurious effect upon conduct. The clinic o-pathological method makes possible an intensive study of the defective, abnormal, and deranged conditions revealed by the anatomical and physiological methods.

The psychological method, supported by the anatomical, physiological, and clinico-pathological methods, studies the mental traits and processes in order to ascertain in what mental states, whether normal or abnormal, criminal acts are committed. This method is very helpful in devizing a classification of criminal types, because criminal conduct, like all forms of conduct, is determined. primarily by these mental states. Inasmuch as many of the mental states which give rise to criminal conduct are abnormal, psychiatry plays an important part in the application of the psychological method.

In this book we are to make a more or less comprehensive survey of criminology. The topics to be treated in the succeeding chapters may be classified under the following heads, which indicate the principal branches of criminological science: —

i. Theory of the nature and evolution of crime.

2. Criminal sociology.

3. Criminal anthropology.

4. Criminal psychology.

5. Criminal jurisprudence.

6. Penology.

The study of crime has great sociological significance. It furnishes one of the most striking illustrations of the relation between the individual and society, and the conflict between individual and social interests. The penal treatment of the criminal is the most drastic form of social repression, and criminology is fundamentally a study of social control. Hence it is that criminology and ethics are closely related, and the study of crime involves the discussion of numerous ethical problems of great social importance and scientific interest.

Crime is ordinarily regarded as a pathological and abnormal form of conduct. The study of the abnormal is always of significance not only for its own sake, but also because of the light it throws upon the normal as well. It is impossible to recognize and understand fully the normal until the abnormal variations have been studied. So that the study of criminal conduct is instructive with respect to normal human conduct. It is frequently difficult to ascertain what is normal conduct, and in dealing with this problem I shall apply biological, psychological, social, and ethical norms.

Chapter II The Origin And Early Evolution Of Crime

Equivalents of crime and punishment among animals — The limits of the analogy between man and the animal world — Alleged equivalents of crime among plants — Juridical punishment of animals by men — The beginnings of crime among men — Origin of crime in violations of custom — Influence of magic and religion upon the evolution of crime — Influence of moral ideas upon the evolution of crime — The earliest crimes: treason, witchcraft, sacrilege, incest, poisoning, violations of the hunting rules.

The equivalents or analogues of crime are to be found among animals other than man. Some criminologists, indeed, have sought for these equivalents in the plant world as well. The search for equivalents of crime outside of the human world is justified. Crime is a natural phenomenon, and is, therefore, closely related to other natural phenomena. In accordance with the theory of evolution we are constrained to believe that it has evolved out of other phenomena, and must seek its origin in these other phenomena.

Equivalents of Crime and Punishment Among Animals

The mammals and birds share many of the instincts and feelings possessed by man. The same is true to a less degree of the remainder of the vertebrates; while some of the invertebrates, such as the insects, probably possess at least a few of these instincts, and possibly a few of these feelings, though the last surmise is doubtful. Just as in man the social instincts and feelings, partly under the direction of the intellect, have given rise to human society, in similar fashion the corresponding instincts and feelings have given rise to a social manner of life among many of these animal species. In each of these animal societies habits and customs arise which in the long run aid the survival of the species. Consequently, acts which are contrary to these habits and customs will usually be injurious to the species, and will be reacted against by the members of the species.

Many such acts and the reactions against them have been observed among animals. Animals have been known to kill, to steal, to maltreat each other, and in many other ways to injure their congeners and their species. Furthermore, such acts have been traced to abnormal traits of the offenders which have apparently caused them. Just as in man aberrations of the instinctive, affective, and intellectual traits and the physical abnormalities which underlie these aberrations frequently lead to anti-social conduct; in similar fashion like aberrations and abnormalities lead to corresponding conduct on the part of animals. Many cases have been described where malformation of the brain, abnormalities of the viscera, nervous disorders, etc., have given rise to aberrant conduct. 1

Equivalents of punishment also are found among animals. When acts contrary to the habits and customs.of the species are committed, members of the species have in many cases been observed to display anger and the desire to revenge which have led them to inflict pain upon the offending individual, and to drive the offender away from the group, or even to kill the offender.

I have not the space to describe in detail these equivalents or analogues of crime and of punishment among animals. But while this analogy is very significant, and should therefore be

1 Lacassagne has classified the causes of aberrant conduct among animals according to the traits whose aberrations give rise to such conduct. He says that they are due to aberrations of (i) the nutritive instinct, (2) the sexual instinct, (3) maternal love, (4) the destructive instinct, (5) the instinct of vanity, (6) the social instincts. (A. Lacassagne, De la criminalite chez les animaux, in the Revue scientlfiqae, Vol. Ill, No. 2, Jan. 14, 1882, pp. 34-42.)

To quote his own words, aberrant conduct among animals is due to "the exaggeration of these instincts, 'exaggerations which are harmful to other animals of the same species, which manifest themselves by special kinds of acts which are called offenses or crimes in human societies." Such conduct is due sometimes to exaggerations of some of these traits, but in other cases is due to the excessive weakness of the same or of other traits. It may be questioned whether some of the instincts mentioned by Lacassagne actually exist, as, for example, the destructive instinct and the instinct of vanity. However, his classification gives some idea of the kinds of aberrations which give rise to these equivalents of crime among animals.

THE ORIGIN AND EARLY EVOLUTION OE CRIME 9

pointed out in any study of crime, it is important that the analogy should not be carried too far, as has been done by some writers. There are differences between man and the animal world which place limitations upon the analogy.

To begin with, public opinion and moral ideas are not to be found among, animals, or if found at all only in a most rudimentary form; whereas these phenomena are fully developed among men, and play an important part in determining the character of crime. Neither public opinion nor moral ideas can exist without a well-developed means of communication such as speech, and man is the only animal which possesses the faculty of speech. In the second place, no animal other than man possesses religious beliefs or magical ideas, and both of these have had much influence upon crime in human social evolution. In the third place, no animal other than man has developed the state, government, and law, and these political institutions largely determine the nature of crime in the higher stages of social evolution.

Because of these differences there can be no strict analogy between " crime" among animals and crime among men. And yet some writers have tried to draw such a strict analogy. For example, one writer asserts that courts of justice and criminal procedure are to be found among animals: — "The instances recorded of animals holding courts of justice and laying penalties upon offenders are too numerous and well authenticated to admit of any doubt. This kind of criminal procedure has been observed particularly among rooks, ravens, storks, flamingoes, martins, sparrows, and occasionally among some gregarious quadrupeds. It is as clearly established as human testimony can establish anything that these creatures have a lively sense of what is lawful or allowable in the conduct of the individual, so far as it may affect the character of the flock or herd, and are quick to resent and punish any act of a single member that may disgrace or injure the community to which he belongs." l This writer is interpreting in altogether too anthropomorphic a fashion the assemblies of gregarious birds at some of which offenders are punished spontaneously, but without the formal action of law and justice.

1 E. P. Evans, Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology, New York, 1898, p. 230.

IO CRIMINOLOGY

Some writers have gone so far as to extend the concept of crime even to the plant world. For example, Lombroso considered the habits of insectivorous plants as equivalents of crime in the plant world. 1 But this is manifestly an erroneous interpretation. In the first place, the differences between the traits of plants and of animals are so great as to stretch the analogy altogether too far. There is little if any reason to think that plants have either instincts, or feelings, or intelligence. Such being the case we can hardly speak of the " behavior" of plants in any sense which is at all comparable with the behavior of animals. In the second place, it is hardly possible to introduce the idea of crime with respect to the actions of one species upon another species, especially when the two species belong to entirely different realms of the organic world. So that the so-called "murders" of insects by insectivorous plants mentioned by Lombroso are " crimes" much less than the killing of animals by man for food or for amusement.

Juridical Punishment of Animals by Men

I have now stated the only scientific sense in which crime or the analogue of crime can be said to exist outside of mankind. But a popular notion of the criminality of animals has been prevalent in the past and still exists today, which should be noted in passing. This belief is that animals are morally responsible for their acts, and that consequently when an animal does injury to human beings it should be punished in much the same way as if it were a human being. As a result of this belief, during the Middle Ages and earlier many animals were tried and convicted for alleged crimes against human beings. 2 Various penalties were inflicted, the most frequent one perhaps being capital punishment. Curiously enough, this notion was sometimes extended to the plant world as well, so that plants also were held morally responsible for their alleged acts towards man. For example, Jesus Christ was apparently laboring under this

1 C. Lombroso, Uhomme criminel, Paris, 1895, Vol. I, Chap. 1.

2 For an account of many such cases see, E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals, London, 1906. See also, E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, London, 1906, Vol. I, Chap. 10.

THE ORIGIN AND EARLY EVOLUTION OF CRIME II

delusion when he cursed the fruitless fig tree of Bethany for not furnishing food to mankind. 1

Several things should be noted with respect to this notion. In the first place, it is evident that this belief arises out of an anthropomorphic interpretation of the animal and plant worlds. Man has assumed that animals and even plants think, and feel, and will like himself, and that therefore their acts should be treated like the acts -of human beings. In the second place, in most if not all of these cases the animals were punished for their offenses against men. In fact, I do not know of a single case where an animal was punished by judicial process for an offense committed against a congener or a member of any other non-human species. While this may have been desirable from the human point of view, it was hardly fair to these animals. Man does not hesitate to kill animals in order to secure food, and for other human purposes. Furthermore, the great majority of human crimes are offenses committed against human beings, and the number of offenses against animals recognized by the law are very few. So that the scales of human justice have been heavily overweighted in the interest of human welfare in man's attempts to hold animals morally and penally responsible for their acts.

In the last place, a distinction should be noted between two kinds of judicial processes against animals. The first kind of process is the one I have so far been describing, namely, the trial and condemnation of individual animals for offenses which

1 Some of the Christian apologists have interpreted this tale as indicating that Jesus regarded the tree as morally responsible, and therefore guilty of a delinquency. The accounts given of this alleged occurrence in the gospels of Matthew and of Mark suggest that Jesus uttered his curse in an access of pettish rage because he was deprived of his breakfast when hungry. "Now in the morning as he returned into the city, he hungered. And when he saw a fig tree in the way, he came to it, and found nothing thereon, but leaves only, and said unto it, Let no fruit grow on thee henceforward for ever. And presently the fig tree withered away." (S. Matthew, XXI, 18, 19.) "And on the morrow, when they were come from Bethany, he was hungry: And seeing a fig tree afar off having leaves, he came, if haply he might find any thing thereon: and when he came to it, he found nothing but leaves; for the time of figs was not yet. And Jesus answered and said unto it, No man eat fruit of thee hereafter for ever." (S. Mark, XI, 12-14.) This is like the child or savage who trips over a stone, and then strikes it in anger because it has hurt him.