The Philippines to the end of the Commission government; a study in tropical democracy

Front matter

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Chapter I Page

Some Generalities — Transfer of the Executive Authority — The Inauguration of a Civil Governor — New Filipino Commissioners — The Executive Departments — Departure of General MacArthur — Bureau Organization — Education — The Constabulary — Agriculture — Health — Defective Powers of the Commission Government — Demand for j Congressional Legislation — Recommendations of the Commission — n Governor Taft's Visit to Washington — Pending Legislation — The'i Senate Committee Investigation — Attitude of Parties — The Civil ' Government Bills — The Assembly — Differing Views as to Its Value — The New Philippine Legislature — The Election of Delegates — Political Parties — The Demand for Independence — Launching the Assembly — The Commission Government in Its Final Form.

CHAPTER II The Aftermath of War 21

The Proclamation of Peace — The Reconstruction Period — Conditions Unfavorable to Order — Ladronism — Natural Calamities — Threatened Famine — Death of the Carabao — Local Disturbances — Political or Criminal Motives — Premature Organization of Civil Governments — Attitude of General MacArthur — General J. F. Bell in Batangas — His Policy — Concentration Camps — Surrender of Malvar — Balangiga — The Pulijancs — The Presidential Election — Judge Parker's Charges — Magtaon — The Pacification of Samar — Troubles in Albay— Surrender of Ola — Cavite and Laguna — Suspension of Writ of Habeas Corpus — Peace and Quiet — Conditions in the More Country.

CHAPTER III Disentangling Church and State — The Friar Lands 37

Church and State in Spanish Times — Misunderstanding of American Policy — Archbishop Chapelle and General Otis — Administration of Certain Trusts — The San Jose College Case — The Friar Lands — Their Extent and Value — Attitude of the Government — Purchase of the Lands— Controversy over Sales — The Mindora Estate Congressional Investigation — The Result — Aglipay and the National Church — Controversy over Church Property — Settled by the Courts.

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CHAPTER IV Congressional Legislation for the Philippines 61

Delay in Assuming Control— First Legislation Confirmatory Only — The Spooner Law — The Civil Government Law of July 1, 1902 — Its Nature — Bureau of Insular Affairs — Ratification of Acts of President and of the Commission — Location of Legislative Power — The Judicial Organization — Jurisdiction of the Courts — Resident Commissioners — Citizenship — Bill of Rights — Trustee for Public Property — Power Granted to Provide for Needs of Commerce — Conservation of Lands and Mineral Rights — To Acquire Friar Lands — Coinage — Bond Issues — Restrictions on Granting Franchises — Bonds for Port Works, Roads, etc. — The Navigation Laws — The Chinese Exclusion Law — The Immigration Laws — The Income Tax Law — The Tariff Acts— Acts of Congress Extended to Philippines — Entry and Clearance of Vessels — Public Health and Quarantine, Extradition.

CHAPTER V The Provinces and Municipalities 75

Isolated Conditions— Local Self-governrnent — Gradual Extension of Native Control — Division of Country — The Provinces — Present Organization — The Provincial Officers — The Governor and His Duties — The Secretary, Treasurer and Fiscal — The Provincial Board, Its Duties and Powers — The Municipalities — Classification — The Municipal Officers and Their Powers — Powers of the Council and Limitations Thereon — Municipal Revenues — Specially Organized Provinces — Local Governments for the Wild Tribes — The Moros — The Moro Province — Military Character of Its Government — Gradual Substitution of Civilian Officials — Creation of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu — The Cities of Manila and Baguio — Local Governments Reasonably Successful.

CHAPTER VI The Commission Government, and Its Administration 96

Changing Character of Government— Self-government and Independence — The System of Commission Government — The Responsibility of the Commission — Represented American Sovereignty — American Majority in Commission — Its Duties — Organization of Executive Departments— The Grouping of Bureaus — Rearrangement in 1907— Changes in Judicial System by Organic Law — Tenure of Office of Justices— The Personnel of the Supreme Court— Juris-

CONTENTS— Continued

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diction — The Courts of First Instance — No Juries — Native Judges — Reorganization Law of 1914 — Injurious to Service — The Official Language — Spanish Retained in Courts — Spanish Used in the Assembly — Probable Decline of English-»Creation of PhiHppine Legislature in 1907— •Two Distinct Legislative Bodies— 'Difficulties Resulting Therefrom— 'Unit Subjects of Legislation— 'Residuum of Legislative Power in Commission— •Commission Reorganized by Wilson — •Majority of Members Filipinos-»Loss of Prestige— •Abolished in 1916 — The Office of Governor-General — Sources of Authority — Specific Powers and Duties — Delegation of Legislative Power — Appropriations Subject to "Release" by Governor-General — Practise Condemned — Office Magnified by President Taft — Legislative Activities of Governor-General — Log Rolling — Disrespect for Laws — Failure to Pass Current Appropriation Bills — Automatic Renewal of Appropriations — Assumption of Power over Appropriations — The "Advices" to the Treasurer — Serious Effect of Misconstruction of the Law — The Executive Secretary — The Insular Auditor — Independence Largely Imaginary — Resident Commissioners — Influence of the Assembly — Methods of Legislation — Excessive Deference to Speaker — Difficulties of Administration — Certain Tendencies.

Chapter VII

The General Financial Policy — Control by Local Government — Taxation Reasonable — Financial Embarrassment — Caused by Public Improvements — Present Conditions — Bonded Indebtedness — Income and Expenditure — The Currency and Coinage — The Gold Standard — The Fund to Maintain Parity — Sources of Revenue — The Customs — Illustration of Duties — The Internal Revenue — Sources of — The Cedula, Stamp and Privilege Taxes — Business and Occupation Taxes — Specific Taxes — Revenues of Provinces and Municipalities — The City of Manila — Gross Earnings and Franchise Taxes — Trade Development.

CHAPTER VIII Defense and Public Safety — The Army and Navy 162

Cooperation of Civil and Military Authorities — The Navy— j-Status of Army — Gradual Reduction — Cost of Military Establishment — Defense from External Enemies — Moral Effect of Army Presence — Relation with Civil Government — Detailed Army Officers — Organization of Native Troops— The Scouts— The Constabulary— The f Municipal Police — Seditious Movements.

CONTENTS— Conh'nM^d

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Chapter IX

Interest in Tropical Medicine— Sanitation in the East— Early Conditions in Philippines— Enormdus Death Rate— Superstition and Fatalism—Spanish and Filipino Doctors— Clean-up by American Army —New Health Regulations— First Board of Health— The Civil and Military Hospitals— Functions of Heahh Officers— Causes of Communicable Diseases— Public Health Purchasable— Small Expenditure in Philippines— Attitude of Natives— Education in Sanitation— Disposal of Garbage and Waste— The New Sewer System— Public Laundries— Cemeteries— The Modern Markets— The Drug and Food Law— The Milk Supply— The Water Supply— Manila and Cebu Water-Works- Artesian Wells— The Bubonic Plague— Cholera— The Smallpox— Results of Vaccination— Leprosy and Its Treatment—Beriberi—Infant Mortality— Tuberculosis— Malaria and Dysentery—Mosquitoes and Rats— An Unfinished Work— The Moro Hospital Ship^Present Organization.

CHAPTER X The Phiuppine Schools 219

American Educational Theories— Belief in Education of Masses- Training a Governing Class Only— Spanish Theories— Filipino Social Organization — Education for the Select Few — The Attempt to Establish Public Schools — Its Partial Success — Ecclesiastical Control — Introduction of Popular Government — Choice between Evils — Educational Work of the Army — The Commission Takes Charge — Department of Public Instruction — The General Policy — Secularization of Schools — Religious Instruction — Adoption of the English Language in the Schools — Its Justification — American Teachers — Training Native Teachers — Classification of Schools — Secondary Schools in Provinces — Local Enthusiasm for Education — Division of School Funds — New Text-Books — Stress on Industrial Training — Difficulties Encountered — Prejudice against Manual Labor — Results — Teaching Athletics — The Pensionados — Housing the Schools — The Courses of Study — Special Insular Schools — The University — Bureau Schools — The Cost of Education — Number of Pupils — Schools for the Wild Men — Education of the Moros — Demand for Compulsory Education — Dangers Ahead — Comparisons — Missionary and Private Schools.

CHAPTER XI Climate and Labor — The Normal Labor Conditions — Customs of the

CONTENTS— CoMfmu^d

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Country — Problems Confronting the Americans — Exclusion of the Chinese — Elect to Develop Filipino Labor — Encouraging Results — Methods Used in Other Colonies — Penalties for Breach of Labor Contracts — Advances Obtained with Fraudulent Intent — The Bureau of Labor — Increase in Wages.

Chapter XII

A Land of "Projects" — Spanish Public Works — Backwardness of Industry and Agriculture — Misdirected Energies — Public Works and Colonial Policy — Material Development and Educational Work — Governor-General Wright's Announcement — Policy Inaugurated by Governor-General Smith — Its Characteristics — "Hustling the East" with Its Own Consent — Education of the People — Success of the Policy.

CHAPTER XIII Transportation and Communication : 279

I Roads and Bridges Primitive Transportation Methods— Road-Building DifHculties — Early Failures — No Provision for Maintenance — Bad Legislation — Forced Labor and Toll Roads — Failure of People to Adopt Laws — The Double Cedula Law of 1907 — Inducements to Adopt Rules and Regulations — Insular Appropriations — Conditions — The Road Committee — Classification of Roads — Apportionment of Insular Appropriations by Secretary of Commerce and Police — Encouragement of Local Efforts — Construction of Permanent Bridges — Maintenance — — The Caminero System — Pride in Good Roads — Road Material — Cost — Road Work in the Non-Christian Provinces — In the More Province — Permanency — The Benguet Road — Early Mistakes — Difficulties of Construction — Policy of Government — Purpose of the Road — Its Cost — Practical Abandonment — Its Justification.

II Railways — Automobile Lines

The Railway Policy — Commission Governed by Conditions, Not

Theories — The Cooper Law — Summary of Its Provisions — Manila

Railway Company, Limited, and Its Claims — New Concession to

CONTENTS— Continued

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Manila Railroad Company— Terms of Original Concessionary Con- ■ tract — Supplementary Concession of 1909— Guarantee of Interest — Division into Northern and Southern Lines — Concession to Visayan Syndicate — Progress of Constructions — Government Loans to Manila Railroad Company — Proposed Purchase of the Manila Railroad Company— Street Railways— Automobile Lines— The Benguet Road Line.

Chapter XV

III The Postal and Telegraph Service Its Importance — Early Methods — Gradual Expansion — An Independent Service — The Metric System — Money Orders — The Parcel- Post — Attempts to Improve the Foreign Service — Acquisition of Telegraph Lines from Army — Training of Telegraphers — The Cables — Wireless Stations Acquired — Plan for Joint Wireless Service — Franchise Granted the Marconi Company — Summary of Results.

CHAPTER XVI Transportation and Communication 326

rv Water Transportation — Navigation Importance of Water Transportation — The Coast Survey — Lights and Lighthouses — The Weather Bureau — The Absence of Harbors — Harbor Construction — Iloilo — Cebu — New Manila Harbor — ^^Foreign Steamship Service — Effect of War and Congressional Legislation — Interisland Transportation — Old Spanish Methods — Necessity for Government Ships — The New Bureau — The Coast Guard Steamers — Plan to Create New Merchant Marine — The Contract System — Subsidies — The Results — The Bureau of Navigation and Its Troubles — Abolished in 1914 — The Cable Ship — River Improvements.

Chapter XVII

Basis of the Country's Wealth — Undeveloped State of Agriculture — Inherent Difficulties — Early Work of Bureau of Agriculture — Attempts to Introduce New Plants and Vegetables — Improving the Domestic Animals — Horses and Cattle — Farm Machinery — Animal Diseases — Rinderpest and Surra — Policy of Isolation Adopted in

COl^TET^TS— Continued

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1910 — Its Results — Corn Culture — Native Fruits — Coffee, Tea and Rubber — The Fiber Industry — Hemp, Method of Cultivation — Exports of — Government Grading — The Tobacco Industry — Its Revival — Exports — Sugar, Condition of the Industry — Table of Exports — Cocoanuts — Development of the Business — Table of Exports — Rice — Its Importance — Necessity for New Methods — Irrigation — Comparative Failure of the Work — The New Law of 1912 — Farmers' Credits — The Agricultural Bank — Summary of Results.

Chapter XVIII

Attitude of the Public — Visiting Statesmen — Misinformation — Declared Republican Policy — Executive Statements — Approval Thereof by Congress — The Most Difficult of All Possible Policies — Time Necessary for Its Success — Failure to Control Local Situation — Changing Officials — The American Employees — Filipinization of the Service.

CHAPTER XIX The Independence Movement and the Reorganized Government . . 404 Early Ideas of Independence — New Conceptions — Attitude of American Government toward Independence — First Filipino Political Party — The Radicals and the New Men — Revival of Sentiment — New Political Parties — Growth of Anti-American Sentiment — The Assembly — Leadership of Osmeiia and Quezon — The Propaganda in the United States — Mr. Jones and His Bills — The Wilson Administration — Governor-General Harrison and His Policy — Defeat of Clarke Amendment — Passage of Jones Bill — Provisions of the Law — Organizing the New Government — The Future of the Independence Movement.

A List of Books and Articles on the Philippines, Colonization and Colonial Problems 457

Appendix A. Treaty of Peace between United States and Spain . 479 Appendix B. Instructions of the President to the Schurman Commission 484

Appendix O Instructions of the President to the Taft Commission 485

Appendix D. Aguinaldo's Proclamation on His Arrival at Cavite 490 Appendix E. Aguinaldo's Proclamation of June 18, 1898, Establishing the Dictatorial Government 491

CONTENTS— ConfmM^d

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Appendix F. Aguinaldo's Proclamation of June 23, Establishing the Revolutionary Government 493

Appendix G. The Constitution of the PhiHppine Republic ... List of Leading Officials of the Philippine Government The Philippine Government Law of 1916 ....

The Cost of the Army in the Philippines ....

Appendix H.

Appendix L Appendix J.

Index . . .

498 509 512 523

CHAPTER I The New Civil Government

Some Generalities — Transfer of the Executive Authority — The Inauguration of a Civil Governor — New Filipino Commissioners — The Executive Departments — Departure of General MacArthur — Bureau Organization — Education — The Constabulary — Agriculture — Health — Defective Powers of the Commission Government — Demand for Congressional Legislation — Recommendations of the Commission — Governor Taft's Visit to Washington — Pending Legislation — The Senate Committee Investigation — Attitude of Parties — The Civil Government Bills — The Assembly — Differing Views as to Its Value — The New Philippine Legislature — The Election of Delegates — Political Parties — The Demand for Independence — Launching the Assembly — The Commission Government in Its Final Form.

The astrologers taught a mystic relation of numbers, days, dates and events. Those learned in such lore claim that the Republic was born under a lucky star. While the American may admit that the original association of the famous charter of our liberties with the fourth of July was fortuitous, he is impressed by the fact that ever since that time spectacular events in American history have shown a disposition to happen on that anniversary day.

When the time came to establish a completely organized civil government in the Philippines^ it was hoped, as said by President Roosevelt, that the day dear to Americans might perhaps "be associated in the minds of the Filipino people with good fortune."

The Anti-Imperialist propaganda in the United States had created an impression that in suppressing the Filipino revolt and

1 For the preceding years of American occupation, see the author's volume entitled, The Philippines: To the End of the Military Regime (1917).

denying the country immediate independence America was in some way violating the principles of the Declaration of Independence.^ According to the views of the Americans who were working in the Philippines this was a complete misconception of the meaning of the Declaration, and of the purposes of their government and people. From the day when civil government was instituted until the present, the fourth of July has been celebrated in Manila exactly as elsewhere in the United States. On each recurring anniversary the Declaration has been read by American officials, civil and military, to Filipino audiences who were invited to learn the lessons taught by Jefferson, Adams and Franklin. Their resistance to Spanish oppression has been commended because it was justified by facts much more potent even than those which induced the resistance of the American colonists to parliamentary oppression. America has wished the Filipinos to learn the true lesson taught by that famous document — the lesson that all men are entitled to certain inalienable rights, among which tare life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Under American sovereignty the Filipinos are equal before the law, secure in the opportunity to develop their lives according to their capacities and natural opportunities, and free from petty interference by state or church. It was intended that they should enjoy liberty as the word was understood by the men who wrote and adopted the Declaration of Independence and as it has been construed and applied in the United States.^ The right of revolution was

2 See "The Philippines and the Declaration of Independence," The Arena, XXVII, p. 538 ; "The Declaration of Independence, an Analysis by Manuel L. Quezon," in The Filipino People, January, 1913.

3 "Nothing can be more misleading than a principle misapplied. Countless crimes have been committed by men quoting texts of scripture or maxims of philosophy wrested from their true content and meaning. The doctrine that government derives its just powers from the consent of the governed was applicable to the conditions for which Jefferson wrote it and to the people to whom he applied it. It is true wherever a people exists capable and willing to maintain just government, and to make free, intelligent and efficacious decisions as to who shall govern. But Jefferson did not apply it to Louisiana. He wrote to Gallatin that the people of Louisiana were as incapable of self-government as children, and he governed them without their consent. Lincoln did not apply it to the South, and the great struggle of the Civil War never denied, but it is a right which must be maintained by force and justified by success. In that respect the rights of the Filipinos could be no greater than those of the citizens of South Carolina or Massachusetts. They asserted the right of revolution against their lawful political sovereign and failed. Upon laying down their arms and taking the oath of allegiance they were pardoned for all political offenses. There is not a sentence in the Declaration of Independence which any informed American ever hesitated to read to the Filipinos. That Declaration contains a statement of the reasons which justified the American colonists in throwing off their political allegiance to their sovereign. It recited a long list of outrages and oppressive acts in violation of their rights and of certain principles deemed to be of universal application. No intelligent American has ever denied or will deny the moral right of the Filipinos to adopt a similar course when they can truthfully allege such a list of grievances against the American government. No one ever desired to deprive them of the inalienable rights of men. Life, liberty and the pursuit of i happiness were to be and have been secured to every law-abiding Filipino and protected under a form of government adapted to the local conditions and the stage of social and political development of the people.

The fourth of July was therefore the most appropriate of all days on which to launch a civil government, complete in all its parts, in the pacified provinces of the Philippines. Its inauguration was to mark the end of military rule. Since September 1, 1900, the legislative power had been vested in a civil body. Conditions now seemed to justify a further step in the progressive narrowing of military administration by the creation of the office was a solemn assertion by the American people that there are other principles of law and liberty which limit the application of the doctrine of consent." Elihu Root, Military and Colonial Policy of the United States, p. 42.

"The words 'that all men are created equal,' have since been subtly falsified by adding the word 'free,' although no such expression is found in the original document, and the teachings based on these altered words in the American public schools of to-day would startle and amaze the men who formulated the Declaration." Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, p. xvi.

of civil governor, and the transfer to him of the executive authority.

An executive order was therefore issued by the president directing that on and after the fourth day of July, 1901, until otherwise directed, the executive authority in all civil affairs in the government of the Philippines which had been exercised by the military governor should be exercised by the president of the Philippine Commission. Mr. Taft was named as the first civil governor. The power to appoint all civil officers was transferred from the Philippine Commission to the civil governor, with the advice and consent of the commission. Although the military governor was relieved of civil duties in the pacified territory, his authority was continued in districts in which insurrection against the authority of the United States existed and in which public order was not sufficiently restored to enable provincial civil governments to be established.*

The continuance of military government in certain provinces . was necessary for another year, but it was finally terminated by the order of President Roosevelt, issued on July 4, 1902, which recited that the insurrection was ended and that civil government had been established throughout the entire Archipelago not inhabited by Moro tribes.^

General Arthur MacArthur, who had been military governor since the departure of General Otis, was a distinguished soldier with a brilliant record for achievement, but he lacked some of the qualities necessary for a commander who was required to divide his authority with civil officials. His subordination to the civil power in the islands made him unhappy and, while he obeyed the orders issued by the secretary of war, it was sometimes done in a very ungracious spirit.

He seems never to have really grasped the part which the commission was designed to play in the work of pacifying the country and organizing a permanent government and the friction between

4 Order of Secretary Root, June 21, 1910. Report of Sec. War, 1901 (Five Years of the War Dept.), p. 208. 6 Ibid., p. 257.

him and its members proved in the end very disastrous for the general.**

The new civil governor was inaugurated with simple but impressive ceremonies. Across the Plaza from the Ayuntamiento was the great stone foundation of the unfinished governor's palace which was to have taken the place of the one which had been destroyed by an earthquake. The funds for the completion of the structure were misappropriated and for years the foundation had stood as a mute testimonial to Spanish dishonesty and incompetence. There was a certain appropriateness in the choice of the platform from which to launch a new and better government.

The day was perfect, judged by the standard of the tropics, and a picturesque crowd representing many races, colors and creeds filled the Plaza and adjoining streets.^ There was a reasonable amount of well modulated enthusiasm as the procession passed from the Ayuntamiento to the extemporized platform. General Mac Arthur introduced his successor and Chief Justice Arellano administered the oath of ofiice. Governor Taft's address summarized what had been accomplished since the arrival of the commission and briefly outlined the policy of the immediate future. Most interesting to the Filipinos was the announcement that the membership of the commission had been enlarged and that the president had appointed Doctor T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Senor Don Benito Legarda and Sefior Don Jose Luzuriaga, all natives of the Philippines, to fill the new positions thus created. Pardo de Tavera was a highly educated gentleman who had been a leader of the conservative, educated, wealthy Filipinos and who early recognized the folly of the revolt and sought to reconcile the people to American control. He was the presi-

6 General MacArthur, soon after his return to the United States, succeeded to the rank of lieutenant-general in the United States Army. By that time Mr. Taft had become secretary of war. General MacArthur was directed to report at his home in Milwaukee and await orders, which never came. He was never permitted to command the army and died before Mr. Taft ceased to be president of the United States.

7 Mrs. Moses (Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife, p. 157). the wife of one of the commissioners, gives an interesting account of the ceremonies.

dent of the new Federal party and had been of great assistance to the commission in the work of organizing civil governments in the provinces. Sefior Legarda was a wealthy native who, like Sefior Tavera, had rendered important services to the American government. Sefior Luzuriago had been a member of the independent government which was organized in the island of Negros and had consistently advocated cooperation with the Americans.

It was also announced that on the first of the following September the effectiveness of the insular government would be increased by the organization of four executive departments to be known as the Departments of the Interior, Commerce and Police, Finance and Justice, and Public Instruction, which would be under the control respectively of Commissioners Worcester, Wright, Ide and Moses.

After the ceremonies were concluded General Mac Arthur drove directly from the Plaza to the landing and went aboard the transport which was to carry him to the United States and out of Philippine history. He was succeeded in the military command and as military governor of the unpacified provinces by General Adna E. Chaffee, who continued to act until relieved as military governor by the order issued one year later.

The work of systematizing and developing the subordinate agencies of the central government proceeded as rapidly as conditions would permit. Numerous bureaus had been organized during the military regime and with some changes and modifications they were retained and distributed among the departments.

The taking over of the executive authority necessitated many changes in personnel and some in organization. The grants of power in the Spooner Law had been so carefully hedged about with limitations and restrictions as to render them of no practical value to the government and it remained without authority to act "in some matters deemed by the commission of vital importance for the progress of the country, and the granting of franchises.

the survey and sale of the public lands, and the development of the mining interests v^ere obliged to aw^ait the further action of Congress.

The matters over which the commission had unquestioned authority were handled with much energy. The educational work was entered upon with what many believed to be excessive enthusiasm. A general school law was passed and about a thousand American teachers were brought over from the United States and distributed among the nine hundred towns of the islands. The preservation of order was of course of the most vital importance. The local municipal police were of little value in this work and it was manifestly undesirable, unless absolutely necessary, to use the army in aid of the civil work of the administration. Brigandage, which was an inheritance from Spanish times, had been given a great impetus by the war and now existed in nearly all the provinces. The local police were unable to suppress it, even had they and the people of the municipalities really desired to do so. The distinction between ladrones and patriots was still very shadowy, and it was not always easy to distinguish between voluntary contributions to insurgent bands and involuntary payments for protection against ladrones. A semi-military police resembling that of India and some other eastern countries was necessary.

The Spaniards had maintained an organization known as the guardia civil which seems to have done about as much damage to the country as the ladrones.^ As a result such organizations were unpopular in the country, but it was believed that a body of Filipinos commanded by American officers and subject to strict discipline would be able to maintain order and serve as peace officers under the direction of the civil officials. The history of the Philippine Constabulary, which was organized in 1901, has justified the policy of the government.

It was understood from the first that the prosperity of the Philippines depends upon the success of its agriculture. To the

8 Another body called the Guardia de Honor was organized and used against the insurgents in 1896.

Americans who were not familiar with the tragic history of tropical agriculture it seemed a simple matter to obtain vast wealth from the fertile soil. They knew nothing of that law of compensation by which nature with its storms, droughts and highly specialized insect life, equalizes the great productive power of the rich soil.

Immediate attention was given to the organization of a Bureau of Agriculture and experts from the Agricultural Department at Washington were brought to the islands in the naive confidence and belief that the natives were as ready and anxious to change the methods of centuries as the Americans were to render them service.

Much attention was given to the organization of a Department of Health and of bureaus charged with the work of providing better means of communication and transportation. The importance of developing and conserving the forests which covered the mountains was fully appreciated and the Bureau of Forestry was made as efficient as available means would permit.

Under the Customs Administration Bill which had been passed the previous year the American system of appraisement and collection had been adopted. In September, 1901, a new tariff law was enacted by the commission which imposed an average ad valorem duty of twenty-five or thirty per cent, on goods imported into the islands. The notable feature of the system was the reversal of the Spanish method and the imposition of heavy taxes on luxuries and almost nominal duties on foodstuffs and other necessities of life.^

The government as thus organized was simple in form and well adapted for its work. But it was regarded as a temporary structure and the commission, embarrassed by the uncertainty as to its powers, urged upon Congress the necessity for providing something more permanent.^"