The French revolution and first enpire

II [WA*Bl*OTON

ease ury|

RESS I BTON J tatHituttH to HENRY REEVE, ESQ., D.C.L.

AS A MARK OF THE REGARD AND ESTEEM OF

THE AUTHOR.

Preface

It is unnecessary to say that, in an epitome of this kind, innumerable details must be altogether left out, and that a small space only can be allotted to even important occurrences which would be set forth at length in a complete narrative. Nor has it been possible for me — my object being to describe the principal facts of the French Revolution and First Empire — to comment largely on the institutions of old France, or to show fully how they contributed to the events that followed 1789. An abridgement cannot be a real History; and, apart from defects peculiar to it, I am conscious that this volume must at best be an imperfect miniature of the grand drama of human action and life which it endeavors to delineate. Still I am not without hope that I have represented, in something like exact outline, the great features of that period of trouble and war through which France passed from 1789 to

vii viii Preface.

1 815 ; and I trust I have placed events in their true proportions, and that the opinions I have expressed are correct and moderate. The present time, it must be allowed, is favorable for a publication of this kind, even though it purports to be only a sketch. French and English literature has of late years teemed with documents of the greatest value on the Revolution and Napoleon I., and I have carefully studied most of these sources of information. The events, too, of the war of 1870 bring again before our eyes what the Emperor achieved in the field, though victory has shifted from the standards of one race to those of another ; the national defence of France in 1871 reflects light on that of 1793; and in the crimes and madness of the lately suppressed Commune of Paris, we see an image of the Reign of Terror.

Dublin: Februarys 1874.

Chapter I. State Of France Before The Revolution

PAGE

General character and results of the French Revolution . . . . . . .1

It exhibited vividly the peculiar features of the French national character . . . . .2

The Monarchy of France before the Revolution ; abuses in the system of government . . . 4

The Church and the Nobility. Why these Orders had become generally disliked . . . .6

The power of the ruling orders was divided and decayed, and consequently weak . . .8

Dissensions between the Crown, the Church, and the Nobles, and discredit of all authority . . 9

State of the Commons of France. The middle classes ; how they were cut off from the People, and the results 11

Condition of the Peasantry . . . .13

Of the population of the towns . . . .14

Destructive and sceptical tone of contemporary French Literature . . . . . .14

The progress of evil continued down to the Revolution 15

Brilliant anticipations of the future in France . . 17

Chapter II

THE STATES-GENERAL AND NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. 1789 Meeting of the States-General . . . . 19

The Commons declare themselves the National Assembly ... . . . . .20

The oath of the Tennis Court, June 20 . . .22

ix x Contents.

PAGE 1789 Dismission of Necker, and formation of a reactionary

Ministry . . . . . .24

Rising in Paris . . . . . .24

Mutiny of the French Guards and insubordination in the Army . . . . . .25

The Commune, the National Guard . . .26

Siege and storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789 . 28

Beginning of the emigration of the Nobles . . 29

Recall of Necker . . . . .29

The King sanctions what had been done in Paris . 29

The Tricolor Flag . . , . .30

Risings in the Provinces . . . . 30

Legislative measures of the Assembly . . . 31

Sudden abolition of the feudal burdens, August 4, 1789 32 October 5 and 6, 1789 . . . . .33

The King and Royal Family taken to Paris from Versailles . . . . . . • 35

Growing power of the rabble of Paris . . . 35

Chapter III. The Constitution Of 1790— I

Character of the period from the autumn of 1789 to the summer of 179 1 . , . . .36

The National Assembly begins to frame the Constitution 38

Useful reforms

Wild and precipitate innovations

The Rights of Man

Confiscation of Church and corporate property, lition of -tithes v f '"--■.

Equality ....

Provinces transformed into Departments

Character of the new Constitution ; its glaring

Administrative measures .

Assignats ....

False system of taxation

Undue favor shown to Paris • .

. 38

. 39

. 39

. 39

• 39

defects 40

. 41

. 42

. 42

. 42

Contents. xx

PAGE

1790 The feast of the Federation, July 14, 1790. Enthusiasm

in Europe . . . . . . 43

Evil consequences of innovation ; signs of disorder and

anarchy . . . . . 44

The Jacobin and other clubs . . . • 45

Weakness of Conservative elements in the Assembly . 46 Attempts of Mirabeau to check the disorganization of

the State . . . . . .48

His death . . . . . .49

Threatening attitude of Foreign Powers . . 49

Dangerous projects of the King and Queen . . 49

The flight to Varennes, June 20, 1791 . -. • 5°

Consequences of this event . . • • . 51

Chapter IV. The Legislative Assembly

1791 Character of the period from the summer of 1791 to

Deceptive calm. Meeting of the new Legislative Assembly . . . . . . .55

Character of this Body . . . . . 55

Dissensions between the King and the Assembly . 56

Disorders in the Provinces . . . .57

Religious and social troubles . . . .57

Massacre at Avignon (Oct. 16 — 20, 1791) . . 57

Louis directly opposes the Assembly . . .58

Indignation of the Assembly . . . .59

Attitude of the Commune of Paris. The Clubs and

demagogues . . . . . » 59

Menaces of Foreign Powers . . . .60

Declaration of Pilnitz, August, 1791 . . .60

Projects of King and Queen . . . .61

Divisions in the Assembly . . . .61

It declares war against Austria. Prussia joins Austria 61 xii Contents.

x 79i page

French failures in Belgium. April, May, 1792 . 61

Indignation in France . . . . .61

Insensate conduct of Louis . . . .62

1792 He resists the decrees of the Assembly, and dismisses

the Gironde ministry and Dumouriez . . 63

Outbreak of June 20, 1792 . . . .63

1792 Encouraged by the popular leaders in the Assembly

and by the Commune of Paris . . .64

Reaction in favor of Louis . . . .65

New efforts of the Demagogues and the Commune . 66 Proclamation of Brunswick . . . .67

Invasion of France by the Prussians and Austrians,

July and August, 1792 . . . -67

The Assembly paralyzed ; power passes to the Demagogues . . . . . .68

Preparations for a rising. Danton . . .68

Paris on the night of August 9, 1792 . . .69

Attitude of the King and the Court . . .70

The armed populace at the Tuileries . . .71

The King and Royal Family take refuge in the Assembly . . . . . . .72

The Tuileries attacked and pillaged. Massacre of the Swiss . . . . . . .72

Reflections on the rising of August 10 . . • 73

Chapter V

THE CONVENTION, TO THE FALL OF THE MODERATES. Effects of August 10 . . . .75

The Convention summoned . . . • 75

The King and Royal Family imprisoned in the Temple . • . . 75 Violent measures of the Commune of Paris . . 76 Lafayette throws up his command ; advance of the

German armies to Verdun . . . . jj

Massacre of September . . . . » 77

Contents. xiii

PAGE 1792 Frightful scenes in Paris .

The Assembly indignant at the massacre

Battle of Valmy. Its great results ; retreat of the Prussians and Austrians ....

Meeting of the Convention, September 22, 1792

Parties in it

France declared a Republic, September 22, 1792

Offer of liberty to foreign nations, November 19

Dissension renewed between the Moderates and Jaco bins ......

Trial of Louis XVI. December 11, 1792

Sentence of death pronounced by a majority of one

Execution of Louis XVI. January 21, 1793 *793 Reflections on this event

Character and conduct of the King

Coalition of Europe against France

Battle of Jemmapes and early successes of the French November — December 1792, January-February 1793

Fierce struggle of parties in France

The Gironde denounced by the Jacobins and Demagogues .....

Distress and social disorders

Advance of the Coalition

Battle of Neerwinden, March 18, 1793 .

Flight of Dumouriez. He throws up his command

Increasing power of the Jacobins. Danton. His energy

Formation of the Committee of Public Safety, April 6,

1793 •

Violent measures proposed by Danton . And decreed by Convention Propositions of the Commune of Paris The party of violence generally prevails The Gironde and Moderates denounce extreme measures ......

The Commission of Twelve

The forces of Anarchy become supreme

Danton tries in vain to reconcile the contending parties xiv Contents.

PAGE

1793 Death-struggle between the Moderates and Jacobins . 95

Rising of May 31 and June 2, 1793 • • .96

Fall of the Moderates . . . . .96

Reflections on this event . . . • 97

Chapter VI

THE REIGN OF TERROR. WAR. FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. 1793 Triumph of the party of violence in the Convention . 97 Risings against in the Provinces. Civil war . . 98

Beginning of the war of La Vendee . . , 98

Energetic measures of Danton and the leaders in power 99 The levee en masse . . . 99

The Constitution of 1793 • • • • IO °

The maximum. The Revolutionary Tribunal . 100

The risings in part of France quelled . . .100

Feebleness of the Coalition . . . . 101

Waste of time, in action and dissensions . . 101

The Republic successful at home and abroad . 102

Carnot. Hoche ..... 102

Battle of Wattignies, October 16, 1793 . . 103

Fall of Lyons, October 9, 1793, . . . 104

Great defeat of the Vendeans at Savenay, December

23, 1793 . . . . . .104

Siege and fall of Toulon, December 19, 1793 . . 104

First appearance on the scene of Napoleon Bonaparte. 105 The Reign of Terror . . . . . 105

The Convention, a mere instrument of the Jacobin

The Committee of Public Safety all powerful . .106

Its tyranny and terrible expedients . . .106

Wild social changes . . . . . 107

Atheism declared truth by the Commune of Paris . 107 Appearance of Paris during the Reign of Terror . 107

The levies hurried to the frontier . . . 108

Appearance of the Convention .... 108 Dissolution of society and of morality . . 109

Contents. xv

PAGE

1793 Cruelty and suspicions of populace » • .110 General licentiousness . . . . .110 The Goddess of Reason at Notre-Dame . .110 Scenes in the prisons . . - . .111 The Revolutionary Tribunal and its work . .112 Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October 14-

16, 1793 . . . . . .113

Her character and conduct . . . . 115

Divisions among the Jacobin rulers . \ .115

Three factions form themselves . . . 115

Growing ascendency of Robespierre . . .116

He becomes supreme in the State ". . 117

1794 Destruction of Hebert and the leaders of the Com-

mune, of Danton and his followers, March 24, April

3, 1794 . . . . . . 117

Character of Danton . - . . . 117

Dictatorship of Robespierre . . • .118

His measures to secure his power . . . 118

The worship of the Supreme . • . » 118

Terror at its height . . -. . .118

Frightful state of Paris . . . . .119

Massacres in the Provinces . . . .119

The Republic obtains fresh successes in the campaign

English naval victories of June 1 121

The Allies defeated on all other points of the theatre 121 Battle of Fleurus, June 26, 1794 . . . 121

Reaction against the Reign of Terror . . .122

Fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794 . . . 122

Execution of Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon and

Reflections on this event .... 123

The Terrorists were not able men . . .124

Notwithstanding the efforts of the French, the Allies

could have put down the Revolution . .125

XVI

Contents.

Chapter VII

THERMIDOR. FRENCH CONQUESTS.

PAGE

179^ Reaction of Thermidor . . . .126

The prisons opened . . . . .126

Punishment of several of the Terrorists . .126

Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal, and of the

The forcing of the value of assignats discontinued . 127 The populace of Paris kept down. The Jacobin Club

suppressed . . . . . .127

Violence of the Reaction . . . .128

Revolution in manners . . . . .128

The Jeunesse Dor6e . . • . .129

Renewed troubles . . . . .129

Scarcity and distress ..... 130

The Jacobin party tries to rally . . . 131

1795 Outbreaks of 12th Germinal (April 1) . . . 131

And of 1st Prairial (May) 1795 . . .131

Put down and suppressed . . . .132

The power of Jacobinism finally broken . . 132

Measures of the Government against the Royalists . 133 Weakness of the State. Tendency to the rule of the

Great successes of French against the Allies . . 133

Conquest of Belgium and Holland, September 1794, • January 1795 . . . . .134

Failure of English descent from Quiberon Bay, July

15—20, 1795 . . . . . .134

The Coalition dissolved. Prussia and Spain make

peace, April, June 1795 .... 134

Causes of this astonishing success of the Republic . 135 Continuing weakness of the Republic at home . 136

Extreme distress of the great cities . . . 137

Exhaustion of the Revolutionary spirit . . 137

Desire for repose and a settled government. Reaction

towards Monarchy . . . . • l 37

Contents. xvii

1795 Constitution of the year III .... 138

The Constitution generally well received . . 139 Opposition to the re-election of two-thirds of the Convention ...... 139

Rising of the reactionary sections of Paris, 13th Vend6-

miaire (October 4, 1795), put down by Bonaparte . 140

The authority of the Convention restored . .140

The military power becomes stronger . . . 141

Reflections on the course of the Revolution after Ther-

Chapter VIII

THE DIRECTORY. BONAPARTE.

Character of this period

State of the Republic after Vendemiaire

Policy of the Directory

National Bankruptcy virtually declared

1796 Preparations for the campaign of 1796 The campaign of Italy -

Bonaparte invades Piedmont from the seaboard April 28, 1794 .....

May 9 — 30, 1796 ....

He marches to the Adige. Siege of Mantua . The Austrians send an army to raise the siege of Mantua and to crush Bonaparte .

He defeats Wurmser in a series of engagements August 3—6, September 1 — 13, 1796 The Austrians send Alvinzi with a new army . He is defeated at Areola, November 14 — 17, 1796

1797 Decisive victory of Bonaparte at Rivoli, January 14,

Reflections on the campaign. Great skill of Bonaparti

Character of his strategy

State craft of Bonaparte ....

Campaign of 1796 in Germany. Defeats of the French 150 The Archduke Charles ..... 150

B

143 144 144

147 147 147 xviii Contents.

PAGE

1797 Ability displayed by him . 150 Internal state of the Republic ; revival of factions . 152 Royalist and reactionary schemes . . . 152 Coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor (September 4, 1797) 153 Conclusion of the campaign of Italy . . . 153 Conciliatory policy of Bonaparte ; his anti-revolutionary views ...... 154

He marches on Vienna from Italy . . . 154

Treaty of Campo Formio, October 17, 1797 . . 155

Gains of France ..... 155

Sacrifice of Venice ..... 155

Reflections on the conduct of Bonaparte . . 156

Enthusiasm in France at his successes . . .156

Admiration felt for him in Europe . . .156

He returns to France, and is received with acclamation 157

CHAPTER IX. 1798 The Directory jealous of Bonaparte

They engage him to attempt a descent on England

He proposes to invade Egypt .

Expedition to Egypt ....

Congress of Rastadt ....

Renewal of causes of discord in Europe

Formation of the Ligurian, Helvetian, and Roman

Republics .....

Bonaparte lands in Egypt July 1, 1798 Battle of the Nile, August 1, 1798, and destruction of

the French fleet ....

Renewal of the war in Europe . 1799 Murder of the French plenipotentiaries at Rastadt

The Conscription ....

Character of the campaign of 1799 Defeats of the French ....

Formation of the Parthenoposan Republic

158 159 159 159 160 160

160 161

161 162

162 162 163 163 163

Contents, xix

Battle of Stochach, March 25, 1799

Battles of the Trebbia and Novi, June 17, 18, and 19

and August 15, 1799 .

The French driven from Italy .

Failure of English descent on Holland Battle of Zurich, September 25 — 28, 1789 It saves France from invasion .

Lamentable internal state of the Republic Strife of factions The reverses of 1799 cause all parties to combine

against the Directory .

Weakness and ruin of the State Desire for a strong Government Sieyes . .

Fortunes of Bonaparte in Egypt ' He fails at Acre, March to May, 1799 On hearing the news of the state of France, he leaves

Egypt ....

Enthusiasm with which he is received on his way to

and in Paris ....

He at once becomes the real centre of power He prepares a coup d'etat to change the Government The 18th Brumaire (November 9), 1799 Scene in Assembly at St. Cloud . ,

Formation of a provisional government. Bonaparte

First Consul ....

Character of the Revolution of 18th Brumaire Reflections on the conduct of Bonaparte, and on the

march of events The coup d'etat was not a crime

Chapter X. Page

164 164 164 165 165 165

166 166 166 166 167 167

MARENGO. LUNEVILLE. AMIENS.

Wise and healing policy of the First Consul . . 172

Financial reforms ..... 172

Fortunate position of Bonaparte as a mediator between factions . . . . . .174

XX

Contents.

PAGE

1800 Laws against clergy and emigres repealed or mitigated 174 Pacification of La Vendee Rapid recovery of France Constitution of the year VIII.

The institutions founded by it Objects of Sieyes .

Bonaparte First Consul for ten years . His Despotism is established, surrounded by merely

nominal restraints ....

Reorganization of the French armies . Plans of the First Consul

The campaign of 1800 ....

Operations of Melas in Italy, and of Moreau in Bavaria 178 The First Consul crosses the Alps May 16-19, 1800 The French army enters Milan, June 2 Melas falls back ....

Battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800 The French recover Italy

Campaign in Germany ....

Advance of Moreau. Ability of Kray Battle of Hohenlinden, December 3, 1800

1 801 Treaty of Luneville, February 9, 1801 Great advantages gained by France Dictatorial tone of Bonaparte .

1802 Treaty of Amiens, March 27, 1802 Great results obtained by the First Consul

Chapter XI

THE CONSULATE. RENEWAL OF WAR.

Internal Government of the First Consul . .185

The time favorable for reconstructing society in France 186

Reforms in the State . . . . .187

The Judicial system

The Code

Centralization of local powers

Prefects and sub-prefects

Contents. xxi

PAGE

Its effects ...... 191

Public Instruction . . . . .191

General results of these reforms . .. .191

Changes in the army ..... 191

Creation of a new aristocracy .... 192

The Legion of Honor. Restoration of Titles . 192

Bonaparte made Consul for life . . .192

Modification, in a despotic sense, of the Constitution

of the year VIII. ..... 193

Partial resemblance of the new Government to that of

the Monarchy r . . . . . 193

Its merits ...... 193

Wise Administration of the First Consul . . 194

He encourages the movement towards Monarchy . 194 Change of manners in France . . . .195

Foreign Policy of the First Consul . . . 196

Its craft and ambition . . . . .196

French intervention in Germany . . .197

1803 Great extension of French power and influence . 197 Disputes with England. March to May, 1803 . 198 Renewal of war with England, May 18, 1803 . 198

Chapter XII. The Empire To Tilsit

The First Consul plans a descent on England . 199

The flotilla and camp of Boulogne . . . 200

Project of covering the descent by a large fleet in the

Conspiracy of the emigres against the First Consul . 201

1804. Execution of the Duke of Enghien, March 21, 1804 . 202

This event hastens the movement in favor of Monarchy 203

The First Consul proclaimed Emperor of the French,

Coronation of Napoleon, December 2, 1804 . . 204

1805 New coalition against France .... 205 xxii Contents.

PAGE

1805 Plan of the attack of the Allies . . . 206

Napoleon quits Boulogne, and surrounds and captures

an Austrian army at Ulm, October 19, 1805 . 206

Battle of Trafalgar and destruction of the French and

Spanish fleets, October 21, 1805 . . . 207

The project of the descent might have succeeded . 208 Napoleon marches on Vienna . . . . 209

The Grand Army ..... 209

Vienna occupied, November 13, 1805 . , . 209

Battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805. Ruin of the allied army ...... 210

Peace of Presburg, December 15, 1805 . .210

Changes effected by it . . . . .211

Austria ceases to be Head of the German Empire . 211 The Confederation of the Rhine . . .211

Isolation of Prussia . . • . • .211

Conduct of that power . . . . .211

It declares war against France . . . .212

Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14, 1806 . 212

1807 Ruin of the Prussian army and Monarchy . .212

Napoleon marches against the Russians . .213

Winter campaign in Poland . . . .213

Indecisive battle of Eylau, February 8, 1807 . . 214

Peril of Napoleon . . . . .214

Reorganization of the Grand Army . . .214

Decisive victory of the French at Friedland, June 14, 1807 ....... 214

Characteristics of these campaigns . . .215

Changes in the art of war . . . . 215

Meeting of Alexander and Napoleon on the Niemen, June 25, 1807 ..... 215

Treaty of Tilsit, July 7 and 9, 1807 . . . 216

Alliance between France and Russia, and dismemberment of Prussia ..... 216

Contents. xxiii

PAGE

1807 Objects of Napoleon in making the treaty . .216

His power at its height ..... 217

Extent of the French Empire .... 217

Vassal kingdoms . % . . . 217

Allied and subject States . . . .218

The Empire promoted civilization in some respects . 218 Prosperity of France . . . . .218

Public works of Napoleon . . . .219

Character of his Government . . . .219

Elements of weakness and decay in the Empire . 220

Indignation of conquered nations . . . 220

Tendency of Germany to unite through common suffering ....... 220

Jealousy of Russia ..... 221

Decline of the Grand Army in strength . . 221

The resources of France unduly strained . . 221

Moral evils of the rule of Napoleon . . . 222

Insecurity of his power, which depended mainly on himself ...... 223

Chapter XIII. The Empire To 1813

Retrospect of the policy of Napoleon . • . 224 It changes for the worse after Tilsit . . . 225 The Continental system, 1807-8 . . . 226 Its mischievous effects upon the Empire . . 227 It urges Napoleon to make conquests . . . 227 Project of invading Spain and Portugal . . 228 Napoleon dethrones the House of Braganza, November, December, 1807 ..... 228 The Royal Family of Spain enticed to Bayonne, and

induced to abdicate the throne, May, 1808 . . 228

General rising in Spain, May, June, 1808 . . 229

Capitulation of Baylen, July 19, 20, 1808 . . 229

First appearance of Sir A. Wellesley on the scene.

Convention of Cintra, August 30, 1808 . 229 xxiv Contents.

PAGE

1808 Great reverses of the French .... 229 Napoleon invades Spain and enters Madrid, December

2, 1808 ...... 230

He leaves the Peninsula at the news that Austria was

Campaign of 1809 in Germany . . . 230 Defeat of the Archduke Charles in Bavaria, April 18,

22, 1809 ...... 230

Reverse of Napoleon on the Danube at Aspern, May

21, 22, 1809 ...... 231

Battle of Wagram and victory of French, July 6, 1809 231 Treaty of Vienna, October 14, 1809 . . .231

1810 Napoleon divorces Josephine and marries the Arch-

duchess Maria Louisa, March 11, 18 10 . . 232 Successes of Sir Arthur Wellesley in 1809, in Portugal

His profound insight and military skill . . 232 Memorable campaign of Torres Vedras. and complete

defeat of the French, June, 1810, May, 1811 . 233 Great results of this campaign, and its influence on

Agitation in Germany and Holland . . . 234

18 1 1 Murmurs in France ..... 234 Birth of a son to Napoleon, March 20, 1811 . . 235 Jealousy of the Czar, and disputes with Russia . 235 Napoleon prepares to invade Russia, November, 1811,

The Grand Army crosses the Niemen, June 24, 1812 . 236

Retreat of the Russians .... 236

Political mistake of Napoleon in not restoring Poland 236

He pursues the Russians .... 237

Difficulties of the Grand Army . . 237

Precautions taken by Napoleon . . . 237

He marches into the interior of Russia . . 238

Battle of Borodino, September 7, 1812 . . 238

The Grand Army enters Moscow, September 15, 1812 238

Contents, xxv

PAGE

1811 The Russian Governor of Moscow sets fire to the city 238 Napoleon delays in the hope of peace . . .238 Beginning of the retreat from Moscow, October 19,

1812 ........ 239

Horrors of the retreat ..... 239

Imminent peril of Napoleon and the remains of the

Passage of the Beresina, November 25-28, 181 2 . 239 Napoleon leaves the army for France, December 5, 181 2 240

Destruction of the Grand Army . . . 240

Reflections on this catastrophe .... 240

Causes of the ruin of the French . . . 240

Chapter XIV. Fall Of Napoleon

Return of Napoleon to Paris .... 241

Conspiracy of Malet ..... 242

Defection of York, December 30, 1812 . . 242

Rising of Germany, January-March, 1813 . . 242 1813 Retreat of the French, February-March, 1813. Energy

of Napoleon ...... 243

His immense preparations to repair his fortunes . 243

Bad condition of the French levies . . . 243

Battle of Lutzen, May 2, 1813 .... 244

Battle of Bautzen, May 20-21, 18 13 . . 244

Success of Napoleon ..... 244

Armistice of Pleistwitz, June 4, 18 13 . . . 245 Austria proposes terms to Napoleon which he unwisely

The successes of Wellington in Spain decide Austria

to join the Coalition ..... 246

Battle of Vittoria, June 21, 1813 . •. . 246

The French driven from Spain . . 246

Europe in arms against Napoleon . . . 246

His views and objects in the contest . . . 246 xxvi Contents.

PAGE

1 8 13 Plan of the Allies . . . . . 247 Battle of Dresden, August 27, 18 13 . . . 247 Battle of Culm, August 30, 18 13 . . . 248 Battles on the Katzbach, at Grossbeeren, and at Denne-

witz, August 23 to September 5, 18 13 . . 248

Great battles of Leipsic, October 16 and 18, 18 13 . 249

The French driven to the Rhine . . . 249 Defeats of the French in Italy. Wellington invades

Revolt of the Allied and subject states . . 250

Desperate condition of the Empire . . . 250 Napoleon thinks only of a death-struggle . .251 His preparations . . . . .251

The Allies invade France, December 20-26 . .251

The military situation of Napoleon seems hopeless . 252 Prostration of France . . . . .252

Battles of Brienne and La Rothiere, January 29 and

Napoleon interposes between the Allies . . 253 Battles of Champaubert, Montmirail, Vauchamps, and

Astonishing success of Napoleon . . 253

Success of the Allies on other parts of the theatre . 254

Fresh forces raised against Napoleon . . . 254

Battle of Laon, March 9 and 10, 1814 . . . 254

1 8 14 Napoleon falls back on Lorraine to rally his garrisons,

and strike the rear of the Allies . . . 255

The Allies march on Paris, March 25, 1814 . . 255

State of opinion in the capital .... 256

Capitulation of Paris, March 30, 1814 . . . 256

Napoleon dethroned. The Bourbons restored . 256

Napoleon hastily retraces his steps . . . 257

He abdicates April 4, 18 14 . . . . 257

Character of Napoleon ..... 258