Bush-fruits

Front matter

Illill

HI

Class _cL

Part I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER I

' PAGES

Introductory Discussion 1-40

Status of bush-fruits in the home-garden and in commercial culture, 1 — The location, 4 — The site and the soil, 5 — Fertilizers, 8 — Suggestions on planting, 9 — Management of the land, 13 — Tillage tools, 16— Pruning, 17 — Staking and trellising, 19 — Winter-killing, 20 — Propagation, 26 — Thinning the fruit, 28 — Forcing bush-fruits, 28 — Suggestions on picking, 29 — Packages and marketing, 31 — Cold storage, 33 — Methods of crossing berries, 34.

CHAPTER II The Red Raspberries 41-59

The soil, 41 — The site and exposure, 42 — Fertilizers, 43 — Propagation, 45 — Planting, 46 — Pollination, 47 —Tillage, 48 — Pruning, 48 — Autumn fruiting, 51 — Harvesting and marketing, 53 — Uses, 53 — Duration of plantations, 54 — Hardiness, 56 — Yields, 57 — Normal profits, 58 — Note on the hybrid reds, 58.

viii Contents

Chapter III Pages

Black Raspberries 60-87

Soil for black-caps, 60 — Location, 61 — Fertilizers, 62 — Propagation, 64 — Planting, 66 — Tillage, 69 — Pruning, 70 — Harvesting, 73 — Methods of drying, 76 — Marketing, 82 — Duration of plantations, 82 — Clearing the ground, 83 — Yields, 84 — Usual profits, 86.

CHAPTER IV The Blackberries 88-118

Soil, 88 — -Fertilizers, 89 — Propagation, 91 — Planting, 94 — Tillage and mulching, 97 — Pruning, 100 — Harvesting and marketing, 102 — Uses, 103 — Lessening the effects of drought, 107 — Duration of plantations, 109 — Removing the plants, 109 — Hardiness, 110 — - Yields, 111 — Profits, 113 — The evergreen blackberries, 117.

Chapter V

Soil, 124 — Location, 124 — Fertilizers, 124 — Propagation, 125— Planting, 125— Tillage, 126— Pruning and training, 127 — Harvesting and marketing, 129 — Duration of plantations, 129 — Killing out the patch, 129— Hardiness, 130— Yield, 130— Profits, 131— The western dewberries, 131.

CHAPTER VI Miscellaneous Brambles 134-146

The Oriental raspberries, 134 — (The mayberry, the strawberry-raspberry, the wineberry, the Chinese

Contents ix

PAGES

raspberry, Rubus xanthocarpus) — Ornamental species, 138 (Rubus odoratus, R. parviflorus, R. deliciosus, R. cratcegifolius, R. arcticus, R. phanicolasius, R. spectabilis, R. laciniatus, double white and pink brambles, R. trifidus, R. Henryi.)

CHAPTER VII Varieties op Raspberries 147-202

Black raspberries, 148— Recommended varieties of black-caps, 165 — The red and hybrid raspberries, 165 — History and future of the red raspberries, 170 — Varieties of red and hybrid raspberries, 176 — Recommended varieties, 202.

Chapter VIII

Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries . . . 203-232 The blackberries, 203 — -Botanical derivation, 204 — History and future of the blackberry, 206 — The dewberries, 209 — Botanical derivation, 210 — Cultivated varieties of blackberries and dewberries, 214 — Recommended varieties, 231.

Part III THE GROSELLES CHAPTER XI

FAGES

Soil and location, 265 — Fertilizers, 266 — Propagation, 267— Planting, 270— Subsequent tillage, 271— Pruning, 272— Gathering and marketing, 275— Uses, 276 — Duration of plantations, 277 — Hardiness, 278 — Yield, 279— Profits, 280— Black currants, 281.

Chapter XII

Soil and location, 283 — Fertilizers, 284 — Propagation, 284— Planting, 288— After treatment, 288— Pruning, 289— Gathering and marketing, 291 — Uses, 293— Duration of plantations, 294 — Hardiness, 295— Yield, 295— Profits, 296— English gooseberries, 297.

CHAPTER XIII Varieties op Currants 299-315

Botanical derivation, 299 — History of the cultivated currant, 302 — Red and white currants, 304 — European black currants, 312 — The golden or buffalo currant, 314 — The American black currant, 314 — Recommended varieties, 315.

CHAPTER XVII Other Species of Bush-Fruits 355-395 INDEX (page 397)

PLATES

I. Blackberries in bloom Frontispiece

Opposite page

II. Black raspberries 60

III. Evaporating raspberries 78

IV. Loganberries in bloom 132

V. Raspberries, Black Pearl and Herbert 186

VI. Loganberry fruit and loading crates 222

VII. Snyder blackberry 228

VIII. Enemies of brambles 254

IX. One-year currants 268

X. Two-year currants 278

XL Two good currants 304

XII. Two types of gooseberries 318

XIII. Gooseberries, Chautauqua and Columbus .... 322

XIV. Industry gooseberry 324

XV. Afflictions of groselles 334

XVI. Blueberries 366

BUSHFRUXTS

Chapter I Introductory Discussion

Bush-fkuits occupy a place of their own in the pomological field. They do not meet the universal demand that does the strawberry, and cannot be grown on such an extensive scale under most conditions. Neither have they the stability and lasting qualities of the tree-fruits, but they fit into their own place between the two and fill there an important position.

Their place in the home-garden is assured and needs no comment. Each kind is a favorite of some persons, and all are relished by most people. To the busy farmer they offer a healthful and appetizing luxury with a minimum outlay of labor. To the business or professional man seeking rest and relaxation in his garden, they afford a delightful pastime as well. For the additional attention which he is likely to give, they will return increased lusciousness and beauty, coupled with the personal interest that accompanies a product of one's own growing.

In the commercial field, the position of these fruits is varied. The demand is unequal, the uses different, and the success attendant on their culture greatly dependent on local conditions. The census of 1910 shows a falling off in the acreage devoted to all lines of small fruits in the United States. Even the strawberry, which is much more largely grown than any of the others, lost ground by some 8,000 acres within the previous decade. Blackberries and dewberries, which are classed together, nearly held their own. Raspberries and loganberries, which are also grouped under one head, dropped from 60,916 acres in 1899, to 48,668 acres in 1909, the greatest decrease being in the East North-Central division. A marked exception to the general decline is shown by these two fruits in the Mountain and Pacific divisions. In the latter the acreage more than doubled within that period. This is probably due in great part to the introduction and extensive planting of the loganberry. Currants and gooseberries both lost heavily during this period.

Large areas of some of the bush-fruits are grown at times, but their more important place is in diversified fruit-growing. Under exceptional conditions, with an assured market at hand, the growing of large areas of a single fruit may be wise, but under normal conditions it is likely to be fraught with disappointment. The production and consumption of strawberries is nearly or quite as great now as ever, but the tendency is apparently away from larger areas, the total product being grown by a much larger number of men, most of whom supply the demands of their own locality, rather than depend on the wider wholesale markets of the country. This tendency is doubtless wise, for the home market is often the best.

Personal experience may serve as an illustration. Located in a general farming community, remote from large

Introductory Discussion 3

centers of population, to market any fruit extensively would mean shipment to distant points. This is a convenient outlet for surplus, but the net returns are nearly always less than those secured at home. This home market never pays the fancy price that the grower is likely to hold in his mind as the ideal for his efforts; neither does it expect to secure fruit at the glut prices which often prevail in the large markets. This market will take what it requires, at prices that afford fair profits to the intelligent grower. It is the part of wisdom to try to meet the demands of this home trade. This means that the grower should raise more of some things, and leave out other things which he would like to grow. If he grows gooseberries, the home market may not want them; these must be shipped. For strawberries and raspberries the market is hungry. He can therefore grow a certain quantity at a good profit, while to grow them largely would doubtless prove unprofitable. Peaches, likewise, are much in demand. The best trade is often from the farmers, who sometimes come as far as ten miles to get the fruit and take it home with them. These persons come to look the grower's way for such fruit as they want whether he grows it or not. It is wise to meet their demands more fully.

It will readily be seen that the conditions prevailing at such a location are very different from those in a strictly fruit-growing locality, where most farmers are producers rather than consumers. Yet many a grower will find its counterpart in his own situation. Its citation merely serves to emphasize the old problem of diversity of surroundings and the need of individuality in meeting a given problem.

THE LOCATION

The question of location may oftener than otherwise be a problem of adaptation, provided the growing of bush-fruits is merely to fit into some general scheme of agricultural operations. If one is bent on doing some certain thing, and that alone, then one should study the matter of location well, and choose a site adapted to his needs. This is seldom done. More frequently other considerations determine where the anchor shall be cast. The problem must ever be an individual one. Any attempt to solve it in a large way will be futile and result in little but useless generalities. Let the grower study well his tastes and his surroundings, talk with fruit handlers in the community, then learn from experience. There is no other way.

No attempt will be made here to discuss the adaptability of different regions of the country to the growing of bush-fruits, yet this is an important consideration for the commercial grower. The writer was unable to grow raspberries and blackberries successfully in the dry climate of the Plains region, and met with no marked success in the fickle climate of the New England coast. This does not mean that these fruits cannot be grown in these locations. It does mean, however, that the difficulties are greater than in the region of the central states. Deficient moisture in one case, and excessive moisture in the other, had much to do with results.

Summer heat is a greater enemy than winter cold over much of the United States, especially in the southern states and the semi-arid regions of the West. In many such localities bush-fruits cannot be profitably grown.

The Site and the Soil 5

A cool moist locality is much more favorable for all these fruits than a warm and dry one. Black-caps succeed better on the Plains than either red raspberries or blackberries, while in the South blackberries thrive better than raspberries. Propagation of black-caps is found to be much more difficult in the far South, requiring partially shaded locations for success.

THE SITE AND THE SOIL

The immediate location or site is a matter of importance with the bush-fruits. All are subject to injury from spring frosts, and are therefore safer on elevated land. All are subject to injury from summer drought and excessive heat. The ideal location, therefore, is a cool northern exposure which does not feel the full effects of the sun's rays in midsummer. In practical farm operations other things usually determine the particular location of a plantation, but if a choice is available there is an advantage in choosing as above.

Bush-fruits will thrive on almost all soils but most kinds do best on strong moist land, which is deep and porous, but well drained. Heavy undrained soils are unsuitable and should never be chosen. All are not equally well adapted to every kind of soil. If a range of soils were available, the dewberry would naturally take its place on the light sand, the red raspberry and the blackberry on the lighter sandy loams, the black-cap on the heavier sandy or lighter clay loams, with the currant and gooseberry on the strong clay loam or even on fairly stiff heavy clay. Varieties differ also, especially among the brambles.

Strong rank growers may develop too much cane-growth with deficient fruiting qualities if the soil is heavy and rich. This is particularly likely to occur with blackberries and red raspberries. Winter-killing is often the sequel to rank growth of canes.

Drought resistance is really the prime essential to be sought in the choice of soils. The soil which will provide the best supply of moisture during the ripening period is the one which is likely to give the most profitable returns. This quality can be greatly enhanced by methods of handling. A soil which is well filled with humus, and in good tilth, will withstand drought far better than a similar one which lacks humus and is not well tilled. Recently turned sod is objectionable because inconvenient to furrow and plant. It is difficult thoroughly to firm the soil about the roots in such land. The percentage of loss is therefore likely to be higher and the rate of growth slower. But the sooner after the sod has rotted that the field can be planted, the better will be the conditions for growth. Hence land which has been tilled but one year is better than that which has been longer under the plow. Even sod land plowed early in the fall may be used for spring planting the following year with good results.

A heavy sod in process of decay is the best source from which to obtain humus whether for bush-fruits or other crops. Unfortunately this supply is soon exhausted, as the land remains under tillage, and must be supplemented from other sources. Stable-manure used for fertilizer will help to maintain the supply but is insufficient for best results, unless used very heavily. Cover-crops have not been extensively used in bush-fruit plantations, but a

The Site and the Soil 7

limited experience shows that they are decidedly advantageous. What the particular cover-crop shall be will always be determined by conditions. Where crimson clover thrives it is undoubtedly one of the best. For northern latitudes hairy vetch is more dependable. Rye should be avoided for, unless uprooted at just the right moment in spring, it so quickly saps moisture from the ground that the crop may suffer much. Its growth in spring is so rapid that a very little delay caused by unfavorable weather or any one of the many things which are always hindering in farm work may cause serious injury. 1

Soil acidity may have considerable influence on results. Its effects differ greatly with the different types of fruit. The red raspberry is impatient with an acid soil and will respond well to an application of lime. The black-cap is not sensitive to acidity. It may even object to too heavy applications of lime. Blackberries are comparatively indifferent, but may be helped some by lime if the soil is very sour. Currants and gooseberries appear to behave in much the same way, being somewhat benefited when the soil is very sour. Huckleberries, on the other hand, demand a sour soil and will only thrive when it is present.

Thorough preparation of the soil is essential, especially deep plowing, with a good plow which will thoroughly pulverize the soil. One should remember that he is to plow but once and the crop lasts long; therefore, the work should be thorough. Subsoiling may be advantageous under exceptional conditions, but under those conditions underdraining will probably be better. Dynamiting, de-

1 For a fuller discussion of cover-crops in their relation to fruit-growing, see Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-growing," Revised Ed.

signed to accomplish the same object, is more in use at present, but apparently no more likely to prove generally beneficial.

Few definite results seem to be available showing what fertilizers to use. In fact definite results with fertilizers are not easily obtained anywhere, and when gotten may be of very indefinite value under conditions differing from those of the experiment. A knowledge and application of the general principles of plant feeding are much more valuable than any specific directions or rules. Stable-manure is a safe material to use where available, unless it be on moist fertile soil where there is a tendency to rank and tender growth of canes. If supplemented with mineral elements, the results are likely to be better. Basic slag is undoubtedly one of the best sources of phosphoric acid. Wood-ashes form an ideal source of potash, but are so seldom available that muriate of potash is much oftener used, 100 pounds to the acre being sufficient. Stable-manure is best applied in fall or winter, so that it may become available for early spring growth and not foster a late fall growth which may lead to winter-killing.

Leguminous cover-crops, if used, may furnish all the nitrogen needed under many conditions. If it becomes necessary to supply this element in the form of chemicals, it can be obtained from nitrate of soda or dried blood. One hundred pounds of the former or 125 pounds of the latter, to the acre, will be ample under average conditions. Voorhees 1 recommends a basic formula consisting of 150 1 "Fertilizers," Revised Ed., p. 313.

Suggestions on Planting 9

pounds of ground bone and 100 pounds of muriate of potash, to be supplemented with nitrogen as needed.

SUGGESTIONS ON PLANTING

Planting may be done in spring or fall. Each time has its advantages. In fall planting the work can be conducted more leisurely and when the ground is in the right condition. In spring there is always a rush of work and often the ground is too wet to work well until the season is late. If mulched with manure or earth, fall-set plants will generally go through the winter in safety. When spring opens such a plant is ready to beign growth at once. In regions of excessive or deficient rainfall, fall planting is less likely to succeed. In the one case plants are often lifted by heaving; in the other they may suffer from winter drought. Spring planting, if done early and under proper conditions, is always safe and often best. It is particularly best for black-caps and dewberries. A point worth remembering is that the soil is much more easily worked following spring planting than following fall planting. This may materially affect the cost of the first season's care. Currants and gooseberries begin growth so early that it is more difficult to get them in on time. The young shoots which spring up from black raspberry tips are very tender and easily broken when started, hence late spring planting should be avoided.

For increasing a stock of red raspberries or blackberries on one's own grounds, young shoots of the present season's growth may be used with good results. Transplant them like cabbage plants any time after they are four inches high. If much taller than this cut off the tops. They should be well established by fall. All plants, and especially red raspberries and blackberries, should be carefully lifted. If carelessly pulled up, the plant is likely to break at the connection with the root from which it springs, leaving only a straight cane, with very few roots attached.

The individuality of the parent plant is worth considering when it is feasible to do so. Plants of the same variety may vary, widely in productiveness and size of fruit. It is reasonable to expect some of these differences to reappear in the offspring. This point has doubtless been over-emphasized in some cases. Great claims have sometimes been made for so-called "pedigree" plants. Heredity through mere division of the parent plant does not operate in the same way as it does in sexual reproduction of animal life. Many of the differences which appear in plants of the same variety are due to different conditions to which the plant may have been subjected, and may not reappear in the young plants taken from it. Yet every practical grower would rather have a strong, thrifty plant, from a vigorous and productive parent, than the opposite. Vigor and thrift are essential. " Pedigree" other than this is of doubtful value.

Six feet apart is a common and convenient distance for bush-fruit rows, with plants two to three feet apart in the rows. Under some conditions check-rows may be preferable, since their use reduces the amount of hand work needed to keep the plantation clean. In that case plants may be put four to five feet apart each way. Blackberries and red raspberries, owing to their suckering habit, natu-

Suggestions on Planting 11

rally form hedge-rows. These are inconvenient to -keep clean, but produce more fruit than the smaller number of plants which will be left in hills. Currants and gooseberries adapt themselves readily to hill culture, in fields of sufficient size. In dry climates plants should be farther apart than where moisture is more abundant. Too close planting in a moist climate, especially in a sheltered location where the wind cannot have free play, may favor the spread of fungous diseases. When rows are placed six feet apart, it may sometimes be worth while to set the plants four feet apart in the rows and line them the opposite way so that the rows may be crossed with horse and cultivator when the plants are small and when the old canes are first removed after fruiting.

If plants are received from a distance, the sooner they can be set the better, but if conditions are unfavorable it is better to wait. Heeling-in is a simple process, and if carefully done the plants may be safely kept for some time. In the shade of a building is a good place to do this. A shallow trench should be opened, with one side slightly slanting. Loosen the bunches enough so that the roots may all come in contact with the earth, then lay them against the slanting side and cover the roots carefully, pressing the earth firmly about them. Tier after tier may be packed in this way. If too dry when received, placing the plants in water or covering them entirely with earth for a time will help them to recover.

The most convenient method of planting is to throw out good deep furrows with a plow. If the plants are to be set in check-rows, the field should first be marked at right angles to the furrows. It is the practice of some growers to use stakes for all such furrowing out. At least three are needed, one for either end and one between. Care must be taken to see that these are set in perfect range to begin with. Notches are cut on each to give the correct distance apart for the rows. Starting at the first stake a mark is made in the soil and the stake moved to the place for the next row. The driver should then step between the heads of the team, taking each horse by the bit and walking between them, keeping his eye constantly on the two stakes ahead and in exact range with them. A man behind keeps the plow following in his footsteps. Before the middle stake is reached one should try to catch some object in the distance, by which to keep the proper range from that point to the end of the row, after moving this stake to the next row. When the end is reached a mark is made for the starting point of the second row and the stake set for the third one. It is ordinarily better to return in the same furrow, for by going twice in the same row the soil is turned out in both directions and left in a finer and better condition for covering the plants. It is often possible also to correct irregularities of the furrow caused by stones throwing the plow to one side or from other reasons. Another advantage is that in going but once in a furrow, with these turned in opposite directions, the alternate spaces are likely to differ in width. If it seems desirable to have a straight landside to the furrow, against which to place the plants in setting, the plow should pass through but once. In that case it is often better to furrow but one way, driving back each time without plowing a furrow. With a well-trained team, a good driver can make the furrows very straight alone,

Management of the Land 13

but it is more convenient to let one man attend to the plow while another leads the team.

If the soil is deep, it may be well to make the furrows deep and set the plants well below the surface, only partially filling in the furrow at the time of planting. It is sometimes thought that plants so set are better able to withstand drought and will stand up better. That depends much on soil conditions. If the subsoil is hard and unfavorable for root-growth, and the surface soil shallow, deep planting will not be wise.

In well-prepared ground, with the furrows deep enough, the plants are quickly set with the hands alone, drawing the earth over the roots and firming it well, but leaving much of the furrow to be filled in with a hoe or by the subsequent cultivation. It is best to carry small plants of this kind in water, from which they are removed only as set. If several persons are at work, one may carry and drop the plants while the others set. The plants should be dropped no faster than they are set. If one person is working alone, the plants may be carried in a pail partially filled with water from which they are removed as needed.

MANAGEMENT OF THE LAND

Bush-fruits will not fully occupy the soil the first year. Intercropping is, therefore, permissible. With rows six feet apart a row of almost any tilled crop may be placed between. Even strawberries may be used, though these are less desirable because remaining until the second year. The advisability of intercropping depends much on the fertility of the soil and the methods of the grower. Sometimes it is wise, sometimes unwise.

The first year's cultivation is simple. The same care which any other hoed crop should receive will suffice. The better the tillage, the better the growth; the more complete the dust mulch, the more moisture will be conserved.

The tillage of succeeding years is not so simple. Many soils become very hard when not plowed, and weeds soon gain a foothold. Here is a case where the proverbial "stitch in time" is especially important. But even with the best of intentions the stitch will sometimes be dropped. Frost leaves the ground in excellent condition in spring, loose and easily tilled. If the cultivator and hoes can be started at once, and kept going, all will go well. Unfortunately this soil condition is altogether too brief. Spring rains, winds and sun soon change it. Often the ground is not dry enough to work before the change has taken place. Any good cultivator will do the work if it can be started in time, but if delayed too long even a plow may be necessary. This is undesirable, for even as shallow a furrow as can be turned is likely to prove injurious, especially among the groselles, where deep cultivation is always to be avoided. The use of cover-crops may necessitate more vigorous methods in the spring cultivation than would be needed otherwise. In soils which are easily worked, a scuffle hoe may do the work among the plants more rapidly than an ordinary hoe.

Maturity of cane and winter hardiness do not seem to be coordinate among bush-fruits. Hence the common advice to cease tillage in midsummer in order to ripen

Management of the Land 15

wood-growth is at least open to question. Canes which spring up late in the season, and which apparently go into winter immature, will often come through green to the tip, while large and apparently mature canes will be seriously injured. Much depends on climate, locality and season. In semi-arid climates, like that of the plains, there is little danger of inducing too late fall growth by continuous tillage. Lack of soil moisture is a greater menace. Plants there often suffer from winter drought. The writer found that continuous cultivation gave good results in Nebraska. Some definite, careful experimentation is needed to determine what conditions and methods of treatment are needed to insure least injury in winter.

Mulching to replace tillage is often suggested. It is a practice which is to be commended under some conditions, but those conditions are exceptional rather than general. It is especially adapted to moist soils in regions of abundant rainfall. In the home-garden, where the plot may be small and inconvenient to cultivate or where there is no horse available with which to do the work, it may be the best plan. In field culture the soil mulch is generally the best. On any large scale, mulching is expensive. It is often difficult to obtain material and it takes time to apply it. Mulching is thought to induce surface rooting of the plants. Such roots may be quickly injured if the mulch is allowed to disappear, and may suffer more in time of severe drought. It is thought that its practice will give more satisfactory results with currants and gooseberries than with other bush-fruits. Their rooting habit seems to be shallow and they are easily injured by deep cultivation.

Some commercial growers owning rich soils in moist climates have found mulching desirable, especially in the later years of a plantation's life. The mulch is usually obtained by seeding the land to clover, which is mowed and left on the ground. A practice at one time, and perhaps still in use, was to grow clover on other land, to be cut and spread along the rows, tillage being kept up in the spaces between.

TILLAGE TOOLS

Few special tools are needed in the bush-fruit plantation. The cultivator is the most important implement. Any kind which will thoroughly loosen the soil and leave the surface level will answer the purpose. It should be one which will do good work when widely spread. With full-grown bushes it is impossible to do good work except with a wide tool which can run beneath the branches. For suckering varieties, a tool with teeth which are square on the end is desirable. Such teeth will cut many suckers beneath the surface where ordinary teeth will dodge them. They are also useful in cutting off Canada thistles and other deep-rooted plants which often escape. In soil which is free from stones it is possible to use knives or cutting blades of steel which can be made by a blacksmith and attached to an ordinary cultivator.