Apprenticeship & apprenticeship education in colonial New England & New York

Contents

I. The Apprenticeship System in England i

II. The Practice of Apprenticeship in the New Plymouth

and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 22

Chapter I The Apprenticeship System In England

The essential characteristics of the practice of apprenticeship in the American colonies were determined by English gild and municipal legislation of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. To understand the colonial practice it is necessary, therefore, to know its historical antecedents, and for this purpose a somewhat detailed account of English apprenticeship will be given. Later chapters will show its reproduction and continuation in colonial New England and New York.

It is from gild ordinances, statutes, and indentures that we get our knowledge of apprenticeship. Available records reveal the fact that apprenticeship was practiced in England in the thirteenth century; one of the earliest references appears in the ordinance of the Lorimers of London in 1261, forbidding one master to entice away another's apprentice, and fixing the term of service at ten years: "Item ce nul fortreie autre emprentiz, ne autri sergeaunt, dedenz son term, ne sul emprentiz receyve a mendre terme ce a X aunz, et ove XXX soulz au meyns; et jurge ydonqe lemprentiz de tenir les purveaunces en cest escrit conteniz." 1 From an early statute, dated 1275, we learn that the names of apprentices were kept on a paper in the Chamber of. the

1 Liber Custumarum, I, 78.

Guildhall. 2 The enrollment of an apprentice within the first year of his term was strongly insisted on by the municipal authorities, every freeman on admission binding himself by oath to see that any apprentice of his was so enrolled. 3 It was also required that the Guildhall preserve copies of the indenture, or articles of agreement between master and apprentice. The records refer frequently to the " paper of apprentices" 4 upon which "ingresses" and "egresses" were recorded, and to u a certain writing indented made between them (master and apprentice), which he (the apprentice) brought before the chamberlain." 5 One of the earliest references to apprentices in the city records occurs in the year 1279 or 1280, when the ordinances for regulating the trade of fishmongers were amended. Among these ordinances we find some relating to apprentices to the following effect: that henceforth no one shall take more than two or three apprentices at most, according to his ability to support them; that no one shall take an apprentice for a less term than seven years; that the master and the apprentice come to the Guildhall and cause the agreement and the term to

We find the "old paper of apprentices of 4 Ed. I" mentioned several times in the 14th century (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 65, 151).

3 Cal. Let. Bk. D, 195-96. "Oath of Freemen (1275): Ye shall swear that ye shall be faithful and loyal unto our lord the King, King of England . . . and the franchises and customs of the City ye shall maintain according to your power. . . . Ye shall take no apprentice for less than seven years, and ye shall cause him to be enrolled as such within the first year of your covenant, and at the end of his term, if he has well and loyally served you, you shall cause his egress to be enrolled. . . . And ye shall take no apprentice unless he be a free man and not a bondsman. All of which points aforesaid ye shall well and truly keep, so God you help and all his saints."

4 Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179. "His ingress appears in the paper of apprenticeships of the aforesaid Ward, anno 28 Edward I." "His ingress appears in the second paper of apprentices in the Ward of Walebrok, anno 28, Edward I."

5 Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179. One of these reads as follows: "the said Hugh (the apprentice) proffered before the Chamberlain a certain writing indented of his apprenticeship, sealed with the seal of the said William (master)."

be enrolled, and also to do the same at the end of the term, unless it is dissolved by the death of one or the other. Further, that if the master die within the term, the apprentice shall come to the Guildhall, and do as he shall be ordered before he do anything of the trade; and lastly, that those who are already apprentices shall do no work after Sunday next, until such time as their masters shall come to the Guildhall and cause their covenant and term to be enrolled. 6 In September, 1300, an Act was passed by the Mayor and the Aldermen to the effect that the names of all apprentices who thenceforth failed to be entered by their masters "on the paper" within their first year should be enrolled on a certain schedule to be produced at the next Husting before the Mayor and Aldermen, with the view to the defaulting apprentices being fined at the discretion of the Chamberlain and two Aldermen specially elected for that purpose. 7 Subsequent records give abundant evidence of the enforcement of this Act. 8

The rules prescribed for apprenticeship among the fishmongers were afterwards applied to other trades. Thus, among a long series of ordinances (presumably of the year 1312-1313) we find the following: (1) that thenceforth no person shall receive an apprentice unless he himself be free of the city, and cause their covenant to be enrolled, of whatever condition such apprentice may be; (2) that no apprentice after fully serving his term, shall follow his trade in the city before he shall have been sworn of the freemen and thereupon enrolled; (3) that no apprentice shall be received for a less term than seven years, according to the ancient usage. 9 The matter of fact manner in which ap-

6 Liber Albus, I, 383-84. 7 Cal. Let. Bk. C, 78. Liber Custumarum, 93.

8 Cal. Let. Bk. B, 146. A record under the year 1305 reads: "Thomas de Kydeminstre, draper and hosier, came before John le Blound, Mayor, John de Wangrave, and Richard Poterel, Chamberlain, and made fine with the Commonalty for payment of half a mark for a trespass committed touching his apprentice Walter, son of William de Beverlee, taverner, not being enrolled within a year, according to the custom of the City and his oath; to be paid within a fortnight."

9 Liber Albus, I, 272.

prenticeship is mentioned, and the frequent use of the phrase ''according to the ancient usage" presuppose that it was a common practice, and that it must have been in use for some length of time. Further, it shows that apprentices were so frequently employed by Londoners that legislation concerning them was necessary. Most of the London gilds seem to have adopted apprenticeship by 1350, for rules regulating it are common at that date. 10

The gilds early recognized the custom of taking apprentices. They saw the advantages in compelling all craftsmen to go through a course of training before being admitted to the trade as masters, and as time went on, they sought to effect this by legislation. The content of the records indicates, however, that this prerequisite was probably never completely enforced. Some of the ordinances, drawn up by the various London crafts and confirmed by the Mayor, admitted the attestation of sufficient skill by the craft officials as an alternative to apprenticeship. 11 In many cases they speak of the freedom of the trade as a thing that could be inherited, 12 or bought. 13 But, apprenticeship came gradually to be adopted as the most usual method of entering a craft, and by 1400 was practiced by most gilds, and required by most towns.

10 An examination of the records for the years 1309-13 shows that 415 apprentices acknowledged themselves bound to at least fifty different crafts or trades (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-169).

11 Memorials, 234. Ordinance of the White Tawyers, 1346: "that no one who has not been an apprentice and has not finished his term of apprenticeship in the said trade, shall be made free of the same trade; unless it be attested by the overseers for the time being, or by four persons of the said trade, that such person is able and sufficiently skilled to be made free of the same."

Cal. Let. Bk. G, 159.

12 Memorials, 547. Leathersellers' ordinances of 1398. "That from henceforth no one shall set any man, child, or woman, to work in the same trade, if such person be not first bound apprentice, and enrolled in the trade; their wives and children only excepted."

Smith, English Gilds, 390. City of Worcester, Ordinances of 1467. Hist. Charters and Constitutional Documents of the City of London, 186. City Ordinance of 1638. Widows may use trade without apprenticeship.

Apprenticeship was also a qualification of admission into the franchise. A thirteenth century record mentions three methods of obtaining the franchise: "Sed sciendum est quod tribus modis adquiritur homini libertas civitatis: — ■ Primo quod sit homo natus in civitate legitime ex patre; secondo quod homo sit apprenticius cum libero homine per septem annos et non minus, tertio quod homo mutuat suam libertatem coram majore aliis aldermanis cum camerario civitatis." 14 All three methods — birth, apprenticeship, and redemption — ■ constituted the practice for several centuries. A London ordinance of 1368 states that " there were only three ways whereby the said franchise could be obtained, viz., by birth, apprenticeship, or by presentment of some mistery before the Mayor, Aldermen, and Chamberlain." 15 A later ordinance of 1432 decrees "that fro this day forward no man be admitted in to the saide Fraunchise but he be born or made apprentice or officer with ynne the Citee." 16 Freedom "bi birth or apprenticialitie " became the most approved practice. 17 The custom of obtaining the franchise by redemption was in vogue, but was strongly discountenanced; a London ordinance of December 10,' 1434 orders "the Aldermen to cause a certain number of men freemen of the City either by birth or apprenticeship, and not by redemption, to be elected members of the Common Council." 18 Indeed, the practice of obtaining the freedom of the City by redemption became so lax that an ordinance was passed by the Common Council to bring it within bounds. 19

In this matter, as in others, the gilds followed the general practice that had been established by law; after all their regulations were but part of the common laws of the

14 Chronicle of Edward I and Edward II, Vol. I, 85.

country. 20 Upon completing his term the apprentice became a citizen and a member of the craft at the same time. Just as the city^ admitted into the franchise the sons of freemen, so the crafts admitted the sons of craftsmen without apprenticeship. In similar fashion the gilds disapproved the practice of redemption. 21

Originally apprenticeship had been regulated only by private agreement between the master and the learner. Naturally there were abuses on each side; where public supervision had not yet become general covenants and oaths were frequently disregarded, and one or the other of the contracting parties suffered. 22 In order to insure fair play between members, and between masters and apprentices, the gilds came gradually to exercise the right of supervising the practice of apprenticeship. They realised, too, that not only must individual rights be protected, that fair conditions must be obtained for those who worked in the trade, but also that a tradition of skilled workmanship must be established and perpetuated in order to insure the production of wares of good quality. These objects could only be accomplished by mandatory legislation regulating the conditions of apprenticeship, and in this they were assisted by municipal authorities who confirmed the gild ordinances and gave them the force of law.

The earliest records concerning the regulation of apprenticeship reveal all the important characteristics of later practice. From the first craftsmen were forbidden by municipal legislation to take more apprentices than they were able to support and teach. 23 In some of the craft ordinances the same

20 Liber Albus, 157, 272; Memorials, 282.

Memorials, 241. London Pewterers, 1348: "No one shall receive an apprentice against the usages of the City."

Coventry insisted that no crafts make laws except with the consent of the Mayor. City ordinances of 1421, 1475, I 5 I 5> m Coventry Leet Book, 29, 419, 645.

21 Cal. Let. Bk. I, 63.

22 Cal. Let. Bk. H, 34. As early as 1376 a Scrivener is imprisoned for making a false indenture of apprenticeship with a boy.

Cal. Let. Bk. I, 215.

idea shows itself, that the taking of apprentices ought to depend altogether on the ability of the master "to keep, inform, and teach" them. 24 In the fifteenth century the rules become more definite in regard to limiting the number of apprentices each master might take. Thus, in 1466, the Tailors of Exeter limit the craftsmen to one apprentice. 25 In the Hull Weavers' Composition of 1490 we read: "Item, it is agreyd that non of that occupacon shall take and kepe bot two apprentises." 26 A similar requirement appears in the Coventry Cappers' Ordinances of 1496. 27 The Bricklayers of Hull, in their ordinances of 1598, also limit the master to two apprentices, but add the requirement that an interval of four years must elapse between the enrollment of each. 28 The custom had become pretty well established by this time, and the ordinances of the next century merely repeat the terms of earlier legislation. 29

Liber Custumarum, 81. Articles of the Saddlers and Joiners of London, 1308: "Et qe nul fuster ne receyve aprentiz, si le seignour ne soit fraunk homme de la citee, et quil de soit de poiar de li sustenir a parfaire sez covenauntz."

24 Memorials, 278.

25 Smith, Eng. Gilds, 315-16. "Also hyt ys ordeyned, by the M. and Wardons and all the hole crafte, that fro hense-forthe no man of the said crafte shall hold but 3 seruauntes, and 00 pryntes at the most, wt-owte lesanse of the M. and Wardonsse for the tyme beyng, apon payne of xlti. s."

See Clothworkers' Court Book, for 1537-1639, reprinted in Geo. Unwin, Industrial Organization in the 16th and 17th Centuries, 230. Master permitted to have but one apprentice.

26 J. M. Lambert, Two Thousand Years of Gild Life, 206.

Cal. Let. Bk. K, 200. Mayor and Aldermen grant petition of London Girdlers, 1435, that no man of the craft should have more than two apprentices. Cal. Let. Bk. K, 376. Founders of London, 148 1. Cal. Let. Bk. L, 201. London Brewers, 1482.

27 Coventry Leet Book, 573.

28 Lambert, 278. "Item, that none of this brotherhoode shall have above twoe apprentices at once, and that the firste apprentice shall have served fower yeares of his tearme before the seconde be taken to serve as an apprentice, in paine of everie one doeinge to the contrarie, to paie for everie tyme so doing, 3s."

29 Lambert, 234. Hull Tailors' Ordinances of 161 7: "That none should take a second prentice till the first has served four years; nor should take a third till the second had served five years."

Ibid., 313. Hull Cobblers' Ordinances of 1680: "And further is statuted, ordered and agreed upon that no free brother of the same trade shall take or en-

All the crafts required an entry-fee to be paid by the apprentice upon enrollment, and an exit-fee when he had served his term. The exit-fee signalised the admission of the apprentice into craft membership as a master and as a freeman of the City. The London Lorimers, mentioned above, 30 required in 1261 an entrance fee of 30 shillings, the Tailors of Lincoln, in 1328, required 2 shillings. 31 Perhaps the most common fee for both entry and exit during the fourteenth century was 2s. 6d. This seems to have been the established fee during the years 1309-1313 for the crafts of London. 32 We may reasonably assume, therefore, that this was the generally accepted practice as far as London was concerned, and that it was established by municipal legislation. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries there was no uniformity of practice in this matter; the amounts varied from 4d. to £2. 33 This

tertaine a Second Apprentice imtill the first Apprentice hath served as an Apprentice for the space of four yeares."

Ibid., 296. Hull Coopers' Ordinances of 1681: "Item it is ordered that noe Cooper ffree of this Companic shall kepe above two apprentices att once, upon paine to forfeit and pay for every such offence to the use of the said Company for every weeke herein offending, 10s."

30 Page 1.

31 Smith, Eng. Gilds, 183. In 1328 the Lincoln Tailors incorporated in their ordinances the rule that "If any master of the gild takes any one to live with him as an apprentice, in order to learn the work of the Tailor's craft, the apprentice shall pay two shillings to the gild."

Beverley Town Doc, 125. Beverley Butchers, 1365: "at his entre iis." Manuscripts of Beverley, 92. Beverley Shoemakers: 2od.

32 Upon examining some 415 records concerning apprenticeship during the years 1309-13 13 (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179), I found the phrase "for his ingress 2s. 6d.," used 244 times; and the phrase ' for his exit, 2s. 6d.," used 75 times. This uniform fee was adopted by the following fifty crafts or trades, which represent fairly well the field of industrial occupation at that time : Apothecary, Barber, Blader, Boatman, Braeler, Bucklemaker, Bureller, Butcher, Buttermonger, Capper, Chandler, Chaucer, Cheesemaker, Cooper, Corder, Cordwainer, Cornmonger, Currier, Draper, Fishmonger, Fruiter, Fripperer, Fuster, Girdler, Glover, Goldsmith, Haberdasher, Hatter, Haymonger, Hosier, Ironmonger, Joiner, Knifemaker, Mercer, Ointer, Painter, Pepperer, Plumber, Potter, Pouchmaker, Saddler, Salter, Sealmaker, Shearman, Skinner, Tanner, Taverner, Vintner, Woodmonger, Woolmonger.

33 On March 2, 1443, the London Common Council decreed that "in order to requirement, like the ordinances directly concerned with the limitation of apprentices, served not only to keep down their number, and hence promote efficient trade training — ■ one of the primary objects of gild regulation — ■ but also protected adult workmen from the competition of juvenile labor. 34 Furthermore, it operated to reduce the number of those who attained the mastership, and thereby to diminish the competition of adult craftsmen with each other. Apprentices were obliged by municipal legislation to enrol within the first year of their term. This regulation appeared very early 35 in the history of English apprenticeship, and was the authority for a long established custom. The gilds repeated it in their own ordinances. 36 Enrollment was a public matter; the apprentice appeared, 37 or was brought, 38

relieve the increasing debts of the Chamber, the fees for enrolment of apprentices should for the next four years be doubled; viz., for entrances 5s., and the exits of the same 7s." Cal. Let. Bk. K, 292.

Beverley Town Docs., 103, 116; Manuscripts of Beverley, 97, 100; Coventry Leet Book, 641, 645.

34 Cal. Let. Bk. K, 200. London Girdlers, 1435, complain: "nowe adayes ther is so gret abondaunce of apprentices of the seid craft that many freemen of the same craft which have but small quantitee of goodes of ther owen and were wont to live by the werk that thei made to other men of the same craft may now have no werk wt in the seid craft but som of hem be come Waterberers and laborers."

35 As early as 1275. See page 2.

Cal. Let. Bk. H, 391. City ordinance of 1392.

Cal. Let. Bk. I, 38. City ordinance of 1404.

Ibid., 134. City ordinance of 1414.

Liber , Albus I, 655.

36 Liber Custumarum, 81. Articles of the Saddlers and Joiners of London, 1308: "et qil le face enrouler en la Chaumbre de la Gihale, dedenz le primer an, sur la peyne qe appent."

Memorials, 258. Ordinances of London Furbishers, 1350.

37 Cal. Let. Bk. D, 97. "Sept. 29, 1309: The same day John Whitlock . . . came before the Chamberlain and acknowledged himself apprentice of Geoffrey de Sterteford, glover, for a term of seven years from Michaelmas, 2s. 6d."

Ibid., 122. "July 11, 13 10: The same day Richard . . . came before the Aldermen and Chamberlain, and acknowledged himself apprentice to John de Porkle, painter, for a term of six years."

Ibid., 144. "May 12, 1311, Godfrey . . . came before the aforesaid Mayor and Aldermen."

38 Cal. Let. Bk. D, 66. "Mar. 16, 1310: Richard le Keu, chaloner, made io Apprenticeship and Apprenticeship Education

before the master of the craft and also before the mayor, or aldermen, or city chamberlain, and acknowledged himself indentured to a certain master craftsman. This acknowledge ment, and the terms of the indenture or contract between the master and the apprentice were then enrolled, and became a public record. 39 Upon completion of the term of service the apprentice again appeared before the municipal authorities, and sought admission to his craft. The "Book" or "paper of apprentices" 40 was then consulted, and if "good men of the ward testified that the said apprentice had faithfully served his said master as apprentice," 41 and was "a good and trusty man and fit to carry on the said trade," the apprentice paid the exit-fee and became a full-fledged master. This requirement of a double enrollment, upon entry and exit, secured for the contracting parties a certain amount of protection from abuse.

By the middle of the fourteenth century most crafts had required apprenticeship as the necessary preHminary to

fine of half a mark that he had with him apprentices and did not cause them to be enrolled according to the custom of the city, and he was commanded to bring those apprentices for enrolment under penalty prescribed."

Smith, Eng. Gilds, 316. Tailors' Ordinances, 1466. "Also hit is ordeyned by the M. and Wardons and all the hole crafte, that euery persone of the sayd crafte that taketh aprentys, shall brynge hym before the M. and Wardons, and there to haue his Indenture in-rolled."

29 See Oath of Freemen, 1275, page 2, note 3.

The London Ordinance of 1 2 79 on 280, mentioned on page 2, required the master and apprentice to enroll their covenant and term "enceste manere qe le seignour et le prentice en ceo qe il meinovere en le mister veignent a la Guyhalle et facent enroller le covenant et le terme." (Liber Albus, I, 383-84)

Liber Custumarum, 124. Ordinances of London Weavers, 1300: "et qe lour covenant soit reconu en Court."

Memorials, 241. London Pewterers, 1384.

Calendar of Letters, 164. 1369.

Coventry Leet Book, 561. Coventry required, in 1494, that the apprentice's name be "entred in a boke remaynyng with the seid Sty ward (Steward) as a Registre."

40 Apparently each ward of the City of London kept a "Book" or "paper of apprentices." The reference appears 114 times for 23 wards, during the years 1275-1322 (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179).

ii mastership. It had become a fixed custom at this time to require the master and apprentice to draw up an indenture or covenant containing the articles of mutual agreement which defined their relationship to each other. 42 The usual term of service was seven years, although terms as short as two years and as long as sixteen appear frequently in the records. 43 Municipal and craft ordinances when they touched

42 City records for the years 1309-13 mention frequently "a certain writing indented of his apprenticeship," and "a certain writing indented made between them." (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179)

A letter, dated 135 1, contains "by indentures between them made according to the custom of the City of London." (Calendar of Letters, 11)

Cal. Let. Bk. K, 337. Ordinances of the London Cordwainers, confirmed by the Mayor and Aldermen, April 6, 145 1: "that it may be ordeigned enact and enrolled in the forsaid Chaumber of Guyldhall that no manere persone nowe beyng enfrauncheised in the said craft ne which hereafter shall be from hens forthe resceive ne take eny manere persone to teche and enforme him in the same craft, but that he take him as an apprentice by a peyre of indentures of apprentishode to be made betwene the maister and every suche persone after the rule and ordinance this Citee."

The Ordinances of the City of Worcester, Sept. 14, 1467, required "that ther be endenturs made bitwen hem for the seid term as the law requirith." (Smith, Eng. Gilds, 390)

Lambert, 216. Hull Glovers, 1499.

43 The following table based on records for the years 1309-1313 (Cal. Let. Bk. D, 96-179) shows the length of term, and the number of times each term appears:

Appears

Appears

Term in records

Term in records

2 years

3 times

10 years

44 times

138 "

64 "

"full term"

IOI

The Letter-Book before us records the apprenticeships of 415 boys to at least 50 different trades. 138 boys acknowledged themselves apprenticed for seven-year terms, one third of the number recorded. The expression "full term" appears 101 times. It is safe to say that the majority of these "full terms" were for seven years.

A letter dated &ug. 18, 1354, contains the following excerpt which represents the type of record that appears frequently: "bound apprentice according to the custom of the City of London, for a term of seven years." (Calendar of Letters, 65)

upon the proper term of apprenticeship, usually insisted upon its lasting at least seven years. This period was required by a London ordinance as early as 1279. 44 The ordinances of nearly all the crafts conformed to a common type which may be represented by the Weavers' Ordinances of 1300: "No weaver shall receive an apprentice for less than a term of seven years." 45 The Hatters in 1347, 46 the Braelers in 1355, 47 and the Masons 48 in the following year, passed by-laws enforcing a minimum term of seven years, "according to the usages of the City." Outside London this requirement appears as early as 1307, in the ordinances of the York Girdlers, 49 and as early as 142 1, in the Coventry Barbers' Composition. 50 Again, we find the City of Worcester, in 1467, demanding a "fulle vii yere of prentishode." 51 Numerous records might be quoted to show how generally accepted this custom was until its final establishment by the Statute of Apprentices, 1562. 52

For the purposes of this study chief interest attaches to the terms of the indenture or covenant between master and apprentice. Several early indentures of apprenticeship have been printed. 53 One of the earliest, dated 1291, contains most of the articles of later covenants, although its phraseology

44 Page 2.

45 Liber Custumarum, 124. "Et qe nul teler aprentiz ne receyve a meyns qe a terme de vii aunz."

46 Memorials, 238.

47 Memorials, 278.

48 Memorials, 282.

Ibid., 439. Ordinances of London Cutlers, 1379.

Ibid., 354. London Haberdashers, 1371.

49 York Memorandum Book, Vol. I, 181. "That na maister fra this tyme forth tak nane apprentice for less terme than vii yere."

50 Coventry Leet Book, 225.

51 Smith, Eng. Gilds, 390.

52 Coventry Leet Book, 573. Coventry Cappers, 1496.

Lambert, 205. Hull Weavers, 1490; Ibid., 216. Hull Glovers, 1499; etc.

53 1 291, in Hudson and Tingey, The Records of the City of Norwich, Vol. I, 245; 1396, in Archaeological Journal, XXIX (London, 1872), 184; 1414, in Hibbert, Influence and Development of English Gilds, 52; 1451, in Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices, Vol. IV, 98; 1480, in Cunningham, English Industry.

does not conform to the type which is represented by two indentures of the years 1396, 54 and 1414. The latter are practically identical in form and content with the indentures of the present century. From them we learn that the apprentice bound himself to live with his master for a certain period of years, promised to serve him diligently, obey his " reasonable" commands, keep his secrets, protect him from injury "by others," abstain from such games as jiice and cards, and the "haunting" of taverns, neither to commit fornication nor contract matrimony, and not to absent himself from his master's service without permission. 55 The master, on the other hand, promised to instruct the boy in his trade, and give him bed, board, and clothing. 56 This instruction must have been fairly skilled in character because the master himself had graduated from a similar course of training, and had proved his skill before the gild. 57 If the master did not fulfill his agreement in respect to instruction and maintenance, he was reported to the gild by inspectors or "Searchers," and subjected to a penalty. Apprentices were taken from masters financially unable to support them, and indentured to others in the same craft

54 See Appendix A. Copy of 1396 indenture of apprenticeship.

55 Hibbert, 52. Indenture of apprenticeship from the Mercers' Company's Records, 1414. "A servicio suo seipsum illicite non absentabit. Bona et catalla dicti Johannis absque ejus licentia nulli accomodabit. Tabernam, scortum, talos, aleas, et joca similia non frequentabit, in dispendium magistri sui. Fornicationem nee adulterium cum aliqua muliere de domo et familia dicti Johannis nullo modo committet, neque uxorem ducet, absque licentia magistri sui. Praecepta et mandata licita et racionabilia magistri sui ubique pro fideli posse ipsius Gulielmi, diligenter adimplebit et eisdem mandatis libenter obediet."

56 Hudson and Tingey, I, 245. Indenture dated June 10, 1291. "eidem Johanni in omnibus prout decet humiliter ndeliter competenter pro posse suo interim deseruiendo . . . et secreta sua que fueri ntconcelanda firmiter concelabit. . . . Et dictus Johannes per totum dictum tempus docebit dictum Hubertum ofheium suum quo utitur . . . Et idem Johannes vel eius assignatus per totum dictum tempus inueniet dicto Huberto cibos et potum vestimenta linea et calciamenta."

57 In order to insure efficient training, the craft of Writers of Court-letter required in 1439 "That no one enfranchised of the craft, without special licence, shall occupy or hold open more than one shop, in order that he may watch his apprentices and examine all feates made by them." (Cal. Let. Bk. K, 235)