An introduction to high school teaching

Preface

The following pages have been written with the purpose constantly in mind of giving practical help to those young men and women in our colleges and universities who are soon to enter upon the work of high school teachers. The topics treated and the materials selected have been chosen with this object in view. The writer has continually asked himself this question, "What ought the beginning high school teacher most of all to know in advance of entering upon his profession? " The author believes that the prospective teacher should have some conception of what the present day high school is and what it aims to be; that he should know something about the pupils that he will meet in his classrooms; that he should have formed certain professional ideals and should possess certain ambitions, and that he should be acquainted in some detail with the problems of class management and of instruction. There is much more that is desirable but less essential for him to know in advance of his actual teaching.

This book emphasizes particularly general methods of instruction as they apply to the high school. It has not, however, attempted to treat under separate topics instruction in special subjects. This problem has already been adequately treated in Monroe's Prificiples of Secondary Education, and in Johnston's High School Education, as well as in many books dealing specifically with the various studies of the high school curriculum. The student preparing to teach in any particular field, should obviously acquaint himself not only with the general principles of instruction, but also with the details of instruction in his chosen subjects.

This book has Httle to say about high school organization and

VI PREFACE

administration. These matters while of importance to the teacher, are the primary concern of principals and supervisors. Fm*ther, they have been extensively considered by Hollister in his books, High School Administration, and High School mid Class Management.

The writer believes that all instruction should be definite and concrete, — that it should be accompanied by a wealth of illustration, and that it should issue in many practical applications. A helpful book likewise should possess these virtues. For this reason a large number of specific examples have been incorporated in the text with the hope of giving point to the various facts and principles therein discussed. All of these examples have been taken from actual classroom practice. They have been chosen from thousands collected by the author, who during the past five years has visited scores of high schools and hundreds of classes. To this extent the book employs the "case method'^ of exposition, and to this extent, at least, it is the record of practical experience.

At the conclusion of the book is placed a selected bibliography, through reference to which the student may be guided in his further consideration of the various topics discussed in the preceding pages. By the use of this bibliography the scope of the book may be enlarged in any desired direction.

In the Appendix have been included a detailed outline to be used in connection with observations of teaching in the grades and in the high school, and also samples of typical lesson plans. It is hoped that those instructors who wish to apply in practice with their classes the matters considered in this book will find these additions suggestive and helpful.

The writer is indebted to many persons for aid in writing this book, but he finds himself under obligation above all to the hundred young men and women who as graduate students in Brown University, have during the past years worked as practice teachers in various high schools of Rhode Island, and whom it

PREFACE Vll

has been his good fortune to direct. The writer hopes that they may have learned something from him; he is conscious that he has learned much from them. He is also indebted to the critic teachers who have supervised the work of these beginners, and who have given him many valuable suggestions.

Among the various books and articles that have been of great assistance to the author he wishes first to mention the writings of his friend and former colleague, Professor W. C. Bagley, and in particular his recent book on School Discipline. The book by Professor S. C. Parker on Methods of Teaching in High Schools has also been extremely helpful. Much of the material included in the following pages had been collected, some of the chapters written, and the remainder outlined when Professor Parker's book appeared. It w^as with much pleasure that the author of the present discussion found himself in substantial agreement with Professor Parker concerning many of the most vital questions relating to high school method. The writer is also indebted to Dr. Romiett Stevens, who in her monograph, The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction has furnished him with much concrete material and many important suggestions in regard to the question as a method of instruction.

The writer wishes to acknowledge the material assistance rendered him by Mr. Wayne P. Smith, who has read the book in manuscript and has given him important advice, and by Miss Grace E. Bird, who has read the book both in manuscript and in proof, and who has been untiring in her help and criticism in the details of composition.

In conclusion the author ventures to express the hope that although this book has been written primarily for the college student about to begin teaching, it will prove of value to the young teacher in the first years of service and also to the older and more experienced high school instructor.

Stephen S. Colvin.

Brown University, July 15, 19 17.

Chapter I Page

The Nature and Scope of Secondary Education . . . i The term secondary education has broad application. — Secondary schools of American and Europe when compared show the following essential differences: (a) The secondary school of Europe differs from that of America in the fact that the former is not a continuation of the elementary school, (b) While the secondary schools of America are democratic, those of Europe are aristocratic, (c) The secondary schools of America offer a more varied program of studies than do the secondary schools of Europe, (d) The eecondary school of Europe is a fee school, while the secondary school of America is generally a free school. — The high school is the typical secondary school in America. — The aims of the American secondary school are varied. — The trend toward vocational education in our high schools is pronounced: (a) While the American high school strives to accomplish many things, it is today turning its attention more and more to some form of vocational education, (b) This vocational trend is toward an education that is practical, but at the same time cultural and disciplinary. — Typical courses of study in the high school are: (a) The college preparatory and general cultural courses, (b) Pre-vocational courses, (c) Semi-vocational and vocational courses. — High schools are organized in reference to courses of study as follows: (a) High schools offering a number of separate courses, (b) High schools offering a wide range of electives. (c) High schools offering a few definitely restricted and highly organized courses of study. — The size of the American high school varies over a wide range. — Among present tendencies in secondary education in America are: (a) Part-time courses, (b) Continuation courses, (c) Evening courses, (d) Credit for home work, (e) The junior high school, (f) The junior college. — Conservatism is still pronounced in secondary education throughout the United States.

ix

X CONTENTS

Chapter II Page

The teacher must know the pupil. — The high school pupil is an adolescent. — The most important characteristics of adolescence are: (a) Adolescence is a period of mental and physical change, (b) Bodily development during this period is closely related to questions of hygiene and discipline, (c) Various instinctive tendencies manifest themselves with great strength. Among these are tendencies that center around sex, the so-called "migratory instinct," the gregarious instinct, and the social instincts, (d) Youth is a period of intense, though often conflicting and fluctuating interests. At this time the vocational interest looms large, intellectual ideals stand out strongl}^, curiosity and inventiveness are powerful, and the aesthetic, moral, and religious interests assume an important place. — ^The enrollment in our American high schools includes pupils of varying social status, and decided differences in abilities. — The elimination of high school pupils is marked.

Chapter III

The American high school teacher does not conform to any one type. — The preparation of the American high school teacher is inadequate: (a) The European secondary sthool teacher is trained for a life profession, (b) The American high school teacher receives but a small amount of special preparation for his work. — The reason for this lack of preparation is due to various causes. — Agencies for training secondary teachers are inadequate but increasing in number and efficiency. — The salary of the high school teacher is comparatively small. — The success of the high school teacher depends upon various factors: (a) Success as measured by salary received, (b) Success as measured by the judgment of supervising officers, (c) Success as measured by the opinion of pupils. — Professional attitudes and ideals are important factors in the success of the teacher. Chief among these are the ideals of service, loyalty, and high achievement. — Summary of the foregoing discussion furnishes a composite photograph of the ideal teacher.

CONTENTS XI

Chapter IV Page

Discipline in the High School. — Indirect Control . . 59

The problem of discipline is of primary importance for the American high school teacher. — As a rule, the pupils in our high schools lack a compelling motive. — In far too many cases the attitude of the home and the community toward the work of the pupil lacks seriousness. — The high school teacher must of his own initiative attempt to create the proper attitude toward school work. — In the best controlled class the problem of discipline is not obvious. Some of the causes contributing to this result are: (a) The smoothly running class is the class in which all of the pupils are doing rigorous mental work. In order to obtain this mental alertness, the teacher should observe the following maxims, — i. Begin each class exercise with vigor and promptness. 2. Strive to keep each member of the class busy during the entire period. 3. Have some system of holding every member of the class responsible for all that takes place during the class period. 4. The teacher must hear all and see all that is happening in the class all of the time, (b) In the smoothly running class the pupils are interested in their work. Interest is not mere entertainment; it is not opposed to effort. Various interests may be appealed to. Some of these have been discussed in Chapter II. Others are the impulse to manipulate, the desire for excellence, the "property instinct," the instinct of rivalry, and the pleasure in physical and mental activity. Interest is more readily aroused when the attention of the learner is concentrated on the thing to be accomplished than when it is occupied with the details that lead to accomplishment. Interest centers more in the concrete than in the abstract. Interest is dependent not merely on the facts presented, but on the interpretation of them. Interest is stimulated to the extent that the learner is a doer. Interest in the last analysis is a personal matter, (c) In the smoothly running class the teacher is the master.

Chapter V

Discipline in the High School. — Direct Control ... 83 The problem of direct disciplinary control is likely to arise at times even under the most favorable conditions. — Types of disciplinary problems are: (a) The incipiently disorderly class, (b) The actively disorderly class, (c) The aggressively disorderly

XU CONTENTS

PAGB

class, (d) The disorderly pupil, (e) The pupil in rebellion, (f) The vicious pupil. — ^Types of disciplinary control are: (a) Control through discussion, (b) Control through counter-attraction, (c) Control through regulation of the environment, (d) Control through catharsis, (e) Control through modification of behavior.

CHAPTER VI DlSCrPLINE IN THE HiGH SCHOOL. — ^ThE FUNCTION OF PUNISHMENT I05

Punishment, although the last resort, is often a necessary means of class control. — Punishment is of two main kinds, natural and artificial: (a) Natural punishment has certain clear advantages over artificial punishment, (b) Artificial punishment must strive to secure the advantages of natural punishment, and at the same time avoid its dangers and faults, (c) Artificial punishment must be a real punishment, not a pretense at punishment, (d) Artificial pimishment must follow the offence with as Httle delay as possible, (e) In cases of school discipline, artificial punishment should usually be administered by the teacher against whom the offence is committed. — Punishment has a double purpose, punitive and corrective. — Types of school punishment are: (a) Corporal punishment, (b) Keeping the pupil after school, (c) Dismissal from the class, (d) Removal of privileges, (e) Isolation of the offending pupil, (f) Reproof, (g) Sarcasm and contempt, (h) Appeal to parents. — Important maxims of discipline are: (a) The teacher should always strive to enforce the control of his classes by indirect means, (b) If direct control is necessary, punishment should be avoided whenever results can be accomplished by other means, (c) When punishment is necessary, it should be administered with vigor, (d) Artificial punishment should strive to combine in itself all of the advantages of natural punishment, at the same time avoiding its obvious defects, (e) Punishment must impress the offender as having a moral implication, (f) The teacher should administer his own discipline as far as possible, (g) The teacher should frankly discuss his disciplinary problems with his superiors and colleagues, and ask for their advice, (h) The most effective form of punishment is social in its character, (i) In dealing with cases of discipline the teacher must act with decision and promptness, but must make sure that he has isolated the individual offenders and that he knows exactly the nature of the offence, (j) As

CONTENTS Xlll

PAGE

a rule it is not wise to punish the group for the misconduct of individuals.

Chapter VII

The maximally efficient class should be the ideal of the teacher. — The causes of waste in the classroom are varied. — In the classroom the physical conditions must be such that the work may be done under the best possible circumstances. These physical conditions are concerned with the following details of equipment and arrangement of the school building: (a) The characteristics of the classroom, (b) The position and arrangement of cabinets, supply closets, demonstration apparatus and other illustrative materials, (c) The use of the blackboard as a means of instruction. — In the conduct of the class all unnecessary work on the part of the pupils should be eliminated, such as: (a) Fruitless dictation exercises, (b) Unnecessary copying of questions, (c) Profitless requirements in written work, (d) Useless assignments. — The physical condition of the pupil is an important consideration from the standpoint of economy in teaching. It involves: (a) The problem of mental fatigue in relation to school work, (b) The question of the alternation of periods of work and rest. — The mental attitude of the worker has much to do with his efficiency: (a) The problem of the child's attitude toward his work is not merely a question of efficiency; it is hkewise a matter that concerns mental hygiene, (b) Dissatisfaction in the task is a serious menace to all efficient workmanship, (c) There are various motives that may vitalize school work. — Methods of instruction and of learning may be classified as economical or wasteful.

CHAPTER VIII The Methods of the Class Period. — Testing the Knowledge of

There are three fundamental methods of class instruction, namely, — testing the knowledge of the pupil, drill, and adding to the knowledge and technical ability already possessed. — Reasons for testing the knowledge of the pupil are: (a) The testing for knowledge holds the pupil down to his tasks, (b) The test for knowledge enables the teacher to determine the progress of the

XIV CONTENTS

PAGE

pupil, (c) The test for knowledge serves as a means for review, (d) The test for knowledge serves as a basis for marking the pupil. — ^There is necessity of a properly devised and administered marking system. There are certain reforms to be made in the marking system : (a) In the first place we must find, if possible, for most school subjects an objective scale by which the attainment of the pupil can be measured both absolutely and relatively, (b) It is not only important to devise carefully determined objective scales for marking pupils; it is Hkewise necessary that the teacher use such scales as conscientiously as possible, (c) Every teacher in the high school should familiarize himself with such scales as exist for measuring achievement in the subject which he teaches and should use these scales; when no such scales have been devised, the teacher should attempt to set up measures of his own that are as objective as possible. — ^The outcomes of standardized marking have great educational value. — Standards of marking cannot all be framed with equal exactness and objectivity. — Important considerations in regard to the test for knowledge are: (a) The test for knowledge as a rule should be given as a class exercise, (b) The written test is generally more economical than the oral test, (c) Tests should be made as brief as possible in order that the major part of the recitation period may be given over to the more important work of drill and instruction, (d) Tests should not all be of one type. — Summary of the preceding discussion emphaszies the economy in proper tests for knowledge.

CHAPTER IX The Methods or the Class Period. — ^The Nature and Function

OF Drill 177

There are conflicting opinions in regard to the value of drill. — Causes for a reaction in favor of drill are: (a) A better understanding of the doctrine of interest, (b) The failure of instruction without drill, (c) The results of experimental education. — The laws of habit-formation are : (a) Repetition of the desired function, (b) Pleasurable consequences in the learning, (c) Attention during the process of learning, (d) Consistency and invariability of response. — The principle of excess activity in drill is to be considered. — Methods of restricting the field of trial and error in learning are : (a) The teacher must present to the pupil an effective

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

copy. It must be correct; it must be clearly and definitely presented; it must not be excessively dilBcult to imitate; it must arouse the desire to imitate, (b) The teacher must condition the environment of the pupil in such a manner that it will not be possible for him to go widely astray in his learning, (c) The teacher must encourage the pupil to think about what he is doing and how he is doing it.

CHAPTER X The Methods of the Class P&riod. — Economical Methods of

Aspects of drill that further or hinder learning are concerned with the following principles: (a) The elements that are emphasized in drill must be associated in their proper order. Habits must be formed in the way in which they are to be used. The most interesting aspects of a subject should be taken up as soon as possible. The less diflEicult elements should be learned before the more difficult. Difficulties should not be introduced until fundamentals have been mastered. Fundamental habits must be acquired in the initial stages of learning, (b) Unnecessary elements should not be introduced into a habit, (c) Habits must be formed in specific situations; they cannot be acquired in general, (d) There are definite limits to possible and desirable proficiency in any given habit or set of habits, (e) Drill to be economical must be individual in its character. It should be in terms of individual needs. There should be drill groups distinct from the ordinary recitation groups. Drill of the individual pupil should not be at the expense of the class. Written drill is more economical than oral drill. — Maxims of economical drill emphasize the foregoing discussion,

CHAPTER XI The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge

Through Oral and Book Instruction . . .224

The telling method ranges from the formal lecture on the one hand to fragmentary comments on the other, — Faults of the telling method are: (a) It is time-consuming, (b) It often gives the teacher a false idea of his skill in class instruction, (c) It lacks a permanent record. — The technique of note-taking involves the following principles : (a) Notes should not be taken in the form of

XVI CONTENTS

PAGE

dictation, (b) The pupil should not be required to take voluminous notes, (c) The pupil should be required to jot down the main facts of the lecture or oral discussion, and as soon as possible after the recitation write out in proper order these facts. — Advantages of the telling method are: (a) It tends to secure and hold the attention, (b) It is adapted to the immediate needs of the class, (c) It supplies the class with information that is more special and recent than that offered in the book. — ^The capable high school teacher must be superior to any single book or any collection of books. The reasons for the dependence of the teacher on the book arise chiefly from the following causes: (a) American teachers lack somewhat in initiative, (b) They have not been adequately trained in methods of presentation, (c) They are not sufficiently familiar with subject-matter. — Text-book instruction is a necessary aspect of teaching. — ^Text-books should be considered merely as aids in teaching; not as substitutes for teaching. — ^The essentials of a proper assignment are: (a) The teacher should know the book thoroughly, and evaluate it in terms of the needs of the class, (b) He should decide on the proper emphasis to be given to the various topics in the text, (c) He should give adequate time to the assignment, (d) He should make his instruction definite, (e) He should attempt to clear up those points concerning which there is likely to be difficulty, (f) The chief function of the assignment is to teach the pupil how to study.

CHAPTER XII The Methods of the Class Period. — ^Adding New Knowledge

Through Illustration and Demonstration . . . 244 The teacher should give great attention to the problem of illustration: (a) To illustrate is to make clear, (b) The forms of illustration are varied, (c) Illustration involves reaction on the part of the pupil. — The teacher must clearly understand the nature and scope of object teaching. — Important considerations that are to be kept in mind in teaching by means of objects are: (a) The object may be brought to the pupil, or the pupil to the object, (b) The mind of the learner must be prepared to understand the object, (c) The pupil must be required to give back to the teacher in some form that which he has observed, (d) Care must be taken to prevent the object from confusing the idea which it is intended to

CONTENTS XVll

PAGE

clarify. — Demonstrations are a form of illustration. — Cautions to be observed in class demonstration are: (a) The essential parts of the demonstration must be seen by all of the class, (b) The demonstration must be a success. — Examples of illustration in high school subjects are to be found in: (a) Dramatization as a means of teaching literature, (b) Object-teaching in the practical arts, (c) Illustration through demonstration apparatus, (d) Illustration by means of pictures, (e) Illustration through models, charts, maps, and diagrams, (f) Illustration through example, (g) Illustration through oral suggestion.

CHAPTER XIII The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge

Through Stimulation of Thought.^ . . . .274 Reasons for stimulating the pupil to think are : (a) Thought i- an aid to memory, (b) Thought gives meaning to the mere fact, i^c) Thought furnishes methods of procedure, (d) Thought developed in one field of learning tends to give the learner ability to think in other fields. — Essential principles relating to the thought process are: (a) Thought is stimulated only when a genuine difficulty confronts the learner, (b) This difficulty must be real for the learner.

(c) Correct thinking must be based on definite knowledge.

(d) Correct thinking requires that the problem be clearly envisaged, (e) Correct thinking requires selection and analysis. — Induction and deduction are the two fundamental forms of reasoning. These two processes are different aspects of the same fundamental tendency of the human mind, namely, — to treat particular instances in terms of general principles and to envisage general principles in terms of concrete examples.

Chapter XIV

The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge Through the Inductive and Deductive Development Lesson . .^ ........ 295

The inductive development lesson is exemplified in the five formal steps of instruction. — The principles of these five formal steps apphed in a modified form to high school instruction are: (a) The mind of the learner should be prepared in advance to re-

XVIU CONTENTS

PAGB

ceive new materials, (b) Pupils of all grades should know the main aims of the recitation, (c) Facts should be considered in their relations, (d) Generalizations should follow from comparisons, (e) Generalizations are valuable in proportion as they are applied. — In the high school it is seldom possible to employ the inductive lesson in detail, and with strict formahty. — ^The deductive development lesson is the final step. — The deductive lesson posesses certain advantages over the inductive lesson: (a) The inductive process is often time-consuming, (b) The learner has slight opportunity to arrive at any scientifically valid induction, (c) Many of the inductions that pupils make are fragmentary and inconsequential. — ^There are several phases of the deductive development lesson. — The two functions of the deductive development lesson are to anticipate and to explain. — Inductive and deductive processes of thought are not always possible or desirable.

Chapter XV

The Question as a Method of Instruction .... 310 The question is a vital part of the recitation.— ^he question has a three-fold function: (a) It serves the important purpose of testing the knowledge of the pupil, (b) It serves the purpose of making emphatic facts already known to the learner, (c) It serves the purpose of stimulating thought. — Common faults in the questioning of high school teachers are: (a) The questions are not well phrased, (b) The questions are repeated or re-phrased, (c) The questions are asked in a hurried manner, (d) They are indefinite or obscure, (e) They are leading and suggestive, (f) They require no other answer than assent or denial, (g) They stimulate only superficial and pseudo- judgments, (h) They insist on answers that cannot be readily given. — The essentials of a good question are brought out from the preceding discussion.

Chapter XVI

A carefully prepared plan is a necessary part of the lesson. — The aim is the pivotal point of every lesson plan. In considering the aim the following topics are important: (a) The ultimate aims

' CONTENTS H xix

PAGE

of instruction should serve to give the teacher a broad and generous view of his oilling, and inspire him to practical achievement.

(b) There is a relative justification of practical, disciplinary, and cultural aims, (c) The nature of immediate aims must be kept constantly in mind, (d) Some common faults found in the statement of immediate aims are, — i. The teacher states his aims in too general and indefinite terms. 2. The teacher formulates aims that are beyond the understanding of the pupils. 3. The teacher sets up aims that are largely formal and obvious. 4. The teacher sometimes sets up the same aim day after day. 5. The teacher attempts to realize too many aims in the course of a single lesson.

6. The teacher fails at times to unify the various aims of the lesson.

7. The teacher does not distinguish between an aim and a method. — The methods by which the aims of the lesson are to be reaUzed is the second essential of a well-constructed plan. There are several important principles to be considered here; (a) Like the aim, the method is often poorly thought out, and inadequately formulated, (b) On the whole, the most important characteristic of a good method is that it shall carry out in sufficient detail the aims of the recitation, (c) The method should give a statement of the most important questions to be asked. — The statement of

the result is the third essential of a good lesson plan. — The pre^"*"*^ requisites of a good lesson plan are: (a) It is based on a comprehensive and scholarly view of the subject taught, (b) It is based on a knowledge of the interests, needs, and capacities of the pupil.

(c) It is based on a knowledge of method.

CHAPTER XVn

The teacher's function is broader than that of a hearer of lessons. — Reasons for supervised study are : (a) The physical conditions of the home often make concentration on the assigned lessons extremely difficult, and at times practically impossible, (b) Home study tends toward irregular habits of work, (c) When the pupil is not directed in his work he often acquires blundering and wasteful methods of study, (d) The learner is often given unwise aid by parents or friends, (e) Individual differences in capacity demand "" individual methods of help, (f) Recent investigations have clearly shown the value of supervised study. — Objections to supervised

XX CONTENTS

PAGE

study are: (a) Supervised study does not promote self-reliance on the part of the learner, (b) It consumes too much of the teacher's time, (c) It imposes an additional expense on the school, since it requires a larger force of teachers, (d) It increases the length of the school day. (e) It necessitates additional school rooms. — Forms of supervised study are: (a) The unprepared lesson, (b) The general study period, (c) The divided period, (d) The double period. — Purposes for which the period for supervised study may be used are: (a) The period may be devoted in part or as a whole to a general assignment, (b) It may be used as a means of summarizing and fixing the lesson that has just been taken up in the class, (c) It may be used to habituate the learner in the technique of study, (d) It may be used in discovering individual needs and in giving individual aid. — Fundamental principles to be emphasized in the technique of learning are: (a) The teacher should first of all make sure that the physical conditions of the study room are such that the pupil can do his best work, (b) The teacher should furnish the pupil with an incentive for doing his work rapidly and accurately. (c) The teacher should insist that the learner begin his work promptly, (d) The teacher should require the pupil to maintain sustained effort until the close of the study period, (e) The teacher should demand that the pupil concentrate on his work under all circumstances, (f) The teacher should make sure that the pupil, before he begins the detailed study of a lesson, knows in general what the lesson is about, (g) The teacher should accustom the pupil to read a lesson over as a whole, before he concentrates attention on various elements and details, (h) The teacher should afford the pupil an opportunity at the close of the study period to review the most essential details, and fit them together in a significant scheme, (i) During the study period, the teacher should emphasize the practice of recall by the learner, (j) The teacher should assist the pupils in making out an outline of those topics of study that contain important facts and principles with subordinate details, (k) The teacher should accustom the pupil to memorize ideas rather than mere facts; however, when verbatim memory is necessary, he should insist that it be exact and complete. (1) The teacher should impress upon the learner the necessity of looking for concrete examples and applications of general principles, and of interpreting isolated facts in terms of broader meanings, (m) The teacher should show the pupil how to use in the most econom-