The French revolution and first empire : an historical sketch

Front matter

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Preface

It is unnecessary to say that, in an epitome of this kind, innumerable details must be altogether left out, and that a small space only can be allotted to even important occurrences which would be set forth at length in a complete narrative. Nor has it been possible for me — my object being to describe the principal facts of the French Revolution and First Empire — to comment largely on the institutions of old France, or to show fully how they contributed to the events that followed 1789. An abridgement cannot be a real History; and, apart from defects peculiar to it, I am conscious that this volume must at best be an imperfect miniature of the grand drama of human action and life which it endeavors to delineate. Still I am not without hope that I have represented, in something like exact outline, the great features of that period of trouble and war through which France passed from 1789 tg

vii viii Preface.

1815 j and I trust I have placed events in their true proportions, and that the opinions I have expressed are correct and moderate. The present time, it must be allowed, is favorable for a publication of this kind, even though it purports to be only a sketch. French and English literature has of late years teemed with documents of the greatest value on the Revolution and Napoleon I., and I have carefully studied most of these sources of information. The events, too, of the war of 1870 bring again before our eyes what the Emperor achieved in the field, though victory has shifted from the standards of one race to those of another ; the national defence of France in 1871 reflects light on that of 1793 ; and in the crimes and madness of the lately suppressed Commune of Paris, we see an image of the Reign of Terror.

Dublin: February i, 1874.

Chapter I. State Of France Before The Revolution

PAGE

General character and results of the French Revolution . . . . . . .1

It exhibited vividly the peculiar features of the French national character . . . . . 2

The Monarchy of France before the Revolution ; abuses in the system of government . . . -4

The Church and the Nobility. Why these Orders had become generally disliked . . . .6

The power of the ruling orders was divided and decayed, and consequently weak . . .8

Dissensions between the Crown, the Church, and the Nobles, and discredit of all authority . . 9

State of the Commons of France. The middle classes ; how they were cut off from the People, and the results 11

Condition of the Peasantry , . . .13

Of the population of the towns . . . .14

Destructive and sceptical tone of contemporary French Literature . . . . . • 14

The progress of evil continued down to the Revolution 15

Brilliant anticipations of the future in France . . 17

CHAPTER n.

THE STATES-GENERAL AND NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. 1789 Meeting of the States-General . . . -19

The Commons declare themselves the National Assembly ... . . . . .20

The oath of the Tennis Court, June 20 . . .22

ix

X Contents.

PAGE 1789 Dismission of Necker, and formation of a reactionary

Ministry . . . . . .24

Rising in Paris . . . . . .24

Mutiny of the French Guards and insubordination in the Army . . . . •. .25

The Commune, the National Guard . . .26

Siege and storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789 . 28

Beginning of the emigration of the Nobles . . 29

Recall of Necker . . . . .29

The King sanctions what had been done in Paris . 29

The Tricolor Flag . . , . .30

Risings in the Provinces . . . • 30

Legislative measures of the Assembly . . • 31

Sudden abolition of the feudal burdens, August 4, 1789 32 October 5 and 6, 1789 . . . . -33

The King and Royal Family taken to Paris from Versailles . . . . . . '35

Growing power of the rabble of Paris . . .35

Chapter III. The Constitution Of 1790^1

Character of the period from the autumn of 1789 to

the summer of 1791 . , . . • 3^

The National Assembly begins to frame the Constitution 38 Useful reforms . . . . . '38

Wild and precipitate innovations . . '39

The Rights of Man . . . . -39

Confiscation of Church and corporate property. Abolition of tithes . . . . . -39

Provinces transformed into Departments . . 39

Character of the new Constitution ; its glaring defects 40 Administrative measures . . ' . . .41

Assignats . . . . . .42

False system of taxation . , . .42

Undue favor shown to Paris . . , .42

Contents.

XI

PAGE

1790 The feast of the Federation, July 14, 1790. Enthusiasm

in Europe . . . . . '43

Evil consequences of innovation ; signs of disorder and

The Jacobin and other clubs . . . -45

Weakness of Conservative elements in the Assembly . 46

Attempts of Mirabeau to check the disorganization of

the State . . . . . .48

His death . . . . . "49

Threatening attitude of Foreign Powers . . 49

Dangerous projects of the King and Queen , . 49

The flight to Varennes, June 20, 1791 . . • 50

Consequences of this event . . . . -Si y

Chapter IV. The Legislative Assembly

1791 Character of the period from the summer of 1791 to

Deceptive calm. Meeting of the new Legislative Assembly . . . . . . .55

Character of this Body . . . . > SS

The Gironde . . . . . . 56

Dissensions between the King and the Assembly . 56

Disorders in the Provinces . . . .57

Religious and social troubles . . . .57

Massacre at Avignon (Oct. 16 — 20, 1791) . -57

Louis directly opposes the Assembly . . .58

Indignation of the Assembly . . . -59

Attitude of the Commune of Paris. The Clubs and demagogues . . . . . -59

Menaces of Foreign Powers . . . .60

Declaration of Pilnitz, August, 1791 . . .60

Projects of King and Queen . . , .61

Divisions in the Assembly . . . .61

It declares war against Austria. Prussia joins Austria 61 xii Contents.

^791 PAGE

French failures in Belgium.' April, May, 1792 . 61

Indignation in France . . . . .61

Insensate conduct of Louis . . . .62

1792 He resists the decrees of the Assembly, and dismisses

the Gironde ministry and Dumouriez . . -63

Outbreak of June 20, 1792 . . . -63

1792 Encouraged by the popular leaders in the Assembly

and by the Commune of Paris . . .64

Reaction in favor of Louis . . . '65

New efforts of the Demagogues and the Commune . 66 Proclamation of Brunswick . . . .67

Invasion of France by the Prussians and Austrians, July and August, 1792 . . . .67

The Assembly paralyzed ; power passes to the Demagogues . . . . . .68

Preparations for a rising. Danton . . .68

Paris on the night of August 9, 1792 . - . .69

Attitude of the King and the Court ... • 70

The armed populace at the Tuileries . . .71

The King and Royal Family take refuge in the Assembly . . . . . . . .72

The Tuileries attacked and pillaged. Massacre of the Swiss . . . . . . -72

Reflections on the rising of August 10 . . '73

Chapter V

.THE CONVENTION, TO THE FALL OF THE MODERATES, Effects of August 10 . . . . '75

The Convention summoned . . . . '75

The King and Royal Family imprisoned in the Temple , . . . • . .75 Violent measures of the Commune of Paris . . 76 Lafayette throws up his command ; advance of the

German armies to Verdun . . . '17

Massacre of September . . . . > 11

Contents. xiii

PAGE

1792 Frightful scenes in Paris . . . .78 The Assembly indignant at the massacre . . 79 Battle of Valmy. Its great results ; retreat of the Prussians and Austrians . . . . .80

Meeting of the Convention, September 22, 1792 , 80

Parties in it . . . . . .81

France declared a Republic, September 22, 1792 . 8i Offer of liberty to foreign nations, November 19 . 81 Dissension renewed between the Moderates and Jacobins . . . . . . .82

Trial of Louis XVI. December 11, 1792 . . 82

Sentence of death pronounced by a majority of one . 83

Execution of Louis XVL January 21, 1793 . . 84

1793 Reflections on this event . . . .86 Character and conduct of the King . . .86 Coalition of Europe against France . . .87 Battle of Jemmapes and early successes of the French,

November — December 1792, January-February 1793 87 Fierce struggle of parties in France . . ,90

The Gironde denounced by the Jacobins and Demagogues . . . . . 90 Distress and social disorders . . . '91 Advance of the Coalition . . . -91 Battle of Neerwinden, March 18, 1793 . . .92 Flight of Dumouriez. He throws up his command ' . 92 Increasing power of the Jacobins. Danton. His energy 92 Formation of the Committee of Public Safety, April 6,

1793 . . . . • • .93

Violent measures proposed by Danton . . -93

And decreed by Convention . . * . '93

Propositions of the Commune of Paris . . 94

The payty of violence generally prevails . . 94

The Gironde and Moderates denounce extreme measures . . . . . . '94

The Commission of Twelve . . . -95

The forces of Anarchy become supreme . . 95

Danton tries in vain to reconcile the contending parties 95 xiv Contents.

PAGE

1793 Death-struggle between the Moderates and Jacobins . 95

Rising of May 31 and June 2, 1793 . . .96

Fall of the Moderates . . . . .96

Reflections on this event . . . • 97

Chapter VI

THE REIGN OF TERROR. WAR. FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. • 1793 Triumph of the party of violence in the Convention . 97 Risings against in the Provinces. Civil war . . 98

Beginning of the war of La Vendee . . ,98

Energetic measures of Danton and the leaders in power 99 The levee en masse . . . . * 99

The Constitution of 1793 .... 100

The maximum. The Revolutionary Tribunal . 100

The risings in part of France quelled . . . 100

Feebleness of the Coalition .... loi

Waste of time, in action and dissensions . . 101

The Republic successful at home and abroad . 102

Camot. Hoche ..... 102

Battle of Wattignies, October 16, 1793 . . 103

Fall of Lyons, October 9, 1793, . . . 104

Great defeat of the Vendeans at Savenay, December

23, 1793 . . . . . .104

Siege and fall of Toulon, December 19, 1793 . . 104

First appearance on the scene of Napoleon Bonaparte. 105 The Reign of Terror ..... 105

The Convention, a mere instrument of the Jacobin

The Committee of Public Safety all powerful . . 106

Its tyranny and terrible expedients . . . 106

Wild social changes . . . . . 107

Atheism declared truth by the Commune of Paris . 107 Appearance of Paris during the Reign of Terror . 107

The levies hurried to the frontier . . . 108

Appearance of the Convention . . . .108

Dissolution of society and of morality . , log

Contents.

XV

Cruelty and suspicions of populace

General licentiousness .....

The Goddess of Reason at Notre-Dame

Scenes in the prisons ....

The Revolutionary Tribunal and its work

Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October 14- 16, 1793

Her character and conduct

Divisions among the Jacobin rulers

Three factions form themselves

Growing ascendency of Robespierre

He becomes supreme in the State

Destruction of Hebert and the leaders of the Commune, of Danton and his followers, March 24, April 3, 1794

Character of Danton . .

Dictatorship of Robespierre

His measures to secure his power

The worship of the Supreme .

Terror. at its height . .

Frightful state of Paris .

Massacres in the Provinces

The Republic obtains fresh successes in the campaign of 1794

English naval victories of June i

The Allies defeated on all other points of the theatre

Battle of Fleurus, June 26, 1794

Reaction against the Reign of Terror

Fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794

Execution of Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon and others, July 28, 1794

Reflections on this event

The Terrorists were not able men

Notwithstanding the efforts of the French, the Allies could have put down the Revolution

PAGE

no no

IIO

III 112

121 121 121 121 122' 122

123 123 124

XVI

Contents,

Chapter VII

THERMIDOR. FRENCH CONQUESTS.

1794 Reaction of Thermidor The prisons opened Punishment of several of the Terrorists Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal, and of the

maximum .....

The forcing of the value of assignats discontinued The populace of Paris kept down. The Jacobin Club

suppressed Violence of the Reaction Revolution in manners The Jeunesse Doree Renewed troubles Scarcity and distress The Jacobin party tries to rally

1 795 Outbreaks of 12th Germinal (April i) And of ist Prairial (May) 1795 Put down and suppressed The power of Jacobinism finally broken Measures of the Government against the Royalists Weakness of the State. Tendency to the rule of the

sword

Great successes of French against the Allies Conquest of Belgium and Holland, September 1794

January 1795 Failure of English descent from Quiberon Bay, July

15—20, 1795 .

The Coalition dissolved. Prussia and Spain make

peace, April, June 1795 Causes of this astonishing success of the Republic Continuing weakness of the Republic at home Extreme distress of the great cities Exhaustion of the Revolutionary spirit Desire for repose and a settled government. Reaction

towards Monarchy . . . . .

PAGE 126

Contents. xvii

PAGE

1795 Constitution of the year III .... 138 The Constitution generally well received . • I39 Opposition to the re-election of two-thirds of the Convention . . . ~ . . . 139

Rising of the reactionary sections of Paris, 13th Vende-

miaire (October 4, 1795), put down by Bonaparte . 140

The authority of the Convention restored . ,140

The military power becomes stronger . . . 141

Reflections on the course of the Revolution after Ther-

Chapter VIII

THE DIRECTORY. BONAPARTE.

Character of this period . . . .142

State of the Republic after Vendemiaire . . 143

Policy of the Directory . . . . 144

National Bankruptcy virtually declared . . 144

1796 Preparations for the campaign of 1796 . . 145 The campaign of Italy .... 146

Bonaparte invades Piedmont from the seaboard . 146

He marches to the Adige. Siege of Mantua . . 146 The Austrians send an army to raise the siege of Mari-

tua and to crush Bonaparte .... 147

He defeats Wurmser in a series of engagements . 147

The Austrians send Alvinzi with si Aew army . . 148

He is defeated at Areola, November 14 — 17, 1796 . 148

1797 Decisive victory of Bonaparte at Rivoli, January 14,

1797 . . . . . . .148

Reflections on the campaign. Great skill of Bonaparte 148 Character of his strategy .... 149

State craft of Bonaparte . . . . .150

Campaign of 1796 in Germany. Defeats of the French 150 The Archduke Charles ..... 150

A xviii Contents.

PAGE

1797 Ability displayed by him . 150 Internal state of the Republic ; revival of factions . 152 Royalist and reactionary schemes . . . 152 Coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor (September 4, 1797) 153 Conclusion of the campaign of Italy . . . 153 Conciliatory policy of Bonaparte ; his anti^revolution-

ary views .,.,.. 154 He marches on Vienna from Italy . . '154

Treaty of Campo Formio, October 17, 1797 . . 155

Gains of France . . . . . 155

Sacrifice of Venice ..... 155

Reflections on the conduct of Bonaparte . , 156

Enthusiasm in France at his successes . . . 156

Admiration felt for him in Europe . . . 156

He returns to France, and is received with acclamation 157

Chapter IX. Egypt And The 18th Brumaire

1798 The Directory jealous of Bonaparte . . . 158 They engage him to attempt a descent on England . 159 He proposes to invade Egypt .... 159 Expedition to Egypt . . . . .159 Congress of Rastadt , . . ' . . 160 Renewal of causes of discord in Europe . . 160 Formation of the Ligurian, Helvetian, and Roman

Republics . . . . . .160

Bonaparte lands in Egypt July j, 1798 . . 161

Battle of the Nile, August i, 1798, and destruction of

the French fleet ..... 161

Renewal of the war in Europe .... 162

1799 Murder of the French plenipotentiaries at Rastadt,

The Conscription . . . . . 162

Character of the campaign of 1799 . . . 163

Defeats of the French ..... 163

Formation of the Parthenopaean Republic . . 163

Contents. xix

PAGE

1798 Battle of Stochach, March 25, 1799 . . . 163 Battles of the Trebbia and Novi, June 17, 18, and 19,

The French driven from Italy . . . .164

Failure of English descent on Holland . . 164

Battle of Zurich, September 25 — 28, 1789 . . 164

It saves France from invasion .... 165 Lamentable internal state of the Republic . . 165

Strife of factions ..... 165

The reverses of 1799 cause all parties to combine

against the Directory . . . . .166

Weakness and ruin of the State . . . 166

Desire for a strong Government . . .166

Sieyes ,,..... 166 Fortunes of Bonaparte in Egypt . . . 167

He fails at Acre, March to May, 1799 . . 167

On hearing the news of the state of France, he leaves

Enthusiasm with which he is received on his way to

and in Paris ...... 168

He at once becomes the real centre of power . . 168

He prepares a cowp d'Uat to change the Government 169

1799 The i8th Brumaire (November 9), 1799 ^ . 169 • Scene in Assembly at St. Cloud . . . 170

Formation of a provisional government. Bonaparte First Consul . . . . . . 170

Character of the Revolution of i8th Brumaire . .170

Reflections on the conduct of Bonaparte, and on the march of events . . . . .170

The coup d'etat was not a crime . . . 171

Chapter X

MARENGO. LUNEVILLE. AMIENS.

1800 Wise and healing policy of the First Consul . . 172 Financial reforms . . . . .172 Fortunate position of Bonaparte as a mediator between

XX

Contents.

PAGE

Laws against clergy and emigres repealed or mitigated 174

Pacification of La Vendee . . . • I75

Rapid recovery of France .... 175

Constitution of the year VIIL . . • , 175

The institutions founded by it . . . 176

Objects of Sieyes ..... 176

Bonaparte First Consul for ten years . . . 176 His Despotism is established, surrounded by merely

nominal restraints ..... 177

Reorganization of the French armies . . . 177

Plans of the First Consul .... 177

The campaign of 1800 ...... 178

Operations of Melas in Italy, and of Moreau in Bavaria 178

The First Consul crosses the Alps May 16-19,

The French army enters Milan, June 2

Melas falls back

Battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800

The French recover Italy

Campaign in Germany .

Advance of Moreau. Ability of Kray

Battle of Hohenlinden, December 3, 1800

Treaty of Luneville, February 9, 1801

Great advantages gained by France

Dictatorial tone of Bonaparte .

Treaty of Amiens, March 27, 1802

Great results obtained by the First Consul

CHAPTER XL

THE CONSULATE. RENEWAL OF WAR.

Internal Government of the First Consul . . 185

The time favorable for reconstructing society in France 186 Reforms in the State . . ... .187

The Judicial system The Code .

Centralization of local powers Prefects and sub-prefects

187 188 188 189

Contents, xxi

PAGE

1802 The Concordat . . . , . .189 Its effects . . . . , . 191 Public Instruction ..... 191 General results of these reforms . . . 191 Changes in the army . . . , .191 Creation of a new aristocracy . . . . 192 The Legion of Honor. Restoration of Titles . 192 Bonaparte made Consul for life . . . 192 Modification, in a despotic sense, of the Constitution

of the year VIII. ..... 193

Partial resemblance of the new Government to that of

the Monarchy . . . . • I93

Its merits ...... 193

Wise Administration of the First Consul . . 194

He encourages the movement towards Monarchy . 194

Change of manners in France .... 19S

Foreign Policy of the First Consul . . . 196

Its craft and ambition ..... 196

French intervention in Germany . . . 197

1803 Great extension of French power and influence . 197 Disputes with England. March to May, 1803 . 198 Renewal of war with England, May 18, 1803 . 198

Chapter XII. The Empire To Tilsit

The First Consul plans a descent on England . 199

The flotilla and camp of Boulogne . . . 200 Project of covering the descent by a large fleet in the

Conspiracy of the tmigrts against the First Consul . 201

1804 Execution of the Duke of Enghien, March 21, 1804 . 202 This event hastens the movement in favor of Monarchy 203 The First Consul proclaimed Emperor of the French,

Coronation of Napoleon, December 2, 1804 . . 204

1S05 New coalition against France .... 205 xxii Contents.

PAGE 1805 Plan of the attack of the Allies . . . 206

Napoleon quits Boulogne, and surrounds and captures

an Austrian army at Ulm, October 19, 1805 . 206

Battle of Trafalgar and destruction of the French and

Spanish fleets, October 21, 1805 . . . 207

The project of the descent might have succeeded . 208 Napoleon marches on Vienna .... 209

The Grand Army . . . . . 209

Vienna occupied, November 13, 1805 . . . 209

Battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805. Ruin of the allied army . . . . . . 210

Peace of Presburg, December 15, 1805 . . 210

Changes effected by it . . . . .211

Austria ceases to be Head of the German Empire . 211 The Confederation of the Rhine . ^ . .211

Isolation of Prussia . . . . .211

Conduct of that power . . . . .211

It declares war against France . . . .212

Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14, 1806 . 212

1807 Ruin of the Prussian army and Monarchy . . 212

Napoleon marches against the Russians . . 213

Winter campaign in Poland . . ... 213

Indecisive battle of Eylau, February 8, 1807 . . 214

Peril of Napoleon ..... 214

Reorganization of the Grand Army . . . 214

Decisive victory of the French at Friedland, June 14, 1807 . . . . . . ,214

Characteristics of these campaigns . . . 215

Changes in the art of war . . . .215

Meeting of Alexander and Napoleon on the Niemen, June 25, 1807 ..... 215

Treaty of Tilsit, July 7 and 9, 1807 . . . 216

Alliance between France and Russia, and dismemberment of Prussia ..... 216

Contents. xxiii

. PAGE

1807 Objects of Napoleon in making the treaty . . 216

His power at its height . . . ... 217

Extent of the French Empire .... 217

Vassal kingdoms ..... 217

Allied and subject States .... 218

The Empire promoted civilization in some respects . 218

Prosperity of France ..... 218

Public works of Napoleon . . . .219

Character of his Government .... 219

Elements of weakness and decay in the Empire . 220 Indignation of conquered nations . . . 220 Tendency of Germany to unite through common suffering ....... 220

Jealousy of Russia ..... 221

Decline of the Grand Army in strength . . 221

The resources of France unduly strained . . 221

Moral evils of the rule of Napoleon , . . 222

Insecurity of his power, which depended mainly on

Chapter XIII. The Empire To 1813

Retrospect of the policy of Napoleon , . . 224 It changes for the worse after Tilsit . . . 225 The Continental system, 1807-8 . . . 226 Its mischievous effects upon the Empire . . 227 It urges Napoleon to make conquests . . . 227 Project of invading Spain and Portugal . . 228 Napoleon dethrones the House of Braganza, November, December, 1807 ..... 228 The Royal Family of Spain enticed to Bayonne, and

induced to abdicate the throne, May, 1808 . . 228

General rising in Spain, May, June, 1808 . . 229

Capitulation of Baylen, July 19, 20, 1808 . . 229

First appearance of Sir A. Wellesley on the scene.

Convention of Cintra, August 30, 1808 . 229 xxiv Contents,

PAGE 1808 Great reverses of the French .... 229

Napoleon invades Spain and enters Madrid, December

2, 1808 . . . . . . 230

He leaves the Peninsula at the news that Austria was

Campaign of 1809 in Germany . . . 230

Defeat of the Archduke Charles in Bavaria, April 18,

22, 1809 ...... 230

Reverse of Napoleon on the Danube at Aspem, May

21, 22, 1809 ...... 231

Battle of Wagram and victory of French, July 6, 1809 231 Treaty of Vienna, October 14, 1809 . . . 231

1 8 10 Napoleon divorces Josephine and marries the Arch-

duchess Maria Louisa, March 11, 18 10 . . 232

Successes of Sir Arthur Wellesley in 1809, in Portugal

His profound insight and military skill . . 232

Memorable campaign of Torres Vedras. and complete

defeat of the French, June, 1810, May, 1811 . 233

Great results of this campaign, and its influence on

Agitation in Germany and Holland . . . 234

18 1 1 Murmurs in France . . * . . . 234 Birth of a son to Napoleon, March 20, 1811 . . 235 Jealousy of the Czar, and disputes with Russia . 235 Napoleon prepares to invade Russia, November, 1811,

The Grand Army crosses the Niemen, June 24, 18 12 , 236

Retreat of the Russians .... 236

Political mistake of Napoleon in not restoring Poland 236

He pursues the Russians .... 237

Difficulties of the Grand Army . . . 237

Precautions taken by Napoleon . . . 237

He marches into the interior of Russia . . 238

Battle of Borodino, September 7, 1812 . . 238

The Grand Army enters Moscow, September 15, 1812 238

Contents. xxv

PAGE

1811 The Russian Governor of Moscow sets fire to the city 238 Napoleon delays in the hope of peace . . .238 Beginning of the retreat from Moscow, October 19,

1812 . . ... . .239

Horrors of the retreat . . . • • 239 Imminent peril of Napoleon and the remains of the

Passage of the Beresina, November 25-28, 1812 . 239

Napoleon leaves the army for France, December 5, 1812 240

Destruction of the Grand Army . . . 240

Reflections on this catastrophe . . . • 240

Causes of the ruin of the French . . . 240