A history of the Pacific Northwest

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Preface To The Revised Edition

The new material accumulated during the past twelve years since the original publication of the History of the Pacific Northwest has rendered necessary not a mere revision of that work but on many essential points a complete rewriting of it. This is notably true of the chapters dealing with the history of the Oregon boundary negotiation between the United States and Great Britain. It is true also of parts of the balance of the early part of the work. Moreover, since the movement in this comparatively new region is very rapid and a single decade sometimes revolutionizes conditions, it was felt to be necessary to add special chapters on the Progress of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and Social and Political Change. With this additional matter it would seem as if the story of the Pacific Northwest were in this book brought down to the actual present.

The author is under great obligations to the management of the Record Office at London, England, for permission to use files of papers relating to the Oregon Question; to the late Ambassador Whitelaw Reid for his courtesy in securing for him access to all available materials in London ; and to Lord Stanmore for permission to examine and use papers of

Preface to the Revised Edition

Lord Aberdeen. He is also under obligations to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C, for assistance in unearthing important manuscripts contained in the archives at Washington.

Joseph Schafer.

Eugene, Oregon, October 23, 1917.

Contents

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Preface v

CHAPTER

Chapter I

Balboa discovers the Pacific. It is a far cry from the Isthmus of Panama to the capes above Bering's Strait; and the explorations which unveiled that long coast line form a thrilling chapter in the history of our continent. The story opens on the twenty-fifth of September, 15 13, when Balboa, surrounded by sixty Spanish companions, stood on a peak of the Darien Mountains and gazed with the rapture of a discoverer on the waters of the South Sea. It closes, practically, two hundred and sixty-five years later when Captain Cook rounded the " western extremity of all America," in latitude 65 ° and 46', calling the point of land Cape Prince of Wales.

Claims its coasts for Spain. Balboa, at the moment of his discovery, proclaimed that the coasts and islands pertaining to the South Sea belonged to Spain. Four days later he reached the shore at the Gulf of San Miguel and, thereupon, took possession in a more formal manner, among other things, marching into the surf at the head of his party.

The search for a " strait." Such dramatic formalities rarely have much effect upon the course of history, yet the discovery itself was a great triumph for the Spanish government. Since the time of Columbus, their navigators had been searching among the West Indies, and along the Atlantic Coast of South and Central America, in the blind hope of finding an open passage to the Orient. They failed because, as it was supposed, Nature had sown islands so thickly in this part of the ocean that it was very difficult, or impossible, for ships to pick their way among them. The numerous failures had discouraged many. But when Balboa reached the sea by marching overland a few miles from the Darien coast no one any longer doubted that a convenient westward route existed, if it could only be found. Generally, it was assumed that the passage would be found north of the Isthmus. Magellan soon afterward proved that there was a way around South America, but it was very difficult, and far out of the direct course from Europe to Eastern Asia. The necessity still remained, therefore, to find " the strait," and the discovery of the Pacific, with other contemporaneous events, stimulated the search in an extraordinary manner.

During the sixteenth century the nation most interested in the discovery of the strait joining the two great oceans was Spain. Portugal had been her great rival in the effort to find an all-water route to the Indies, and while Columbus was making heroic but fruitless efforts to break through the ocean barriers to the west, Vasco da Gama had opened a way for his countrymen around Africa. This route the Portuguese monopolized, and they were amassing wealth from the profits of the spice trade with the Moluccas. In order to share in that most lucrative branch of commerce, it was absolutely necessary for Spain to complete her hopeful western waterway by the discovery of the indispensable strait. Now that a footing had been secured on the Pacific, it was determined to follow up the search from that side as well as from the Atlantic.

First suggestion of an Isthmian canal. The first ships to sail upon the Pacific were launched by Balboa himself in the year 15 17. They were built on the Panama coast, some of the timbers for their construction being carried across the mountains on the backs of Indian slaves. Aside from building the vessels, however, Balboa achieved very little. He coasted along the shore for some distance, gathered gold and pearls from the natives, and returned to Darien to meet death at the hands of political enemies. About six years later two other Spaniards explored northwestward from Panama as far as the Gulf of Fonseca, discovering Lake Nicaragua. This lake, it was hoped, with the stream flowing from it to the Atlantic, and a very short canal through the level ground on the west, might afford a practicable passage from ocean to ocean. Thus early (1525) was suggested the idea of the interoceanic canal.

Spain by this time was in possession of the rich valley of Mexico, where Cortez had recently overthrown the power of the Aztec confederacy. It was the most important territory of the New World yet brought under subjection by Europeans. The land was rich, its resources were varied, and the position it occupied between the two seas was a commanding one.

Mexico becomes the Spanish base in North America. It was natural that the colony planted in Mexico should become the center of new explorations. Cortez, ever on the lookout for opportunities of further conquest, sent his military expeditions toward the west and soon learned of a great ocean, which he rightly judged to be the same as Balboa's South Sea. The news of this discovery made a deep impression upon his imagination. Military successes had already brought him riches and a fame which reached to all countries of the civilized world. But Cortez saw clearly in the proximity of the great ocean an opportunity both to secure greater wealth and a more enduring renown. By exploring the Pacific he expected to find many islands abounding in gold and other riches. He hoped also to reach the Moluccas, and above all, he was anxious to find the strait so ardently desired by the king of Spain.

Establishing a naval station on the west coast of Mexico, Cortez soon began sending expeditions toward the north. Some of his ships were lost, and large sums of money were expended, but no very important results were obtained until 1539. 1 1 The southern end of the California peninsula was discovered

Explorations undertaken by Cortez. In that year Cortez sent out Ulloa with three ships to trace the Mexican coast northward. One of the three vessels was soon lost, but with the other two the mariner held his course until he approached the head of the Gulf of California. Tacking about he now passed along the shore of the peninsula to the cape which forms its southern extremity, which he rounded and sailed along the outer coast as far as Cedros Island, in latitude 28 . From this expedition Ulloa and his flagship never returned, although the surviving vessel reached Mexico in the following year. Cortez returned to Spain in 1540, and died there seven years later.

Alarcon's voyage. The romantic story of Coronado, familiar to all readers of American history, connects in an interesting manner with the exploration of the Pacific. At the time of Coronado's expedition, 1540, Mendoza, a rival of Cortez, was viceroy of Mexico. In order to increase the chance of Coronado's success Mendoza sent a fleet under Alarcon to support the land expedition. Alargon reached the head of the Gulf as Ulloa had done before him, and, leaving his ships at the entrance of Colorado River, ascended the stream in small boats as far as its junction with the Gila. This proved that the land stretching toward the southwest was a peninsula, and not an island. The name California, now known to have been derived from a Sixteenth Century Spanish novel, was first applied to

in 1534. It was supposed to be an island. The attempt to plant a colony there failed.

the country about this time. In its original use it signified a fabulous island, situated " not far from the terrestrial paradise," and inhabited by a gigantic race of women.

Voyage of Cabrillo and Ferelo. In 1542 Mendoza sent out Cabrillo and Ferelo to explore the coast northward along the peninsula. The result of Cabrillo's voyage was the discovery of the excellent harbour which he named San Miguel but which was later called San Diego, and the partial exploration of the California coast line above San Diego possibly to the forty-second parallel. An outline map of the west coast of America from Panama to Oregon will thus summarize fairly the Spanish explorations during the thirty years following Balboa's discovery of the Pacific.

Drake's voyage. The story of Sir Francis Drake's incursion into the Pacific, his capture of Spanish treasure ships, his landing in California and subsequent circumnavigation of the globe is full of dramatic interest. But, despite oft repeated claims that he made new discoveries to the northward of 42 °, there is no convincing evidence to prove that he did so. It is not probable that he saw any part of the Oregon coast, although he may have sailed the high sea as far to the north as the forty-third parallel.

Its influence upon Spain. Nevertheless, by showing them how insecure were their western coasts and how unprotected their rich trade between the Philippine Islands and Mexico Drake's voyage incited the Spaniards to undertake explorations having a defensive object. The plan was to explore minutely the coast of Upper California, and establish forts at two good harbours which were to be refitting stations for the ships from Manila when they arrived after the terrible buffetings of the long voyage across the Pacific. Sebastian Vizcaino made the necessary explorations in 1602-3, mapping carefully the California harbours of Monterey and San Diego.

Vizcaino's voyages. The activity of Vizcaino, which was not followed up by the fortification of the California harbours, as he advised, marks the end of Spanish exploring activity on the coast for more than a century and a half. The Manila ships, as the vessels trading to the Philippines were called, were almost the only Spanish craft to approach the coast of Upper California during that long interval, while the tribes and peoples seen by Cabrillo, Drake and Vizcaino remained during the same period in their earlier condition of unrelieved barbarism.

Decline of Spain. Spain, meantime, entered upon that remarkable era of relative decline, beginning with the destruction of her Great Armada in 1588, which gave opportunity to England, France, and Holland to participate in the colonization of America as competi J tors of Spain. England, on account of her naval development, was enabled to outstrip all of her rivals and finally, at the conclusion of the French war in 1763, to gain the whole eastern half of North America, all of which had once been claimed by Spain under the name of Florida.

Anson's voyage. These changes seriously affected the position of Spain on the west side of the continent. Indeed, her power there had already been challenged, for in 1 740-44 Commodore George Anson was sent by the British Admiralty to attack Spain in the Pacific, especially along the coasts of South America and in the Philippines. Through great misfortunes at sea, the program of offensive warfare could be carried out only partially. Yet, Anson stormed Payta, a town on the Peruvian coast, and captured it; he cruised off the Mexican coast in search of the Manila galleon, which went into hiding and escaped him. He afterward captured one of the galleons in the Philippines, taking a prize valued at $1,500,000. The voyage was completed by sailing to China and around the Cape of Good Hope to England. It was believed that had the squadron rounded Cape Horn at the proper season, thus avoiding undue losses, it could easily have captured Baldivia in Chili, terrified that kingdom and " awed the most distant parts of the Spanish Empire in America." x

Arthur Dobbs prophesies British expansion in the Pacific. About the time of Anson's return from the Pacific, Mr. Arthur Dobbs, a public spirited English gentleman, issued a book 2 in which he pointed to the Pacific as the most promising field of British explor-

1 Richard Walter — " Anson's Voyage," p. 280.

2 On Hudson's Bay, London, 1744. See summary in the author's Acquisition of Oregon, pt. I — Discovery & Exploration. Bulletin University of Oregon. N. S. Vol. VI, No. 3, December, 1908.

ing and exploiting effort for many years to come. Great Britain, he argued, should take away the monopoly of the Hudson Bay Company l because that company had refused to carry out its charter agreement to search for a northwest passage into the Pacific. The government should seek that passage, and having found it should establish naval stations in the North Pacific, say near California, and in the South Pacific, say at the Isle of Easter. From these stations as centres, explorations should be made throughout the great ocean, north and south. He believed there were thousands of islands, perhaps continents, still to be found there and these were doubtless peopled with tribes waiting to be supplied with British goods.

The Northwest Passage. Under Dobbs's stimulation a good deal was done, within the next few years, to find the Northwest passage, but without success. However, the government began at the close of the French war (1764) to send exploring expeditions into the Pacific and in the ten years following many new islands were brought to light by a succession of navigators — Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and especially Cook, the greatest discoverer of all.

Bering's Russian Exploration. These notable activities of the British were matched by similar activities of the Russians. In 1728 Vitus Bering, a Dane who set out some years before in the service of Peter the Great, sailed north from Kamchatka and settled

x The Hudson's Bay Company received its charter from King Charles II in 1669.

io A History of the Pacific Northwest

the age old question as to whether Asia and North America were joined together in the north. In 1741 Bering and Tchirikoff discovered Alaska and a number of the islands of Bering Sea. Thereafter the Russians began the trade in furs which soon carried them from Kamchatka to the Alaska coast and thence southward toward California and Mexico.

It was these two movements of the British and Russians, which roused the Spaniards of Mexico to undertake new schemes of conquest, settlement, and exploration for the sake of safeguarding their possessions if possible against the fate which had befallen Florida.

Spaniards forced to become expansionists and explorers. Their plan was, first: to plant colonies and build forts at San Diego and Monterey harbours, as Vizcaino had recommended in 1603. Second, the entire region of Upper California was to be brought under Spanish rule. Third, they were to undertake explorations by sea, to the vicinity of the Russian settlements in order to fix the Spanish claim more firmly upon the northwest coast of America. In connection with the plan of conquest it was decided to establish a number of missions, similar to those already existing in the Peninsula, for the purpose of Christianizing the Indians. Father Junipero Serra, a devout Franciscan friar, was in charge of the missionary branch of the movement.

California missions planted. The first of the series of missions was founded by Father Serra at San

Early Explorers of the Pacific Coast II

Diego July 16, 1769, and a fort or presidio was built near it. Thus the process of the missionary and military occupation was begun. Monterey was occupied the next year and that place became the capital of Upper California. Other missions and presidios were founded from time to time.

Explorations of Perez, 1774. The first exploring ship, the Santiago, sailed from Monterey under Juan Perez June 11, 1774. Perez had instructions to sail to the sixtieth parallel before making his landfall. But running short of water, he put about to the east on July 15th and on the 20th reached the coast near the present southern limits of Alaska. He named the place Santa Margarita. Perez now decided to abandon the attempt to reach a higher latitude, and turned to explore the land southward to California. Dropping down some six degrees, he ran into a " C " shaped harbour which he named San Lorenzo, a. roadstead which later became famous under the name of Nootka Sound. Many points on the Oregon and California coasts were seen by Perez on his voyage southward, which terminated at Monterey August 27.

Heceta's discovery. Perez had made a general exploration of the entire northwest coast from the parallel of 42 ° to 54 40', but he had failed to reach the region visited by the Russians. In the following year a new expedition was fitted out under the command of Captain Bruno Heceta. Heceta had instructions requiring him to reach latitude 65 °. At a point near Fuca's Strait, the present Point Grenville, he landed and performed the ceremony of taking possession. Soon afterward Heceta decided to turn back, but one of his two ships, the Sonora, under the command of Bodega e Cuadra, held her course northward until she attained the latitude 58 °. Cuadra landed at a point on the Alaska coast opposite Mt. Edgecumbe, which he named San Jacinto, and there performed the ceremony of taking possession.

On his southern voyage Heceta saw the bay at the mouth of the Columbia, but while recognizing the signs of a great river, he failed to enter it.

Origin of Cook's third voyage. We have now reached an important turning point in the history of the Northwest Coast. The British, through the earlier explorations already mentioned, had developed an extraordinary interest in the Pacific. Cook had explored Australia and New Zealand, great land masses occupied by numerous aboriginal tribes; numerous smaller islands had been found especially in the South Pacific, so the dream of Arthur Dobbs was beginning to take on some of the features of reality.

Great Britain had not found a northern passage into the Pacific. But it was now known, since Samuel Hearne's journey to the mouth of Coppermine River in 1 769-1 772, that there was open sea far above the latitude of Hudson's Strait and far to the northwest of Hudson's Bay. The suggestion was that by sailing much farther north than formerly a channel might be found. And since Bering's Strait probably connected the Pacific with the northern sea in the west, the chance of finding the passage would be doubled by searching from both oceans simultaneously.

Captain Cook was commissioned to make the attempt from the west. His instructions were issued July 6 and he sailed on July 12, 1776.

Cook's instructions. After making certain researches in the South Pacific, his orders were to run to the coast of "New Albion" 1 in about latitude 45 , thence to proceed northward to 65 °, and endeavour to find a way from Bering's Strait into the Atlantic.

Cook discovers the Sandwich Islands. After spending eighteen months in southern waters, Cook sailed northward and in January, 1778, discovered a group of islands on which he bestowed the name of his patron, the Earl of Sandwich.

Two months later he came in sight of the Oregon coast in about latitude 44 . He first ran a couple of degrees southward and then up the coast to about 47 where he began a careful search for a strait which maritime tradition declared had once been found in that latitude by a Greek pilot named Juan de Fuca. Cook convinced himself that the story of Juan de Fuca's voyage from the Pacific to the Atlantic was a myth, like so many other sailors' tales.

Limits of Cook's discoveries. About latitude 49 ° Cook entered the harbour named San Lorenzo by Perez — Nootka Sound. There the Indians crowded about

1 A part of the coast of California was named New Albion by Drake. But it was erroneously held in England that he had explored under that designation a long stretch of coast line.

the vessel, bringing furs to barter with the sailors. Steering northwest, Cook saw San Jacinto Mountain, so named by Cuadra, which he rechristened Mt. Edgecumbe. In latitude 6o° he saw a lofty peak which he named Mt. St. Elias. Cook held his course westward and northward, exploring the Alaska coast and inlets. Finally, sailing through Bering's Strait, on the 9th day of August, 1778, he reached the "western extremity of all America " in latitude 65 ° 46'. Directly opposite he found the easternmost point of Asia. The first he named Cape Prince of Wales, the second East Cape.

Finding the season too far advanced for the projected search for a passage to the Atlantic, Cook turned back to winter in the Sandwich Islands, where he lost his life in February, 1779.

Their historical significance. Cook was not the discoverer of the Northwest coast. But, while he came after the Spanish navigators in time and while he left much for others to do, he yet made the first extended scientific surveys in that region and in effect gave to the world its first definite information concerning the contour of western North America from the latitude of California to Cape Prince of Wales.

Chapter II Discovery Of Puget Sound And Columbia River

Cook's men discover the world's best fur market.

The voyage of Captain Cook had one result which neither he nor his government had foreseen. At several points along the northwest coast and the Alaska coast, particularly at Nootka Sound and at Cook's Inlet, the natives crowded around the ships to exchange sea-otter skins and other furs for such baubles as the sailors cared to part with. The white men wanted the skins for clothing and bedding, to make their voyage more comfortable, no one suspecting that their value was more than nominal. But when the exploring squadron touched at Canton, on the south coast of China, merchants came on board to bargain for these furs. The prices offered went up day by day until at last the men were selling the remains of their otter-skin garments and a few unused furs for sums that seemed almost fabulous. " Skins which did not cost the purchaser sixpence sterling," writes one of the men, " sold for one hundred dollars." The excitement on shipboard was intense. The crew wished to return at once, secure a cargo of furs on the northwest coast, and make their fortunes. When the officers refused, they begged, blustered, and even threatened mutiny, but of course in vain.

Beginnings of the Northwest Coast fur trade. The discovery of the value of otter skins in the Canton market instantly changed the thought of the world with respect to the northwest coast. The region abounded in furs, but thus far it had not been visited for commercial purposes. Spain had sent her navigators along those coasts to confirm her ancient claim of sovereignty over them, Great Britain because she hoped to find, half hidden behind some jagged cape, the long sought passage to the eastern sea. A powerful new motive now became operative. In a few years ships flying the colours of England, of France, of Portugal and of the new Republic of the United States began regularly to visit those waters, their crews prospecting madly among the coves and inlets wherever the presence of Indian tribes gave promise of a profitable trade.

So far as is now known, the first definite plan for carrying on this northwest fur trade was projected by Captain King who, in the published report of Cook's voyage, recommended that the East India Company should begin the trade, combining exploration with it. 1 While this plan was not carried out, a private company under Richard Cadman Etches prepared in 1785 to undertake " a regular and reciprocal system of commerce between Great Britain, the Northwest Coast of America, the Japanese, Kureil, and Jesso Islands, and the coasts of Asia, Corea and China." This company,

1 Cook's Voyage, II, 437-440.

The Sea Otter which seems to have received the government's blessing, with no financial help, sent forward the same year two well equipped vessels, named the King George and the Queen Charlotte, under command respectively of Nathaniel Portlock and George Dixon, both of whom were naval officers on leave. 1

Discoveries of Dixon, Barclay, Meares, Duffin. The King George and Queen Charlotte were not the first vessels to sail for the northwest coast in response to the new commercial stimulus. 2 But we are interested in the way the fur trade influenced exploration and we know from the journal of Captain Dixon that important results aside from commercial gains flowed from the voyage of the Queen Charlotte in the years 1786 to 1787. Dixon, in sailing south from Alaska, discovered that the land lying just below fifty- four degrees was an island and he named it Queen Charlotte's Island. He explored nearly its entire circuit and named several points on what he supposed was the mainland to the east, among them Cape Pitt, Cape Chatham, and Cape Dalrymple which outlined Dixon's Strait.

Other traders from Macao in China and from Ostend were on the coast during the years 1786 to 1788 and their commanders, Captain John Meares and Captain

1 An Authentic Statement, etc., of facts relating to Nootka Sound. By Argonaut (Richard Cadman Etches) London, 1790.

2 James Hanna, an Englishman from the coast of China is supposed to have reached the northwest coast in 1785'. He had a small vessel and flew the Portuguese flag, doubtless to elude the British East India Co. He secured a profitable cargo.

Barclay especially, while on profits bent as their main issue, incidentally made discoveries of considerable value. Barclay, sailing from Nootka in July, 1787, discovered a passage between Cape Flattery and the land he had just left, which we know as Vancouver Island but supposed at that time to be the mainland. The next year Meares ordered his lieutenant Robert Duffin to explore that passage which now was traced for the distance of several leagues. The passage lay only one degree north of the fabled strait of Juan de Fuca and while, unlike that creation of a sailor's fancy, it did not in fact connect the two great oceans, no one knew what it might lead into and its discovery revived the most active geographical speculation.

Men began to see that Cook's voyage after all left many things unsettled. The great navigator had located Cape Flattery and Nootka Sound, after which he had sailed to the Alaska coast without so much as suspecting that he had been running past a succession of great islands instead of along the continental coastline. That fact was now becoming clear, and the new found strait suggested a sea of indefinite extent in that latitude, eating into the continent.

The Nootka Sound Controversy. The new geographical problems raised by the work of the maritime fur traders, in themselves would have justified a new British exploring expedition under government auspices. Another circumstance tending to the same result was the now celebrated Nootka Sound Controversy of 1 789-1 790. This arose over the attempt of Spain, in 1789, to fortify Nootka Sound and exclude all foreigners from that region, of which as we saw she claimed the exclusive sovereignty. Harsh treatment of British traders and the forcible seizure by Don Martinez, the Spanish commander, of several British owned vessels at Nootka precipitated the quarrel which at one time seemed to foreshadow war. Finally, the two nations reached an agreement called the Nootka Convention which records a complete triumph for Britain. In it Spain conceded the right of British subjects to trade and make settlements upon any part of the coast not already occupied. In other words, Spain gave up her exclusive claim so far as the coast above California was concerned. 1

For carrying out the terms of the Nootka Convention it was necessary for both nations to send navigators to the Northwest Coast and Great Britain sent on that service Captain George Vancouver, who was destined to become pre-eminent as the geographer of the Northwest Coast.

Vancouver's Voyage. Vancouver spent portions of three summers in those waters and he gave to the world a great map of the west coast of North America from San Diego in California to Cook's River, or Cook's Inlet, in Alaska. He explored the inland sea into which De Fuca's Strait was found to lead and named it Puget's Sound for his friend Lieutenant Puget; he circumnavigated Vancouver Island; he ex-

1 See Manning, William Ray. The Nootka Sound Controversy. Rept. of Am. Hist. Assn, 1904 p. 279-478.

plored the numerous inlets which penetrate the continent between Fuca's Strait and Alaska. While a portion of the work in Puget Sound waters had been done before Vancouver arrived by the Spanish explorers Quimper, Eliza, Galieno and Valdez, and while the great Spanish explorer Cuadra was so closely associated with himself that he called the island north of Fuca's Strait Vancouver and Cuadra 's Island, yet to Vancouver is due the credit for combining into one system the results of many separate explorations and for giving the world an intelligible view of northwest coast geography as a whole.