New Testament history and literature

Foreword

In the following chapters, it has been our purpose to put into the hands of Bible students a book which will give the leading facts of the New Testament history and discuss concisely and yet comprehensively the more important features of the New Testament literature. It was originally prepared as a text-book for use in our Seminary, and it has also been adopted as a text-book for the correspondence department of the institution. It is the hope of the author that teachers of Bible classes in colleges and other literary schools will find it adapted to their purposes, and that progressive pastors who have advanced classes of young men or young women in their churches, who desire to study the Bible systematically, may adopt it as a text-book.

In the first five chapters an outline of New Testament history is given. It was found impracticable to go into details and discuss minutely many minor points that would be intensely interesting to the Bible student. Students with plenty of time for research are referred to Schiirer, "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ." In these first five chapters we have presented, in small and convenient compass, the political, social, economic and religious history of the Jews in the two centuries prior to, and in the first century of, our Christian era.

In the succeeding chapters it has been attempted to make the New Testament live again before the Twentieth Century Bible student. The historical conditions out of which arose each book of the New Testament, its occasion, purpose, human writer, contents and other important literary features, have been presented as concisely as possible.

What is believed to be a unique feature of the book is the paraphrasing of the epistles and the apocalypse in modern, untechnical language. This last section in each of the later chapters, it is hoped, will help Bible students to get a clear, comprehensive grasp of the main teachings in each book.

Another feature, it is hoped, that will be helpful to young students, busy pastors, and Sunday school teachers, is the bibliography given at the end of the book. Each student should provide himself with two other reference books from these lists — especially with the commentaries suggested in parts II-V.

Chapter I Political Conditions In The Greek And Maccabean Periods

To understand Jesus and the apostles better, and to interpret properly the writings of the New Testament, we must get a clear view of the conditions out of which Christianity rose. So in Part I we shall study the political, social, economic, and religious conditions among the Jews in the New Testament times. In the first two chapters we shall survey the political conditions. In order better to understand the political conditions, we divide the New Testament times into three periods : the Greek period, from Alexander's conquest of Palestine, 331 B. C, to Judas Maccabseus, 168 B. C; the Maccabean period from 168 B. C. to the conquest of Palestine by Pompey, 63 B. C; the Roman period, from 63 B. C. to the close of the First Century A. D.

The Greek Period 1. Alexander the Great. The Macedonian conquered Persia at Issus, 333 B. C, and immediately after took Damascus and Sidon. He laid seige to Tyre in the following year. While at Tyre he sent to Jerusalem a messenger demanding the surrender of Judea. Jaddua, the high priest, refused because he said he owed allegiance to the

Persian emperor. Alexander was enraged at this reply and marched on Jerusalem to take it by arms. The high priest, however, according to a vision sent him by God (so he claimed), with a long procession, met the Macedonian conqueror just outside the gate. Alexander was moved at the sight of the priests' robes and fell in worship at the feet of the high priest. When he arose he marched into the city and offered sacrifice. Thus passed Judea and the Jews into the hands of Greek rulers.

Alexander was generous to the Jews. He accorded to them the privilege of enjoying their religious views and customs and ceremonies. But after his death and the division of his empire among his successors, this happy condition was not to be continued. The pro-Syrian and pro-Egyptian parties in Jerusalem were contending against each other, and even the high priesthood was corrupted by politics. The former party stood for the control of Palestine by Syria; the latter, its control by Egypt. Seleucus IV (king of Syria 187-185 B. C.), toward the close of his reign, tried to get possession of the temple records, and in 175 B. C. Palestine fell into the hands of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria. The poorer classes continued to groan under heavy taxes on fruit, salt, and farm products.

2. Antiochus Epiphanes. In 172 B. C. Epiphanes became involved in wars with Egypt over the possession of Palestine. In two years he had gained victories over all Egypt except Alexandria. He then turned north and entered Palestine, where he found Jason and Menelaus quarreling over the high priesthood. He entered the sanctuary and robbed the temple of its treasures. He carried to Antioch the golden altar, golden candle-sticks, the table of shew-bread, the cups, and even scaled off from the temple building some of its gold. He made Menelaus high priest and left Syrian officials and troops in Jerusalem.

3. His Policy. What was Antiochus' policy towards the Jews? He wished to strengthen Hellenism in Judea, but this was only that he might consolidate all Syria under

THE GREEK AND MACCABEAN PERIODS 9 one Hellenistic civilization. He regarded the Jews as an unassimilated part of his empire, and so deemed them dangerous unless they could be completely Hellenized. A second time, therefore, he sacked Jerusalem, burned it, plundered the temple, massacred thousands, carried off ten thousand slaves, and established a Syrian garrison in its citadel.

4. Bloody Persecution. Religious persecution marked this second campaign. The loyalty of the Jews to the religious faith of their fathers during this bloody persecution has scarcely ever been excelled in the persecutions of any age. Sabbath observance and circumcision became capital offenses. Parents who circumcised their children, and worshippers who obesrved the Sabbath, were butchered like criminals. Heathen temples were built in all the cities of Judea, groves were planted in the temple square, an altar to Jupiter supplanted the altar of burnt offering, and in December, 168 B. C, a female swine was sacrificed in desecration of the temple. The old and the young were beaten with rods, and mothers were crucified with their infants hanging on their necks. As a result of this persecution the mass of Jews became more loyal to the Old Testament, and the messianic hope shown brighter in this dreadful persecution. Some of the extra-canonic books, Judith, parts of Enoch, etc., were the products of these bitter experiences.

The Maccabean Period

1. The Uprising of Matathias. Apelles, a Syrian officer, commanded all the Jews to sacrifice to heathen deities. Matathias. of the house of Asmon, with his five sons, John, Simon, Judas, Eleazar and Jonathan, was present. Apelles tried to bribe them into subjection, but Matathias, the old priest, gave a shout and killed the officiating Jew, and his sons struck down Apelles. Matathias carried on a wild guerrilla warfare till his death, 166 B. C.

2. Judas Maccabeus Sets the Jews Free. Judas, surnamed Maccabeus the Hammerer, was to Judea what Bruce was to Scotland and Washington to America. He raised an army of 6,000, trained them by night, and gained a series of glorious victories over the Syrians. Antiochus, in financial straits, went to Persia to replenish his treasury and commanded his general Lysias to blot out the Jewish nation. Lysias gave this order to Ptolemy Macron, and he sent out Nicanor and Gorgias with 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. Though Nicanor had 5,000 foot and 1,000 horse when he fell upon Judas at Mizpah, the latter's 300 men put Nicanor to flight and slew 3,000 of his men. Gorgias, on hearing of Nicanor's defeat, fled. Judas observed the following Sabbath in thanksgiving and worship, crossed the Jordan, and defeated Timotheus and Bacchides. The next year, 165 B. C., Judas prevented Lysias, the head of the Syrian army, from entering Jerusalem, and then restored the temple worship. The altar of burnt offerings, polluted by Antiochus, was thrown down and a new one erected. The temple was repaired, new furniture was provided, the groves were rooted out of the courts, and loyal non-Hellenistic priests were appointed. On 25 Chisleu (25th of December), the temple was rededicated, and from that day the Feast of Dedication was instituted. Judas strengthened, at the same time, the walls of Jerusalem and the politics of the Jewish state. But at the moment of his victory the Chasidim, the faithful pietists of those days, since they had achieved religious privileges, deserted Judas. A Syrian army again invaded Judea, and Judas, in desperation, made a treaty with Rome. The Chasidim then returned to him, but all in vain. At the battle of Alasa, all but 800 of them deserted him, and so he was defeated and slain.

3. Jonathan Restores an Incipient Jewish Nationality. At first Jonathan, surnamed Apphaeus the "Wary," was an outlaw and was beaten by the Syrian forces. Alcimus, the high priest, imbued with Hellenism, threw down the wall between the Jewish and Gentile courts. Jonathan received the authority from Demetrius, the Syrian emperor, to raise an army and go to Jerusalem as headquarters. Balas, the rival of Demetrius, to outdo Demetrius, made Jonathan high priest and sent him a purple robe and a golden crown, and at the Feast of Tabernacles, 153 B. C., Jonathan first officiated. Balas was assassinated and De-

THE GREEK AND MACCABEAN PERIODS 11 metrius II succeeded to the Syrian throne. Jonathan won, by means of presents, the favor of the Syrian king and now acted as an independent ruler of Judea and renewed the treaty with Rome. He also made a treaty with the Spartans.

4. Simon Consolidates Judea. Simon was a statesman, and, after the death of his brother Jonathan, became the head of Judea. Trypho and Demetrius II in Syria were in a struggle for the supremacy, and Simon proposed to Demetrius an alliance with him against Trypho. Demetrius accepted the proposal and made Simon practically an independent ruler of Judea, 143-142 B. C. (I Mac. 13- 41). Simon coined Jewish money. Legal documents dated from his reign. The Chasidim rallied around him, the high priesthood was made hereditary by the Jewish people in his family (I Mac. 41-46). His reign was prosperous. Rigid Judaism prevailed, and the temple service was enriched with new psalms.

5. John Hyrcanus Achieves Political Independence. Hyrcanus succeeded his father Simon in 131 and was high priest and political head of the nation until 106 B. C. The Syrian king invaded Judea and drove Hyrcanus into Jerusalem, which was almost starved into submission when the Syrian king, forced by Rome, offered to raise the seige on condition that the Jews lay down their arms and pay tribute. Hyrcanus accepted the terms. From this time on he was free to conquer new territory. He reduced Shechem and destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim. He also conquered Idumea. He went on from conquest to conquest, adding new territory, until Judea, under his rule, reached its highest prosperity. During this reign the Pharisees and Sadducees became conflicting parties. Like his father, Simon Hyrcanus himself was at first a Pharisee, but later joined the Sadducees (perhaps for political purposes).

6. Aristobulus, the First King. By the will of Hyrcanus Aristobulus became high priest, and his widowed mother became the political head of the nation. Aristobulus did not like this arrangement and so shut his mother up in prison where she starved to death. He threw into prison three of his brothers, but shared his throne with Antigonus. But he soon became suspicious of him and secretly slew him. Aristobulus himself died with remorse after reigning only one year. He was the first Maccabean that claimed the title of king. This is the record of Josephus (Ant. XIII i :i), but Strabo (Georg. XVI 2:40) says that Aristobulus' successor was the first high priest that became king.

7. Jannaeus Struggles with the Pharisees. Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of Hyrcanus and was raised to the throne by Salome, his brother's widow. The Pharisees at this time became opponents of the Maccabeans and thoroughly organized against Jannaeus. He disregarded the sanctity of the high priest's office, and so, at the Feast of Tabernacles, the Pharisees pelted him with citron. Upon this Jannaeus fell upon the Jews and slew 6,000 (Ant. XIII 13:5). The struggle between Jannaeus and the Pharisees lasted eight years, in which time 50,000 Jews were slain. But Jannaeus was unhindered by the opposition and pushed his boundaries until they reached from the desert to the Mediterranean, from Lebannon to the Nile ; that is, his kingdom reached the magnificent proportions of the kingdom under David. Jannaeus ruled twenty-seven years. Just before his death he was reconciled to the Pharisees and counselled his queen, Alexandra, to defer to them in her policies.

8. Alexandra, the Queen of Reforms. On succeeding to the throne Alexandra followed the policy suggested by her dying husband. She was at heart a Pharisee and permitted the Pharisees to control in politics as well as religion (Antiq. XIII 13-16). She allowed the Pharisees to carry on a systematic assassination of the Sadducaic leaders. She was a diplomatist and kept the Jewish state at peace with all the nations. These were the halcyon days of the Pharisees. Under their good queen they instituted many reforms; made divorce difficult; arranged for a better celebration of the feasts; made the temple service secure, by levying a half sheckel tax on all Jews above

THE GREEK AND MACCABEAN PERIODS 13 twenty years of age, whether in or out of Palestine. Public schools were also established, in which Jewish boys might be trained in the history and religion of their fathers.

Chapter II

This is the most interesting period of Jewish history, because it gives us the immediate background for the study of the times of Christ and the apostles ; because during this period the Messiah was born and lived and taught; was rejected by His own people and crucified as an impostor; furthermore, during this period Jerusalem was finally destroyed, and Judea ceased to be the home of the chosen people; and from this period began that most remarkable dispersion of the Jewish people to the four quarters of the earth, among the various nations.

i. How the Romans Came Into Relations with the Jews. Queen Alexandra died in 69 B. C. Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II carried on civil war in Judea over the priesthood. Antipater, governor of Judea, espoused the cause of Aristobulus II for the priesthood against Hyrcanus, and persuaded him to flee to Aretas, king of Arabia, and form an alliance with him against Hyrcanus. Aristobulus accepted this advice, and the three, with 50,000 soldiers, marched against Hyrcanus and shut him up in the citadel of Jersualem. The siege lasted for some time. The people stood on the side of Hyrcanus, while the priests were for Aristobulus. While the seige was on, Pompey was conquering Syria and reducing all Asia to order (67-65). When he had made Syria secure under the Roman power, through his General Scaurus, he sent the latter against Judea. When he arrived in Judea, he found Hyrcanus and Aristobulus contending for the priesthood. Each sent the Roman general a promise of four hundred talents (about $800,000) if he would decide in his favor as to the kingdom and high priesthood. The Roman general decided for Aristobulus. This occurred in 65 B. C. By the spring of 63, Pompey himself reached Judea and found that Aristobulus had raised a rebellion. Immediately upon Pompey's arrival Aristobulus met him and promised him a large sum of money and the surrender of Jerusalem if he would guarantee the withdrawal of the Romans from the country. Pompey accepted this proposal, but when Pompey's general, Gabinius, came to receive the handing over of the city to Pompey, the soldiers of Aristobulus refused to give up the city. Pompey was enraged and laid seige to the city, and after three months, on the day of Pentecost, 63. the Romans rushed into the temple and butchered the priests at the altar. Twelve thousand Jews fell, but Pompey left the temple treasures of two thousand talents untouched and continued the worship of the temple by appointing Hyrcanus as high priest. Aristobulus was taken as a prisoner to Rome to grace Pompey's triumphal entrance (Antiq. XVI 4:3). So in a hundred years from Judas' victories and eighty from Simon's independence of the Jewish people. Judea passed again into the hands of a foreign power, never again to be a free nation.

2. The Psalms of Solomon. In 57 B. C. Gabinius, Pompey's general, divided Judea into three toparchies, at the head of which was the council of its chief city. These councils managed the taxes and local affairs in subjection to the proconsul of Syria. The Jews chafed under this foreign subjection (Antiq. XIV 4:5), and one of the finest literary productions among the extra-canonic writings was the result — The Psalms of Solomon. The production might be better named, The Psalms of the Pharisees, since the book was doubtless written by some loyal Pharisee. In these eighteen psalms shines the messianic hope. The Pharisees quit fighting the Sadducees about political power and settled down to the study of the law and the development of the old traditions of the scribes.

3. The Rise of the Herod Family. Antipater, governor of Idumea, was a shrewd, extraordinary man, and was a friend of Rome. In return for special services to Rome he was put at the head of the finances of Judea. Antipater favored Hyrcanus II as high priest, and they both stood for Pompey in the civil wars between Pompey and Julius Caesar. At the defeat of Pompey Hyrcanus and Antipater transferred their allegiance to Caesar. So Caesar confirmed Hyrcanus II as hereditary high priest and made Antipater a Roman citizen and procurator of Judea (Antiq. XIV. 10 :8).

4. Julius Caesar and the Jews. Caeasr was generous to the Jews. He freed them from the support of the Roman army, exempted them from all tribute during the Sabbatic year, and left their religious customs untouched, not only in Judea but in Alexandria. The Alexandrians were even recognized as Roman citizens (Antiq. XIV. 10:1, 5, 6, 9).

Antipater was now established in favor with Caesar and in power in Judea, and had his family put in places of honor and power. Phasaelus was made governor of Jerusalem, and Herod, his younger son, was placed in charge in Galilee.

5. The Jews Under Brutus, Cassius and Antony. On March 15, 44 B. C, Julius Caesar was assassinated. In the civil wars that followed his death the Jews suffered. Lucius Cassius, one of the conspirators, went to Coele- Syria to raise funds for the campaign, and exhorbitant taxes were laid upon the Jews — seven hundred talents to be paid annually (nearly $1,400,000) (Antiq. XVI. 11:2 and 4). But Antipater espoused the cause of Cassius. Herod in Galilee was so zealous in raising the taxes there that Cassius re-appointed him general of both land and sea forces in Coele-Syria. At Philippi, 42 B. C, Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius and went east to re-establish the Roman power. An embassy of Jews met him, begging him to restore Hyrcanus II and the theocracy, but Herod bought the favor of Antony. Though deputation after deputation of the Jews visited him, begging that he reduce the power of the Herodian family, he not only disregarded these petitions, but made Phasaelus tetrarch in Judea and Herod tetrarch in Galilee (Antiq. XIV 13:1-2).

6. Herod Becomes King of the Jews. In 40 B. C.

Antigonus the Maccabean headed a revolt against Roman authority, while Antony enjoyed the charms of the beautiful Cleopatra in Egypt. By the gift of a hundred talents and five hundred women he won the Parthian army now invading Judea. With these he attacked the king's palace in Jerusalem, but Herod escaped to Arabia, then went to Rome to ask that Aristobulus, grandson of Hyrcanus II and brother of Mariamne, afterwards his wife, be appointed king. But Antony and Octavius appointed Herod himself as king in Jerusalem. The senate in Rome confirmed his appointment, and after feasting with Antony Herod returned to take his kingdom. But he must win it. Antigonus was in possession of Judea. Some of the Galileans joined him, the Samaritans did not resist him, and Antony gave him two legions of Roman soldiers. Though Herod's brother Joseph was defeated and slain by Antigonus, yet in three years Herod was master of all Judea except Jerusalem, and in the spring of 37 B. C. he laid siege to it. So sure of victory was he that he stopped the seige to marry Mariamne, the daughter of Alexander, the son of Aristobulus II, and maternal grand-daughter of Hyrcanus II, and reputed the most beautiful woman of that age. Soon after, with eleven legions and 6,000 horse, he captured Jerusalem from Antigonus, after a five months' siege, and had Antigonus beheaded. Thus passed away the last hope of the Maccabean dynasty.

7. Herod's Character. In character Herod was a marvel, a shrewd and ambitious man of the world, a brave fighter, and a great builder. As king he ranked among the "allied kings;" that is, he was king by consent of Rome. He did not pay tribute, but made large gifts. He made his own copper coins.

8. Significance of Herod's Reign —

(a) Hellenism increased. The heathen population increased in all Judea. Jerusalem had theatres, amphitheatres, games and a gymnasium, just like the Greek cities. Still Pharisaism was consolidated. At the beginning of his reign the Pharisees favored Herod against Antigonus and the Sadducees. So Herod had the Sanhedrin reorganized under Pharisaic influence. In his reign flourished the teachers Hillel and Shammai, the latter being stern and rigid, the former gentle and liberal. It was

Hillel who gave the world, through Judaism, its negative golden rule: "Do not to others what thou wouldest not have done to thyself."

(b) He broke the power of the Sadducaic aristocracy by executing forty leaders at the beginning of his reign (Antiq. XV 1:2). Throughout his life he had no fear from them.

(c) He conquered the nations around, especially humiliating the Arabians (Antiq. XV 5).

(d) Being a diplomatist, he kept ever in the favor of Rome, easily transferring his allegiance from Antony to Octavius when the latter defeated the former at Actium.

(e) One of the most remarkable features of his reign was his building operations. He rebuilt the citadel of the Jerusalem temple, and named it Antonia for Antony; he built a theatre and amphitheatre in Jerusalem; castles in several cities ; and even built cities, Sebaste and Caesarea, the latter in building twelve years and named for Augustus. In the Jordan valley he also built Antipatris and Phasaelus, named for his father and brother respectively. He even erected public buildings in foreign cities, Antioch, Tyre, Damascus, Sparta, etc., which he visited.

(f) Though Hellenistic in taste, Herod was tolerant toward the Jews, in the main, and sought to improve their internal conditions. He improved the water supply, twice reduced the taxes, in 20 and 14 B. C, and kept the country in peace. In 20 B. C. he began rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem.

(g) The political party called Zealots took its rise in Herod's reign. They sprang from the Pharisees. They despaired of the coming of the Messiah and resorted to revolution to right the wrongs of Judea and set the country free from Rome.

(h) The most mysterious occurrences in the reign of Herod were his numerous murders. His mother-in-law, Alexandra, and his sons, Aristobulus and Antipater, were the victims of his bloody designs. After living until the world's Supreme King was born — the Messiah of the Jews — and, after slaying the innocents of Bethlehem and his son Antigonus in his last months, in despair and with an incurable plague, Herod the Great died in 4 B. C.

9. Herod's Successors. Herod the Great on a visit to Rome received the right from Augustus to dispose of his kingdom. He made three or four wills, but Augustus confirmed the last one, according to which his son Archelaus became king of Judea, Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, and Herod Philip, tetrarch of the eastern districts.

10. Archelaus Rules in Judea. Trouble began at once with Archelaus. The people demanded a reduction of taxes and a release of prisoners. Though Archelaus granted these demands, the Pharisees took revenge for the judgment by Herod of Judas and Matathias, two Zealots who just before Herod's death incited their followers to tear the golden eagle from the gate over the temple. At the Passover a battle ensued between Archelaus and the Pharisees and three thousand Jews fell.

The Jews appealed to Augustus for the restoration of the theocracy and the deposition of the Herod dynasty. They sent fifty prominent men who were joined by 8,000 Jews in Rome. Augustus decided againts the Jews and made Archelaus king. Archelaus was worse than his father, having all his bad qualities and lacking his good ones. After ten years of "barbarous and tyrannical usage" of the Jews (so Josephus) Archelaus was accused before Augustus, deposed, banished to Gaul, and his property confiscated (6 A. D.). Such were the political conditions of Judea while Jesus was growing into boyhood.

11. Antipas in Galilee and Perea. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, is sometimes called "king" in the gospels (Mk. 6:14, but see Matt. 14:1, and Luke 3:19, where he is called tetrarch). He is the greatest of the sons of Herod the Great and reigned from 4 B. C. to 39 A. D. In character he was cunning, being called by Jesus "that fox." He attended the Jewish feasts, but also observed the heathen customs. He fell in love with Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, divorced his legal wife, and married her. John the Baptist denounced him for this course and lost his head at Antipas' hands.

12. Philip. Herod Philip, tetrarch of the Northeastern district from 4 B. C. to 34 A. D., was not connected with the history of the Jews, and so was not important in New Testament history. But Philip was the finest character of the Herodian family.

13. Decapolis. Decapolis was a confederation of Grseco-Roman cities and included at first only ten cities, which united for military and commercial purposes. Scythopolis was the capital. The inhabitants of these cities were, in the main, Greeks, and through the Hellenism of this section Palestine felt the power of Greek culture.

14. The Dispersion. From the days of Antigonus III, and almost from the days of Alexander the Great, the Jews formed colonies in various parts of the world. These colonies of Jews outside of Palestine were called the Diaspora or Dispersion or "Grecians," while the Jews of Palestine were called "Hebrews." The Jews of the dispersion were loyal to Judaism, attending the Passover at Jerusalem at least once in a lifetime, and in whatever land turned their faces toward Jerusalem when they prayed. The Jews of the dispersion, however, were more liberal than the Palestinian Jews and often sought to establish a universal Mosaism. Though not successful in this, the Jews in the dispersion helped to prepare the world for the coming of the Messiah. Such great spirits as Paul and Barnabas belonged to the dispersion and brought to Christianity their cosmopolitan culture.

15. The Roman Procurators. At the deposing of Archelaus, 6 A. D., Judea, Samaria, and Idumea were consolidated into a Roman province called Judea, over which the Roman procurators were placed as governors. These procurators seemed to have been independent of the legates of Syria, except on rare occasions.

16. Their Powers —

(1.) They were fiscal agents of the Roman government; that is, they were at the head of the administration of the system of taxes and customs. They were salaried officials. The customs formed an intricate system for swindling and oppressing the people. They were numerous and burdensome, export and import duties, market taxes, taxes on salt and other products, and were let out to speculators who again sold their rights to collect the taxes to subordinate collectors called in the gospels "publicans" (see Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus, I, 5151*).

(2.) The procurator also had military powers, keeping one cohort regularly and at feasts two or three or more, in order to put down any rebellion that might arise.

(3.) The procurator had also judicial powers. As judge he had the power of life and death. Only a Roman citizen had the right to appeal from his decision to the Roman emperor (Antiq. XX 1:1; 5:2). The local and Jerusalem Sanhedrins tried most of the ordinary cases. Cases of capital punishment had to be submitted to the procurator, the Sanhedrin not having the power for capital punishment after about 40 B. C.

The Later Herods

1. Herod Agrippa I., the son of Aristobulus and the grandson of Herod the Great, was born in 10 B. C, and died in 44 A. D. He is the Herod mentioned in Acts XII, who embraced the cause of the Jews against the Christians. He was educated in Rome and was thoroughly imbued with Hellenistic culture. He was magnanimous but reckless and extravagant. To please the Jews he persecuted the Church. He slew James, the brother of John, and imprisoned Peter. We have two accounts of his death, one in Josephus (Antiq. XIX 8:2) and the other in Acts XII.